During growth of multicelular organisms, the nucleus divides before the cell divides so that each new

cell contains an identical nucleus. With a partner, discuss briefly why this is important. Then carry out the
following exercise.
Make a list of four structural features of the nucleus of eukaryotes.
For each feature, outline its function (or an example of its function).

WHY GROW OLD?

Is it useful to prolong human life? The forerunners
of modern chemists, the alchemists, thought so
(Figure 5.1). They had two main aims:
t o discover how to transform 'base' metals
(e.g. lead) into 'noble' metals (e.g. gold
and silver)

to discover the elixir of life, which would give

eternal youth.

By the early 20th century, scientists had relegated

these aims to impossible dreams. Now, however,
humans are once again challenging the idea that
the process of ageing is inevitable.
Why do organisms grow old and die? Interest
in the process of ageing was rekindled with the
discovery of telomeres in 1978. Telomeres are
protective sequences of nucleotides found at the Figure 5.1: A 19th-century oil painting showing an
ends of chromosomes, which become shorter every
time a cell divides. A gradual degeneration of the alchemist at work.
organism occurs, resulting in ageing.

Some cells are able to replenish their telomeres Question for discussion
using the enzyme telomerase. It is thought that If the ageing process could be slowed or
cancer cells can do this and so remain immortal prevented, this would raise some important moral
(will never die). It may therefore be possible to and ethical issues. Try to identify and discuss some
prevent the ageing of normal cells by keeping the of these issues.
enzyme telomerase active.

In Chapter 6 you will learn how DNA can copy itself

5.1 Growth and accurately. In this chapter you will learn how whole cells
can do the same.

reproduction In Chapter I you saw that one of the most easily

All living organisms grow and reproduce. Living recognised structures in eukaryotic cells is the nucleus.
The importance of the nucleus has been obvious ever
organisms are made of cells, so this means that cells
must be able to grow and reproduce. Cells reproduce since it was realised that the nucleus always divides
before a cell divides. Each of the two daughter cells
by dividing and passing on copies of their genes to
daughter cells. The process must be very precisely therefore contains its own nucleus. This is important
controlled so that no vital genetic information is lost. because the nucleus controls the cell's activities. It does

124
 5 The mitotic cell cycle

this because it contains the genetic material, DNA, which Before their function was known, they were called
acts as a set of instructions, or code, for life (Chapter 6). chromosomes because 'chromo' means coloured and

All the cells in the bodies of multicellular organisms 'somes means bodies.

are genetically identical, apart from the reproductive The number of chromosomes is characteristic of
cells known as gametes. This is because they all come the species. For example, in human cells there are
from one cell, the zygote. This is the cell formed when 46 chromosomes; in fruit fly cells there are only 8
one gamete from your mother and one gamete from chromosomes. Figure 5.2 is a photograph of a set of
your father fused. When the zygote starts the process chromosomes in the nucleus of a human cell.
of growth, it divides into two cells with identical nuclei
This involves a type of nuclear division called mitosis.
This process of nuclear division followed by cell division The structure ot chromosomes
continues to be repeated in a cycle called the mitotic
Before studying nuclear division, you need to
cell cycle to produce all the cells of your body, about
understand a little about the structure of chromosomes.
30trillion in an average human. Figure 5.3 is a simplified diagram of the structure of a
You will study the process of mitosis and the mitotic cell chromosome just before cell division.
cycle in this chapter.
telomeres

Genes for different characteristics-

5.2 Chromosomes in reality each chromosome is typically
made up of several thousand genes.
Just before a eukaryotic cell divides, a number of
Centromere - holds the two
threadlike structures called chromosomes gradually
chromatids together.There are no
become visible in the nucleus. They are easily seen,
genes in this region.
because they stain intensely with particular stains.

Two identical chromatids

make one chromosome. Each
chromatid contains one DNA
molecule.

telomeres

Figure 5.3: Simplified diagram of the structure of a

chromosome.

You can see that the chromosome at this stage is a

double structure. It is made of two identical structures
called chromatids, joined together. The two identical
chromatids of one chromosome are known as sister
chromatids. There are two chromatids because, during
the period between nuclear divisions, known as
interphase, each DNA molecule in a nucleus makes an
identical copy of itself (Chapter 6, Section 6.3, DNA

KEY WORD
Figure 5.2: Photograph of a set of chromosomes in a chromatid: one of two identical parts of a
human male, just before cell division. Each chromosome
chromosome, held together by a centromere,
is composed of two chromatids held together at the
formed during interphase by the
centromere. Note the different sizes of the chromosomes the DNA strand
replication ot
and the different positions of the centromeres.
 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL BIOLOGY: CoURSEBOCOK

DNA into a smaller

replication). Each chromatid contains one of these Histones help to package
usetul measure
DNA copies. The sister chromatids are held ratio is a the
together space. The packing
by a narrow region called the centromere, to form a of compactness
achieved. 10 cm lone
If a

degree into a S cm long tube

was packed
single chromosome. The centromere could be anywhere piece of string be 2 (2cm of string per
would
along the length of the chromosome, but the position is the packing ratio can be applied to the
tube). The s a m e idea
characteristic for a particular chromosome. cm of
DNA into chromosomes
problem of packing
DNA is the molecule of inheritance and is made up A chromosome
of Chromosomes varyin length.
a series of genes. Each gene is one unit of inheritance.
C
was estimated
to contain8.7cm of
10um long DNA in
ratio of
The two DNA molecules, one in each of the sister DNA. What is the
packing
chromatids, are identical. This means the genes on the c h r o m o s o m e ? Show your
working.
this
chromatids are also identical. The fact that there are c h r o m o s o m e s in an adult human
d There are 46
two identical chromatids is the key to precise nuclear is about 6um. The
cell. Their average length
into
division. When cells divide, one chromatid goes
daughter cell and one goes into the other daughter cell,
one total length of
DNA in
is
the
the
46 chromosomes
approximate
What
is about 1.8 m.
making the daughter cells genetically identical. for DNA in human
overall packing ratio
to be chromosomes? Show your working.
So much information is stored in DNA that it nceds
2
the molecule is only nm histone proteins contribute
a very long molecule. Although e Explain briefly how ratio for DNA.
chromosomes
wide, the total length of DNA in the 46 to reducing the packing
metres. This has to
of a n adult human cell is about 1.8
in diameter.
be packed into a nucleus which is only 6um
to get an 18 km length of
This is the equivalent of trying
string into a ball which only
is 6 cm in diameter!theA precise
DNA
5.3 The cell cycle
molecules prevents two genetically
scaffolding made of protein is wound Mitosis is nuclear division that produces
into knots. The DNA the s a m e
from getting tangled up identical daughter nuclei, each containing
these protein molecules. The nucleus. Mitosisis
around the outside of number of chromosomes as the parent
is called chromatin.
combination of DNA and proteins
part of a precisely
controlled process called the cell cycle.
C h r o m o s o m e s a r e made of chromatin.
Chemically
basic (the opposite of The cell cycle is the sequence of events that takes place
most of the proteins are
speaking, histones. Because they cell division and the next. It has three
known as between one
acidic) and are of type
a

a r e basic, they
can interact easily with DNA, which phases: interphase, nuclear division and cell division.
These are shown in Figure 5.5.
is acidic.

Chromosomes also possess two more features

essential
During interphase, the cell grows to its normal size after
nuclear division: centromeres and cell division and carries out its normal functions. At
for successful
are visible in Figures 5.2 and some point during interphase, a signal may be received
telomeres. Centromeres
stained
5.3. Telomeres are visible if chromosomes are
that the cell should divide again. If this happens, the
Centromeres are discussed DNA in the nucleus replicates so that each chromosome
appropriately (Figure 5.4).
telomeres is
with mitosis in Section 5.4 and the role of consists of two identical chromatids. This phase of the
discussed in Section 5.5. cell cycle is called the S phase -S stands for synthesis
(of DNA). This is a relatively short phase. The gap
phase is called the
after cell division and before the S

Question KEY WORDS

1 The primary structure of histone protein molecules
is highly conserved during evolution, meaning there mitosis: the division of a nucleus into two so
are extremely few changes over time (far fewer than that the two daughter cells have exactly the
is usual for proteins). same number and type of chromosomes as the

State what is meant by the primary structure parent cell

of a protein.
cell cycle: the sequence of events that takes
b What does the fact that histone molecules place from one cell division until the next, it is
are highly conserved suggest about their made up of interphase, mitosis and cytokinesis
functioning?
 5 The mitotic cell cycle

Figure 5.4: Fluorescent staining of human chromosome telomeres as seen with a light microscope. Chromosomes appear
blue and telomeres appear pink (x4000).

are usualy repaired. Preparations are also made to begin

nuclear division the process of division. For example, there is a sharp
S phase: DNA
by mitosis increase in production of the protein tubulin which is
replication
G needed to make microtubules for the mitotic spindle.
M
cell division
Nuclear division follows interphase. Nuclear division
(cytokinesis)
is referred to as the M phase (M for mitosis). Growth
stops temporarily during mitosis. After the M phase,
when the nucleus has divided into two, the whole cell
divides to create two genetically identical cells. In animal
cells, cell division involves constriction of the cytoplasm
interphase between the two new nuclei, a process called cytokinesis.
In plant cells, it involves the formation of a new cell wall
G,
between the two new nuclei.
The length of the cell cycle is very variable, depending
Figure 5.5: The mitotic cell cycle.DNA replication takes on environmental conditions and cell type. On average,
between cell division root tip cells of onions divide once every 20 hours;
placeduring interphase, the period
and the next nuclear division: S = synthesis (of DNA); epithelial cells in the human intestine every 10 hours.
G gap; M= mitosis.

The gap after the S phase and

G, phase (G for gap).
before cell division is called the G, phase. Interphase 5.4 Mitosis
therefore consists of G,, S and G,. During G, cells The process of mitosis is best described by annotated
make the RNA, enzymes and other proteins needed for diagrams as shown in Figure 5.6. Although in reality
committed to
growth. At the end of G,, the cell becomes the process is continuous, it is usual to divide it into four
dividing or not dividing. main stages for convenience, like four snapshots from
DNA a film. The four stages are called prophase, metaphase,
During G, the cell continues to grow and the new
that was made during the S phase is checked. Any errors anaphase and telophase.

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS &A LEVEL BIOLOGY: coURSEBOOoK

Most nuclei contain cell divides by constriction ol the cytoplasm, a

many chromosomes, but the
diagrams in Figure 5.6 show a cell containing only called cytokinesis, As the cell changes shape, th p
four chromosomes for surface area of the cell increases as the two new
convenience. Colours are cells
used to show whether the form, so new cell surface
membranc has
to be
chromosomes are from
the female o r male
parent, An animal cell is used The behaviour of chromosomes in plant cells is ident.
as an
example. Note that during late prophase the to that in animal cells. However, plant cells differ in
nuclear envelope
'disappears'. In fact, it breaks up
into small vesicles which cannot be seen with a two ways:
light
microscope. It reassembles during telophase, as shown plant cells do not contain centrosomes
in
Figure 5.6. As a result, diagrams of metaphase and after nuclear division of a plant cell, a new cellwal
anaphase do not show the nuclear envelope. At the must form between the daughter nuclei.
end of telophase, after the nucleus has divided, the

Early prophase Late prophase

nuclear envelope 'disappears
cell surface
(it breaks up into small
membrane
vesicles which are not visible

cytoplasm with a light microscope)

nucleolus nucleolus disappears (forms

part of several chromosomes)
intact nuclear
envelope
chromosomes are seen to consist

centromere with
of two identical chromatids;
two centrosomes each chromatid contains one DNA
attached kinetochores centrosomes moving to molecule
produced by chromosomes start to appear as the opposite ends of nucleus
replication of the
chromatin coils up, becoming shorter where they form thee centromere
original centrosome
and thicker; they are thick enough to poles of the spindle
during S phase of
become visible when stained
the cell cycle At the end of prophase a spindle is formed.
Metaphase
each centrosome reaches a pole;
centrosomes help to organise
production of the spindle each chromosome
microtubules splits at the centromere

spindle (made from

microtubules)
the chromatids
chromosomes line up across
start to be pulled
the equator of the spindle;
apart by microtubules
they are attached by their
centromeres to the spindle

Anaphase Telophase nuclear envelope re-forming

nucleolus chromatids have reached the poles of
re-forming the spindle; they will now uncoil again
(each chromatid contains one DNA
molecule, which will replicate itself
remains of during interphase before the next
spindle which division)
is breaking
down cytokinesis- this is division of the
cytoplasm and cell into two by
centrosome- constriction from the edges of the cell
will replicate
chromatids move to opposite poles, during interphase, cell surface membrane
before the next nuclear
centromeres first, pulled by the microtubules
division
Figure 5.6: Mitosis and cytokinesis in an animal cell.
 5 The mitotic cell cycle

a Prophase. b Stage intermediate between prophase and metaphase.

c Metaphase: the spindle fibres (microtubules) are d Early anaphase.

now clearly visible, and the centrosomes are located at
Opposite ends of the spindle in the centre of a star-shaped
arrangement of radiating microtubules.

e Anaphase. f Telophase and cell division (cytokinesis).

Figure 5.7: Stages of mitosis and cell division in an animal cell (whitefish) (x900). Chromosomes are stained darkly.

129
 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS &A LEVEL BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK

ot plant cells (x400

mitosis and cell division typical
Figure 5.8: Longitudinal section(LS) of onion root tip showing stages of
Try to identify the stages based on information given in Figure 5.7.

It is the behaviour of the chromosomes, though,

microtubules
that is of particular interest. Figure 5.7 (animal)
of mitosis as kinetochore kinetochore
and Figure 5.8 (plant) show photographs
seen with a light microscope.
centromere
Centrosomes, centrioles and
chromatid-
centromeres

Centrosomes are located at

the poles of the spindle, one
chromosome
at each pole. (The poles are the two ends of the spindle.
The spindle gets its name from the fact that it is similar
in shape to some spindles spinning Sleeping
used in -

microtubules
her finger on a spindle in the well-known shorten
Beauty pricked
the centrosome is an
fairy tale.) As noted in Chapter 1,
organellefound in animal cells that acts as a microtubule
organising centre (MTOC). Centrosomes are responsible
for making the spindle, which is made of microtubules.
The spindle is needed for separation of the chromatids.
Each centrosome consists of a pair of centrioles
surrounded by a large number of proteins. It is these Figure 5.9: Role of the centromere, kinetochores and
proteins that control production of the microtubules, not microtubules during mitosis
the centrioles. Plant mitosis occurs without centrosomes.

The centromere holds the chromatids together (see

Figures 5.2 and 5.3), but is also involved in the separation of
KEY WORD
chromatids during mitosis. During mitosis the centromere kinetochore: a protein structure found at the
is the site of attachment of
spindle microtubules. Each centromere of a chromatid to which microtubule
metaphase chromosome has two kinetochores at its attach
centromere, one on each chromatid during nuclear division
(Figure 5.9)
 5 The mitotic cell cycle

The kinetochores are made of protein molecules which

For a unicellular organism such as Amoeba, cell division
connect the centromere to the spindle microtubules.
inevitably results in reproduction. For multicellular
Bundles of microtubules called spindle fibres extend
organisms, new individuals may be produced which
from the kinetochores to the poles of the spindle during bud off from the parent in various ways (Figure 5.10).
mitosis. Construction of kinetochores begins before
Budding is particularly common in plants. It is most
nuclear division starts (during the S phase of the cell commonly a form of vegetative propagation in which a
cycle) and they are lost again afterwards.
bud on part of the stem simply grows a new plant. The
The microtubules attached to the kinetochore new plant eventually becomes detached from the parent
pull the
kinetochore towards the pole of the spindle. The rest and lives independently. The bud may be part of the stem
of the chromatid drags behind, giving the characteristic of an overwintering structure such as a bulb or tuber. The
> or<shape of chromatids during anaphase ability to generate whole organisms from single cells or
(Figures 5.6-5.8). The pulling action is achieved by small groups of cells is important in biotechnology and
shortening of the microtubules, both from the pole end genetic engineering, and it is the basis of cloning.
and from the kinetochore end.

Questioon
2 How can the microtubules be shortened?
(Refer
back to Chapter 1.)

Importance of mitosis
Growth of multicellular organisms
The two daughter cells formed after mitosis have the
same number of chromosomes as the parent cell and are
genetically identical (that is, they are clones). This allows
growth of multicellular organisms from unicell ular
zygotes. Growth may occur over the entire body, as
in animals, or be confined to certain
regions, as in the
meristems (growing points) of plants.

Replacement of damaged or dead cells

and repair of tissues by cell replacement
This is possible using mitosis followed by cell division.
Cells are constantly dying and
being replaced by identical
cells. In the human for
body, example, cell replacement is
particularly rapid in the skin and in the lining of the gut.
Some animals are able to regenerate whole parts of the
body; for example, starfish can regenerate new arms.

Asexual reproduction
Mitosis is the basis of asexual
reproduction, the
production of new individuals of a species by a single
parent organism. The offspring are genetically identical to
the parents. Asexual Figure 5.10: a Asexual reproduction by
reproduction can take many forms. (x60). Hydra lives in fresh water, budding in Hydra
the aid of its tentacles. The bud catching its prey with
KEY WORD growing from its side is
genetically identical to the parent and will eventually break
asexual reproduction: the production of new free and live
Individuals of a species by
independently. b Asexual reproduction in
Kalanchoe pinnata. The plant
a
single parent organism new individuals
produces genetically identical
along theedges of its leaves.
2 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS &ALEVEL BIOLOGY COURSEBOOK

chromatids
are present in tha
how many cell afier mitos
Immune response nucleus of each
daughter
mitonis n
The cloning of B- and T-lymphocytes during the cell division?
immune response is dependent on mitosis (Chapter 11, chromatids
are present in the
how many
after replication of DNA
Section 11.2, Cells of the immune system). nucleus ofa cell
diagram of a
cell which contaie
tains
5 Draw a simple
of chromosomes
Questions only one pair
of mitosis
at metaphase
3 Outline how mitosis allows asexual reproduction to a
mitosis.
of
at anaphase
take place.
functions of centromeres duringnucle
4 Human cells contain 46 chromosomes. In the State two
mitotic cell cycle of a human cel division.
adult mouse liver were prepard
a how many chromatids are present as the cell 7 Thin sections of the chromosome
stained to show up
enters mitosis? and the cells
75000 cells
examined,
9
were found
how many DNA molecules are present? In a sample of Calculate the
mitosis.
b
to be inthe process of
how many kinetochores are present? in days in m o u s e liver cellk
length of the cell cycle hour.
mitosis lasts one
assuming that

PRACTICAL ACTIVITY 5.1

Procedure
Investigating mitosis using a root tip squash broad bean and

known The tips of garlic, onion,

root
material. Bulbs or seeds
Growth in plants is confined
to regions sunflower provide suitable
convenient example to study
is
a pin over water for a
can be grown suspended by
meristems, A
as
This lies just behind the
meristem. two. The tips of the roots (about
the root tip
In this meristem there
is a zone period of a week or in a suitable stain
protective root cap. 1 cm) are removed and placed
small cells in the process acetic orcein. 1This stains
of cell division containing Such as warm, aciditied
of mitosis. chromosomes a deep purple. The stained root tip
on a glass
commercially prepared can be squashed into a sheet of cells
You may be able to study make such as the end ofthe
of root tips. You can also slide, using a blunt instrument
permanent slides handle ofa mounted needle.
slides. Cutting thin sections
your own temporary
but this is not needed if
of plant material is ticky, You should be able to see and draw
cells similarto
used. This involves staining
the squash technique is those shown in Figure 5.8 (but note that Figure 5.8
it. This spreads
the root tip, then gently squashing shows a longitudinal section of a root tip, not a
the cells out into a thin
sheet in which individual
squash). You could also use Figure
5.8 to make some
dividing cells can be clearly seen. annotated drawings of the different stages of mitoss

(SeePractical Investigation 5.1 in the Practical

Workbook for additional information)

this without
possible to understand the reason for
5.5 The role of telomeres a detailed knowledge of replication.) If part ol tne
DNA is not copied, that piece of information is lo
You have seen that DNA is replicated (copied) during sectio
the S phase of the cell cycle. The copying enzyme cannot
At each subsequent division, another small
information from the end of the DNA strand would
run to the end of a strand of DNA and complete the
lost. Eventually, the loss of vital genes would resune
replhcationit stops a little short of the end. (It is not
cell death.
 5 The mitotic cell cycle

The main function of telomeres is to ensure that the to telomeres is called telomerase. The main
adding bases
ends of the molecule are included in the replication function of telomeres is therefore to prevent the loss
and not left out when DNA is replicated. Telomeres of genes during cell division and to allow continued
are found at the ends of chromosomes (see Figure 5.11 replication of a cell.
and also Figure 5.4). They have been compared with
the plastic tips on the ends of shoe laces. Telomeres Some cells do not 'top up' their telomeres at each
are made of DNA with short base sequences that are division. These tend to be fully differentiated
repeated many times (multiple repeat sequences'). (specialised) cells. With each division, their telomeres get
a little shorter until the vital DNA is no longer protected
Telomeres work by making the DNA a bit longer. They and the cell dies. This could be one of the mechanisms
have no useful information, but allow the copying of ageing, by which humans grow old and die. This, of
enzyme to complete copying all the meaningful DNA. course, suggests that by somehow preventing the loss of
As long as extra bases are added to the telomere during telomeres scientists might be able to slow down or even
each cell cycle to replace those that are not copied, no
prevent the process of ageing (see 'Why grow old?" at the
vital information will be lost from the non-telomere beginning of the chapter).
DNA and the cell will be able to continue dividing
successfully. The enzyme that performs the role of

5.6 The role of stem cells

A stem cell is a cell that can divide an unlimited number
of times (by mitosis). When it divides, each new cell
has the potential to remain a stem cell or to develop
(differentiate) into a specialised cell such as a blood cell
or a muscle cell.
The power of a stem cell to produce different types of
cell is variable and is referred to as its potency. Stem
cells that can produce any type of cell are described as
totipotent. The zygote formed by the fusion of a sperm
with an egg at fertilisation is totipotent, as are all the
cells up to the 16-cell stage of development in humans.
After that, some cells become specialised to form the
placenta, while others lose this ability but can form all
the cells that will lead to the development of the embryo
and later the adult. These embryonic stem cells are
described as pluripotent.
As tissues, organs and systems develop, cells become
more and more specialised. There are more than
200 different types of cell in an adult human body.

KEY WORDS

telomere: repetitive sequence of DNA at the

end of a chromosome that protects genes from
the chromosome shortening that happens at
Figure 5.11: Coloured scanning electron micrographs of each cell division

human chromosomes showing the location of telomeres stem cell: a relatively unspecialised cell that
at the ends of the chromosomes. Chromatids and
retains the ability to divide an unlimited number
centromeres are also clearly visible. Telomeres contain
of times, and which has the potential to become a
short repeated sequences of DNA. As cells replicate and
specialised cell (such as a blood cell or muscle cell)
age, the telomeres gradually get shorter. Stem cells are an
exception.

133
 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS &A LEVEL BIOLOGY: COURSEB0OK

Cancers illustrate the importance

of controlling cet
Question division precisely,
because cancers
are a result of

Cancerous cells divide repeat

8 As a result of mitosis, all 200+ different types uncontrolled mitosis.
of which is an irregular mass of
cell contain the same set of genes as the zygote and forma tumour,
a tumour
in the lung of a patien
Genes control the activities of cells. What does this Figure 5.12 shows
compared to a healthy lung (fro
suggest about the mechanism by which cells become died of lung cancer
from some other cause). Worldudwide
different? a patient who died than any other cancer
people
lung c a n c e r kills more
show abnormal changes
in shane
Cancer cells usually 1ape
The more 'committed' cells become to particular roles,
the more they lose the ability to divide until, in the (Figure 5. 13).
changes occur
in the genes that
adult, most cells do not divide. However, for growth and Cancers start when is called
A change in any gene
repair it is essential that small populations of stem cells control cell division.
mutated gene that causes
remain which can produce new cells. Adult stem cells a mutation.
The term for a
word 'onkos
with from the Greek
have already lost some of the potency associated cancer is an oncogene,
Mutations causing cancercan
embryonic stem cells and are no longer pluripotent. bulk or mass.
meaning that cause
mutations
c a n c e r

of cell and inherited but most of the

They are only able to produce a few types c o u r s e of the
lifetime of an individual
For example, the the
may be described as multipotent.
o c c u r over
unusual events,
and most of the
are of this type. They Mutations are not
stem cells found in bone marrow cancer. Most mutated cells are
of times, but can produce time do not lead to
they
can replicate any number
that results in their early death
red blood cells, monocytes, affected in some way
only blood cells, such as Mature blood cells have by
destruction the body's immune system
their
neutrophils and lymphocytes. of these stem
or
so mutation usually hasno
so the existence Most cells can be replaced,
a relatively short lifespan, Unfortunately, cancer cells
around 250 billion red harmful effect on the body.
cells is essential. For example, are lost and both cell death and destruction so,
billion white blood cells manage to escape
blood cells and 20 originally occur in onlyone
be replaced each day. although the mutation may
must
on to all that
cell's descendants. By the
the body -

cell, it is passed
cells are found throughout tumour usually contains
In the adult, stem heart and time it is detected, a typical
bone marrow, skin, gut, such as asbestos
for example, in the some about a billion cancer cells. Any agent,
into stem cells has opened up and is descnbed
that causes cancer is called carcinogen
a
brain. Research
cell therapy is the
applications. Stem
exciting medical tissue as carcinogenic.
adult stem cells into damaged
introduction of new
Bone m a r r o w transplantation need to know about different
disease or injury. Although you do not
to treat
that has progressed beyond be interested to know that
is example of this therapy
an It
types of tumour, you may tumours do not
into routine medical practice. are c a n c e r o u s . Some
stage not all tumours
the experimental known as
diseases, and these are
blood and bone m a r r o w spread from their site of origin
-

is used to treat leukaenmia. In the future, it

is
cancers such as
blood
such as diabetes,
treat conditions
to be able to KEY WORDS
hoped and brain disorders such as
muscle and nerve damage, from
diseases. Experiments diseases that result
Parkinson's and Huntington's cancers: group of
a
mechanisms
or even organs, from isolated a breakdown in the
usual control
with growing new tissues,
in the laboratory have also been conducted. certain cells divide
stem cells that regulate cell division;
which
uncontrollably and form tumours, from
cells may break away and form secondary
(metastasis
tumours in other areas of the body
5.7 Cancers in the base
one in
mutation: a random change
In high-income countries, cancers cause roughly of DNA (a gene
sequence (structure)
four deaths. Globally, cancers account for about one
o
and/or number
mutation), or in the structure
in six deaths (9.6 million people in 2018). This makes chromosome mutation)
chromosomes (a
cancers second only to cardiovascular disease as a cause
of death. There are more than 200 different forms of environmental tacto
carcinogen: a substance or
cancer, and the medical profession no longer thinks of that can cause cancer

cancers as a single disease.