Basic Electrical Engineering (Code: EE1000)

Basic Electrical Engineering (Code: EE1000) April 8, 2021
1 Basic Circuit Elements

Three basic circuit elements in an electrical circuit are (a) Resistor (R), (b) Inductor (L) and (c)
Capacitor (C). Their basic characteristics can be explained as follows.
1. Resistor
Fig. 1 shows a resistor of value R (Ω) carrying current iR (A) and voltage across it is
vR (V),
From Ohm’s law - vR = iR × R
For ideal resistor, R is constant for any current and voltage values. Moreover, its value
doesn’t change with operating conditions,
Therefore, the voltage-current relation for an ideal resistor is linear as shown in Fig. 2
(a), where slope tan θ = R,
In real world, such ideal resistors are not common and it’s value value changes with
temperature and other factors,
If resistor value R increases with temperature such that R = f (to C), then the voltage
current relation is no longer liner and as shown in Fig. 2 (b). Therefore, the slope
tan θ = f (to C) is not constant,
Fig. 3 (a) shows a practical resistor called Rheostat available in our lab and its
terminals. It has two fixed terminal and a variable terminal so that we can use it
as a fixed resistor or variable resistor,
Generally, rheostats are made by winding high resistive material like Nichrome wire
(Fig. 3 (b)) of specific current rating (which defines the current rating of the rheostat)
around an insulating ceramic core,
Practical resistors may show up the effect of its inherent inductance during transients
or for high frequency currents.
Figure 1: Resistor symbol.
2. Inductor
Fig. 4 shows an inductor of value L (H) carrying current iL (A) and voltage across it
is vL (V), where
vL = LdiL /dt (1)
Please go on to the next page. . .

EE-1000 Basic Electrical Engineering Page 2 of 43
Figure 2: Voltage current relation for (a) an ideal resistor, (b) real resistor.
(a) (b)
Figure 3: (a) Practical rheostat, its terminal and connection in a circuit, (b) Nichrome wire.
Figure 4: Inductor symbol.
For ideal inductor, the inductance value L is constant for any current and voltage values.
Moreover, its value doesn’t change with operating conditions,

The different types of inductors are shown in Fig. 5,
Figure 5: Different types of inductors.
Inductors are of three types - Iron core, air-core, iron core with air-gap, and then power
frequency inductors and high frequency inductors. The size of high frequency inductors
are much less compared to low frequency power frequency inductors,
Figure 6: Iron-core and air-core inductors.

Iron-core inductors poses non linearity due to non-linear nature of flux-current characteristics
as shown in Fig. 7,
Figure 7: Iron-core and air-core inductors.
Therefore, till point A the relation between flux and current is fairly linear, however
after point A, the flux stars saturating and the linear relation between flux and current
no longer remains valid,
For linear operating range - φ ∝ iL or φ = kiL where k is constant or slope of the
characteristics, however, in non-linear operating range k or the slope is not constant.
Therefore, for k = constant
vL = dψ/dt = N dφ/dt = N kdiL /dt
and for k not constant,
vL = dψ/dt = N dφ/dt = (N kdiL /dt + N iL dk/dt)
where ψ = N φ is flux-linkage and N is the number of turns, φ is flux,

Non-linearity also appear due to hysteresis and eddy current losses.
Inductors are made up of conducting material (mainly copper) on an insulating
material to make air-core inductor, on iron core to make iron-core inductor,
For same physical dimensions and for same current rating, inductance of iron core
inductor is much more than air-core inductor,
Difference Between Inductor and Resistor
Resistors are made using high resistive material like Nichrome or Tungsten etc,
Inductors are made using conductors like Copper, Aluminum,
Resistors have no core,
Inductors are mainly of iron core type i.e have iron core.
Resistors have have significantly low value of inductance, whereas inductors have significantly
low value of resistance.

(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 8: (a) insulated copper conductor or wire, (b) laminated iron sheet, (c) CRGO material.
3. Capacitor
Fig. 8 shows a capacitor of value C (F ) carrying current iC (A) and voltage across it is
vC (V), where
R
vc = ic dt/C (2)
where, C = A/d
For ideal capacitor, C is constant for any current and voltage values. Moreover, its value
doesn’t change with operating conditions,

Figure 9: Capacitor symbol.
However, real capacitor value changes with

– Temperature,
– Frequency,
– Humidity,
– Voltage,
The capacitance value changes mainly due to change in dielectric constant ,
The different types of capacitors are shown in Fig. 10,
Four different types of capacitors are Tantalum, Ceramic, Aluminum, Thin film.
Figure 10: Different types of capacitors.

2 Independent Sources
Independent sources are presented in Fig. 11.
Figure 11: Independent ac, dc voltage current sources.
2.1 Voltage Source

The symbol for voltage source is shown in Fig. 12, where Vo is the output terminal voltage,
Es is the internal voltage, Io is the output current and ri is the internal resistance,
The terminal voltage Vo of an ideal voltage source remains constant for any load connected
across it or for any current Io ,
An ideal voltage source has zero internal resistance ri ,
For real voltage source, ri 6= 0 and hence the terminal voltage vary with Io as explained
below.
Vo = Es − Io × ri (3)
Therefor, when ri is zero for ideal voltage source, Es = Vo . For real voltage source, Es = Vo
only when Io is zero. The variation of terminal voltage Vo with Io for a real voltage source is
shown in Fig. 13.

Figure 12: DC voltage source.
Figure 13: Real voltage source voltage current characteristics.
The different types of dc voltage sources are shown in Fig. 14,
2.2 Current Source

The symbol for current source is shown in Fig. 15, where Vo is the output terminal voltage,
Is is the internal source current, Io is the output current and ri is the internal resistance,
The output current Io of an ideal current source remains constant for any load connected
across it,
An ideal voltage source has infinite internal resistance ri ,
For real current source, ri 6= ∞ and hence Io vary with Vo as explained below.
Io = Is − Ii
Io = Is − Vo /ri
Io = Is − (RLoad × Io )/ri

Figure 14: Different types of dc voltage sources.
Figure 15: DC current source.
Is
Io =
(1 + RLoad /ri )
Therefor, when ri is ∞ for ideal voltage source, Is = Io for any RLoad . For real voltage
source, Is = Io only when RLoad is zero. The variation of Io with RLoad for a real current
source is PLOT IT ON YOURSELF.
The different types of dc current sources are shown in Fig. 15,
3 Dependent Voltage and Current Sources

There are four types of dependent sources.
1. Voltage Dependent Voltage Source (Fig. 17 (a)) - Its a dependent voltage source which
offers a specific potential difference between two nodes in a circuit and the magnitude of the

Figure 16: Different types of dc current sources.
potential difference dependents on the potential difference between any two specific nodes in
the same circuit.
2. Voltage Dependent Current Source (Fig. 17 (b)) - Its a dependent current source
which supplies a specific current to the branch in a circuit and the magnitude of the current
dependents on the potential difference between any two specific nodes in the same circuit.
3. Current Dependent Voltage Source (Fig. 17 (c)) - Its a dependent voltage source which
offers a specific potential difference between two nodes in a circuit and the magnitude of the
potential difference dependents on the current flowing a specific branch in the same circuit.
4. Current Dependent Current Source (Fig. 17 (d)) - Its a dependent current source
which supplies a specific current to the branch in a circuit and the magnitude of the current
dependents on the current flowing a specific branch in the same circuit.
3.1 Problems
1. In the circuit shown in Fig. 18, find V, i. [4 V, 1 A]
2. In the circuit shown in Fig. 19, find i. [2 A]

Figure 17: Dependent sources: (a) Voltage Dependent Voltage Source, (b) Voltage Dependent
Current Source, (c) Current Dependent Voltage Source, (d) Current Dependent Current Source.
Figure 18: Q1.
Figure 19: Q2.
3. In the circuit shown in Fig. 20, find i. [0.192 A]
4. In the circuit shown in Fig. 21, find the potential differences between points C, E (VCE ) and
A, G (VAG ). [8.5 V, 30.5 V]
5. Circuits with dependent voltage and current sources. Determine
(a) the currents i1 and i2 in the circuit shown in Fig. 22 (a),

(b) the voltage v in the circuit shown in Fig. 22 (b),
(c) the voltage v in the circuit shown in Fig. 22 (c),

Figure 20: Q3.
A B E F
5Ω 2Ω
5Ω
12 V 7Ω 4Ω 20 V
20 V
D C H G
12 Ω 4Ω
Figure 21: Q4.
(d) i1 and i2 in the circuit shown in Fig. 22 (d).
[(a) 3.59 A, 4.47 A, (b) 3 V, (c) 3.73 V, (d) 6 A, 1 A]
i1 11 Ω i2 3Ω
v -
+
2Ω
4A 5Ω 3Ω 5A 2Ω 3v 23 V
+
6i1
-
(a) Current dependent voltage source. (b) Voltage dependent current source.
-
+
2Ω i1 i2
5v
-
+
v
4Ω
24 V 3Ω 10 A 1Ω 3i2 6Ω
2Ω
(c) Voltage dependent voltage source. (d) Current dependent current source.
Figure 22: Q5.

6. Find Vab in the circuit shown in Fig. 23.
10 V
a
1Ω +
i1 5i1 -
+ V1
+
20 V V1 10 A Vab
- 10 V
-b
Figure 23: Q6.
Sol: i1 = 10 A, V1 = (5i1 -i1 ) - 20 = 60 V. Vab ⇒ Va - 10 + V1 - 10 = Vb .
7. Find the voltage V in the circuit shown in Fig. 24 . [12 V]
6Ω 2Ω
20 V
+
30 V 5A V 3Ω V/3 +
-
-
Figure 24: Q7.
3.2 Active and Passive Elements

Electrical circuit elements are of two types
1. Active elements,
2. passive elements,
An Active Element has the ability to supply to the electrical circuit and hence can control the
flow of charge in the circuit. Therefore, it has the capability to either supply or consume energy
from the circuit. Active elements need external power sources to operate. Example of active
elements are
1. Voltage sources,
2. Current sources,
3. Generators,
4. Transistors,

5. OP-Amps,
6. Many more.
A Passive Element is a circuit element which can only absorbs energy from the circuit, which
it can either dissipate, absorb or store it in electric field or a magnetic field. Unlike active
elements, passive elements do not requre any external power source. Common examples of passive
components are
1. Resistor,
2. Inductor,
3. Capacitor,
3.3 Bilateral and Unilateral Networks

Bilateral Network: A circuit whose characteristics, behavior are the same irrespective of the
direction of current through various elements of it, is called Bilateral Network. A circuit
consisting of only resistances, capacitors and inductors is a good example.
Unilateral Network: A circuit whose operation, the behavior is dependent on the direction of
the current through various elements is called a Unilateral Network. Circuit consisting diodes,
which allows the flow of current only in one direction is a good example of a unilateral circuit.
3.4 Linear and Non-linear Networks

Linear Network: A circuit or network whose parameters i.e., elements like capacitance, resistance,
and inductance are always constant irrespective of the operating conditions are known as Linear
Network:. Ohm’s law can be applied to such networks.
Non-linear Network: A circuit whose parameter values or the values of circuit elements
change with operating conditions is known as Non-linear Network. Ohm’s law may not be
applied to such a network. Such a network does not follow the law of superposition. The
response of the various elements is not linear with respect to their excitation.
4 Nodal Analysis
4.1 Steps To Be Followed
Nodal Analysis is a circuit analyzing technique, which follows the procedure of analyzing a
circuits using node voltages as circuit variables and Kirchhoff’s current law. A Node is the point
of connection between two or more circuit elements. The steps to be followed for solving circuits
using Nodal Analysis are as follows.
Step 1 - Identify the Nodes,
Step 2 - Select a Reference Node, reference node voltage could be anything but for
convenient mark reference node as at zero potential ,
Step 3 - Label the node voltages as V1 , V2 ...,
Step 4 - Write down the KCL equations for each nodes other than the reference nodes,

For N nodes, there will (N-1) simultaneous equations,
If a voltage source is connected between the reference node and a node, then the node voltage
of that particular node will be same as the value of the voltage source,
If a voltage source is connected between two nodes, then if we define one node voltage other
node voltage can be defined by the other node voltage and the voltage source value. These
two nodes together is called SUPERNODE .
1. Example: 1
Figure 25: Example 1 of Nodal Analysis.
For Node1
i1 = i2 + i3
i1 = 1 A
(V1 − 0) (V1 − V2 )
1= +
12 6
3V1 − 2V2 = 12
For Node 2
i3 = i4 + i5
i4 = 4 A
(V1 − V2 ) V2
=4+
6 6
V1 − 2V2 = 24

V1 = −6 V and V2 = −15 V .
2. Example: 2
For Node1
V1 = 6 V
For Node2
i1 = i2 + i3
(V1 − V2 ) V2 (V2 − V3 )
= +
6 3 6
For Node3
V3 = 3 V
V2 = 9/4 V .
3. Example: 3
For Node1
i1 = i2 + i3
i1 = 2A
Vx
i3 =
6
Vx Vx
2= +
3 6
Vx = 4 V

For Node2
i3 = i4 + i5
Vx Vo Vo
= +
6 12 6
2Vx = 3Vo
For Node3 Vx = 4 V , Vo = 8/3 V .
4. Example: 4 SUPERNODE

For Node1
V1 = 10 V
For Node2
i1 = i2 + i
(V1 − V2 ) (V2 − 0)
= +i
2 8
For Node3
i = i3 + i4
(V3 − V1 ) (V3 − 0)
i= +
4 6
Using SUPERNODE Concept - Nodes 3 and 4 can be merged together to form a

supernode and node 3 voltage V3 can be defined as
V3 = (V2 − 5)
Therefore, combining nodes 2 and 3, the KCL can be directly written as (without defining
any current in branch 23 )
(i1 − i2 ) = (i3 + i4 )
(V1 − V2 ) (V2 − 0) (V3 − V1 ) (V3 − 0)

− = +
2 8 4 6
V1 = 10 V
By solving above three equations, V1 = 10 V , V2 = 75/8 V and V3 = 35/8V .
Solve problems presented in Fig. 18 to Fig. 24 using Nodal Analysis.
5 Mesh Analysis
In Mesh analysis, we need to consider the currents flowing through each mesh.The advantage of
Mesh analysis is, it generally allows for the solution of a large network with fewer unknown values
and fewer simultaneous equations.

5.1 Steps To Be Followed

Step 1 - Identify the meshes and label the mesh currents in either clockwise or anti-clockwise
direction,
Step 2 - Mark the amount of current that flows through each element in terms of mesh
currents,
Step 3 - Write mesh equations to all meshes,
Step 4 - Solve the mesh equations obtained in Step 3 in order to get the mesh currents.
1. Example (Fig. 29):
Figure 29: Example 1 of Mesh Analysis.
For loop 1
R1 × (I1 − I3 ) + R3 × (I1 + I2 ) + R2 × I1 = 0
150 × (I1 − I3 ) + 100 × (I1 + I2 ) + 50 × I1 = 0
300I1 + 100I2 − 150I3 = 0 (4)
For loop 2
R3 × (I1 + I2 ) + R4 × (I2 + I3 ) + R5 × I2 = 0
100 × (I1 + I2 ) + 300 × (I2 + I3 ) + 250 × I2 = 0
100I1 + 650I2 + 300I3 = 0 (5)

For loop 3
24 + R4 × (I2 + I3 ) + R1 × (I3 − I1 ) = 0
24 + 300 × (I2 + I3 ) + 150 × (I3 − I1 ) = 0
150I1 − 300I2 − 450I3 = 24 (6)
For Mesh 1
−12 + 2 × I1 + 4 × (I1 − I2 ) = 0
For Mesh 2
4 × (I2 − I1 ) + 2Vx = 0
4 × (I2 − I1 ) + 2 × 2I1 = 0
I1 = 2 A, I2 = 0 A
Figure 31: Example 3 of Mesh Analysis (SUPERMESH).
For Mesh 1
I1 = 2 A

For Mesh 2 and Mesh 4 - SUPERMESH
6 × (I2 − I1 ) + 12 × I4 + 6 × (I2 − I3 ) = 0
−6I1 + 12I2 − 6I3 + 12I4 = 0
For Mesh 3
I3 = −3 A
Auxiliary
(I4 − I2 ) = 4 A
I1 = 2 A, I2 = −2.25 A, I3 = −3 A, I4 = 1.75 A
4. Example (Fig. 32): I1 = −8.69 A, I2 = −14.9 A, I3 = −13.2 A
5. Example (Fig. 33): I1 = 4 A
6. Example (Fig. 34): I1 = 2.36 A, I2 = 1.44 A, I3 = 1.24 A
7. Example (Fig. 35): I1 = 2.82 A, I2 = 1.41 A, I3 = 0.94 A

5.2 Problem Set - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

Solve the below problems using Nodal as well as mesh analysis techniques and verify the results.
1. Find the voltage across 30 Ω resistor in Fig. 36.
Figure 36: Problem 1.
2. Find the voltage across 500 Ω and 400 Ω resistors in Fig. 37.
3. Find the voltages Va and Vb in Fig. 38.
4. Find the mesh currents i1 , i2 and i3 in Fig. 39.
5. Find the mesh currents i and Vx in Fig. 40.


6. Find the node voltage Vo and the current through 50 Ω resistor in Fig. 41.
7. Find the voltage across 30 Ω resistor and the current through 80 Ω resistor in Fig. 42.
8. Find the voltage V and the current through 10 Ω resistor in Fig. 43.
9. Find the voltage across 1 Ω resistor and the current iy in Fig. 44.
10. Find the voltages Vo , Vx and the current through R2 resistor in Fig. 45. I1 = 2 A, I2 =
2 A, E1 = 2Vx , E2 = 4 V, R1 = 1 Ω, R2 = 2 Ω, R3 = 3 Ω, R4 = 4 Ω.

11. Find the voltage Vx and the current Ix in Fig. 46.
12. Find the voltages V1 , V2 and V3 and the current I∆ in Fig. 47.
13. Find the voltages Vc , Vy and the current Ix in Fig. 48.
14. Find the voltage V and the current i in Fig. 49.
15. Problem with two SUPERNODES Find the voltages V1 , V2 , V3 and the current i in Fig.
50.

6 Superposition Theorem
In a linear network with one or more sources, the flow of current through a branch in the circuit
is the algebraic sum of the currents when the sources are acting independently. The steps to be
followed for solving circuits using Superposition theorem are as follows.
Step 1 - Identify the Independent Voltage and Current sources in the circuit,
Step 2 - Calculate the response in a specific branch of the same circuit by keeping one
independent active and deactivating rest of the independent power sources like, Current
sources open circuit and voltage source short circuit,
Step 3 - Repeat the above step for all the voltage and current sources there in the circuit.
Step 4 - Include all the reactions in order to obtain the total response when all the supplies
are there in the network.


1. Example (Fig. 51): Using superposition theorem current Ix = Ix1 + Ix2 , where Ix1 is the
current from 5 V source when only 5 V source is active and -3 A current source is deactivated,
whereas Ix2 is the current from 5 V source when only -3 A current source is active and 5 V
source is deactivated.
Figure 51: Example 1 of Superposition theorem.
For Ix1 - Deactivating -3 A Current Source and keeping 5 V Voltage Source

Since, in the circuit shown in Fig. 52, (2+4) Ω is in parallel with (3+1) Ω, hence
Figure 52: Example 1 - Deactivating -3 A Current Source and keeping 5 V Voltage Source.
5
Ix1 = = 25/12 A
6||4
For Ix2 - Deactivating 5 V Voltage Source and Keeping -3 A Current Source

Since, in the circuit shown in Fig. 53, 2 Ω and 4 Ω are in parallel, and similarly 3 Ω

Figure 53: Example 1 - Deactivating 5 V Voltage Source and Keeping -3 A Current Source.
and 1 Ω are in parallel, hence according to current divider rule
2
I1 = −3 × = −1 A
(2 + 4)
4
I2 = −3 × = −2 A
(2 + 4)
3
I3 = −3 × = −9/4 A
(1 + 3)
1
I4 = −3 × = −3/4 A
(1 + 3)
Applying KCL at node b, we get
I2 = Ix2 + I4
Ix2 = −2 − (−3/4) = −5/4 A
Therefore, according to Superposition theorem, Ix = Ix1 + Ix2 = 25/12 + (−5/4) =

10/12 A.
2. Example 2 (Fig. 54): Using superposition theorem, find currents i1 and i2 .
For i11 and i12 - Deactivating 1.5 A Current Source and keeping 12 V Voltage
Source Since, in the circuit shown in Fig. 55, all resistances are in series, hence
12
i11 = i12 = = 2/3 A
9+3+6

Figure 55: Example 2 - Deactivating 1.5 A Current Source and keeping 12 V Voltage Source.
Figure 56: Example 2 - Deactivating 12 V Voltage Source and keeping 1.5 A Current Source.
For i21 and i22 - Deactivating 12 V Voltage Source and keeping 1.5 A Current
Source. Since, in the circuit shown in Fig. 56, the resistances 9 Ω and (3 + 6)Ω are in
parallel, hence according to current divider rule
i21 = i22 = 1.5/2 A
Therefore, according to Superposition theorem, i1 = i11 + i21 = 2/3 + 1.5/2 = 17/12 A.
3. Example 3 (Fig. 57): Using superposition theorem, find current i.
For i1 - Deactivating 7 A Current Source and keeping 24 V Voltage Source

Applying KVL to the circuit shown in Fig. 58,
Figure 58: Example 3 - Deactivating 7 A Current Source and keeping 24 V Voltage Source.
−24 + 3i1 + 2i1 + 3i1 = 0
i1 = 3 A
For i2 - Deactivating 24 V Voltage Source and keeping 7 A Current Source.

By applying KVL in the circuit shown in Fig. 59,
Figure 59: Example 2 - Deactivating 12 V Voltage Source and keeping 1.5 A Current Source.
3i2 + 2(7 + i2 ) + 3i2 = 0
i2 = −7/4 A
Therefore, according to Superposition theorem, i = i1 + i2 = 3 − 7/4 = 5/4 A.

7 Thevenin’s Theorem
Consider a network consisting of dc independent sources (current/voltage sources), dependent
sources (linear), and resistors. Thevenin’s theorem defines a network in terms of a single voltage
source VT h and a single resistor RT h .
To determine VT h for a network, we simply find the open-circuit voltage Voc across AB, i.e.,
the voltage VA − VB when nothing is connected on the right side in Fig. 64 (a); then, we have VT h
= Voc .

To find RT h , deactivating the independent sources in the given network in its Thevenin equivalent
circuit (see Fig. 64 (a)), leaving only RT h . Therefore, RT h is simply the resistance seen from AB
in the original network (Fig. 64 (a)) with all independent sources deactivated. Note that, the
dependent sources are to be left untouched, i.e., they should not be deactivated.
Another method of finding RT h is obtain the open-circuit voltage Voc which is equal to VT h
and the short-circuit current Isc obtained by shorting the terminal AB. Then, RT h = VT h /Isc .
This method mainly used for networks having dependent sources and it’s not possible
to find RT h just by inspection.
Figure 64: (a) An electrical network, (b) Thevenin equivalent circuit as seen from AB.
Example 1 (Fig. 65): Using Thevenin’s theorem, find Vo .
Figure 65: Example 1 Thevenin’s theorem.
– For VT h - remove 4 Ω resistor from the circuit and calculate Voc or VT h

Applying KVL to the circuit shown in Fig. 66,
Figure 66: Example 1 calculating VT h .

−9 + 3i + 6i = 0
i=1A
Voc = VT h = 2 × 0 + 6 × i = 6 V
– For RT h - Remove all the independent sources as shown in Fig. 67. Therefore,
Figure 67: Example 1 calculating RT h .
Req = RT h can be calculated as 3 Ω||6 Ω, series with 2 Ω. Therefore,

RT h = 4 Ω
Alternate Method for RT h The Req seen by the 9 V source is 2 Ω parallel with 6 Ω
Figure 68: Example 1 calculating ISC .
in series with 3 Ω. Therefore,

Req = 9/2 Ω
Current supplied by 9 V source
9
I= A=2A
9/2
According to current divider rule, the current ISC is obtained as
6
ISC = × 2 A = 1.5 A
(2 + 6)
Therefore, RT h is,
VT h 6
= =4Ω
ISC 1.5

Example 2 (Fig. 69): Find it’s Thevenin equivalent circuit.

8 Norton’s Theorem
Consider a network consisting of independent sources (current/voltage sources), dependent sources
(linear), and resistors. Norton’s theorem defines a network in terms of a single voltage source IN
and a single resistor RN .
To determine IN for a network, we simply find the short-circuit current ISC when AB is short
circuited, then we have ISC = IN .
To find RN , deactivating the independent sources in the given network in its Norton equivalent
circuit (see Fig. 76 (a)), leaving only RN . Therefore, RN is simply the resistance seen from AB
in the original network (Fig. 76 (a)) with all independent sources deactivated. Note that, the
dependent sources are to be left untouched, i.e., they should not be deactivated.
Another method of finding RN is obtain the open-circuit voltage VOC and the short-circuit

current ISC obtained by shorting the terminal AB. Then, RN = VOC /ISC . This method mainly
used for networks having dependent sources and it’s not possible to find RN just by
inspection.
(a) (b)
Figure 76: (a) An electrical network, (b) Norton’s equivalent circuit as seen from AB.
Figure 77: Thevenin-Norton equivalent.

(a)
(b)
Figure 78: Voltage source to current source transformation and vice versa.
8.1 Source Transformation

Source transformation can be proved as follows. Let a load resistance R is connected between the
terminals AB. For the voltage source network, the current flowing through the load resistance R
can be obtained as
Vs Vs Rs Rs
i= = × = Is ×
(Rs + R) Rs (Rs + R) (Rs + R)
where, Is = Vs /Rs . Therefore, the voltage source Vs can be transformed into current source as
shown where the current source value IS will be given by Is = Vs /Rs . In the second circuit, the
current flowing through load resistance R can be obtained using current divider rule and can be
given by
Rs
i = Is ×
(Rs + R)
Therefore, it proves that both the circuits are equivalent w.r.t the load resistance R. Source
transformation is applicable for both dependent as well as independent sources.
8.2 Examples
1. Find current i in the circuit shown in Fig. 79 using source transformation technique.
2. Find Thevenin’s equivalent of the network shown in Fig. 80 using source transformation
technique.

Figure 79: Example 1 of source transformation.
Figure 80: Example 2 of source transformation.
9 Star-Delta and Delta Star-Transformations

A resistive network consisting of three resistances can be connected together to form a T configuration
which can also be redrawn as Star or Y type network as shown below.
Figure 81: T-connected and Equivalent Star Network.
Similarly, a Pi or π type resistor network can also be presented as equivalent Delta or ∆ type
network as shown below.
Now, after defining what is a Star and a Delta connected network, it is possible to transform
the star into an equivalent delta network and the vice versa using a transformation process. This
process allows us to produce a mathematical relationship between the various resistors giving us a
Star Delta as well as a Delta Star Transformation.

Figure 82: Pi-connected and Equivalent Delta Network.
9.1 Delta Star Transformation
Figure 83: Delta to Star Network.
Compare the resistances between terminals 1 and 2.
(RP + RQ ) = RA ||(RB + RC )
[RA × (RB + RC )]
(RP + RQ ) =
(RA + RB + RC )
similarly,
[RB × (RB + RC )]
(RQ + RR ) =
(RA + RB + RC )
And,
[RC × (RB + RC )]
(RQ + RP ) =
(RA + RB + RC )
We have three unknowns RP , RQ , RR and we got three equations. Therefore, RP , RQ , RR can

be obtained as
RA RB
RP =
(RA + RB + RC )

RA RC
RQ =
(RA + RB + RC )
RB RC
RR =
(RA + RB + RC )
9.2 Star Delta Transformation
Figure 84: Star to Delta Network.
By following the same procedure, we can get RA , RB , RC values as

P
RP RQ
RA =
RR
P
RP RQ
RB =
RQ
P
RP RQ
RC =
RP
9.3 Examples
1. Using delta/star transformation, find equivalent resistance across AC. [18.4 Ω]
2. Calculate equivalent resistance across terminals A and B. [10 Ω]
3. Obtain the equivalent resistance Rab for the circuit and use it to find current i. [12.5 A]
4. Determine the resistance between the terminals A and B of the network.
10 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Maximum power transfer theorem states that the DC voltage source will deliver maximum power to
the variable load resistor only when the load resistance is equal to the source resistance. Therefore,
when a two terminal network represented in the form of Thevenin equivalent network, then load
resistance needs to be equal to RT h .

Figure 85: Example 1 Star-Delta transformation.
(a) (b)
Figure 87: Example 3 Star-Delta transformation (a) circuit, (b) hint.
10.1 Proof
The current I in the circuit shown in Fig. 89,
VT h
I=
(RT h + RL )

Figure 89: Maximum power transfer theorem.
Therefore, power consumed by the load resistance RL is given by

VT h 2 VT2h
PRL = RL =
RT h + RL (RT2 h /RL + 2RT h + RL )
By assuming X = (RT2 h /RL +2RT h +RL ), PRL will be maximum, when X is minimum. Differentiating
X w.r.t RL we get
dX
= (−RT2 h /RL
2
+ 0 + 1) = 0
dRL
Therefore, the max/min condition is when RL = RT h . Differentiating X again w.r.t RL we get
d2 X 2 3
dRL2 = 2RT h /RL > 0
Therefore, the condition RL = RT h will give minimum X and hence maximum PRL .
End

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Basic Electrical Engineering (Code: EE1000) April 8, 2021

1 Basic Circuit Elements

Figure 1: Resistor symbol.

vL = LdiL /dt (1)

Please go on to the next page. . .

Figure 4: Inductor symbol.

Please go on to the next page. . .

 The different types of inductors are shown in Fig. 5,

Figure 5: Different types of inductors.

Figure 6: Iron-core and air-core inductors.

Please go on to the next page. . .

Figure 7: Iron-core and air-core inductors.

vL = dψ/dt = N dφ/dt = N kdiL /dt

and for k not constant,

vL = dψ/dt = N dφ/dt = (N kdiL /dt + N iL dk/dt)

where ψ = N φ is flux-linkage and N is the number of turns, φ is flux,

Difference Between Inductor and Resistor

Please go on to the next page. . .

Please go on to the next page. . .

Figure 9: Capacitor symbol.

 However, real capacitor value changes with

Figure 10: Different types of capacitors.

Please go on to the next page. . .

Figure 11: Independent ac, dc voltage current sources.

2.1 Voltage Source

Please go on to the next page. . .

Figure 12: DC voltage source.

Figure 13: Real voltage source voltage current characteristics.

 The different types of dc voltage sources are shown in Fig. 14,

2.2 Current Source

 An ideal voltage source has infinite internal resistance ri ,

Please go on to the next page. . .

Figure 14: Different types of dc voltage sources.

Figure 15: DC current source.

3 Dependent Voltage and Current Sources

Please go on to the next page. . .

Figure 16: Different types of dc current sources.

2. In the circuit shown in Fig. 19, find i. [2 A]

Please go on to the next page. . .

Figure 18: Q1.

Figure 19: Q2.

3. In the circuit shown in Fig. 20, find i. [0.192 A]

5. Circuits with dependent voltage and current sources. Determine

(a) the currents i1 and i2 in the circuit shown in Fig. 22 (a),

Please go on to the next page. . .

Figure 20: Q3.

Figure 21: Q4.

(d) i1 and i2 in the circuit shown in Fig. 22 (d).

[(a) 3.59 A, 4.47 A, (b) 3 V, (c) 3.73 V, (d) 6 A, 1 A]

Figure 22: Q5.

Please go on to the next page. . .

6. Find Vab in the circuit shown in Fig. 23.

Figure 23: Q6.

Sol: i1 = 10 A, V1 = (5i1 -i1 ) - 20 = 60 V. Vab ⇒ Va - 10 + V1 - 10 = Vb .

7. Find the voltage V in the circuit shown in Fig. 24 . [12 V]

Figure 24: Q7.

3.2 Active and Passive Elements

Please go on to the next page. . .

3.3 Bilateral and Unilateral Networks

The different types of inductors are shown in Fig. 5,

However, real capacitor value changes with

The different types of dc voltage sources are shown in Fig. 14,

An ideal voltage source has infinite internal resistance ri ,

Step 1 - Identify the Nodes,

Step 3 - Label the node voltages as V1 , V2 ...,

For N nodes, there will (N-1) simultaneous equations,

For Node3 Vx = 4 V , Vo = 8/3 V .

Step 3 - Write mesh equations to all meshes,

For Mesh 2 and Mesh 4 - SUPERMESH