Compressors

Compressor characteristics

Compressor characteristic is the curve to show the behavior of

fluid like change in pressure, temperature, entropy, flow rate
etc. as it passes through the compressor at different compressor
speeds.
Some phenomena of compressor
Surge process
Surge cycle.
Surge point
Surge line
Surge control line
Surge margin
Choke/Stone wall point
Choke line
Constant efficiency lines
Maximum allowable speed
Minimum required speed
.

.
Effects of surge in centrifugal compressor
Occurrence of surge in centrifugal compressor:
The point at which the compressor cannot add enough energy to overcome the system
resistance or backpressure is surge.

Damages in centrifugal compressor due to surge:

 This causes a rapid flow reversal (i.e. surge).
 As a result, high vibration, temperature increases, and rapid changes in
axial thrust can occur.
 These occurrences can damage the rotor seals, rotor bearings, the compressor driver
and cycle operation.
 Most turbomachines are designed to easily withstand occasional surging. However, if
the machine is forced to surge repeatedly for a long period of time, or if it is
poorly designed, repeated surges can result in a catastrophic failure.

 Of particular interest, is that while turbomachines may be very durable, the

cycles/processes that they are used within can be far less robust.
In the plot of pressure-flow rate the line separating graph between
two regions- unstable and stable is known as the surge line. This
line is formed by joining surge points at different rpms.
 Some surge consequences

•Unstable flow and pressure

•Damage in sequence with increasing
severity to seals, bearings, impellers, shaft
•Increased seal clearances and leakage
•Lower energy efficiency
•Reduced compressor life
•Reduced compressor output
Causes of surge:
The following are some of the usual causes of surge that are not
related to machine design.
 Restriction in suction or discharge of system.
 Process changes in pressure, temperatures of gas composition.
 Internal plugging of flow passage of compressor.
 Inadvertent loss of speed
 Instrument on control valve malfunction
 Malfunction of variable inlet guide vanes
 Operator errors
 Misdistribution of load in compressor
 Mispositioning of rotor
Compressor stall

• A compressor stall is a local disruption of the airflow

in a gas turbine or turbocharger compressor. It is
related to compressor surge which is a complete
disruption of the flow through the compressor.
• Modern compressors are carefully designed and
controlled to avoid or limit stall within an engine's
operating range. Stall was a common problem on
early jet engines with simple aerodynamics and
manual or mechanical fuel control units, but has
been virtually eliminated by better design and the
use of hydro-mechanical and electronic control
systems such as Full Authority Digital Engine
Controls(FADEC).
There are two types of compressor stall:

1. Rotating stall
2.Axi-symmetric stall or compressor surge
Notable stall occurrences

On January 15, 2009 US Airways Flight 1549,

an Airbus A320, floating in the Hudson
River after bird strikes caused compressor stalls
and complete failure of both engines.
Developing the compressor curve

DP
R
Pcdpc c
R
H DischargeRatio
Pressure
Polytropic
DifferentialPressure
Head(Pd/P(P
Pressure ) 2or
s(P d) -(P
PR
s2)/P 1) (P2 - P1)
or
process,2

Rprocess,1

Rc2

Rc1 O.P.

Compressor curve
for a specific
speed N1

Q2 Q1 Qs, normal
mass
vol

Compressors
Developing the compressor curve

Rc
Process limit
Adding control
margins
Maximum speed
Surge limit

Power limit

Stonewall or
choke limit

Stable zone
of operation
Actual available Minimum speed
operating zone

Qs, vol
Key Issues on
Turbo-machinery Controls

• Often compressors used in process applications are

critical and non spared machines

• Because these machines can be large as 50,000 HP ,

profit maximization requires maximum energy saving
and efficient operation

• The economic consequences of non-availability of

turbo-machinery is large

• Poor control is a major risk to the safe and reliable

operation of turbo-machinery

• Poor control can lead to false limitations on production

Antisurge Control . . .
 Basic Antisurge Control System

• The Antisurge controller UIC-1 protects the compressor

against surge by opening the recycle valve
• Opening of the recycle valve lowers the resistance felt by the
compressor , This takes the compressor away from surge
• The essence of the surge protection is to determine
when and how much to open or close the recycle
valve Rprocess
Rc
VSDS
Rprocess+valve
Compressor

FT PsT PdT
1 1 1

Suction Discharge
UIC 2
1 qr
Surge parameter based on invariant
coordinates Rc and qr
– Flow measured in suction (DPo)
– Ps and Pd transmitters used to calculate Rc
Surge description
• Flow reverses in 20 to 50 milliseconds

• Surge cycles at a rate of 0.3 s to 3 s per cycle

• Compressor vibrates

• Temperature rises

• “Whooshing” noise

• Trips may occur

• Conventional instruments and human operators may

fail to recognize surge
Some surge consequences

• Unstable flow and pressure

• Damage in sequence with increasing severity

to seals, bearings, impellers, shaft

• Increased seal clearances and leakage

• Lower energy efficiency

• Reduced compressor life

Major Process Parameters
during Surge
FLOW
• Rapid flow oscillations
• Reversal flow leads to
reversal thrust
1 2 3
• Potential damage
TIME (sec.)
PRESSURE
• Rapid pressure
oscillations with
process instability
1 2 3
TIME (sec.)
TEMPERATURE
• Rising temperatures
inside compressor
which can be seen at
the Discharge
1 2 3
TIME (sec.)

Operators may fail to recognize surge

Developing the surge cycle on
the compressor curve

Pd
DPT Pv
• From A to B…….20 - 50 ms…………….. Drop into surge
FT
• From C to D…….20 - 120 ms…………… Jump out of surge
UIC
• A-B-C-D-A……….0.3 - 3 seconds……… Surge cycle

Pd = Compressor discharge pressure

Pv = Vessel pressure
Pd Rlosses = Resistance losses over pipe
B A

• Pressure builds
D • Resistance goes up
C • Compressor “rides” the curve

• Electro motor is started

• Machine accelerates
to nominal speed
• Compressor reaches
performance curve
Note: Flow goes up faster
because pressure is the
integral of flow
Machine shutdown
Qs, vol
no flow, no pressure
How far away are we from
Surge?
Calculating the distance between the SLL
and the compressor operating point

The Ground Rule

– The better we can measure the distance to surge, the closer
we can operate to it without taking risk

The Challenge
– The Surge Limit Line (SLL) is not a fixed line in the most
commonly used coordinates. The SLL changes depending on
the compressor inlet conditions: Ts, Ps, MW, ks

Conclusion
– The antisurge controller must provide a distance to surge
calculation that is invariant of any change in inlet conditions
– This will lead to :-
• Safer control
• Reducing the surge Safety control margin
Commonly used (OEM provided)
coordinate systems of the compressor map

• Typical compressor maps include: (Qs, Hp),

(Qs, Rc), or (Qs, pd) coordinates, where:
Qs = Suction flow and can be expressed as actual
or standard volumetric flow
Hp = Polytropic Head
Rc = Compressor Ratio (pd / ps)
pd = Discharge pressure of the compressor
ps = Suction pressure of the compressor
ks = Exponent for isentropic compression

• These maps are defined for (1) specific set

of inlet conditions: ps, Ts, MW and ks
The problem with OEM provided
coordinate systems of the compressor map

• These coordinates are NOT invariant to suction

conditions as shown :-

Ts = 37 oC
Ts = 29 oC
Ts = 21 oC

• For control purposes we want the SLL to be

presented by a single curve for a fixed geometry
compressor
Understand the limitations of maps

NOT invariant coordinates (Hp, Qs) Invariant coordinates (hr, qr2)

where:
Hp = Polytropic head •Choose the right coordinates for
Qs = Volumetric suction flow
hr = Reduced head the antisurge control system
qr2 = Reduced flow squared
Coordinates (Rc ;Qs) and (Rc ;qr2)

NOT invariant coordinates (Rc, Qs) Invariant coordinates (Rc, qr2)

Ts = 37 oC Ts = 37 oC
Ts = 29 oC Ts = 29 oC
Ts = 21 oC Ts = 21 oC

qr2

where:
Rc = Pressure ratio
Qs = Volumetric suction flow
qr2 = Reduced flow squared
Coordinates (Rc ;jr) and (Rc ;Ne2)

Invariant coordinates (Rc, jr) Invariant coordinates (Rc, Ne2)

where:
Rc = Pressure ratio
jr = Reduced power
Ne2 = Equivalent speed squared
Representing the SLL as a single
curve using reduced coordinates
• A coordinate system that is invariant to suction
conditions is: H Q
hr 
p
and qr  s
(Z R T ) s ( Z R T )s
• Squaring the flow will still keep coordinates
invariant: Hp Q 2
hr  2
and qr 
s
(Z R T ) s ( Z R T )s
hr

2
qr
Calculating qr2 (reduced flow squared)

K . Zs . Ru . Ts Dpo,s
.
Qs2 MW ps Dpo,s
qr2 = = =
ps
(ZRT)s (ZRT)s

where:
R = Ru / MW
Ru = Universal gas constant
R = Specific gas constant
MW = Molecular Weight of the gas
ps = Suction pressure
K = Orifice plate constant
Dpo,s = Differential pressure across orifice plate
Ts = Temperature of the gas in suction
Zs = Compressibility of gas in suction of compressor

The antisurge controller calculates qr2 using ps and Dpo,s

transmitters
Calculating hr (reduced head)

Zs . Ru . Ts s
R -1
. c s
Hp MW s Rc -1
hr = = =
s
(ZRT)s (ZRT)s
log(Rt) log(Td/Ts)
For polytropic compression s= =
log(Rc) log(Pd/Ps)
where:
Rt = Td / Ts Temperature ratio
Rc = pd / ps Pressure ratio
s = Exponent for polytropic compression

The antisurge controller calculates hr using pd, ps, Td and Ts

transmitters

Calculating s improves accuracy when:

- Gas composition varies
- Compressor efficiency changes
Building the Surge Limit Line

• Non-linearity in the SLL can be hr SLL

accommodated using a
coordinate CHARACTERIZER f1
hr O.P.

• The function f1 returns the

value of qr2 on the SLL for 2
qr,SLL
2
qr,0p
2
qr
input hr
f1(hr )

• The surge parameter is defined as: f 1 (h r )

S s 
q r2 , op
The surge parameter Ss

• The function f1 returns the value of q2r on the SLL

for input hr
q2r,SLL
• As a result: Ss =
q2r,op
• Ss < 1
stable operating h
r
zone
Ss > 1
OP
• Ss = 1 hr
surge limit line Ss < 1
(SLL)
• Ss > 1 2
2 2
surge region qr,SLL qr,op qr
OP = Operating Point
Introducing the distance between the
operating point and the Surge Control Line

• Step 1 Introduce parameter: d = 1 - Ss

• Step 2 Introduce parameter: DEV = d - surge margin
• The parameter DEV is independent of the size of the
compressor and will be the same for each compressor in the
plant

d =0
Ss = 1
Benefits:
hr d <0 • One standard surge parameter
DEV = 0 (DEV)
Ss > 1
DEV < 0 DEV > 0 Good
- Operating Point

d >0
DEV = 0 On Control Line
Ss < 1
DEV > 0 DEV < 0 Bad
2
qr
Surge margin (b1)
Disadvantage of the D pc /D po
surge parameter

• The SLL is rarely a straight line in the coordinates qr2 and

Rc
• The parameter Dpc /Dpo represents a straight line in the
invariant coordinates qr2 and Rc

• The Dpc /Dpo approach results in loss of turn down and

unnecessary recycle
Rc
Actual Surge Limit Line
(SLL)

Loss of operating
envelope

SLL calculated by
antisurge controller using
Dpc /Dpo = constant

2
qr
Antisurge Controller Operation Protection #1
The Surge Control Line (SCL)

Slow Disturbance Example

Rc SLL = Surge Limit Line
SCL = Surge Control Line

• When the operating

B point crosses the SCL,
PI control will open
A
the recycle valve

• PI control will give

adequate protection
for small disturbances
2
qr

• PI control will give stable control during steady

state recycle operation
Adaptive Gain Enhancing
the Effectiveness of the PI Controller

FAST disturbance example

Rc

• When the operating point

B
moves quickly towards the
SCL, the rate of change
A (dSs/dT) can be used to
dynamically increase the
surge control margin.

• This allows the PI controller

to react earlier.

2
qr

Smaller safety control margins can be used without

sacrificing reliability.
Antisurge Controller Operation Protection
#2 The Recycle Trip® Line (RTL)

SLL = Surge Limit Line

Benefits:
Rc
RTL = Recycle Trip Line (open Loop) – Reliably breaks the
SCL = Surge Control Line surge cycle

– Energy savings due to

smaller surge margins
OP needed

– Surge can be
prevented for virtually
any disturbance
2
qr
Output
to Valve
Recycle Trip®
PI Control
Action
Total Response

PI Control Response
C
+
Open-loop Response
To antisurge valve
Time
C2
“Improving the accuracy of Recycle Trip®
open loop control

• Recycle Trip® is the most powerful method

known for antisurge protection

• The magnitude required from the Recycle Trip®

response (C) is a function of the rate of change
of the operating point or d(Ss)/dt

d(Ss)
C = C 1 Td
dt
where:
• C = Actual step to the valve
• C1 = Constant - also defines maximum step
• Td = Scaling constant
• d(Ss)/dt = Rate of change of the operating point
Recycle Trip® based on derivative of Ss

Benefits
• Maximum protection
Recycle Trip® – No surge
Response calculation: – No compressor damage
d(Ss) • Minimum process
C = C1Td
dt disturbance
– No process trips

Output Output
to valve Medium disturbance to valve Large disturbance
100%

Total
PI Control
C
C
Recycle Trip®
0%
Time Time
What if one Recycle Trip® step
response is not enough?
After time delay C2 controller checks if Operating
Point is back to safe side of Recycle Trip® Line
- If Yes: Exponential decay of Recycle Trip® response.
- If No: Another step is added to the Recycle Trip® response.

Output
to valve Multiple step response

Total
Output
to valve One step response
PI Control
100%

Recycle Trip®

Time
C2 C2 C2
Total
PI Control
Recycle Trip®
0%
Time
C2
Antisurge Controller Operation Protection #3
The Safety On® Response (SOL)

SOL - Safety On® Line

SLL - Surge Limit Line
RTL - Recycle Trip® Line

Rc
SCL - Surge Control Line • Compressor can
surge due to:
– Transmitter calibration
shift
– Sticky antisurge valve
or actuator
– Partially blocked
New SCL antisurge valve or
recycle line
New RTL – Unusually large
2 process upset
Additional surge margin qr

Benefits of Safety On® response:

Continuous surging is avoided
Operators are alarmed about surge
Built-in surge detector
Pressure and Flow Variations
During a Typical Surge Cycle
• Surge signature should be recorded
during commissioning.
• Rates of change for flow and pressure
100% transmitters should be calculated.
• Thresholds should be configured
Pd slightly more conservative than the
actual rates of change during surge.
• Surge is detected when the actual rates
0% of change exceed the configured
1 TO 2 SECONDS
100%
thresholds
• The following methods have been used:
– Rapid drops in flow and pressure
– Rapid drop in flow or pressure
DPo – Rapid drop in flow only
– Rapid drop in pressure only

0%
• When surge is detected a Safety On®
20 to 50
response is triggered
milli-seconds
• A digital output can be triggered upon a
configurable number of surge cycles
Performance Control . . .
Compressor Performance Control
• Also called:
– Throughput control
– Capacity control
– Process control

• Can be based on controlling:

– Discharge pressure
– Suction pressure
– Net flow to the user
Limiting control to keep the
machine in its stable operating zone

• While controlling one primary variable, we might

have to limit another one or two variable

• Exceeding limits might cause machine or process

damage

CONTROL BUT DO NOT EXCEED

Discharge Pressure Max. Motor Current

Suction Pressure Max. Discharge Pressure

Max. Discharge Temperature

Net Flow Min. Suction Pressure

Power limiting with the
Performance Controller
Power limit SI
Rc C1

R1 Process
R2
P
R3 T1
A
PIC-SP
C D
PI
B C1

A’ B’

N4
N
N2 3
N1
Benefits:
• Maximum protection
– No machinery damage
2 • Maximize production
qr – Machine can be pushed
Note: to the limits without risk
Same approach for other of damage
variables (pressures,
temperatures, etc.)
Interacting
Antisurge & Performance Loops
VSDS

Rc Section 1

PIC UIC
1 1

B
C A PIC-SP

• Interaction starts at B

• Results of interaction
– Degrades press. Control
2
qr accuracy
– Large pressure deviations
during disturbances
– Increased risk of surge
Performance & Antisurge
Controller’s interaction
• Both controllers manipulate the same
variable - the operating point of the
compressor

• The controllers have different and

sometimes conflicting objectives

• The control action of each controller

affects the other

• This interaction starts at the surge control

line - near surge - and can cause surge
Ways to cope with Antisurge and
Performance Loop interactions
• De-tune the loops to minimize interaction.
Result is poor pressure control, large surge
control margins and poor surge protection

• Put one loop on manual, so interaction is

not possible. Operators will usually put the
Antisurge Controller on manual.
Result - no surge protection and often
partially open antisurge valve

• Decouple the interactions.

Result - good performance control
accuracy, good surge protection and no
energy wasted on recycle or blow off
Decoupling Antisurge and
Performance Loop interactions
VSDS

Section 1

PIC Serial UIC

1 network 1

Decouple the interactions.

• Result - good performance control accuracy

• Good surge protection
• No energy wasted on recycle or blow off
Loadsharing

Compressor Networks
Base Loading Parallel Compressors
Equal Flow Division System
Equidistant Loadsharing System
Compressor Efficiency
Compressor networks
Control system objectives for
compressors in parallel:
• Maintain the primary performance variable
(pressure or flow)

• Optimally divide the load between the

compressors in the network, while:
– Minimizing risk of surge
– Minimizing energy consumption
– Minimizing disturbance of starting and stopping
individual compressors
Base Loading
VSDS
Swing
Compressor 1
machine
UIC
1

PIC
1

HIC
1
Suction
Process
header
VSDS
Base
Compressor 2
machine
UIC
2
Base Loading
Parallel Compressor Control
Rc,1 Compressor 1 Rc,2 Compressor 2
Swing machine Base machine

PIC-SP

2 2
qr,1 qr,2
QP,1 QP,2

Notes:
• Base loading is inefficient
• Base loading increases the risk of surge since
compressor #1 will take the worst of any disturbance
• Base loading requires frequent operator intervention
• Base loading is NOT recommended
Equal Flow Division Loadsharing
Flow Diagram for Control Process
RSP
VSDS

Compressor 1

out
UIC FIC RSP
1 1

out
PIC
1

Suction
Process
header
RSP
VSDS Notes
Compressor 2
• Performance controllers
act independent of
out antisurge control
UIC
2
FIC
2 • Higher capital cost due to
extra Flow Measurement
Devices (FMD)
• Higher energy costs due
to permanent pressure
loss across FMD’s
Equal Flow Division Loadsharing
Parallel Compressor Control
Rc,1 Compressor 1 Rc,2 Compressor 2

PIC-SP

Equal flow Equal flow

2 2
qr,1 qr,2
QP,1 QP,2

QP,1 = QP,2
Equidistant Loadsharing
Flow Diagram for Control Process
VSDS
RSP

Compressor 1

out
UIC Serial LSIC Serial
1 network 1 network

MPIC
1
Suction
header Process
VSDS
RSP

Compressor 2 Notes
out • All controllers are
UIC Serial
2 network
LSIC
2 coordinating
control responses
via a serial network
• Minimizes recycle
under all operating
conditions
Equidistant Loadsharing
Parallel Compressor Control
Rc,1 Compressor 1 Rc,2 Compressor 2
SCL = Surge Control Line DEV = 0
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.3
PIC-SP

Dev1 = Dev2
Q1 = Q2
N1 = N2
2 2
qr,1 qr,2
DEV1 DEV2
Notes:
• Recycle
Since
The DEV
Machines
Maximum DEVwill is
isare
operate
aonly
turndown dimensionless
kept start
at
at same
(energy the
whensame
savings) all sorts
Rwithout
all
number
c since
relative
machines ofdistance
suction
recycle orareand
blow-off
• Minimizes
machines thecan
risk of
besurge since small,
mixed: all machines
big, absorb
axials,part of the
on
discharge
representing
to the
their
Surge
disturbance
SCLof Control
both
the distance
machines
Line (SCL)
between
are tiedthe
together
•• Automatically
centrifugals
operating
This means point
in practice
adapts and thethe
Surge
to different same
size Control
DEV for
machines Line both
•• CCC
The
Lines DEV
machines will
of equal
patented beDEV
the can
algorithm same befor all machines
plotted on the
but they will operate
performance curves as at different
shown speeds and
flow rates
TrainView® Operator Interface
Controller Overview
Compressor Map Screen
Control System

• Design Screens

• Standard and Customized Screens

• On-Line Operation and Control

• Alarm and Event Management

• Critical Event Archiving Remote OnlookTM Diagnostics

CCC Antisurge and Performance
Control Selling Points

• Distance to surge calculation

• A/S adjusts it’s own set point automatically

based on process conditions (DEV)

• Recycle Trip (R.T.) adjusts step change

automatically based on process conditions

• Safety On (S.O) gets compressor out of surge

and does not allow it to go back into surge

• Surge Detection and Emergency Shutdown

CCC Antisurge and Performance
Control Selling Points

• Fallback strategies

• Limiting control

• Decoupling prevents control loop

interaction

• Loadsharing