Engineering Geology

An Environmental Approach
Second Edition

Perry H. Rahn
South Dakota School of Mines and Technology

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Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
CONTENTS
PREFACE XI

CHAPTER 1 POPULATION 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 World Population 2
1.3 Exponential Functions 4
1.4 United States Population 6
1.5 Future Population 8

CHAPTER 2 MAPS, AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS,

AND REMOTE SENSING 11

2.1 Topographic Maps 11

2.2 Geologic Maps 14
2.3 Aerial Photographs 18
2.3.1 Acquisition of Air Photos in the United States 18
2.3.2 Photogrammetry 20
2.4 Thermal Imagery 22
2.5 Radar Imagery 23
2.6 Satellite Imagery 25
2.7 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 30

CHAPTER 3 WEATHERING AND SOIL-FORMING PROCESSES 34

3.1 Soil and Bedrock 34

3.2 Weathering 36
3.2.1 Physical Weathering 36
Frost 36
Unloading 37
Salts. 39
Miscellaneous Physical Weathering Processes 39
3.2.2 Chemical Weathering 39
Hydration 39
Hydrolysis 40

III
 Solution 40
Oxidation 42
3.2.3 Rates of Weathering 43
3.2.4 Concrete Aggregate 45
3.3 Soil and Bedrock Contacts 46
3.3.1 Residual Soils 47
Granite (and other massive igneous rocks) 47
Limestone 50
Shale-expansive Soils 52
Sandstone 57
3.3.2 Transported Soils 57
Colluvium 57
Alluvium 59
Glacial Drift 60
Lacustrine and Marine Deposits 63
Eolian Deposits 65
3.4 Soil-Forming Processes 67
3.4.1 Podzol 69
3.4.2 Laterite 71
3.4.3 Caliche 71

ROCK MECHANICS 74
4.1 Introduction 74
4.2 Empirical Measurements 75
4.3 Stress and Strain 76
4.4 Compressive Strength 81
4.5 Tensile Strength and Bending Moments 82
4.6 Shear Strength 86
4.7 Triaxial Tests and Mohr Diagrams 88
4.8 Coulomb's Law and Frictional Forces 94
4.8.1 Theory 94
4.8.2 Examples 98
Example No. 1 98
Example No. 2 98
Example No. 3 100
Example No. 4 101
Example No. 5 101
Example No. 6 102
4.9 Stereographic Projection 104
4.10 Tunnels 108
4.10.1 Basic Tunnel Techniques 109
4.10.2 Geological Factors in Tunnels 111
4.10.3 Water in Tunnels 115
4.10.4 Examples of Tunnels 115
4.11 Dynamic Loads 118

IV Contents
CHAPTER 5 SOIL MECHANICS 122

5.1 Introduction 122

5.2 Soil Texture 123
5.3 Soil Moisture 124
5.4 Atterberg Limits 127
5.4.1 Liquid Limit 127
5.4.2 Plastic Limit 128
5.4.3 Plasticity Index 129
5.5 Engineering Properties 131
5.5.1 Density 131
5.5.2 Compaction 133
5.5.3 Consolidation and Settlement 134
Example 1 135
Example 2 135
5.5.4 Liquefaction 137
5.5.5 Strength 138
Internal Friction and Cohesion 139
Direct Shear Test 140
Triaxial Compression Test 141
Unconfined Compression Test 141
Standard Penetration Test . 141
Punching Shear Test 143
California Bearing Ratio 144
Expansion Tests 144
Consolidation Test 144
5.6 Retaining Walls , 145
5.7 Piles 146
5.8 Foundation Case Histories 151
5.8.1 The Leaning Tower of Pisa, Italy 151
5.8.2 The Brooklyn Bridge, New York 153
5.8.3 The St. Francis Dam, California 154
5.8.4 The Teton Dam, Idaho 157

CHAPTER 6 MASS WASTING 162

6.1 Mass Wasting Processes 162

6.1.1 Rockfall 164
6.1.2 Creep 166
6.1.3 Landslides 171
Characteristics 171
Classification of Landslides 174
Mathematical Analysis 176
Translational Landslides 179
Translational Landslide with a Cut Slope 181
Rotational Landslides 183

Contents v
 Examples of Landslides 187
Landslide Correction 192
6.1.4 Debris Flow 196
Examples of Debris Flows 198
Debris Flow Characteristics 202
Debris Flow Hazards 204
6.2 Permafrost 205

CHAPTER 7 GRl UND WATER 212

7.1 Introduction 212

7.1.1 The Hydrologic Cycle 212
7.1.2 Water: A Peculiar Mineral 214
7.1.3 The World's Water Supply 215
7.2 Precipitation, Infiltration, and Evapotranspiration 215
7.2.1 Precipitation 215
Orographic Precipitation 215
Convective Precipitation 216
Cyclonic Precipitation 216
7.2.2 Infiltration 216
7.2.3 Evapotranspiration 219
7.3 Ground Water Concepts 221
7.3.1 Origin of Ground Water 221
7.3.2 Springs 221
7.3.3 Water Wells and Artesian Aquifers 223
7.4 Ground Water Flow 227
7.4.1 Darcy's Law 227
7.4.2 Transmissivity 230
7.4.3 Porosity 230
7.4.4 Flow Nets 231
7.4.5 Anisotropy 240
Vertical Anistropy 240
Anistropy in Plan View 240
7.5 Pump Tests 241
7.5.1 Methods of Determining Hydraulic Conductivity 241
7.5.2 Thiem (Cooper-Jacob) Method 242
Distance-Drawdown Method 244
Time-Drawdown Method 244
7.5.3 Theis Method 246
7.5.4 Limitations of Pump Tests 248
7.6 Dewatering 249
7.7 Drain Spacing 250
7.8 Ground Water Quality 252
7.8.1 Bacterial Quality 252
7.8.2 Chemical Quality 253

VI Contents
 7.8.3 Contamination 257
7.8.4 Waste Disposal 261
7.8.5 Dispersion 264
7.8.6 Sorption 267
7.8.7 Ground Water Sampling and Remediation 268
7.9 Basin Evaluation 270
7.9.1 Safe Yield 270
7.9.2 Ground Water Models 272

CHAPTER 8 FLUVIAL PROCESSES 280

8.1 Fluvial Geomorphology 281

8.1.1 Ephemeral and Perennial Streams 281
8.1.2 Stream Dynamics 282
8.1.3 Scour 285
8.1.4 Sediment Transport 288
8.1.5 Meanders 290
8.1.6 A Graded Stream 291
8.2 Stream Discharge Characteristics 295
8.2.1 Stream Gaging Techniques 295
8.2.2 Runoff 297
8.2.3 Floods 300
8.2.4 Effects of Urbanization on Runoff 306
8.3 Dams 307
8.3.1 Benefits and Costs 309
8.3.2 Design of Dams 309
8.3.3 Spillways 314
8.3.4 Foundations 319
8.3.5 Sedimentation 323
8.3.6 Environmental Impacts 330
8.4 Other Flood Control Structures 333
8.4.1 Levees 333
8.4.2 Channel "Improvements" 341
8.4.3 Flood Plain Management 341

CHAPTER 9 LAND SUBSIDENCE 353

9.1 Introduction 353
9.2 Land Subsidence Due to Withdrawal of Fluids 353
9.2.1 Mechanism 353
9.2.2 Examples of Land Subsidence 355
San Joaquin Valley, California 355
Houston, Texas 357
Phoenix, Arizona 359

Contents vii
 Other Places in the United States 365
Land Subsidence Elsewhere in the World 366
9.3 Land Subsidence in Terrains Underlain by Soluble Rocks 370
9.4 Land Subsidence Due to Underground Mining 377
9.4.1 Eastern U.S. Coal 377
9.4.2 Western U.S. Coal 379
9.4.3 Other Mining Activity 381
9.5 Land Subsidence Due to Miscellaneous Factors 382
Baldwin Hills Reservoir, California 382
London 384
Deflation and Compaction 384

CHAPTER 10 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

OF COASTAL REGIONS 387

10.1 Basic Concepts 387

10.1.1 Shoreline Classification 387
10.1.2 Beaches 388
10.1.3 Currents and Tides 392
10.1.4 /Wave Celerity 394
10.1.5 1 Wave Fetch 396
10.2 Engineering Structures in Coastal Areas 397
10.3 Coastal Erosion 399
10.3.1 Natural Coastal Erosion 399
10.3.2 Coastal Erosion as Related
to Man-Made Structures 401
10.4 Tsunami 410
10.4.1 Origin 410
- 10.4.2 Hydrodynamics 413
10.5 Hurricanes and Land Use on Barrier Islands 415
10.6 Wave Protection 425

CHAPTER 11 EARTHQUAKES 429

11.1 Earthquakes and Seismic Waves 429

11.1.1 Epicenter and Focus 429
11.1.2 Intensity 430
11.1.3 Seismic Waves 435
Seismograms 435
Seismic Waves and Earth's Interior 435
Earthquake Magnitude and Intensity 437
Earthquake Acceleration 440
11.2 Lessons Learned from Catastrophic Earthquakes 442
11.2.1 San Andreas Fault and the 1906
San Francisco Earthquake 442
11.2.2 1964 Alaska Earthquake 445

viii Contents
 11.2.3 1971 San Fernando, California Earthquake 447
11.2.4 1972 Managua Earthquake 451
11.2.5 1989 LomaPrieta Earthquake 452
11.2.6 1994 Northridge Earthquake 456
11.2.7 1995 Kobe Earthquake 458
11.2.8 1992 Landers Earthquake 459
11.3 Seismic Risk and Earthquake Probability 462
11.3.1 Spatial Prediction 462
11.3.2 Temporal Prediction 469
11.4 Man-made Earthquakes 474
11.4.1 Artificial Recharge by Wells 475
11.4.2 Dam Construction 476
11.5 Planning for Earthquakes 478

CHAPTER 12 GEOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES 489

12.1 Engineering Seismology 489

12.1.1 Theory 489
12.1.2 Refraction Method 492
12.1.3 Reflection Method 498
12.2 Electrical Resistivity 500
12.2.1 Theory 500
12.2.2 Practical Application 503
12.3 Gravity Methods 507
12.3.1 Theory 507
12.3.2 Method 508
12.3.3 Examples 508
12.4 Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR) 510
12.5 Test Hole Drilling and Well Logging 513
12.5.1 Driller's Logs and Geologic Logs 513
12.5.2 Geophysical Logging 516
Spontaneous Potential (SP) 516
Resistivity 516
Gamma Ray 517
Neutron 517
Gamma-Gamma 517
Miscellaneous Logging Methods 517

CHAPTER 13 ENERGY 445

13.1 Fossil Fuels 521

Gas 521
Petroleum 524
Coal 529
Synfuels 530
Future of Fossil Fuels 532

Contents ix
 13.2 Nuclear Energy 533
Radioactivity 533
Nuclear Reactors 534
Radioactive Wastes 534
Reactor Safety 538
Radioactive Waste Disposal 540
The Nuclear Dilemma 544
13.3 Alternative Energy Sources 545

CHAPTER 14 DESIGN WITH NATURE 549

14.1 Geological Hazards 549

14.1.1 Landslides and Expansive Soils 551
14.1.2 Floods 553
14.1.3 Coastal Erosion and Tsunamis 555
14.1.4 Earthquakes 557
14.1.5 Land Subsidence 561
14.1.6 Volcanic Activity 561
Volcanoes and Volcanic Eruptions 561
Mount St. Helens 564
Volcanic Hazards 564
14.1.7 Geochemical Hazards: Asbestos and Radon 566
14.2 Environmental Abuses 567
14.2.1 Air Pollution 568.
14.2.2 Water Pollution 570
14.2.3 Vanishing Lands 576
14.3 Planning Ahead 578
14.3.1 Pork Barrel Projects 578
14.3.2 Land Use Planning 581
14.3.3 An Environmental Approach 584

APPENDIX A METRIC-ENGLISH CONVERSIONS 588

APPENDIX B ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS 589

APPENDIX C ADDRESSES OF STATE GEOLOGIC SURVEYS 593

REFERENCES 596

ILLUSTRATION AND TABLE CREDITS 647

INDEX 651

Contents