How Organizations Can Make the

Most of Online Learning

How Organizations Can Make the
Most of Online Learning

David Guralnick, PhD

How Organizations Can Make the Most of Online Learning

Copyright © Business Expert Press, LLC, 2022.

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 Description
In an age of accelerating business and technological change, the success
of an organization depends significantly on its employees and how they
can effectively learn and perform their roles. New technologies, com-
bined with innovative approaches to the design of experiences for learn-
ing and performance, can help organizations boost their performance and
improve their overall culture.
This concise book, written by an expert in e-learning and performance
design, technology, education, and strategies, provides practical advice
and insights for executives, learning designers and developers, subject
matter experts, and others involved in organization learning, including:

• How e-learning is currently being used in organizations

• Research underpinnings of effective online learning
• How to create learning experiences that have a true impact on
job performance
• How to create and support a learning culture in an organization
• Different types of online learning
• Organizational strategies for using e-learning
• How to build learning and experiences in-house
• How to work with outside vendors and consultants to develop
custom courses, content, and learning experiences
• Online learning using different devices
• Best uses of artificial intelligence (AI), virtual reality (VR),
augmented reality (AR), and other emerging technologies in
learning and development
• E-learning management and administration (including
learning management systems (LMSs), learning experience
platforms, and learning analytics)
• How to maximize your online learning strategy
• And much more.
vi keywords

Keywords
e-learning; online learning; digital learning; learning experiences; online
learning strategies; mobile learning; performance improvement; learn-
ing technology; learning design; learning experience design; user experi-
ence design; usability; learning analytics; content curation; collaborative
learning; informal learning; workplace learning; corporate training; cor-
porate learning & development; performance support; informal learn-
ing; workflow learning; situated learning; skills transfer; scenario-based
learning; storytelling
 Contents
Preface��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ix
Acknowledgments�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������xi

Chapter 1 Introduction: Using Technology to

Improve Performance�������������������������������������������������������1
Chapter 2 Types of Online Learning�����������������������������������������������11
Chapter 3 Learning Technology: Courses, Content,
and Experiences��������������������������������������������������������������31
Chapter 4 Learning Technology: Learning Management
and Administration��������������������������������������������������������43
Chapter 5 Custom Courses and Content: Working With Outside
Vendors and Contractors������������������������������������������������51
Chapter 6 Maximizing Your Online Learning Strategy��������������������65
Chapter 7 Creating Successful Online Learning:
The Research������������������������������������������������������������������71
Chapter 8 When Do You Need Help From an
Outside Consultant?�������������������������������������������������������79
Chapter 9 New and Upcoming Learning Technologies��������������������85
Chapter 10 The Future of Corporate E-Learning������������������������������99

Appendix: For Further Exploration������������������������������������������������������105

References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������109
About the Author��������������������������������������������������������������������������������115
Index�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������117
 Preface
Online learning, or e-learning, has become a significant part of any orga-
nization’s learning and development strategy. But there’s still a tremen-
dous amount of unrealized potential when it comes to using technology
to improve learning and performance. We’re currently at a time of oppor-
tunity for forward-thinking organizations to re-envision their learning
and development programs, in part by moving to different types of expe-
riences that new technologies allow us to design, deliver, and deploy on
a large scale.
My own background is at the intersection of education, cognitive
science and user experience design, and computer science and artificial
intelligence. I’ve spent a significant part of my career designing innovative
learning experiences and consulting on e-learning design and strategy and
have long advocated for organizations to move away from traditional read-
and-test approaches to learning. Instead, I suggest new, creative, user-centered
approaches to learning and performance that align with research findings
in the fields of education and cognitive science—using technology, these
approaches can reach a large-scale audience in a cost-effective way.
The goal of this book is to provide readers with a sense of the current
world of organizational e-learning and also, perhaps more significantly, to
explore the potential future. As new technologies evolve, we have more
and more opportunities to reimagine and reinvent organizational learning,
moving away from models that ask employees to memorize information
and take recall tests, and to a world in which technology enables employee
performance and is used to create learning experiences that feel relevant,
meaningful, and useful to employees. In this potential future, learning is
well integrated into employees’ workflows and lives, employees have access
to technology that makes it easier, more efficient, and more comfortable
to perform their jobs, and employees’ learning experiences focus on skills
and performance and transfer clearly to their real-life work. As more jobs
become automated, it becomes even more crucial for employee learning to
focus on higher-level skills such as decision making and analysis. And in
x preface

today’s competitive environment, it’s critical for organizations to provide

learning experiences that will resonate with employees and make them feel
valued and respected. The future of online learning can greatly improve
workplace learning, performance, and culture, and opportunities abound.
 Acknowledgments
This book would not have been possible without the contributions of so
many people. Christy Levy, as always, has spent a tremendous amount of
time talking through ideas with me and provided valuable comments on
my drafts. Lara Ramsey provided invaluable support in getting everything
together for this book. Many of the ideas in this book stemmed from con-
versations with others at Kaleidoscope Learning, including Veira Petersen,
Boris Kontsevich, Anabel Bugallo, and Yidan Yan, and other colleagues
including Hal Christensen of QuickCompetence, JC Kinnamon of the
Practising Law Institute, Michael Auer of CTI Consulting, Antonella Poce
of the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Christina Merl of Lab 21,
Fernando Salvetti of eREAL, Patrick Blum of the inside Business Group,
Alicia Sanchez of the Defense Acquisition University, Kinga Petrovai of
The Art & Science of Learning podcast, Imogen Casebourne of the DEFI
Innovation Lab, Sally Ann Moore of Learning Technologies France, and
many others. I very much appreciate Ed Stone’s work in helping me con-
ceptualize this book and introducing me to Business Expert Press (BEP),
and Scott Isenberg and Charlene Kronstedt of BEP for making this book
happen. On the personal side, I could not possibly have finished writing
this book without Irene Dominguez’s support throughout the entire pro-
cess. Finally, numerous discussions at conferences, including the confer-
ence that I founded and chair, The Learning Ideas Conference, as well as
the ICL Conference (International Conference on Collaborative Learning,
chaired by Michael Auer), Financial Services Learning & Development
Innovations, Learning Technologies France (chaired by Sally Ann Moore),
and others have all furthered my thinking and contributed tremendously
to the thought in this book, and Jim Spoher’s comments on a draft of the
book manuscript were incredibly valuable.
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction
Using Technology to
Improve Performance

Introduction
The COVID-19 pandemic forced organizations to change the way they
learned. While organizations already made substantial use of various
types of online learning (or e-learning; the terms are often used inter-
changeably), suddenly they could no longer rely on in-person, classroom
learning at all. Changes due to the pandemic helped organizations fully
appreciate some of the benefits of online learning but also sparked discus-
sions about how to better employ online learning methods going forward.
Computer-based learning, and later online learning, has been in use in
a variety of forms, from remote live sessions to online courses to immersive
simulations, since the 1980s. There have been successes in several areas,
including learn-by-doing simulations in which the learner plays a role
in a realistic experience and is able to learn in a “safe” environment—
any incorrect decisions the learner makes in a simulation won’t have a
real impact on the company—and just-in-time performance support, in
which training time is reduced in favor of tools that can help an employee
work more effectively while on the job. Online learning has also seen
a substantial set of “page-turning” courses, generally easy-to-produce
courses in which the learner reads or watches information and then takes
a quiz or exam. This method tends to be ineffective and not well received
by its audiences. We’ll get into the reasons for that later in this book.
Online learning has the potential to revolutionize workplace learning
and performance, and we’re at a time now in which, partly thanks to new
technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), virtual reality (VR), and
2 How Organizations Can Make the Most of Online Learning

augmented reality (AR), that potential could finally be fully realized. In

order to take full advantage of new technologies and provide effective
learning for modern learners, however, it’s critical for organizations to take
a step back and create or choose experiences that work for their audience
to improve performance, rather than those that simply follow traditional
educational methods using newer technologies. Technology is best used as
a means to achieve certain goals, and in organizational learning, the goals
are performance and behavior change.

A Focus on Performance
Corporate learning experiences often tend to be modeled on traditional
education, whether in the classroom or online. Online learning regularly
takes the form of courses in which employees read text or watch a video and
then take a quiz in order to “check their knowledge.” This type of learning
experience is familiar and also simple and inexpensive to produce—yet
it’s rarely effective. There are a number of underlying reasons why other
approaches are more effective, and we’ll cover several of those in depth
later in this book. However, at its core, the goal of workplace learning
should be to improve performance—to help employees perform their best.
The connection between being able to pass an information-based test and
successful job performance is tenuous at best; along with other factors,
good job performance in virtually any role involves the performance
of skills, not the recitation or recognition of information. For example,
consider someone who’s starting an entry-level customer service job at a
retail chain. It’s not particularly difficult to take, and easily pass, an online
course in which the test is information-based—for example, the learner
may be asked to select which of several choices is a good principle of
customer service. But being good at customer service involves much more
than simply knowing the way that you’re supposed to act—you need to
understand how to use information in context, and also be able to put
your knowledge into practice. Everyone knows that it’s not considered
good job performance to be rude to customers, but not everyone comes
in with a great sense about what constitutes appropriate conduct and
what doesn’t. Learning experiences that focus on performance—such
as a realistic, complex online learn-by-doing simulation with coaching
 Introduction 3

guidance and feedback—can help people learn to perform, not just learn
to recite information.

Different Types of Solutions

Recognizing that the overall goal is for employees to perform their jobs
well—not to complete a course or even necessarily to know something
but to be able to do things—allows us to consider and appreciate a variety
of potential solutions, including, but not being limited to, educational
experiences. There’s a story in the Heath brothers’ Switch: How to Change
Things When Change Is Hard (Heath and Heath 2010) about consultants
who, after a new timesheet system is rolled out, often fail to submit their
hours. After training solutions fail, the company realizes that the issue
is not a lack of training but that the new system is awkward and slow
to use—the solution was to improve the system rather than to better
train the employees. Process improvement, “just-in-time” performance
support—providing something to help people perform their job just
when they need it, the way a GPS-driven navigation system provides
directions to a driver—and training/learning experiences all are potential
ways to improve performance in both the short term and the long term.
Within the world of learning experiences, there are numerous approaches;
some problems may call for a simple, inexpensive approach, others for an
in-depth, high-tech experience.

Using Technology to Create

Learning Experiences
New technologies can help us reimagine and reinvent the way people
learn and to greatly improve performance. Perhaps the key when it comes
to employing new technologies in learning is to consider what types of
experiences we want to create, and how we can best design an experience
that makes use of the capabilities of a particular technology in order to do
so, rather than simply trying to replicate common learning methods and
experiences in a new format. Long ago, the apprenticeship model was the
most common form of education; people who wanted to learn to be, say,
a blacksmith would learn to do so by apprenticing to a master blacksmith.
4 How Organizations Can Make the Most of Online Learning

The apprentice might start with simple tasks such as cleaning equipment,
then grow into more complex tasks and skills, all while receiving coaching
guidance and feedback from an expert.
The apprenticeship model is practical and effective, but it doesn’t
scale up well. When society needed to teach and train masses of people,
the apprenticeship model simply couldn’t handle the load—there
were not nearly enough experts to work with everyone. The classroom
model that we often see today—with a teacher or lecturer in front of a
class—can teach a large group, but it’s not, and was never intended to
be the most effective learning experience, just the one that was practical
to implement.
However, technology-based experiences—particularly those that are
learner-driven, such as, for example, learning to fly a plane via a flight
simulator—do scale up! If we create a great learning experience that runs
on a computer or mobile phone, it can be made accessible to millions of
people, or more, for essentially the same cost as making it accessible by
10 people. The key is to avoid focusing only on reaching a large audience
but to look to create great experiences, often those that follow different
methods than traditional learning.

Focusing on Learning and Performance Rather

Than on Teaching
Traditional education involves a class of students and a teacher, who leads
the class. Under this model, the underlying thinking is that the teacher
has knowledge and will impart this knowledge to the students, and then
will test them on this knowledge. This is a very different model than the
apprenticeship approach described above; its big advantage is that it scales
up well—one teacher can handle a class of 100 students, or 300 stu-
dents, or maybe even more, especially in an online, virtual-class format.
However, both research (e.g., Brown, Collins, and Duguid 1989) and
practical experience have shown that people learn better when asked to
do things—perform tasks, make decisions, create something—and that
particularly in a workplace setting, where the goals clearly revolve around
performance and skills, a learning-by-doing approach is a much better
way to go.
 Introduction 5

A related concept is the idea of focusing on learning and performance

rather than on teaching. The teaching model may be what most people are
accustomed to, and what they think of as “education” in any context, but
modern times call for modern methods, and we have many other, better
options than traditional teaching when it comes to employee learning
and development. Active approaches to learning (see, e.g., Bonwell and
Eison 1991; Freeman, Eddy, McDonough, Smith, Okoroafor, Jordt,
and Wenderoth 2014; Ruiz-Primo, Briggs, Iverson, Talbot, and Shepard
2011), in which learners are involved in the learning process—as opposed
to passive approaches, such as watching a lecture—can be personalized
and relevant, engaging and applicable. Active learning experiences can
also often be integrated into an employee’s workflow, so employees can
learn while performing their actual job and thus reduce the need for
training experiences that pull them away from their work. In addition,
active learning experiences tend to be more accepted by employees—
they put the learner in control and are not only more efficient than
traditional, passive methods but also are more respectful to the employee,
not treating employees as if they’re small children (though arguments can
certainly be made that traditional teaching is not the best method for
small children, either!).

New Technologies in Learning

Forward-thinking organizations are looking at how to best employ new
technologies, such as virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and
artificial intelligence (AI), in learning. Virtual reality provides immersive
experiences in which a user wears a special headset and therefore feels
truly surrounded by the digitized world that’s displayed in the headset.
VR headsets are becoming much less expensive and more easily available,
providing new opportunities for organizations to improve their learning
experiences. VR is ideal for learn-by-doing simulations, in which a learner
practices a skill in a simulated environment—the experience feels real-
istic and therefore transfers well to real-life work, but any mistakes and
experimentation don’t have real-life consequences to the business—for
example, a computer technician might practice certain repairs in a VR
simulation, and if the technician accidentally fries a motherboard in the
6 How Organizations Can Make the Most of Online Learning

simulation, it’s not a real computer so no customer will be upset, but the
technician will learn from their mistakes.
Augmented reality (AR) enhances the real world via technology; for
example, Google Maps includes a feature that can direct the user through
a major airport, step by step, by superimposing instructions and detailed
information over a live view of where the user is (Haselton 2021). Figure 1.1
shows an AR map example from an airport.

Figure 1.1  Augmented reality using mobile maps

Within organizational learning, AR can alleviate the need for training

by providing employees with more just-in-time guidance. Following the
Google Maps example, an AR app for an audience of retail stockroom
workers could direct them to find a particular item on a shelf.
Artificial intelligence (AI) is becoming more and more widespread
in its use in different areas, from smart appliances to self-driving cars
and many others. In learning, AI has the potential to radically improve
learning experiences. Many current applications of AI in learning focus
on analytics, and in assessing the strengths and weaknesses of employees
based on their performance in a training activity. This type of informa-
tion can certainly be useful, though there’s a risk in overly automating
performance and skill evaluations, especially at this fairly early stage in
the widespread use of this type of AI. It’s likely that the large-scale impact
of AI will be felt in the creation of learning experiences that are much
more personalized: the system will get to know the employee’s strengths
and weaknesses as well as their interests—everything from what types of
 Introduction 7

learning experiences they most enjoy to what content areas might reso-
nate best with them when used in an analogy—and function more as a
coach. This model has the potential to greatly improve employee perfor-
mance as well as their appreciation for their organization.

Research Underpinnings of Effective Online Learning

The majority of online learning currently in use resembles traditional edu-
cation, translated to an online medium: people read, listen to, or watch
something, then take a test on their knowledge, typically focusing on
their recall of key facts. Research from the area of cognitive science (e.g.,
Brown, Collins, and Duguid 1989; Greeno, Smith, and Moore 1993;
Lave and Wenger 1991) tells us that this method is effective if the end goal
is memorization, but not ideal when the goal is performance. It’s at best
arguable whether memorizing facts is a useful goal in schools—students
would be better prepared for life and work if their educational experiences
focused on critical thinking and decision making over memorization—
and for workplace learning purposes, the goal is clearly performance.
The design of effective online learning integrates research from several
areas in order to create experiences that help people perform and do so
in ways that employees will emotionally connect with. Relevant research
areas include:

• Cognitive science and education (much of this work is now

also categorized as “learning sciences”): Relevant work covers
methods by which people learn best, both individually and
collaboratively, such as Allan Collins and John Seeley Brown’s
work on situated cognition (Brown, Collins, and Duguid
1989) and cognitive apprenticeships (Collins, Brown, and
Newman 1989), Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger’s work on
situated learning and communities of practice (1991), and
David Kolb’s work on experiential learning (Kolb 1984); how
people can learn in ways that will facilitate remembering (see,
e.g., Casebourne 2015 for a writeup with additional research
citations about spaced learning, an approach that facilitates
remembering); and how people can best process information
8 How Organizations Can Make the Most of Online Learning

and experiences optimally (see Clark and Mayer 2011) with-

out being overloaded (see Sweller 1988 and Sweller, Ayres,
and Kalyuga 2011).
• User experience (UX): Work in UX is incredibly relevant
to the design of online learning experiences and is some-
times overlooked in online learning. Research into software
usability (including that of Jakob Nielsen, Don Norman,
and their Nielsen Norman Group—see Nielsen 2000—and
Jared Spool, as in Hoekman and Spool 2010), other human
factors areas, and how people use technology are all especially
relevant to online learning. Usability testing (see Rubin and
­Chisnell 2008), the process of asking end-users to use a prod-
uct at various stages and provide feedback and be observed,
is also a key part of a sound design process. This work can
include everything from collecting user feedback early in
the process to studying how people use a prototype or beta
version of a course or other learning experience.

Organizational Strategies for Using Online Learning

Forward-thinking organizations have an opportunity to make online
learning a core part of their organizational culture. Traditionally, learn-
ing management systems (LMSs) have been used to house e-learning
courses and content, and employees use the LMS to access their train-
ing. Employee responses to LMSs are frequently less than positive; for
example, a 2015 study by Sharon Vipond for Learning Solutions magazine
concluded that, within organizations “overall levels of LMS satisfaction
remained mediocre at best” (Vipond 2016), and current anecdotal expe-
riences confirm that view; LMSs tend to be cumbersome and unfriendly
to use, and are centered primarily around a model of courses and content,
rather than having a focus on performance and user experience.
Modern learners expect modern learning experiences that feel more
like the experiences they have with learning and technology outside of
work—as one example, someone who’s looking for help putting together
a spinning bike they purchased can usually find a video online that
demonstrates how to do so. Such an experience is quick, to the point, and
 Introduction 9

involves showing how to do something rather than just talking about it.
Overall, in order to make the best use of online learning, organizations
would be well-served to redesign their uses of technology in learning and
development to move away from traditional educational models and take
advantage of new technologies, along with research-based learning meth-
ods, to create new models of online learning for their employees. We’ll
discuss potential strategies in more detail later in this book.
 Index

Active learning experiences, 5 learning-related content, 102–103

Adaptive learning, 91–92 learning sciences, 101
Adobe Captivate, 38 market, 103
Adobe Connect, 33 monolithic courses, 99–100
Adobe Illustrator, 38–39 new experiences, 103–104
Adobe Photoshop, 38 skill-based credentials, 101
Animation tools, 39 Culture, 68–69
Apprenticeship model, 4, 87
Articulate Storyline, 37–38 Demonstration rights, 60
Artificial intelligence (AI), 6, 89–91 Design, learning experience, 75–78
Augmented reality (AR), 6, 88–89 Document collaboration, 34
Authentic activities, 72
Editing skills, 67
Brain-based controllers, 93–94 Educational experience, 98
Branching simulations, 16–17 Evidence-based approaches, 71
Experiential learning, 97
Camtasia, 39 Expert systems, 90
Chargebacks, 47
Coaching guidance, 27, 97–98
Feedback, 27, 98
Cognitive apprenticeship, 72
5G networks, 93
Cognitive load theory, 77
Foldable screens, 93
Cognitive science, 7–8
Collaboration skills, 66
Collaborative learning Game-based learning, 29
communities of practice (CoP), 22 Game-like elements, 91
social networks, 21–22 Google Maps, 6, 86, 89
Communities of practice (CoP), 22, Graphic design tools, 38–39
25, 72
Consultant selection, 83–84 Holograms, 92
Consulting skills, 65 Hosting, 43–44
Content reuse, 102
Contractual issues, 59–60 In-house Learning & Development
Corporate e-learning, 2, 99 team, 31
authoring tools, 100 Intelligent tutoring component, 91
content reuse, 102 Instructional designer, 35
goal, 101 Intellectual property (IP) rights, 60
just-in-time learning, 99 Interactivity, 29
and learning, 100 Internet of things (IoT), 92–93
learning and development (L&D) Iterative design process, 25–26
integration, 103
learning management systems Kaleidoscope Learning, 17, 28, 29,
(LMSs), 102 46, 47, 61, 75, 115
118 Index

Just-in-time learning, 3, 20–21, 25, Marketing rights, 60

99 Massive open online courses
(MOOCs), 12–13, 23
Learn-by-doing simulations, 1, 4, Messaging channels, 34
15–16, 24, 90, 97 Microlearning, 20, 25
Learner control, 27, 98 Microsoft, 33
Learning analytics, 48–49 Mobile learning, 4, 6, 39, 40, 89
Learning and development (L&D) Motivation, 74–75
integration, 103 Multimedia learning, 77
Learning experience, 3–4
design, 75–78 Off-the-shelf courses, 32
design guidance, 82 Online learning
motivation, 74–75 blended approaches, 22–23
situated learning, 72–74 collaborative learning
Learning experience platforms (LXPs), communities of practice, 22
48 social networks, 21–22
Learning management systems common types, 23–25
(LMSs), 8, 102, 43–47, 68 culture, 68–69
Learning sciences, 101 design, 25–26
Learning technology coaching guidance, 27
adaptive learning, 91–92 feedback, 27
artificial intelligence (AI), 89–91 interactivity, 29
augmented reality (AR), 88–89 language, 29–30
for class sessions, 32–34 learner control, 26–27
for collaboration and respectful tone, 29
communication, 34 stories and scenarios, 27–29
controllers, 93–94 style, 29–30
content in-house, 35–39 development skills, 67
course creation, 31–32, 35–39 on different devices, 39–40
different devices, 39–40 effectiveness, evaluation of, 79–82
experience creation, 31–32 just-in-time learning, 20–21
5G networks, 93 massive open online courses
foldable screens, 93 (MOOCs), 12–13
holograms, 92 microlearning, 20
internet of things (IoT), 92–93 new technologies, 40
learning analytics, 48–49 overview, 30
learning experience platforms performance support, 21, 25
(LXPs), 48 self-paced e-learning
learning management systems branching simulations, 16–17
(LMSs), 43–47 examples, 19–20
for live presentations, 32–34 experiences, 13
new technologies, 40, 85–86 forms of, 13–14
overview, 31, 41 read/watch/test, 14
potential future training experience, simulation-based learning,
94–98 15–16
SCORM standard, 45 –46 traditional activities and
virtual reality (VR), 88 assessments, 15
xAPI standard, 45 –46 watch, rate, and compare model,
Lectora, 38 17–19
 Index 119

strategy, 65–68 Simulation-based learning, 15–16

team, 65–67 Situated learning, 71–74
technology, 67–68 Social networks, 21–22, 25, 34
virtual classes, 11–12 Spaced learning, 77
workflow learning, 20 Stories, 27–28
Ownership, 60 Strategic consulting, 82–83
Subcontractor, 32
Performance support, 89
PORTL, 92 Technology-based experiences, 4
Traditional education, 4, 24
Read/watch/test, 14, 23
Realistic evaluation, 98 UltraLeap, 93
Realistic simulation, 91 User-centered design, 25
Request for proposal (RFP) User data tracking, 44
company/contractor, work with, User experience (UX), 8, 66
60–64 User-generated content, 32, 48
creation, 52–58 User interface (UI), 66
process, 58–59
Reviewing skills, 67 Video editing tools, 39
Virtual classes, 11–12, 23
SCORM standard, 45 –46 Virtual reality (VR), 5–6, 82, 88
Self-paced e-learning Vyond, 39
branching simulations, 16–17
examples, 19–20
Watch, rate, and compare model,
experiences, 13
17–19, 24
forms of, 13–14
WebEx, 33
read/watch/test, 14
Workflow learning, 20, 24
simulation-based learning,
Writing skills, 67
15–16
traditional activities and
assessments, 15 xAPI standard, 45 –46
watch, rate, and compare model,
17–19 Zoom, 11, 33