MAHESH M RATHOREThermal EngineeringAbout the Author ‘Mahesh M Rathore is working as Professor and Head ofthe Mechanical Engineering Department of Shri Neminath Jain Brahmacharyashram College of Engineering (“ain Gurukul), Neminagar, Chandwad, (Nashik) Maharashtra, India. He is also an Energy Auditor certified by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency, India, and a Chartered Engineer. With a teaching experience of more than twenty-five years, he has developed several teaching aids and learning materials for students and has guided several credential projets. He has presented several research papers in national and {international conferences and has six books to his credit, besides the present one. Professor Rathore is life member of the Indian Society for Technical Education, India, and the Institution of Engineers (India). He is also a faculty of PRINCE (Promoters and Researchers In Non-Conventional Energy), Dhule, MaharashraThermal Engineering Mahesh M Rathore Energy Auditor and Chartered Engineer Professor and Head Mechanical Engineering Department SNJBS KBJ College of Engineering, Chandwad Nashik, Maharashtra Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited NEW DELHI ‘McGraw-Hill Offices New Delhi New York StLouis San Francisco Auckland Bogoté Caracas ‘Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal San Juan Santiago Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto[Tata McGraw Hill, Published bythe Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limite, 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110008 Copyright ©2010, by Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limite, [No pat ofthis publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, eleetonic, mechanical, photocopying, ecordng orolherwse or storedina database o retrieval sytem without the por writen permission ‘ofthe publishers. 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However nether Tata McGraw Hill nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information| published herein, and neither Tata MeGraw Hill nrits authors shal be responsible for any eros, omissions of damages rising out of us of thisinformation, This work s published with the understanding that Tata McGraw ill and its authors are supplying information but reno attempting to render engineering or other professional services, If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought “Typeset at Te) Composers, WZ-391, Madipur, New Delhi 110063, and printed at SP Printers, 30-A, Patpar Ganj Village, Det - 110091 ‘Cover Printer: SP Printers RACYCRXZDQXQCDedicated to my Beloved ParentsPreface Nomenclarure Viswal Walkthrough 1. Basic Concepts LI Thermodynamics 1.2 Thermodynamic System 1 1 L3 Macroscopic VIS Microscopic Views 14 Working Fluid 8 LS Continuum 8 1L6 Thermodynamic Properties ofa System 8 LT State, Pat, Process and Cycle 10 1L8 Point Function and Path Function 12 19 Quasi 1.10 Equilibrium 13 LT Dimensions and Units 112 Pressure 15 1.13. Temperature and Zeroth Law of Thermodynamies tic Process 12 “ 114 Measurement of Temperature 16 LIS Temperature Seale 1.16 The International Practical Temperatures Seale 19 LIT Entropy 20 Summary 24 Glossary 24 Review Questions Problems 26 1 8 25 Objective Questions 2. Energy and Work Transfer 2.1 Energy 28 22 Sources of E 6 rey 28 23. Classification of Energy Si 24 Forms of Energy 30 wees 29 ? 16 Contents will 1 28viii Contents 25 26 27 28 29 2.10 2a 212 213 Enthalpy 32 Heat 32 Specific Heat 33 Work 35 Forms of Work Transfer 37 First Law of Thermodynamics 43, First Law of Thermodynamics for a Cyclic Process —I Energy—A Property of the System 46 Perpetual Motion Machine of the First Kind 46 Summary 50 Glossary 51 Review Questions $1 Problems $1 Objective Questions 54 e's Experiment 45 3. Working Substances 55 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 3.10 3 3.2 3.3 34 35 3.16 3.7 3.18 3.19 320 321 322 3.23 324 325 326 327 328 Pure Substance 55 Phases ofa Pure Su Phase-Change Phenomenon ofa Pure Substance 56 ‘Terminology of Pure Substances 58 Property Diagrams 59 ‘The p-v-1 Surface 62 Critical Point and Triple Point 62 T-sand k-s Diagrams 63, Enthalpy Changes during Formation of Steam 65 Wet Steam 66 Superhcated Steam 67, Specific Volume of Steam 67 Entropy of a Pure Substance 68 External Work Done during Evaporation 69 Internal Latent Heat 69 Internal Energy of Steam 70 Steam Tables 70 Points to Consider before Solving the Problems 71 ‘Advantages and Applications of Use of Seam 71 Measurement of Dryness Fraction of Steam 77 deal Gas Model 82 Equation of State 83 ‘Characteristic Gas Equation 83 Internal Energy and Enthalpy ofan Ideal Gas 87 Specific Heats of Ideal Gases 88 Relation Between Specific Heats for an Ideal Gas 89) Real Gases 90 ‘Other Equations of State 923.29 ‘Analytical Test for Equation of State 94 Summary 98 Glossary 99 Review Questions 99 Problems 100 Objective Questions 101 4, First Law Applied to Non-Flow Systems 41 42 Ideal-Gas Processes. 103, Vapour Process 131 Summary 139 Glossary 140 Review Questions 140 Problems 141 Objective Questions 144 5. First Law Applied to Flow Processes 3 52 53 54 3s 36 37 Flow Process and Flow Energy 145 Mass and Energy Analysis ofan Open System 146 Energy Balance in Steady Flow 147 Some Steady-Flow Deviees 148 Sigiteaneof—fodp 182 Relation Between Non-Flow Work J pdv_ and Flow Work - [ndp “Transient Flow Processes 176 Summary 178 Glossary 179 Review Questions 179 Problems 180 Objective Questions 184 6. Second Law of Thermodynamics 61 62 63 6a 65 66 67 68 69 6.10 oan 6.12 Limitations ofthe First Law of Thermodynamics 185 ‘Thermal Reservoir 186 Heat Engine 187 Refrigerator 188 Heat Pump 189 Statements ofthe Second Law of Thermodynamics /89 Perpetual Motion Machine of the Second Kind 190 Reversible Process: Ideal Process 191 Irreversible Processes: Actual Processes 191 ‘Carnot Cyele, or Carnot Engine 192 Reversed Carnot Cycle 194 ‘Carnot Theorem 194 Contents ix 103 145 152 185x Contents 6.13 Thermodynamic Temperature Scale 196 Summary 217 Glossary 218 Review Questions 219 Problems 219 Objective Questions 222 7. Entropy 223, 7 Definition 223 72 Two Isentropic Lines Cannot Intersect Each Other 223 73 Clauss’ Theorem 224 7.4 Clausius, Inequality 225 75. Entropy: A Property ofthe System 227 7.6 Change of Entropy ina Reversible Process 228 7.7 Temperature-Entropy Diagram 228 18 The Ineease of Entropy Principle 229 79 Entropy Transfer 230 7.10 Entropy Generation 230 7.41 Entropy Balance 237 7.12 Physical Concept of Entropy 231 73 Tas Relations 232 7.14 Third Law of Thermodynamics 233 Summary 243 Glossary 243, Review Questions 244 Problems 244 Objective Questions 245 8. Availability and Irreversibility 247 8.1 Soures of Energy 247 8.2 Available and Unavailable Energy 248 83. Availability of Energy Entering a System 250 8.4 Availablity ofa Closed System 254 85 Availabilty ina Steady Flow Process. 256 86 The Second-Law Eficieney 266 Summary 270 Glossary 271 Review Questions 271 Problems 272 Objective Questions 275 9. Thermodynamic Relations 276 9.1. Helmholtz and Gibbs Function: Gibbsian Equations 276 9.2 Principal Exact Differentials 27693 94 9s 96 97 98 99 9.10 Partial Derivative Relations 277 Maxwell Relations 277 ‘Thermodynamic Square 278 Volumetric Expansivty, Isothermal and Isentropic Compressbilty Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Entropy 280 Spocific Heats 283 Joule—Thompson Coefficient —The Porous Ph ‘Clausius-Clapeyron Equation 286 Summary 294 Review Questions 295 Problems 295 Objective Questions 296 Experiment 285 10. Compressible Fluid Flow 10.1 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 10.10 10.1 10.2 Static Properties 298 Stagnation Properties 298 Velocity of Sound: Sonic Velocity 301 Mach Number 303) Property Relations for Isentropic Flow Through a Duct 308 Property Relations at Stagnation Conditions 309 ‘One -DimensionalIsentropie Flow 3/2 Effet of Back Pressure on Mass Flow Rate 3/5 Mass Flow Rate Through an Isentropic Nozzle 317 Shock Wave 320 Flow Through Actual Nozzles and Diffusers 323 Eflet of Ireversibilities on Nozzle Efficiency 325 Summary 326 Glossary 327 Review Questions 328 Problems 329 Objective Questions 330 11. Gas Power Cycles mn "2 13. a us 16 7 118. 19 10 mun Definitions 332 Air Standard Analysis 334 Camot Cycle 334 Stirling Cycle 335 Ericsson Cycle 336 Otto Cycle 337 Diesel Cyele 338 Dual Cyele 339 ‘Comparison of Otto and Diesel Cycles 340 Lenoir Cycle 361 ‘Atkinson Cyele 362 279 Contents xi 298 332ail Contents 12 Brayton Cycle 364 Summary 373 Glossary 373 Review Questions 374 Problems 374 Objective Questions 377 12. Vapour Power Cycles na n2 23 Ra 25 126 na 28 n9 12.10 rat RB 12.3 12.14 1245 12.16 R07 Modeling a Steam Power Plant 380 Performance Parameters of Vapour Power Cycle 381 le 382 395 Difference Between Carnot and Rankine Cycles 396 Inreversbiltes and Losses in Vapour Power Cycle 398 Effect of Operating Variables on Rankine Cyele 401 Reheating of Seam 405 Super Critical Rankine Cycle 407 Mean Temperature of Heat Addition 4/5 Regenerative Rankine Cycle 415 Modified Rankine Cycle 433 ‘Characteristics of the Working Fh Cogeneration 435 Binary Vapour Cycle 438 ‘Combined Gas-Vapour Power Cycle 438 Summary 441 Glossary 442 Review Questions 442 Problems #43 Objective Questions 445 in Vapour Power Cycle 434 13. Refrigeration Ba B2 B3 Ba BS Bs BI BE Bo 13.10 Bal Refrigeration 447 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps 448 Refrigeration Terminology 449 ‘Types of Refrigeration Systems 450 Gas Reftigeration Systems 450 Brayton Refeigeration Cycle: Bell Coleman Cycle 452 deal Vapour Compression Reftigeration Cycle 456 Vapour Absorption Reffigeration Cycle 469 ‘Comparison of Vapour Absorption System with Vapour Compression System Steam Jet Reftigeration 472 Heat Pump 472 am 380 487Contents xiii 13.12 Refrigerant 473 Summary 476 Glossary 477 Review Questions 477 Problems 478 Objective Questions 479 14, Ideal Gas Mixtures 481 14.1 Mass and Mole Fractions 48/ 142 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 482 143. Amagat-Leduce Law of Additive Volumes 482 14.4 Density and Gas Constant of Gas Mixture 483 14.5 Properties of Gas Mixture—Gibbs Theorem 487 146 Mixing of Ideal Gases 491 14.7 Mixture of Real Gases 496 148 Compressibility Factor 497 Summary 497 Glossary 498 Review Questions 498 Problems 498 Objective Questions 500 15. Psychrometry 502 15.1 Psychrometer 502 15.2 Dry, Moist and Saturated Air 502 153 Properties of Moist Air 503 15.4 Partial Pressure of Ai and Vapour 50S 15.5. Adiabatic Saturation Temperature 508 156 Psychrometric Chart 510 15.7 Air-Conditioning Process 512 158. tic Mixing of Two Moist Air Streams 522 159 AirWasher 525 Summary 526 Glossary 526 Review Questions $27 Problems 527 Objective Questions 528 16. Fuels and Combustion 530 16.1 Fuels 530 162 Characteristic of an Ideal Fuel 530 163 Coal 531 16.4 Liquid Fuels 533 165 Gaseous Fuel 333xiv Contents 16.6 Conversion of Volumetric Analysis to Gravimetric Analysis 534 16.7 Conversion of Gravimetric Analysis to Volumetric Analysis 535 16.8 Combustion 535 16.9 Composition of Dry Air 538 16.10. Amount of Air Required for Combustion 539) 16.11 Air-Fuct Ratio 540 16.12 Air-Fucl Ratio from Analysis of Flue Gases 540 16.13 Flue Gas Analysis—Orsat Apparatus 553, 16.14 Heat Generated by Combustion 557 16.15 Calorifc Value, or Heating Value of Fuel $61 16.16 Bomb Calorimeter 563, 16.17 Junker’s Gas Calorimeter 566 Summary 568 Glossary 568 Review Questions 569 Problems 569 Objective Questions $72 17. Steam Generators 574 1. 574 m2 17.3. Comparison Between Fire Tube and Water Tube Boilers 577 174 Fire-Tube Boilers 577 17.5 Water Tube Boilers 583 176 Some Industrial Boilers 584 177 High-Pressure Boilers 587 Summary 592 Glossary 592 Review Questions $92 Objective Questions 593 18. Boiler Mountings and Accessories 594 18.1 594 182 599 Summary 604 Review Questions 605 Objective Questions 605 19. Boller Draught and Performance 607 19 007 192 «or 195 Energy Balance ina Boiler 63019.6 Energy-Conservation Opportunities 637 Summary 639 Glossary 639 Review Questions 639 Problems 640 Objective Questions 642 20. Steam Engines 20.1. Classification of Steam Engines 644 202 Construction of Steam Engine 645 20.3 Working of a Double-Acting Steam Engine 646 20.4 Hypothetical Indicator Diagram of Steam Engine 646 20.5 Actual Indicator Diagram 650 206 Cylinder Condensation 651 20.7 Mass of Steam in Cylinder 651 20.8 Missing Quantity 657 209 Steam Consumption 652 20,10 Steam Compression inthe Cylinder 653, 20.11 Governing of Scam Engines 653 20.12 Power Output of Steam Engine 655 20,13. Efficiencies ofa Steam Engine 656 20.14 Compound Steam Engines 667 Summary 668 Glossary 669 Review Questions 669 Problems 669 Objective Questions 670 24. Steam Nozzles 211 Typesof Steam Nozzles 673, 212 Steam Flow Through a Nozzle 674 213 Flow Through Actual Nozzles 675 214 Supersaturated Expansion of Steam 691 Summary 695 Glossary 696 Review Questions 696 Problems 696 Objective Questions 698 22. Steam Turbines 22.1 History of Steam Turbines 699 22.2. Working Principle ofa Steam Turbine 700 223 Classification of Steam Turbines 700 224 The Simple Impulse Turbine 702 Contents xv 673,avi Contents 23. 24, 22.5 Optimum Operating Conditions from Blade-Velocity Diagram 22.6 Effect of Blade Friction on Velocity Diagram 710 22.7 Condition for Axial Discharge 71 22.8 Compounding of Impulse Turbine 719 22.9 Reaction Turbine (Impulse Reaction Turbine) 728 22.10 Comparison Between Impulse and Reaction Turbines 737 22.11 Losses in Steam Turbines 738 12.12 Governing of Steam Turbine 739 22,13 Special Forms of Turbines 743 Summary 744 Glossary 744 Review Questions 745 Problems 745 Objective Questions 748 Steam Condensers 23.1 Condenser 750 23.2 Functions of a Condenser 750 233 Blements ofa Condensing Plant 751 234 Types of Condensers 751 235 Jet Condenser 751 23.6 Surface Condenser 754 23.7 Estimation of Cooling Water Required 757 23.8 Condenser Efficiency 757 23.9 Analysis of Condenser Operation 760 23.10 Air Extraction 769 23.11 Cooling Towers 772 23.12 Cooling Pond 773 Summary 774 Glossary 775 Review Questions 775 Problems 775 Objective Questions 777 Internal Combustion Engines 24.1 Classification of IC Engines 779 242 Components of Engines 780 243 Otto Cyele Engines: Petrol Engines 781 244 Diesel Engines 786 245 Comparison Between Petrol and Diesel Engines 791 24.6 Comparison Between Two-Stroke and Four-Stroke Engines 247 Advantages and Disadvantages of Two-Stroke Cycle Engines 248 Air-Puel Mixture 792 249 Carbuation 794 705 750 779 791 792Contents xvii 24.10 Fucl-injection System 796 24.11 Combustion 800 24.12 Governing of IC Engines 803 24,13 Ignition System 804 24.14 Firing Order 808 24,15. Engine-Cooling System 808 24.16 Engine Lubrication 811 24.17 Lubrication Systems 8/2 24.18 Performance of Internal Combustion Engines 8/4 24,19 Eficioncies of IC Engines 816 2420 Supercharging 832 Summary 833 Glossary 833 Review Questions 834 Problems 835 Objective Questions 836 25. Reciprocating Air Compressor 838 25.1 Uses of Compressed Air 838 252 Classification 839 25.3. Reciprocating Compressor Terminology 639 25.4 Compressed Air Systems 840 i 2 a a ee fe ai Pe iy uromemceenpsse coments 25.2 SBECBRD red ces ee peers Peo 26. Rotary Compressor 890 ea a a 3 i ae | enemeemene cree 265, 398 266vill Contents 267 Difference Between Centrifugal and Axial Flow Compressors. 916 Summary 920 Glossary 921 Review Questions 921 Problems 921 Objective Questions 922 27. Gas Turbine Plant 924 m1 212 273 214 218 26 Applications of Gas Turbines 925 Classification of Gas Turbines. 926 ‘Comparison Between Close-Cyele Gas Turbine and Open-Cyele Gas Turbine 927, Modelling a Gas Turbine Plant 928 Deviation of Actual Gas Turbine Cycle from Brayton Cycle 928 Methods for Improvement of Thermal Efficiency of Gas Turbine Plant 935 Summary 959 Glossary 960 Review Questions 960 Problems 960 Objective Questions 961 28. Jet and Rocket Propulsions 963 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 28.9 28.10 26.11 28.12 28.13, 28.14 2815 28.16 28.17 Jet Propulsion 963 Engine-Driven Propulsive System 964 Ramming Effect Propulsion Systems 964 Gas Turbine Propulsion Systems 966 Turbojet Engine 966 ‘Turboprop Engine 967 Turbofan 968 ‘Terminology Used with Turbojet Engine 969 Analysis of Turbojet Cycle 970 ‘Thrust Augmentation in Turbojet Engines 972 Rocket Propulsion 986 Solid Propellant Rocket 988 Liquid Propellant Rockets 988 Hybrid Propellant Rocket 989 Nuclear Prolellant Rocket 989 Propellants 990 Analysis of Rocket Propulsion 993 Summary 996 Glossary 997 Review Questions 997 Problems 998 Objective Questions 999Contents xix 29. Air-Conditioning 1001 29.1 292 293, 204 295 296 297 298 299 29.10 29.11 29.12 29.13, 29.14 29.15, 29.16 29.17 29.18 Applications of Air-Conditioning 1001 Comfort Air-Conditioning 1002 Effective Temperature 1003 ‘Air-Conditioning Systems 1005 ‘AirConditioning Cycle 1005 ‘Summer Air-Conditioning System 1006 ‘Winter Air-Conditioning System 1006 ‘Year-Round Ait Conditioning System 1007 Unitary System 1007 Cental Air-Conditioning System 1009 Classifications of Central Aie-Conditioning System 1010 Rating of Air-Conditioning 1010 Cooling and Heating Load Caleulations 1010 Sensible Heat Factor 1012 Water Coolers 1017 Tee Plant 1017 AirCoolers 1018 Difference Between Air Cooler and Ai-Conditioner 1021 Summary 1022 Glossary 1022 Review Questions 1023 Problems 1023 Objective Questions 1024 30. Elements of Heat Transfer 1025 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 30.10 30.11 30.12 30.13, 30.14 30.15 30.16 30.17 Modes of Heat Transfer 1025, Fourier Law of Heat Conduction 1025 ‘Thermal Conductivity 1026 ‘Convection Heat Transfer: Newton's Law of Cooling 1026 Radiation Heat Transfer: Stefan-Boltemann Law 1027 Steady-State Heat Conduetion in Solids 1027 ‘Combined Modes of Heat Transfer 1029 Overall Heat-Transfer Coefficient 1032 Log Mean Area 1033 Principle of Heat Convection 1037 Convection Boundary Layers 1038 Physical Significance ofthe Convection Dimensionless Parameters 1039 Dimensional Analysis 1040 ‘Summary of Dimensionless Parameters and their Correlations 1042 Flow Through Ducts 1043 Free Convection 1045 Empirical Relations for Free Convection 1045xx Contents 30.18 30.19 3020 3021 3022 3023 3024 Radiation Heat Transfer 1047 ‘Theories of Radiation 1047 Black-Body Radiation 1047 Surface Absorption, Reflection and Transmission 048. Kirchhofs Law 1050 Heat Exchangers 1053 Heat Exchanger Analysis 1055 Summary 1057 Glossary 1058 Problems 1088 Objective Questions 1060 Appendix A Thermophysical Properties of Matter 1062 Al A2 AR AB Als ‘Atomic mass and critical constants Properties of selected solids at 25°C 3. Properties of sclected liquids at 25°C ‘Thermo physical properties of selected substances at 25°C and lat. ‘Constants for van det Waals, Redich-Kwong and Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equations of state Variation of C, with temperature of selected ideal gases deal gas specific heats for some common gases Ideal gas Properties of air deal gas Properties of selected gases ‘One dimensional isentropic compressible low function for an ideal with constant specific heat and molecular mass and 7~ 1.4 ‘One dimensional normal shock function for an ideal with constant specific heat and molecular mass and y= 14 Properties of saturated water: Temperature entry Properties of saturated water: Pressure entry Properties of superheated water vapor. Appendix B Properties of Refrigerants 1088 BA B2 BG B10 BA Bd BAS, Bla Properties of Saturated refrigerant 22 (Liquid-vapor): Temperature entry Properties of Saturated refrigerant 22 (Liquid-vapor): Pressure entry 3. Properties of Supetheated refrigerant 22 vapor Properties of Saturated refrigerant 12 (Liquid-vapor): Temperature entry Properties of Supecheated refrigerant 12 Properties of Saturated refrigerant 134a (Liquid-Vapor): Temperature entry Properties of Saturated refrigerant 134a (liquid-Vapor): Pressure entry Properties of Super heated refrigerant 134a vapor Properties of Saturated Ammonia (Liquid-Vapory: Temperature entry Properties of Saturated Ammonia (liquid-Vapor): Pressure entry Properties of Super heated Ammonia vapor Properties of Saturated Propane (Liquid-Vapor): Temperature entry Properties of Saturated Propane (Liguid-Vapor): Pressure entry Properties of Super heated Propane vaporContents xxi B-15 Properties of Saturated Nitrogen (Liguid-Vapor): Temperature entry B-16 Properties of Super heated Nitrogen vapor Appendix Figures 1118 (C-1_ Temperature entropy diagram for water (C-2. Mollcr diagram for water €-3 Pressure enthalpy diagram for Refrigerant 1343 C-4 Psychrometric chart References and Suggested Readings 1122 Index 1124Preface It gives me immense pleasure to present this book on “Thermal Engineering”. This text is intended for undergraduate students of Mechanical, Automobile and Aeronautical engineering as wellas AMIE coursesand ‘competitive examinations. It integrates thermodynamics, applied thermodynamics and thermal engineering and hence covers the syllabi of almost all subjects pertaining o thermal engineering taught from the firs year to the final year of engineering curriculum Aim During my teaching span of more than two decades, I felt thatthe subjects based on thermal engineering are ‘often perceived as dificult by students. I observed that customarily, major problems are faced by students in understanding the text and illustrations. They need a text writen in a simple and interesting way which ‘exposes the subject systematically along with a variety of ilustrative examples supporting the theoretical concepts ‘Through this book { am making an attempt to overcome the problems of students as well as to impart sound knowledge. The presentation is simple, lucid and easy to understand, The topics are explained right from the Fundamentals withthe help of illustrative figures, enabling even a beginner to understand the subject very easily. Solutions forthe problems also are explained with the help of illustrative figures so that the logic behind them is easily understood, ‘This book discusses the basic concepts frst and then support the theory with applications and solved ‘numerical problems. This approach will help the students in developing an analytical mind. An engineer with an analytical mind and approach would be able to face any problems encountered in the actual engineering field, Morcover, it is my earnest hope tha this book will provide a unique combination of features that will make it inviting and effective for both faculty and students Salient Features ‘The salient features ofthe book ate the following > Complete coverage of both courses (a) Engineering Thermodynamics (b) Applied Thermodynamics Tutorial Approach of problem solving > Solved Examples based on questions from numerous universities all across India as well as competitive ‘examinations like GATE, IES ete > Diverse and useful pedagogical features like Summary, Glossary, Review Questions, Problems and Objective Questions > Well-labeled and apt schematic diagrams supporting theoretical and mathematical explanationsxiv Prefice Organisation Principally, the book is divided into thee parts ‘The First Part ofthe book deals with the subject of thermodynamics, which is a core course taught to the first-year students ofall disciplines in almost all the engineering colleges and universities. It includes the fist ight chapters—chapters 1108 ‘The Second Part ofthe book is designed for an applied thermodynamics course. This part includes the next eight chapters—chapters 9 to 16 ‘The Third Part provides the foundation learning material on thermal engineering, This part covers steam ‘engineering, intemal combustion engines, air compressors, gas turbines, jet and rocket propulsions, air ‘conditioning and an introduction to heat transfer it includes remaining chapters chapters 17 to 30. Chapter 1 provides an overview of the basic concepts of thermodynamics. Concepts are an essential part ‘oftany science and in the case of thermodynamics, experience has shown that this is an area students find ‘difficult, Several ilustrations and day to day examples are provided in support of definitions and concepts to help the students have a thorough understanding of the topics. Energy is basic requirement for work transfer. Chapter 2 gives a detailed treatment of energy and its forms, work and heat transfer. Chapter 3 deals with the properties of pure substances, The properties of ‘common working substances, steam and ideal gases are worked out in this chapter ‘The first and second laws of thermodynamics are regarded as pillars of thermodynamics. The first law speaks of energy and its conservation (quantity), while the second law deals with the quality aspect of ‘energy. Applications ofthe first law of thermodynamics to non-flow processes (for closed systems) and flow processes (open systems or control volume) are explained with support of several examples in Chapters 4 and 5, respectively The second law of thermodynamics is treated in a comprehensive manner in Chapter 6 and prolonged in Chapter 7 with the concept of entropy. Entropy isan abstract property of the second law ‘and can be thought of as a measure of disorder inthe system responsible for enerey degradation taking place in real processes. Other second-law concepts, availability and irreversibility, ate introduced in Chapter 8 along with the development ofa procedure for performance evaluation ofa system. Chapter 9 deals with thermodynamic relations, Maxwell's relations, volumetric expansivity, isothermal ‘and isentropic compressibility, Joule—Thomson coefficient and Clausius—Clapeyron equations are ‘explained in this chapter. Chapter 10 deals with compressible fluid flow, It uses the concept of the fist and second laws for a moving fluid. The comprehensive thermodynamic analysis of gas power eycles (Chapter 11), vapour power cycles (Chapter 12), refrigeration cycles (Chapter 13), ideal gas mixtures (Chapter 14) and psychrometry (Chapter 15) are carefully considered. Chapter 16 deals with fuels and combustion ‘Various types of fuels and determination of their calorific value are explained in this chapter. Emphasis is given to steam engineering from Chapter 17 to Chapter 23. Chapter 17 gives an overview of different types of boilers. Chapter 18 incorporates various important oiler mountings and accessories. ‘The boiler draught and performance ate discussed in Chapter 19. Even though steam engines are obsolete nowadays, still the concept and preliminary analysis of steam engines are taken up in Chapter 20. The relevance of compressible uid flow to steam nozzles are explained in Chapter 21, The concept and analysis ‘of impulse and reaction steam turbines are incorporated in Chapter 22. Chapter 23 gives an elementary treatment to steam condensers. The internal combustion engines are discussed in Chapter 24, Chapters 25 and 26 take up the analytical treatment to reciprocating and rotary air compressors. Chapter 27 gives ‘an elementary teatment to gas turbines. Chapter 28 provides an outlook to jet and rocket propulsions ‘Chapter 29 takes up theoretical and analytical treatment to air conditioning and lastly, Chapter 30 provides ‘an elementary introduction of heat transferPreface xxv Dependency Chart The chart gicen blow depicts the prefered sequence of chapters which would help the renders plan ther study. Hoxoever readers are fret follow the sequence of her choc. ‘Chanter a8) ‘epleaons ot Wirina ‘crane 8) Grater 2xvi Preface Web Supplements ‘The web supplements for this book can be accessed at hip:/wwyw:mbhe.comrathorsite/Ie and contains the following material: @ For Instructors + Solution Manual + PowerPoint Slides 1 For Students + Links to Reference Material Acknowledgements ‘On completion of this version of the book Thermal Engincering, | express my heartiest gratitude to my students, past and present, whose inquisitive queries and feedback motivated me to write this book. T/am indebted to all authors who shaped my thoughts on the subject and whose work bas been freely consulted in preparation ofthis text [also owe an enormous debt of gratitude to my colleagues and students who helped ‘me direety or indirectly in preparation of this treatise. | would also like to mention the names of the reviewers whose valuable inputs have gone a long way in shaping this text, Akkilesh Gupta, Indian Institute of Technology (ID) Roorkee, Untar Pradesh Pradyumna Ghosh Instcue of Technology, Banaras Hindu University ((TBHU) Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh MKDas Motilal Nehru National Institue of Technology (MNNID) Allahabad, Utar Pradesh P Srinivasan Birla Institute of Technolgy and Science (BITS) Pilani, Rajasthan SKSoni Punjab Engineering College (PEC), University of Technology, Chandigarh, Punjab Sunil Punjat Government Engineering College Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh KP Tyagi Krishna Institute of Engineering and Technology Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh Sudarshan Singh [National Insitute of Technology (NIT) Patna, Bikar Ranjan Basak Sikkim Manipal Institute of Technology (SMIT) Rangpo, East Sikkim Kanchan Chatterjee Dr BC Roy Engineering College Durgapur, West Bengal Santanu Banerjee Birbhum Institute of Engineering and Technology Suri, West Bengal V Venkat Raj Bharati Vidvapoeth College of Engineering and Technology Navi Mumbai, MaharashiraPreface xxvit DA Warke JT Mahajan College of Engineering, Jalgaon, Maharashtra RG Kaps ‘Shri Sad Vidya Mandal Institue of Technology (SVMID) Bharuch, Gujarat K Senthil kumar School of Mechanical and Building Sciences VIT University Vellore, Tamil Nadu M Ganapathy Dr MGR University Periyar, Tamil Nadu P Chitambarnathan Dr Sivanthi Adithanar College of Engincering Tuticorin, Tamil Nadu Appukuttan, National Institute of Technology, Karnataka (NITK) Surathkat B Srinivas Reddy G Pulla Reddy Engineering College Kurnod, Andhra Pradesh PLUrgan KLE Society's College of Engineering and Technology: Belgaum, Karnataka | take the opportunity to express my sincere thanks to the TMH editorial team: Ms Surabhi Shukla, Ms Devshree Lohchab, and Ms Sohini Mukherjee who put their consistent and pre-eminent efforts for making the text as best as it could be. My special thanks to Mr Sagar Divekar, whose repeated persuasion made it possible to prepare the text for TMH. He has provided required support from time to time. Tam pleased to ‘acknowledge the contribution of Me P L Pandita and the whole production staff 1 would like to extend my gratitude to administration and Executive Management of SNIB's K B J College of Engineering, Chandwad, (Nashik) who extended all the facilities and full cooperation during the preparation ofthis manuscript. ‘Above all, wish to place on eeord my earnest gratitude to my parents, caring wife—Mrs Meera; sons— Dr Ankit and Prateek, for their wholehearted support and patience, which helped me indirectly in completing the project, ‘A human creation can never be perfect. Some mistakes might have crept in the text, My efforts in writing this book will be rewarded if readers send their constructive suggestions and objective criticism with view to improve the usefulness of the book. For any suggestion, uery or difficulty you are most weleome to write {to me at mmrathore@gmail.com. MM Rathore Publisher's Note ‘Tata McGraw Hill Education looks forward to receiving views, comments and suggestions ftom readers, all of which may be sent to tmh cefeedback(@ gmail.com mentioning the title and author's ame inthe subject line. Piracy related issues may also be reported.Bsfe Nomenclature cross-sectional area linear acceleration, specific Helmhotz function, accoustic velocity brake power brake specific fuel consumption back work ratio specific heat, constant calorific value specific heat at constant pressure constant temperature coefficient specific heat at constant volume clearance ratio dimeter, constant bore; diameter total eneray energy per unit mass force fiction power Gibbs function, #73 ravitational acceleration, specific gibbs function, h-Ts, enthalpy, chimney height higher ealoifc value specific enthalpy, heat transfer coefficient, draught in water column inreversibility specific ireversbilty indicated power thermal conductivity, spring constant, total kinetic energy kinetic energy per unit mass stroke, length, thickness, length dimension lower calorific value ‘mass dimension, Mach number umber of eylinders, blade velocity coefficientNomenclanure xxix M ‘molecular weight ft rate of mass flow Ny rotational speed ® polytropic index, number of moles P Power P absolute pressure PE total potential energy pe potential energy per unit mass Pu mean effective pressure ° heat transfer ° rate of heat transfer 4a heat transfer per unit mass, heat flux R 22 constant, radius Ry universal gas constant r radius, compression ratio he work ratio s entropy 5 specific entropy, displacement Tr absolute temperature; torque, temperature dimension ' time, time dimension vu intemal eneeey u specific internal energy v volume ve clearance volume ¥, swept volume v veloci 2 specific volume 8 ‘molar volume w weight, work transfer w rate of work transfer, power Wa shaft power w specific weight, workdone per ke Wa shaft work kg x dryness fraction; length x, ‘mass fraction vi ‘mole fraction Zz compressibilty factor : elevation, Greek Symbols @ absorptivity B coefficient of volumetric expansion a finite change in quantityxxx Nomenclature gauge a db dp f Se e H emissivity, effectiveness ratio of specific heats, GyCuy avaialailty of closed system specific avaialability of closed system, relative humidity specific availability of flow system kinematic viscosity Joule-Thomption coefficient efficiency temperature difference, angle, total energy of flow system. density, cutoff ratio, reflectivity Stefan's- Boltzmann constant transmissivity, specific humidity, angular speed. actual atmosphere cross section, clearance critical point gauge diameter dry bulls dew point liquid stat, of formation liquid vapour mixture inital state, ice point, intermediate state in multistage, ith component in a mixture gaseous state high (temperature, Ty) heat pump low (temper exit state constant pressure propulsive reduced coordinates reftigerator referenece temperatures saturated state superheated state ‘otal throat, theoretical, thrust triple point constant volume re, T,)Nomenclanure xxi w water wb wet bulb wet wet state 0 ‘dad state, stagnation state 1 inital state 2 final state UNITS AND DIMENSIONS Base Units Quantity Units Dimensions Length metre m Mass kilogram ke Time second 5 Blectric curent ampere A “Temperature kelvin kK Derived Units Acceleration 2 metre per second squared mis ‘Angular acceleration © radiation per second squared nds? Arca A square metre @® Blectric current Tampere A Electric potential difference V_—_ volt win Blectrc resistance Re ohm a Energy E joule JorN.m Entropy 5 joule per kelvin UK Force F newton, kgmis? Frequeney y hertz Hor Vs Heat energy 2 joule Jor Nm Power P watt Worlls Radiation Intensity 1 watt per steradian wast Specific heat Gy joule per kilogram kelvin Ukg-K Stress o pascal Nim? ‘Thermal conductivity watt per metre-kelvin Wim Velocity U metre per second mis Volume V cubic mete m Work Wout Jor N/mWALKTHROUGH ach chapter begins with an Introduction that describes the learning objectives and chapter importance. Basic Concepts There is frequent use of analytical treat- ‘ment as well as graphical proof for con- ‘ceptual explanation.For easy understanding of the topics, 0 ‘graphical and schematic support Is given in the book, Complicated figures are explained by sim- le, easily redrawable schematics. In some chopters, the whole concept is Dicturised withthe help ofa simple figure. Miswal Walkthrough xxixxiv Visual Walkthrough ‘Numerous Worked examples are pro- Vided in each chapter and at appropriate locations, to aid in understanding of the text material Each solved example in the book is made student-friendly by adopting a step by step ‘methodology. For quick review, a bulleted summary ives the essence of each chapter in briefFiswal Wallohrough xxv ‘A ist of commonly used :erms in the chap ter with their meanings are given in the form ofa glossary. The glossary wll serve {2 a dictionary for students. Each chopter contains 0 set of Review Questions to recall the essence ofthe con- ‘cepts discussed inthe chapter. even Questions ‘Awide variety of problems with answer(s) ‘re given as exercise to the students. These ore very helpful to teachers in set ting class work, assignments, quizzes and examinations.xxv Moual Walkthrough Objective questions enable the user to hhave a clear comprehension ofthe subject ‘matter Answers to all the objective ques- tions are provided. For easy understanding the properties of elements, a large variety of tables and Graphs are provided in Appendices—A, B, and c. ‘AppendixBasic Concepts Introduction ‘The definition of the basic concepts forms a sound foundation for understanding of any subject. We start this ‘chaptcr with an overview of thermodynamics, and a discussion of some basic concepts such as closed and ‘open syste ‘ele, and equilibriu isolated and adiabati systems, working subst ‘Then we discuss the pressure, temperature and its ce, continuum, property, state, path, process, reasurement inthis chapter. A ‘careful study of these topics is necessary for understanding the following chapters. 1.1 THERMODYNAMICS Thermodynamics can be defined as the ‘science of energy’. In fact, the name ‘thermodynamics’ originates from two Greek words, rhreme (heat energy) and dynamics (motion or power). Thus, the subject of thermodynamics deals with energy ‘and its transformation, including heat, work and physical properties of substances. It also deals with thermodynamic equilibrium and feasibility of processes Every engineering activity involves an interac- tion between energy and matter, and it is hard to find an area which does not relate to thermodynam- ies in some respect. An ordinary house has a gas stove, an electric iron, fans, a cooler, a refrigerator, pressure cooker and televisions. The design of each item requires the knowledge of thermodynamics. In the engineering field, thermodynamics plays an important role in the design of automobile ‘engines, compressor, turbines, refrigerators, rock= ts, jet engines, solar collectors, conventional and nuclear power plants. An energy-efficient home is ‘designed for minimum heat loss in winter and mini ‘mum heat gain in summer. The size, location and power input to an air-conditioner is decided after thermodynamic analysis ofa room, 1.2 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM {A thermodynamic system, or simply a system, is defined as a certain quantity of matter or a pre~ scribed region in space considered for thermody- namie study. ‘The region outside the system is called the surroundings or environment. The teal or imaginary surface that separates the system from ts surroundings is called the boundary. The boundary ‘of te system may be fixed or movable. The system and its surroundings constitute the universe. These terms are ilusrated in Fig 1.1 ‘Types of Systems The thermodynamic systems ‘can be classified as,2 Thermal Engineering ig. 1 System, surroundings and boundary 1 Closed and open systems 2. Homogencous and heterogeneous systems 12.1 Closed System ‘A closed system (also known as control mass) has the following characteristics: ( Ie consists of a fixed amount of mass, and ‘no mass can cross its Boundary, ic, no mass can enter or leave a closed system. (ii) The volume ofa closed system may vary and hence its boundary is movable. (if) The energy in the form of heat oF work can cross the boundary. Figure 1.2 shows the representation of a close ‘a system, Some examples of closed system are discussed below. Eras) Mess (0) oe Fig. 12. Representaion ofa closed system 1. Gas Trapped within a Piston-cylinder Device, Fig. 13 (The inside surface ofthe eylinder and piston forms the boundary (ii) With the movement of the piston, apart of the boundary can move. (ii) The movement ofthe piston is restricted by 18 stopper, so no mass of gas ean leave the system, (iv) The energy, as heat and work, can eross the boundary, Fig. 13 Gas trapped in a ylinder-pistn device 2. Food Items in a Pressure Cooker, Fig. 14 () The inside surface of the pressure cooker and its cover forms the boundary. ‘The boundary of the system is fixed ‘No mass of the food can cross the boundary, unless by the process of whistling, (iv) Energy as a heat can leave or enter the boundary of the system. ‘ est Fig. LA Pressure pan and pressure cooker 3 Refrigerator and Ice-cream Freezer Figure 1.$ (©) shows the basie components of a refrigerator asa system along with its boundary. The working substance isthe refrigerant ( The compressor, condenser, capillary tube and condenser together constitute a system, No mass of the working substance can leave the system, (ii) The boundary of the system is fixed (iv) The energy as electrical work enters the ‘compressor, and energy as heat leaves the ‘condenser and enters the evaporator. Thus, energy crosses the boundary. Hence, the refrigerator is a closed system, ‘ote ai « 4. Steam (Thermal) Power Plant Figure 1.6 shows the basic components of a steam power plant as @ ‘closed system along with its boundary. The working substance is water vapour, (The boiler, turbine, condenser, and feed pump together constitute a system. No mass of the working substance can leave the system, (ii) The boundary of the system is fixed (iv) The energy as heat and work can cross the boundary ofthe system, ‘Thus the steam power plant isa closed system, etsy Food water d oe Sroutoons Pump Maat cx 7 aia aeion Fig. 16 Steam powerplant Basie Concepts 3 § eae ° Fig. 15 Schematicand base components ofa refrigerator 5, Electrolytic Battery, Fig. 17 (The acid and lead plates in a plastic box ‘make up the system, (ii) The boundary ofthe system is fixed (ii) No mass ofthe acid can leave the boundary. (iv) Energy in eletrical form can leave or enter the boundary of the system. Fig. 1.7 Electrolytic battery 6. Bulbs and Lamps, Fig. 1.8 (The mass of the inert gas remains fixed inside bulbs and lamps ‘The boundary of the system is fixed Energy as electricity heat and light can cross the boundary of the system, Isolated System An isolated system is a special ‘ease of a closed system, in which energy can also ‘ i4 Thermal Engineering Fig. 18 Incandescent bulb not cross the boundary of the system. This system js not in communication wit its surroundings in any way, ‘Thus, an isolated system neither exchanges ‘energy in any form nor any mass with the surroundings. Hence, by definition, the universe ‘can be considered as an isolated system, The representation of an isolated system is shown in Fig. 1.9. Other examples are thermos flask Fig. 1.10) and ive box. = Energy) Fig. 19 Representation ofan slated system ee Datlewatos /— Vestn ac ote tle bate Fig. 140. Thermos flask 12.2 Open System [An open system (ota control volume) is a properly selected region in space. Itusually enclosesadevice Which involves mass flow, such as a compressor, turbine or nozzle. Flow through these devices is best studied by selecting a region within the devices a control volume. ‘The boundary ofthe control volume is called the ‘control surface, Both mass and energy can cross the ‘control surface, Thus, for an open system: (The system has a selected region (fixed volume), called contol volum ‘The boundary of an open system is fixed (ii) Mass can eross the control surface (iv) The energy, inthe form of heat and work, can cross the control surface. ‘An open system can be represented by Fig. LL Some examples of open systems are discussed below. feuneayy Enoray res) Fig. 111 Representation of pen system 1. Flow through Tubes and Nozzles, Fig. 12 () The interior surfce of the tube oF nozzle forms the real boundary, and left and right ‘openings form the imaginary boundary. (ii) The mass can enter and leave the imaginary boundary ofthe control volume, Energy as well as mass across the boundary can enter or leave the system, 2. Water Boiler, Fig. 113 (The interior surface ofthe boiler shell forms the real boundary, and the left and right ‘openings form the imaginary boundary. iFuidn-be Flow tough ibe @ ® Fig. 112 Flow through (a) Tube and (0) Nozzle Fig. 113 Water boiler (Gi) The mass of the water enters, and the mass of steam comes out the control surface. (Gi) Energy as heat enters the control surface. (iv) The energy in the form of heat or work can cross the boundary. 3. Reciprocating Air Compressor Figure 1.14 shows the reciprocating air compressor as an open system. (The interior surface of eylinder and piston forms the control surface Tet ree t ftw Fig. 114 Reciprocating air compressor Basie Concepts § Mass of air can enter and leave the controt volume through the valves. Energy as work and heat can cross the contol surface C 4. Internat combustion engines, gas turbine, Fig. 145 () The interior surfuce and openings form the control surface Mass as air and fuel mixture enters and leaves as combustion products, Some part of the combustion heat is converted into work and the remaining is discharged as waste heat from the system, ‘ i FT ria nae () Gas turbine engine Fig 115 Adiabatic System Anadiabatic system isa special ‘ease of an open system, in which mass can cross the ‘control surface, but energy in the form of heat is not allowed to cross the contol surface of the system, However, energy in other forms ean enter and leave the system. Insulated turbines, throttle valves, water pumps, water turbines, insulated heat exchangers, ete, are some examples of adiabatic systems.6 Thermal Engineering Some common features of these devices are the following: (The interior surface ofthe deviee forms the control surface. Fluid enters and leaves the control surface. ‘The energy other than heat energy’ can enter or leave the contol surface. (iv). Heat transfer is negligible at its outer control surface ‘ reson Fig. 119 Heat exchanger insulated at its outer surface ee nates = hie Hest ot Fig. 1.20 Heat exchanger which involves heat ransfer a the outer boundary ‘as shown in Fig 120 and it will not be treated as an adiabatic system, ‘The thermodynamic relations that are applicable to closed and open systems are different. Therefore, important that we must recognise the type of system before analysing it, 12.3. Difference Between Closed and (Open Systems Sta wok (Closed exten (Open wom T, | fis alo called a non | is aleo called a flow ow stom spstem Stem ot 2, [A cerain quantity of |A certain region is Fig. 118 Insulated turbine matter is considered | considered for study If the heat exchanger considered above in Fig. 1.19 is not insulated a its outer boundary then the heat transfer will take place across its boundary for study, This, a This region is called closed system has | contol volume. contol mas. Com,3] the gsem —is[An open atm surrounded by a realis surrounded by 2 boundary, which may | contol surface, which he fixed armowable, is a combination of| real and imaginary boundaries 4. | No mass can cross the | Mass aswell as enersy Boundary, while ean entero eave th ‘energy can enter or | contol surface ofthe leave the boundary of system. the system. 5. |Ifenergy transfor does [17 heat transfer does rot take place across | not take place across the boundary then the | the contol surface closed system is called | then an open aystem an isolated system. is ealled an adiabatic ‘stem 6 [Examples of « closed | Examples of an open systemare pressure |system are scooter ‘cooker and effigerator. | engine, si compress ind gat turbine 124 Difference Between Isolated and Adiabatic Systems ‘holated sytem [ dlabate ton 1, |Itisa special ype ofa closed system. isa special ype ofan ‘open system, 2 | Mass and eneray do| Mass and enor, not toss the boundary | except hea energy can ofthe system, cross the boundary of the system. 3. [tis a closed system, [It is an open gytem, ‘which is insulated at | which insulated at its its boundaries, thus it eal boundaries, thus becomes isolated from | heat eannot cross its surroundings 4 [Examples of an] Examples of an isolated sytem are ice | adiabatic system are box and thermos Nas, | water pump, throttle a valve and) insulated team turbine te. 12.5 Homogeneous System ‘A system is called a homogeneous system, if it consists of a single physical phase, either solid, Basic Concepts 7 liquid or gas phase only. It is treated as one constituent for is analysis. Thus, analysis becomes simple, for example, ice, water and steam (three distinct phases of water), sugar or salt dissolved in ‘water, air, oxygen gas and nitrogen gas. 1.2.6 Heterogeneous System When a system is a mixture of two or more than ‘wo phases of mater, itis called a heterogeneous system, Since each constituent present in the system has its own properties independent of each other, the system cannot be analysed as a single constituent, for examples, mixture of ice and water; mixture of water and steam; dal, rice and water in a pressure ‘cooker, et, 13 MACROSCOPIC V/S ‘MICROSCOPIC VIEWS tis well known that every substance is composed ‘of a large number of molecules. The properties ‘of the substance depend on the behavior of these molecule. In the macroscopic approach, & certain ‘quantity of matter is considered without the events ‘occurring atthe molecular level. The macroscopic approach in the study of thermodynamics is also called classical thermodynamics. Wt provides. a direct and casy way to the solution of engineering problems, Inthe macroscopic approach, 1. The structure of the matters not considered, 2. Only a few variables are needed to describe the state ofthe system, 3. The values of these variables ean be mea- sured ‘The microscopic approach is more elaborate We know that every system is composed ofa large number of molecules. All have the same mass but ‘each moves with a velocity independent of others Similarly, each molecule has its own position, ‘temperature, ete, The microscopic approach of such 4 system will involve a large number of equations, specifying three location coordinates. and three velocity components for each molecule. It is8 Thermal Engineering very difficult to adopt in practice even with high- speed computers. The properties of the system are based on the average behavior ofa large group of ‘molecules under consideration. Thus, this approach is also called statistical thermodynamics. In the microscopic approach, 1. The knowledge ofthe structure of the matter is necessary 2. A large number of variables are needed to and its imtergration cannot be evaluated unless the relationship between p and is known, Thus the quantity pa is not A propery. (©) The quantity is op. Here, vis functionally related with p, and thus bythe same teasing as given in (i), the quantity ndp isnot a property Example 1.2. Ifthe pressure p, specific volume v and absolute temperature Tare fantonaly related as Fa+ Edo, examine whether the quantity ix a property: Solution Given The quantity 2p +2dv. Given The quantity dp +E ‘Tofind Whether the given quantity isa property or nt. Analysis Comparing the given quantity with Mf de + Ney. we get M=2 and x= 2 ° and N= Band yoo r nnn he pil ena we get me) 22(2).2 We), "ae ) "7 (F)-3) sn (22) [22] arte et 17 STATE, PATH, PROCESS AND CYCLE. 17.1 State ‘The thermodynamic state isthe condition of the _pistem as characterised by certain thermodynamic properties like pressure, temperature, specific volume, et. any system is not undergoing any change then all ofits properties ean be measured or calculated, Which gives us a set of properties that completely describe the condition or state ofthe system, At this, state all thermodynamic properties of the system have the same value throughout the system. Ifthe value of even one property changes, the system will ‘change its state to a different one Consider a certain quantity ofa gas as a system in a piston-cylinder device as shown in Fig.1.23 (a), At the position 1 ofthe piston at any instant, ‘the condition of the system can be described by pressure pj, temperature T, and volume V. Thesystem is suid to exis at the state I, fcr expansion of the gas, the system will reach a new position 2 (state 2) as shown in Fig. 1.23 (b) ren (4 Piston at ro positions within a eyinder (0) Representation of state ona plot Fig 123 1.72 Path When a gas expands in the cylinder, the piston ‘moves outward, the properties of a system change ‘and the system reaches to the new state 2. It is called a change of state, A locus of series of states through which a system passes between initial and inal states is called a path as shown in Fig1.24, Fig. 124 Two paths between inital and ial states Basie Concepts 11 ‘The system may reach from state 1 t0 state 2 bby a number of paths depending on the type of ‘expansion, 173 Process ‘The transformation of a thermodynamic system from one thermodynamic state to another is called a process, A series of states through which a system passes during a process is called the path of the process. ‘The processes are classified as follows: 1. A process undergone by a fluid in a closed system, is referred asa non-flow process 2. A process undergone by a fluid in an open system is referred as a flow process 3. When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains almost infinitesimally close to equilibrium, such @ process is called a quasi-static process 4. A process is called a reversible process if it once has been taken place between {0 states, can be reversed to restore the system ‘o initial conditions. without leaving any effect on the surroundings. I passes through ‘series of equilibrium states, 5. A process which cannot be reversed by the same path, and follows in one direction only is called an irreversible process, It passes through a serics of non equilibrium states, 6. When a system undergoes a process, while enclosed by an adiabatic wall (ideal insu- lator), the system does not experience any heat exchange between the system and its surroundings. Such a process is called an adiabatic process. ‘The prefix iso- is often used to designate a type ‘of process for which a particular property remains constant (An Isothermal Process The femperanure remains ‘constant during the process. (i) An leobaric Process The pressure remains ‘constant during the process.12 Thermal Engineering (Gi) An lsochoric (Isometric) Process The volume remains constant during the process. (ie) An Isentropie Process The entropy remains ‘constant during the process. (©) Am Isenthalpie Process The enthalpy remains ‘constant during the process. 174 Cycle a system undergoes a series of processes in such a way that its initial and final states are identical then the system is sad to have undergone a cyelic process or simply acyele. A thermodynamic cycle is ‘a sequence of processes that begins and ends atthe same state as shown in Fig 1.25, At the conclusion ‘ofa cycle, all propertics ofthe fluid have the same values as they had atthe inital state. Fig. 125 Cyclic process 18 POINT FUNCTION AND PATH FUNCTION When a system undergoes a change from one state ‘to another, the properties ofthe system also change, Which depend only on end states and not on the path followed between these two states. Therefore, ‘these properties are called state functions or point functions. Point functions can be represented by a point on any plot, e.g, temperature, pressure, vol- lume, ete. These properties have exact differentials designated by the symbol d. Therefore, change in volume or pressure is represented by d¥’ or dp, respectively ‘A quantity, whose value depends on the par- ticular path followed during the process is called path function, It requires & particular path and di- rection to represent the quantity on any plot, 8. heat, work, ete. The path functions have inexact differentials represented by the symbol 5. ‘Therefore, a differential amount of work or heat is written as 41 oF 60. typical representation of ‘expansion work (a path function quantity) i shown, in Fig. 126. gate ‘rom raster Fig. 126 Reprsentation of path function quantity 1.9 QUASI-STATIC PROCESS When a process proceeds in such a manner that ‘the system remains infinitesimally close to an ‘equilibrium state at all times, iti called a quasi- static, oF quasi-equilibrium process. A quasi-static process is viewed as a sufficiently slow process in Which system changes its state very slowly under the influence of an infinitesimally small driving force. The system adjusts itself internally, so that ‘the properties in one part of the system do not ‘change any faster than those in the other part Figure 1.27 illustrates a quasi-static process. ‘The system consists ofa gas initially at equilibrium. under the piston in a cylinder. The piston is loaded by @ number of small masses. As one mass is removed, the gas expands slightly, allowing the piston to move slowly upward. During such ‘expansion, the molecules get sufficient time to redistribute, and thus the gas would depart only slightly from equilibrium and as the pressure and ‘other intensive properties become uniform, it will attain a new equilibrium state. Moreover, if the same mass is put on the piston, the gas would be restored tits inital state,| ‘eee rg (©) Work of quas-equilibrium process Fig.127 Quasiepuiirium process If several masses were removed from piston ‘one after an other, the gas would pass through a series of equilibrium states without ever being far away from equilibrium. Ifthe increments of mass are made negligibly small, the gas would undergo ‘2 quasi-equilibrium expansion process. A quasi- ‘equilibrium compression can also be visualized in the similar way. However, if in actual process, a gas in a piston-cylinder device is compressed suddenly, the molecules near the face of the piston do not hhave enough time to escape and they pile up in @ small region in front of the piston, thus creating a high pressure region, Because of this pressure variation, the system can no longer be said to be in equilibrium and this makes the entre process 20 in non quasi-static equilibrium, For an actual process, the system does not pass through a series ‘of equilibrium intermediate states, and thus its path ‘cannot be recognized. Basie Concepts 13 ‘A quasi-static process isan ideal process and it js nota true representation of actual processes. But ‘many actual processes closely approximate it and they can be modeled as quasi-equilibrium-process with negligible error, Engincers. are interested in quasi-equilbrium processes for two reasons. First these are easy to analyse; and second, work- producing devices deliver the maximum work, and Wworkabsorbing devices require minimum work when they operate on quasi-equilibrium processes. ‘Therefore, quasi-static processes serve as standard for other processes. 1.10 EQUILIBRIUM ‘Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states or state ofbalance.A systems said to bein equilibrium stare when there is no unbalance potential (driving force) within the system. It means thatthe intensive propertics are same throughout the entire system land there is no tendency for a change of state. If two systems are in the same intensive stat, they are in equilibrium with each other. I'the system and its surroundings are in the same intensive state, they are also in equilibrium state. ‘Thermodynamic equilibrium consists of many types of equilibrium, like thermal, mechanical, ‘chemical, ete {A system is said to be in thermal equilibrium, ifits temperature isthe same throughout the entire system, because temperature difference is potential for heat flow, Asystemis said tobeinmechanical equilibrium, inthe absence of any unbalance force. The force is directly related with pressure. Thus, if there is no pressure difference (driving force for mechanical work) throughout the system then the system would be in mechanical equilibrium, Ifa system involves two phases, itis in phase ‘equilibrium, wien the mass of each phase reaches ‘an equilibrium level and stays there Finally, a system is in chemical equilibrium when a system does not undergo any chemical reaction oF its chemical composition does not ‘change with time.14 Thermal Engineering ‘An isolated system has no interaction with its surroundings and is always in internal equilibrium. When any oncofthe above conditions of equilibrium ate not satisfied, the system isnot considered to be in thermodynamic equilibrium. 111 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS ‘Any physical quantity may be characterized by dimensions, The reference standard used to measure the dimensions of a physical quantity is called a unit, In the tenth and eleventh General Conference of Weight and Measures, it was decided to use the single universally accepted syst ‘of units throughout the world and a system of ‘measurement called the Inrernational System of Units was introduced. This system of unis is called ‘Systéme International d ‘Unités and is abbreviated ‘8 ST units. ‘The seven units used for the seven fundamental ‘quantities, considered as basic units, are given in Table 1.1 Table 1.1 Basic or primary dimensions, units and symbols in SI units unas Unt ‘Gabel Length metre ™ Mass kilogram i Time second 5 etre eurent | ampere A Temperature | kelvin kK ‘Amount oftight | candela od Amount ofmater_| mole smal A list of some derived physical quantities, their symbols, units and dimensions are given in Table 1.2 Table 1.3 shows a list of some secondary units and their expressions in terms of basic unit Guidelines for Writing Units and their Symbols ‘The following guidelines should strictly be followed for writing correct units and their dimensions: L All unit names derived from scientist's names are not to be written with an initial Table 12 Derived quantities, their units and symbols Qin Unit Simo ‘Acceleration | metre per | mis? second Angular radian per | adi acceleration | second square Angularvelocty | radian per | rads second Area suace metre | gt Ectrie resistance | fim aA Frequency het ee Speci volume | kilogramme per | kuin? cubic metres Velocity rete per Volume second a cabiemetre |e Table 13. Secondary units, expressions in tr of basic nits their symbols and ‘unaily | Unie | Symbal| Expression in erm ofbasic units Fore [newion|N [kg-mit? Pressure | pascal |Pa | kgim.s? Energy, |joule | work, heat Power | wat |W | ke-m’is’ capital letter. For example, the unit of force named after Sir Isaac Newton is written as ‘newton’ (not Newton), Similarly, the unit of temperature named after Lord Kelvin is written as ‘kelvin’ (not Kelvin). 2. Symbols of unit names derived after scientist's names are always writen with an inital capital letter. For example, the symbol “N's used for newton and °K" for kelvin, 3. If the symbol of a unit is not derived from scientist's name, i is writen with a small letter. For example, ‘m’ for metre and *kg’ for kilogram, 4. The symbols of units do not take a plural form. However, the full name of the unitmay be plualized. For example, the length ofan object can be writen as 5 mor 5 metres bbut not 5 ms. Similarly, the mass of an object can be writen as ‘5 kg” of ‘5 kilograms” but not 'S kgs? 5. No full stop or other punctuation mark is placed after symbols, unless they appear a the end ofa sentence. For example, metre is written as not“. 6. For better appearance, a single space must always be provided between a numerical value and a symbol ofa unit, 1.12 PRESSURE Pressure is defined asthe normal force exerted by a fui per unit area. We speak of pressure only when we deal with a gas of liquid. The counterpart of pressure in a solid is stress, If Fis the force normal to the area 4, then - wm? =F Wim) 10) ~ mass (em) x acceleration due t0 where force, gravity (@) ‘mass, m = volume x density ~ area (4) x depth (h) x density (p) or F = Ahpg Ahpg 2 ‘and pressure, p = P= = pgh(Nim’) aay 11121 Units of Pressure Pressure is measured in newtons per square metre, Which is called pascal (Pa), The pressure unit pascal being to0 small, very often kilopascal (KPa), ‘megapascal (MPa), bar and standard atmosphere (atm) ate used. These are related as kPa = 10° Pa I MPa ~ 10° Pa~ 10° kPa 1 bar = 100 kPa = 10° Pa atm = 101, 325 Pa = 101.325 kPa Torr = 133.32 Pa Basie Concepts 18 1122 Atmospheric, Absolute and. Gauge Pressures (0 Atmospheric Pressure tis the pressure exerted by the envelope of air surrounding the earth's surface. The standard atmospheric pressure is equal to the pressure produced by @ 760 mm high column of mercury, the density of mercury being 13,595 kim? and the acceleration due to gravity being 9.80665 mis? at sea level. 101325 Ni’ Pam 01325 bar (i) Absolute Pressure The actual pressure at a given position is called absolute pressure, It is designated as pa, oF simply p, and it is measured by a barometer above the absolute zero pressure (Gi) Gauge Pressure All pressure-measuring in- struments and gauges are calibrated to read zero at atmospheric pressure, and so they indicate the dif: ference between the actual (absolute) pressure and focal atmospheric pressure (yyy). This difference is called gauge pressure. Its denoted by Pye and is expressed as Peauge ~ Pobs~ Pa «12 ‘The pressure measured below atmospheric pressure is called vacuum (gauge) pressure and at i ae i i 0); oF extracted from the Muid (if Ayes < 0). The shaft work, spring ‘work, aceleration work, gravitational work, work32. Thermal Engineering ‘done on a solid clastic bar are also some mechani- cal forms of work Inelectrical work, the force is voltage (potential difference) and displacement is electrical current, in magnetic work, the foree is the magnetic field strength and displacement is magnetic dipole mo- ‘ment and are not mechanical forms of work 25 ENTHALPY ‘The sum of the intemal energy U and the product Of pressure p and volume V appears frequently in ‘many thermodynamic analyses. Therefore, it is ‘convenient to give a name to this combination, en- thalpy,Itis also called total enthalpy and is desig- nated by #7. By definition, H=U+pv 2.10) Since U, p and Vall are properties, the enthalpy is also a property ofthe system. It is measured in units of intemal energy, ie., KI in ST units. The ‘enthalpy for unit mass system is referred as specific ‘enthalpy and is denoted by h (KI/Kg), haus po eu ‘The enthalpy per mole basis is expressed as ats po 2.12) It should be noted that the enthalpy is a com- bination of other properties and itis nota form of cence. 26 HEAT It is a transfer form of energy that flows between ‘so systems (ora system and its surroundings) by Virtue ofthe temperature difference between them. ‘The temperature difference isthe potential for heat transfer, There would be no heat transfer between to systems ifthey ae a the same temperature. ‘The amount of heat transferred from the state 1 to the state 2is designated Q oF Q and it is mea- sured in joules (J) oF kilojoues (k) in SI units and calories (cal) or kilocalories (keal) in MKS units. Heat transfer per unit mass of a system is de- noted by q and is expressed as a- 2 cane 2.13) 2.6.1 Heat Supply and Heat Rejection ‘The heat of heat energy is generally referred as hheat transfer. The transfer of heat into a system is called feat addition or heat supply and the tansfer ‘of heat from the system is called heat rejection. It is recognized as it crosses the system boundary. For ‘example, a hot potato rejects its internal energy as heat at its boundary to its surroundings as shown ia Fig 2300), (0) Energy as heat crossing the boundary Fig.23 A process during which there is no heat transfer is called an adiabatic process as shown in Fig. 2.4. Iman adiabatic process, energy content andthe tem- perature ofa system can be changed by other pro- ‘cesses, such as work, Fig.24 A system exchanging no heat with surround- ings isan adiabatic system22 13h0ko Fig. 25 Relation between Qand q 2.62 Heat-Transfer Rate ‘The quantity of heat transferred in unit time is called hear-mansfer rate. Wis designate as Q and js measured in kl/s or kW. Itis given as 2 ve 2.14) ire ey 2.63 Heat vs Internal Energy In thermodynamics, heat and intemal energy are two different forms of energy. Internal energy is ‘propery, while heat is not. A body may contain ‘energy (in stored form) but not heat. The intemal ‘energy is associated witha state, while heat is as- sociated with a process. Therefore, heat or heat en- ‘ergy is defined as a form of energy in transit. Heat isa path function. It requires a specific direction in its representation ona plo. 2.64 Sign Convention for Heat Heat is a dreetional quantity, and its specification requires magnitude and dircetion. Universally ac- ‘cepted sign conventions for heat energy are shown in Fig. 2.6: Syrounrge Aan) 400) Fig. 26 Sigv convention for heat transfer Energy and Work Transfer. 33 1. Heat transferred toa system (heat supply) is considered positive 2. Heat transferred from a system (heat rejec- tion) is considered negative. In other words, the quantity of heat which in- creases the energy content of a system is positive and any heat transfer that decreases the energy con- tent ofa system is negative 2.7 SPECIFIC HEAT Itis defined as heat energy required to change the temperature of the unit mast of @ substance by ‘one degree. Iti designated as C and is measured in kifkg-K of klikg-°C in SI units and Keallkg-K in MKS units, In general, the specific heat ean be caleulated as ¥ 22) Sa ale) # Since the heat transfer is a path function, the specific heat also becomes path funetion and it de- pends on how the process is executed. The value of ‘energy storage capacity of the substance depends upon specife heat. The value of specific heat de- pends upon (molecular arrangement ofthe system, (ji) Condition under which change of state oc- cus, How the system executes the process 2.13) i 2.7. Specific Heats of Solids and Liquids Essentially, gases have two specific heats, C, and Cy. But for liquids and solids, the specific volume is very small and its change with pressure and temperature is negligible. Consequently, the term (po) is neglected from the differential form of Eq. 2.11), and thus, dh= du It indicates that for solids and liquids, the en- thalpy is equal to internal energy. Thus they have only one specific heat designated as C. Therefore, for any process of solids and liquids, dq = dh= du=CaT 2.16)34 Thermal Engineering 27.2 Heat Capacity ‘The product of mass and specific hea is defined as ‘heat capacity of the system. It is measured in kJ/K or IPC. Example 214 bg of solid material is heated from 15°C to 115°C with addlton of 750 KI of heat in fur nace, Calculate lt specific heat. Solution Given Mass of system, m = Sk Initial temperature, 7, = 15°C Final temperature, 7; = 15°C, Heat added Q = 7501 ‘The specific heat ofthe solid system ‘Analysis The heat supplied fo a system is expressed as =mc(rs-T) 2 © mls) - 150k) © Tkg)xCTIS*C= 15°C) TS kak. °C Example 22 Extimae the risen tonperature of wa- ter when i fll through a eight of SO m. Assume that ail the het generated says in water: The specific heat of water may be taken as 4.2 kVRg-*C: Solution Given A running automobile vice is brought to rest Height of water = 100, Specific heat of water C = 4.2 kikg-°C = 4200 Ykg°C. ‘Tosind The temperature rise of water Assumption Acceleration duc to gravity e981 mv lyst The potential energy change of water when it falls through 100 m APE=mgh=mx/9:8L m/e) x (100m) =981m Decrease in potential energy will convert into heat energy thus Q=APE=981ms and Q~mcar oO __98im * ATG mx 5200 ~02338°¢ Example 23. An automobile vehicle of 1500 kg is running a a speed of 0 hmvh. The brakes are suddenly ‘pplied and the vehicle is browght o rest. Colelate the rise in temperature of brake shoes, if their mass is 15 kg. Take the specie hea of brake shoe material as 0.46 Lyk. Solution Cen A ring stoned vei oughta Ti vei spen 4 SD ah 67 mi, Fil veiled 0 Maso eile me 50088, Mass of brake shoes, tiyaie™= 5 kg, Sei hn e = 046 tg K Tind The empresa shes Amumpion All he best genet sered by Ba hoe. Alps Te declton wrk fhe mae (18-28) Watton = AKE = eas <4on? 0607?) ‘208417 5 =-208.417 ks When brakes are applied this deceleration work com _vers into heat energy and is transferred to brake shoes. Thats, 9 -20881783 and Q =m CAT (2osai7) T5te)x (046K) = 302°C ar Example 24 During a certain process, the specific Ihea capacity of system ix given by C= (04 * 0.004 T) KligC. Find the heat transferred and mean specific ‘eat of gas, when the temperate changes from 25°C 0 125°C. The mass ofthe system is 5k Solution Given Tita temperate, ; = 25°C Final temperature, T; = 125°CRelation, € = (0.4 0.0087) kikg-°C Mass of system, m = Sk ‘Tofnd The heattnsfer ate Analysis The relation for spect eats given as C= (04+ 0.0047) kirkerC “The eat transfer canbe calulated as o- mfr = xf oasousner oo «| 0.47 + 0.006 x ? hs : sx oscuasay ones = 5% (40 + 30)= 380 “The heat transfer can also be expressed in terms of mean specific heat as = mcUrs-1) 350 5535-35 =o angee 2.8 WORK Work like heat is also a form of energy in transit. It's defined as the energy transfer associated with foree acting through a distance. Its an interaction between a system and its surroundings. nergy can cross the boundary ofthe system as heat oF work. Therefore, if the energy erossing the boundary is not heat, then it must be work, A mov- ing piston, a rotating shaf, a rising weight are all associated with work interaction. ‘Work is also measured in kJ. Work done during ‘a proces from the state Ito the state 2 is denoted by W.2.0r W. The work done per unit mass (w) is defined as 17) ‘An insulated chamber containing a system of ‘20s, and exchanging energy as work transfer only js shown in Fi. 2.7. The heat energy does not eross w= Gang Energy and Work Transfer. 38 ovine orem [Non Fig. 2.7. An energy interaction as work transfer to @ insulated system a ehag Fig. 28 Relation betven W, P and the system boundary as the insulated wall and the ‘moving blades add internal energy tothe system, 2.81 Thermodynamic Definition of Work Inthermodynamies, force and distance ae noteasily recognized in some energy interactions. According to the thermodynamic definition of work, an energy interaction between a system and its surroundings during a process can be considered as work trans~ fer: if ts sole effect on every thing external to the “system could have been to raise a weight, ‘Thermodynamic work refers to transfer of en- ‘ergy due to potential difference other than tempera ‘ute difference, without transfer of mass aross the system boundary. It is an extension of the concept ‘of work in mechanics. Consider a system consisting of an electrical battery, switch, and a resistance coil outside the system as shown in Fig. 2.9(a). When the switch is elosed, the current flows through the resistance coil. Thus, electrical energy crossing the boundary ‘of the system is converted into heat energy. At the boundary of the system, force and motion are not ‘evident and thus according to mechanics, this ener- ay interaction cannot be reganded as work transfer.