Forensic-1 - FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY-BY-CLBN
Forensic-1 - FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY-BY-CLBN
Forensic-1 - FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY-BY-CLBN
COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW IN
FORENSIC SCIENCE
PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION
Law of Multiplicity of Evidence – The greater the number of similarities and dissimilarities; the
greater is the probability for the conclusion to be correct”
1. Comparison- with the used of standard specimen, evidence under question can be
compared in order to effect identification.
2. Exclusion – is two or more persons have to be identified and all but one is not yet identified,
then the one whose identity has not been established may be known by the process of
elimination.
Fingerprints offer a reliable means of personal identification. That is the essential explanation for
fingerprints having replaced other methods of establishing the identities of criminals reluctant to admit
previous arrests. That is why, it stand out among the different methods in identifying persons involved in
the commission of a crime.
1. Tattoo Marks- method adopted by tribes during ancient times signifying their clan and family. It is
barely used as identification but purely utilized for the purpose of ornamentation. It is not a reliable
means of identification because it can be duplicated, changed or disfigured.
2. Scarification- a means of identification by cutting or wounding some parts of the body that forms
scars in time and forms pattern after healing which serves as an identification.
3. Alphonse Bertillion
b. Anthropometry- it is the measurement of several bone structures of the human body and
considered as a first method of identification. This method was abolished because of the West Case.
History of Fingerprint
BC 200’s – In China, the first details of using handprint identification was discovered during the Qin
Dynasty. The Chinese were well acquainted with the essential characteristics of fingerprints. The arches
and whorl were called as “LO” (snail) and loops are “KI” (winnowing basket). Though the Chinese were
well acquainted with the types of pattern, they did nothing in developing a system of classification.
1600’s
NEHEMIA GREW
- In a "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London" paper in 1684, he describes the
RIDGES and PORES of the hand and feet.
- Dr. Nehemiah Grew was the first European to publish friction ridge skin observation Dutch
anatomist Govard Bidloo's 1685 book, "Anatomy of the Human Body" also described friction ridge
skin (papillary ridge) details.
- In 1686, an anatomy professor at the University of Bologna, noted fingerprint ridges, spirals and
loops in his treatise. A layer of skin was named after him; "Malpighi" layer, which is approximately
1.8mm thick.
1. SIR WILLIAM J. HERSCHEL – (1858) Bengal, India, printed the palm of natives as to avoid
impersonation and as a substitute to signature.
RAJADHAR KONAI- first person Herschel printed the palm.
2. HENRY FAULDS – (Tsukuji Hospital, Tokyo, Japan) advocated the use of fingerprints in the
detection of crime.
3. SIR FRANCIS GALTON (1822-1911) –a cousin of Charles Darwin, is credited with being the
first scientist of friction skin identification as well as his role promoting its used.
4. SIR EDWARD RICHARD HENRY (1859-1931) – known as the “Father of Fingerprint” The
United Kingdom Home Secretary Office conducted an inquiry into "Identification of Criminals
by Measurement and Fingerprints." Mr. Edward Richard Henry (later Sir ER Henry) appeared
before the inquiry committee to explain the system published in his recent book "The
Classification and Use of Fingerprints." The committee recommended adoption of
fingerprinting as a replacement for the relatively inaccurate Bertillon system of anthropometric
measurement, which only partially relied on fingerprints for identification.
5. THOMAS BEWICK, an English naturalist, uses engravings of his own fingerprints to
identify books he published.
6. HAQUE AND BOSE – two Hindu police officers who help Henry in attaining his goal.
7. JUAN VUCETICH – developed his own system of system of classification and which was
officially adopted in Argentina and in used today in most-Spanish speaking country. Credited
to the case of “ROJAS HOMICIDE”
History of Fingerprint in US
1903 - The New York State Prison system began the first systematic use of fingerprints in the U.S. for
criminals.
1946- the introduction of Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) technology begans due to
the massive number of fingerprint cards manually processed by the FBI.
2015- largets AFIS repository in America is operated by the Homeland Security’s US Visit Program in
Clarksburg, West Virginia but the world’s largest fingerprint system is in India. The Unique Identification
Authority of India.
A.Dactyloscopy- (Latin word= “Dactyl” means Finger; Latin word= “Skopien” means to examine)
E. Chiroscopy – (Greek word “Cheir” – a hand, “Skopien” – to examine) it studies the prints of the palm
of the hand. William Herschel is considered as “Father of Chiroscopy”
F. Podoscopy – (Greek word “Podo” – sole of the foot and “Skopien” – to examine) deals with the study
of the footprints.
G. Poroscopy – (Greek word “Poros” – pore and “Skopien” – to examine) deals with the study of the
arrangement of the sweat pores. Edmond Locard is considered the “Father of Poroscopy”
FINGERPRINT- is an impression design by the first joint of the fingers and thumb on smooth surface
through the medium of ink, sweat, or any substance capable of producing visibility.
A. PHALANGE- is the skeletal finger covered with friction skin. It is made up of three bones.
Basal or Proximal- it is located at the base of the finger nearest the palm.
Middle Phalange- the next and above the basal bone.
Terminal Phalange- the particular bone covered with friction skin and located at the tip of
the finger.
B. FRICTION SKIN- is an epidermal hairless skin found on the lower surface of the hands and feet
covered with ridges and furrows. Also known as “Papillary Skin.” Biologists use the term “Volar
Skin”
Epidermis- temporary
Dermis- permanent
Cut with a depth of more than 1 mm.- permanent; With less than 1mm.-
temporary
THE FINGERPRINT PATTERNS
Groups/Families = 3 Groups/Families = 3
1. Arch (3) – Plain, Tented, and 1. Arch (2) – Plain and Tented
Exceptional Arch. 2. Loop (2) – Radial and Ulnar Loop
2. Loop (4) – Plain, Lateral, Twin, and 3. Whorl (4) – Plain, Central Pocket
Central Pocket Loop Loop, Double Loop, and Accidental
3. Whorl (2) – Plain Whorl and Accidental Whorl
Whorl
1. Plain Arch (A)- a type of fingerprint pattern in which ridges flow form one side to
the other with a slight raise in the center.
1. Ulnar Loop ( ) – downward slant are from the thumb towards the little finger or
ulnar bone.
2. Radial Loop (/) – downward slant are from the little finger toward the thumb or
radius bone.
The Delta (outer terminus)- found at the center or near the center of the diverging type
lines.
The Core (inner terminus or the heart) - found at the center or innermost recurve of the
typelines.
RIDGE COUNTING AND RIDGE TRACING
1. Ridge Counting- process of counting the ridges that touches the imaginary line from delta to
core in a loop type and delta to delta with the exception in the final division wherein it requires
a delta to delta ridge count. Never include delta and core in the ridge count.
2. Ridge Tracing- number of intervening ridges between the tracing ridge at the right delta.
BLOCKING- is the process of writing below each pattern the corresponding symbol of the
fingerprint pattern.
CLASSIFICATION- is the method of obtaining a formula for a set of fingerprints whereby it may
be located in the filing cabinet.
FILLING OUT- entering on a fingerprint record card of all known essential data about a subject.
________________________________________________________________________
(1ST PAIR) 1st and 2nd Finger (Right Thumb and Right Index)= numerical value of 16
(2ND PAIR) 3rd and 4th Finger(Right Middle and Right Ring)= numerical value of 8
(3RD PAIR) 5th and 6th finger (Right Little and Left Thumb)= numerical value of 4
(4TH PAIR) 7th and 8th finger (Left Index and Left Middle)= numerical value of 2
(5TH PAIR) 9th and 10th finger (Left Ring and Left Little) = numerical value of 1
- All values appearing on the EVEN numbers will be the NUMERATOR while those in
the ODD number will be the DENOMINATOR.
- Patterns without numerical value are the arches and loops.
Note: Fingers nos. 1-5 are from Right Hand while fingers No. 6-10 are from Left
Hand.
THIRD PAIR FOURTH PAIR FOURTH PAIR FIFTH PAIR FIFTH PAIR
0 16 0 0 4
Tented Arch Double Loop Plain Arch Ulnar Loop Central
Pocket Loop
T D A / w
4 2 2 0 1
Accidental Whorl Central Poclet Double Loop Plain Arch Plain Whorl
Loop
W C W a w
PRIMARY CLASSIFICATION = 24
________
7
Tented Arch Double Loop Plain Arch Ulnar Loop Central Pocket
Loop
T D a / w
Accidental Whorl Central Poclet Double Loop Plain Arch Plain Whorl
Loop
W C w a w
____24 _D___
7 C
3. SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION (BY SMALL LETTERED GROUP)- this involves only the
three fingerprint pattern namely, RADIAL LOOP, PLAIN ARCH, AND TENTED ARCH (RAT).
Whenever these patterns appear in the finger, the symbol must be r for Radial Loop, a for
Plain Arch, t for Tented Arch. The Index Finger is excluded in this classification. All this three
patterns once appear on the fingerprint card, must be exhibited before (Right and Left Thumb)
or after the Primary or Secondary Classification.
Tented Arch Double Loop Plain Arch Ulnar Loop Central Pocket
Loop
T D A / w
Accidental Whorl Central Pocket Double Loop Plain Arch Plain Whorl
Loop
W C W a w
24 tDa
7 Ca
If the tracing ridge from the left delta goes INSIDE or ABOVE the right delta and there 3 or
more intervening ridges, the tracing is INNER (I).
If the tracing ridge from the left delta goes OUTSIDE or BELOW the right delta and there
are 3 or more intervening ridges, the tracing is OUTER (O).
If the tracing ridge from the left delta goes either ABOVE or BELOW the right delta and
there are 2 or less intervening ridges, the tracing is MEETING (M).
If the tracing ridge from the left delta meets squarely with the right delta, the tracing is
MEETING (M).
m - o
Tented Arch Double Loop Plain Arch Ulnar Loop Central Pocket
Loop
T D A / w
m m -
Accidental Whorl Central Pocket Double Loop Plain Arch Plain Whorl
Loop
W C W a w
24 tDa M-O___________________
7 Ca MM-
- Ridge Count if the patterns appears on the thumb are loops and identify whether
it is Small, Medium, or Large depending on the number of ridge counts appearing therein.
Refer to Tables 1 and 2.
TABLE 1 TABLE 2
- m - O
Tented Arch Double Loop Plain Arch Ulnar Loop Central Pocket
Loop
T D A / w
M (12) m m -
Accidental Whorl Central Pocket Double Loop Plain Arch Plain Whorl
Loop
W C W a w
- 24 tDa M-O___________________
M 7 Ca MM-
b. Double Loop Whorl- get the ridge count of the top loop
c. Accidental Whorl- get the least ridge count from any of the whorl pattern
appearing therein.
- m - o 10
Tented Arch Double Loop Plain Arch Ulnar Loop Central Pocket
Loop
T D a / w
M (12) m m - 12
Accidental Whorl Central Pocket Double Loop Plain Arch Plain Whorl
Loop
W C w a w
- 24 tDa M-O____10________________
M 7 Ca MM- 12
- if there is no loop, the first whorl shall be ridge counted and will be treated as Ulnar Loop.
- M 14 - o 10
Tented Arch Double Loop Plain Arch Ulnar Loop Central Pocket
Loop
T D a / w
M (12) m m - 12
Accidental Whorl Central Pocket Double Loop Plain Arch Plain Whorl
Loop
W C w a w
14 - 24 tDa M-O____10________________
M 7 Ca MM- 12
1. When one or more fingers from the same hand are amputated or missing, it has the same
classification with that of the opposite finger (together with the ridge count and tracing) except with the
primary classification.
2. Two or more opposite finer are amputated or missing, it is given the classification of PLAIN WHORL,
with ridge trace of MEETING.
3. If all fingers are missing, all shall be treated as PLAIN WHORL AND MEETING.
5. Ectodactyly (Lobster Claw Hand)- it is the absence of one or more fingers in a hand.
Latent Prints
Latent Prints- are those prints that are hidden or concealed which are usually left accidently on the
crime scene. These are prints naked to the human eye but they actually exist.
- the word “latent” is a Latin word which means “something indistinct or hidden.”
a.2. Hard Surfaces- are either patent (visible) or latent (invisible) prints
a. Visible Prints- those prints that can be easily recognized such as blood, dirt, ink, paint, or
any colored surface is transferred from a finger or thumb to a surface.
b. Semi-visible Prints- prints found on clay, dust, muds and other sticky surface.
c. Invisible Prints- those prints created through sweat or perspiration found on the fingers. It
is the common types observed in the crime scene.
a. Dusting Method- considered as the simplest and most common method of developing
latent prints. By using black powder, the powder will adhere on the moisture left on the
surface. Fingerprint powder can be categorized into four:
Regular Powders
Luminescent Powder
Metallic Powder
Thermoplastic
b. Chemical Fuming- it is used by applying iodine fume into the latent print surface.
c. Cyanoacrylate Fuming- used for the development of latent prints on surfaces made of
plastic, adhesive tapes aluminum foils, and rubber bands.
d. Iodine Dusting Method- same procedure as that of a dusting method but uses an iodine
powder and absorbs the fingerprint which gives yellowish brown prints as a result of
development.
e. Ninhydrin Method- best method applied in developing latent prints in a paper surface.
f. Silver Nitrate Reagent- the application of silver nitrate to a latent print surface and reacts
to the chloride present in the latent print.
g. Iodine Silver Plate Transfer Method- a practical technique used in developing latent
print on human skin. It is done by spraying an iodine fume into the area of the skin. Once
the latent print is developed, it will be transferred to a silver plate then exposed to strong
light for evaluation.
h. Laser Method- modern way of developing latent print.
--END--
Camera Obscura- (Latin as Dark Room) it was known as the first pinhole camera that
was able to develop a Photograph during the 13 th-14th century. It was invented by
Alhazen (Ibn Al-Haytam).
Joseph Nicéphore Niépce- a French inventor who produced the first permanent
photographic image in 1825 which depicts a photo of the glass of the “Le Gras”.
Louis Daguerre- he was a French artist who partnered with Joseph Nicephore Niepce to
develop and capture a photo that will make it permanent and long-lasting by exposing it
to mercury vapor. It was later on called as “Daguerreotype”
Henry Fox Talbot- The inventor of the first negative from which multiple positive prints.
He perfected this paper-negative process and called it a “Calotype” (Greek for beautiful
picture)which is being produced in a short time. He is also the inventor of the “Mouse
Trap Camera”
1859-Daguerreotype was use in civil case, Lueo vs. US (regarding the authenticity of
photographs in comparing signatures)
1943-Civil litigations Green vs. City and county of Denver Colorado, involving spoiled meat in
violation of a health ordinance prohibiting the sale of putrid meat to the public.
1960- In criminal case, State vs. Conte, showing the graphic wound of the victim
A. DEFINITION OF TERMS:
Sir John F. W. Herschel coined the word photography when he first wrote a letter to
Henry Fox Talbot.
= Is the art and science of reproducing image by means of light through some
sensitized material with the aid of a camera, Lens and its accessories and the chemical
process required in order to produce a photograph.
1. Personal Identification
= Personal Identification is considered to be the first application of photography is
police work. Alphonse Bertillion was the first police who utilized photography in police work
as a supplementary identification in his Anthropometry system.
2. For Communication
= Photograph is considered to be one of the most universal methods of
communication considering that no other language can be known universally than
photograph.
c. Close-up View
= Is the taking of individual photograph of the evidence at the scene of the
crime. It is design to show the details of the crime.
4. For Preservation
= Crime scene and other physical evidence requires photograph for preservation
purposes. Crime scene cannot be retain as is for a long period of time but through
photograph the initial condition of the scene of the crime can be preserved properly.
7. Crime Prevention
= with the used of video camera (hidden camera) and other advanced photographic
equipment crimes are being detected more easily and even to the extent of preventing them
from initially occurring.
8. Police Training
= Modern facilities are now being used as instructional material not only in police
training as well as in other agencies.
C. ESSENTIALS OF PHOTOGRAPHY
1. Light = is an electromagnetic energy that travels in a form of a wave with the speed
of 186, 000 miles per second.
2. Camera = a light tight box designed to block unwanted or unnecessary light from
reaching the sensitized material.
3. Lens = is the light gathering mechanism of the camera that collect the reflected light
coming from the object to form the image.
4. Sensitized material = composed of a highly sensitized chemical compound which is
capable of being transformed into an image through the action of light and with some
chemical processes. ( Film and Photo Paper).
5. Chemical Process = is the process necessary for reducing silver halides into a form
so as a latent image and a positive image be made resulting to what we called
Photograph.
Types of Light
Lights can largely be classified into visible and invisible light.
a. Visible Light
b. Invisible Light
= lights in which their wavelength are either too short or too long to excite the
retina of the human eye i.e. X-ray, Ultra-violet and Infra-red lights.
2. Photographic Rays
a. X-ray
=Light with the wavelength between .01 to 30 millimicrons. It is produced by passing
an electric current through a special type of vacuum tube. It was incidentally discovered
by Conrad Welhelm Roentgen. This type of light works in the principle of shadow
photography.
c. Visible Light
= Is the type of radiation having a wavelength of 400 to 700 millimicrons designed for
ordinary photographing purposes.
3. Light Source
Natural Light= are those light which come to existence without the intervention of man
e.i. Sunlight, moonlight and starlight.
1. Bright Sunlight
= object in an open space casts a deep and uniform shadow and the object
appears glossy.
2. Hazy Sunlight
= object in an open space casts a transparent or bluish shadow. This is due to thin
clouds that cover the sun.
3. Dull Sunlight
= object in an open space cast no shadow due to thick clouds covering the sun.
Daylight may still be classified as: open space bright sunlight, under shade bright
sunlight, hazy sunlight, cloudy sunlight and cloudy dull sunlight.
These conditions and their colors affect the appearance of the object being
photograph. Factors such as atmospheric vapor, atmospheric dust and quality of the
reflected light coming and not coming from the source should likewise be considered.
1. Continuous radiation
Photoflood lamp= is likewise known as Reflectorized light or Spot light. It is a
light with a reflector at the back which focuses the light to the object the common
wattages of this lamp is 500 watts.
Incandescent bulb = are bulb with a wire filament connecting two wires which
sustain the electrical charge that produces the light. Everybody likewise commonly
uses this although it is more expensive in terms of electrical consumptions.
Infra-red Lamp
Ultra-violet Lamp
Concurrent light
Light that is scattered
Coherent light
Light that is aligned such as laser light
Hologram
The formation of image trough the use of laser light
4. SENSITIZED MATERIAL
= It refers to the film and photographic paper that basically composed of emulsion
containing Silver Halides suspended in gelatin and coated on a transparent or reflective support.
Parts of the Sensitized Material
1. Emulsion = is that part of the film or photographic paper which contains the silver
grains which is the one sensitive to light. In a colored film this emulsion surface can
be composed of Three layers ( Blue, Green and Red) with filters intervening.
2. Anti Halation Backing = Is the one designed to hold back the light and prevents
halation.
3. Base = Support the emulsion
I. Types of Film
A. According to Use
1. Black and White Film = usually represented by a prefix or a suffix
“Pan” or “Ortho” and generally used in black and white photography.
Examples are Ortholith film, Tri X-Pan and Pan X-plus.
2. Colored Film = can be divided into two: the Negative type and the
reversal type of colored film. The former is usually having names
ending in color while the word chrome represents the latter.
e.g. Kodakcolor, Fujicolor, Agfacolor
Kodachrome, Fujichrome, Agfachrome.
b.1. Weight
1. Light weight = designed for high flexibility and when paper thickness is not of
consideration. Intended for purposes, which involves folding.
2. Single Weight = papers used for small prints or which are need to be mounted
on solid and fine details necessary in the production. Used in ordinary
photographic purposes.
3. Double weight = generally used for large prints because they stand up under
rough treatment.
B.3. Color
a. White = better used in police photography.
b. Cream = preferred for pictorial effect, portraits, landscape or when
warmth effect is desired.
c. Buff papers = prepare for tone prints
C. According to Contrast (grade)
5. CAMERA
Is a light tight box with light gathering device and a means of blocking unwanted or
unnecessary light from reaching the sensitized material.
Basically, camera can produce image with its four-(4) basic parts such as light tight box,
lens, and shutter, Holder of sensitized material.
1/1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/15 1/30 1/60 1/125 1/250 1/500 etc.
The speed number in the left is always two times powerful in terms of light gathering than
that of the right number
Using a fast shutter speed the photographer can stop or “freeze” the action of a person
provided that necessary adjustment on the lens opening be made in order to maintain normal
exposure.
D. Lens Aperture = the ratio between the diameter of the whole lens in relation to
the focal length of the lens. It is the light gathering power of the lens. Otherwise
known as lens opening or relative aperture and it is expressed in F-number.
The lower the f-number, the bigger the lens opening and the bigger the lens opening the
greater the volume of air that will passed through the lends and reach the sensitized material.
If the objective of a photographer is obtain the widest possible coverage of the lens in
which objects are all sharp, It will be advisable to used a smaller lens opening.
E. Focusing = is that mechanism of a camera designed to control the degree of
sharpness of the object to be photograph. It is usually obtained by estimating the
2. Ground Glass
This is observed from the viewing system of the camera, once the object is not in focused
the object will be viewed to be blurred and will turn sharp and clear once adjusted.
3. Scale Bed
Estimating the distance of the object and adjusting the camera control based on his
estimation do this.
CLASSIFICATION OF LENSES
1. According to the type of image to be produced
a. Positive or Convex Lens (Converging Lens) Characterized by the fact that it is
thicker at the center and thinner at the side which is capable of bending the light
together and forms the image inversely.
b. Negative or Concave Lens (diverging Lens) Characterized by the fact that it is
thinner at the center and thicker at the side and forms the virtual image on the
same side of the lens.
2. According to Degree of Corrections
a. Meniscus Lens = lens that has no correction.
b. Rapid Rectilinear Lens – lens corrected of distortion
c. Anastigmat Lens – correcting astigmatism
d. Achromatic Lens – correcting chromatic aberration
e. Apochromatic Lens – correcting both astigmatism and chromatic aberration
LENS CHARACTERISTICS
1. Focal Length – is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens is set to
focus at infinite position. As according to focal lenses may be classified as:
a. Wide Angle or Short Focus = with focal length not longer than the diagonal half of
the negative. Useful in taking photograph at short distance with wider area
coverage.
b. Normal or Medium Focus = with focal length approximately equal but not longer
than twice the diagonal half of the negative.
c. Long or Telephoto Lens = with focal length longer than twice the diagonal half of
the negative. Best used in long distance photographing but with narrow area
coverage.
d. ZOOM lens = lens with variable focal length or that which can be adjusted
continuously by the movement of one or more elements in the lens system.
2. Relative Aperture – the light gathering power of the lens expressed in F-number
a. Depth of Field – is the distance measured from the nearest to the farthest object
in apparent sharp focus when the lens
b. Hyperfocal distance = Is the nearest distance at which when a lens is focused
with a given particular diaphragm opening will gives the maximum depth of field.
3. Focusing = is the setting of the proper distance in order to form a sharp image. The one
that controls the degree of sharpness of the object.
6. CHEMICAL PROCESS
The process of making the latent image visible and permanent.
a. Development (Use of either D-76, Dektol or Universal Solution)
= Is the process necessary for reducing the silver halides to form the image.
Elon, Hydroquenone = used as main developing agents
b. Stop bath = normally composed of water with little amount of dilute acetic acid
that serves as a means to prevent contamination between the developer and the
acid fixer.
c. Fixation = Is the process by which all unexposed silver halides are dissolved or
removed from the emulsion surface and making the image more permanent.
Sodium Thiosulfate (hypo) is the main fixing agent that dissolves
unexposed silver halides.
--END—
1. Standard Document
- it is a document in which the origin is known and its source can be proven. It is also
being used as a comparison with other things in questioned or disputed.
- this are standard specimens obtain from different files of documents which is being
executed on a day to day activities of man.
- it is document being created only upon request and only prepared once for the
purposes of making a comparative examination with the disputed documents. The subject is told
what to write and is aware that the samples will be used for analysis and comparison.
Contemporary Document- documents which are not more than five (5) years before or
after.
1. Public Documents
2. Official Documents
- are instruments issued by government officials vested with authority to do so. These are
documents issued in the exercise or performance of their duties. This refers to laws
created by our law-making bodies and ordinances implemented in the Barangay.
4. Commercial Documents
- these are instruments defined, executed and regulated in accordance with the Code of
Commerce as well as the Marcantile Law.
A. General
- are documents received in full and wide circulation like reports and communication
letters within the organization.
B. Limited
- documents where wide circulation is not necessary and disclosing such information in a
document shall be issued upon the services of the authorized person just like in a library. It is
indicated with an “L” symbol.
C. Restricted
2. Questioned Document
This are papers containing signatures under suspicion and being disputed
regarding its authenticity usually found on check, note, draft, contract, will, and other
relevant papers.
This are questioned documents being investigated as to the age of the instrument.
The age of the writings may have some bearing as to the authenticity of the document.
For some cases, documents have been introduced to have been created a long time age
but actually proven a few months old.
The most frequently questioned documents being brought under inquiry. This are
documents being investigated to identify the handwriting on a paper that leads to the
identity of the writer.
The word “paper” was originated from Egypt which they called as “Papyrus” discovered
by them more than 4,000 years ago. Papyrus was made from a grass called “reeds.”
The first paper was made in China 2000 years ago out from the inner bark of bamboo and
hemp.
In the 2nd century BC., “vellum” was created as a writing surface which is being crafted
from the skins of goats and lambs.
In 1960, William Rittenhouse of Roxborough, Philadelphia founded the first paper plant in
America.
Types of Paper
2. Offset- it is more expensive than newsprint due to its content that can resist water.
4. Lightweight-
5. Specialty Paper
6. Gummed Papers
7. Text Paper
8. Coated paper
9. Bristol
11. Tyvek
Writing Instruments
- refers to objects used in writing through the application of pressure to the writing
surface by means of an ink or engraving.
Ink
- is a viscous liquid or dye applied in a pen that produces the visible result of writing.
Types of Ink
1. India Ink- it is the oldest form ink made up of carbon black. It is composed of soot,
known as lamp black.
2. Logwood Ink- it is the cheapest form of ink. It comes from the brownish-red
heartwood of a logwood tree used in preparing the a purplish red dye.
4. Nigrosine Ink- a type of ink made by heating a mixture of aniline and nitrobenzene
and used in negative staining of cells in a microscope.
5. Dye Inks
A. Copy Book Form- is an illustration of the basic design of letters that is fundamental to the writing
system.
B. System of Writing- it is the combination of the basic shape and design of letter and writing
movement which was taught in school. It is a design of letters that is essential in identifying the
nationality of the writer which is essential in ascertaining a persons’ identity.
System of Writing
1. The Round Hand System- originated in England characterized by an open flowing hand and a
contrast of thick and thin strokes.
2. Spencerian System
5. Modern Vertical
C. Writing- is the visible result of a very complicated series of acts, being as a whole or a
combination of certain forms which are the very visible result of mental and muscular habits
acquired by long continued painstaking effort.
Graphology- is the science that deals with the study of one’s handwriting and the
characteristics binding on it.
Types of Handwriting
1. Cursive- letters are joined together.
3. Natural Writing- executed normally and it has no attempt of altering and disguising its
usual writing.
4. Disguised- writings that is executed with deliberate attempt of changing its usual
writing habits to hide one’s identity.
5. Guided/Assisted Writing- writing in which the writer’s hand is at steady while being
assisted by another person.
E. Writing Habits- refers to any repeated elements of once handwriting which serves as an
identifying characteristics.
The development of writing first evolves on the impulses of the brain that connects with
the organs of the body which subsequently forms a writing process. These impulses is formed
from the writing center of the brain’s cortex, the part that also controls our vision, hearing, sight,
talking, walking and other fundamental movements of our body. The impulse from our brain is
now being transmitted to our finger and directs it to grasp the pen and bring it into motion with
considerable pressure. A center near the area of the cortex is responsible for the fine movement
in handwriting and if this important area becomes a disease, it will cause a person lose the ability
to write which is called “agraphia” The person’s skill in writing involves the four group muscles
which are the finger, wrist, elbow, and shoulder and the combination of this movement will
produce written forms called “motor combination.” At first, a person starts to create symbols
and drawings since they have no idea with the system of writing. Through a guide and
painstaking practice, a person will eventually form his own writing habits. After considerable
time and effort, a person will unconsciously develop his own unique writing habits which is called
significant writing habits.
History of Writing
Even in the primitive times, writings have been used based on man’s desire to
communicate with others. Early recorded writings can be found engraved in stones,
carved in woods and clay tablets.
Cave Drawings are the early recorded history of writings. It is not associated by an
alphabet or any systems of writing but only depicts symbols and drawings. These cave
drawings are called Petroglyphs or Petrograms which was developed between 20,000
and 10,000 BC.
Phonographs- are those word pictures which are translated to sounds or syllables and
later on developed into phonetic symbols called Phonetic Alphabet.
Phoenician Alphabet- known alphabet spread by Phoenicians and adapted by the entire
world during the 1700-1500BC which consists of 22 letters and written from right to left.
Greek Alphabet- derived from the Phoenician Alphabet and developed in Greece by 8th
century BC. They changed the direction of writing from left to right.
Cyrillic Alphabet- used in Russia, Serbia, and Bulgaria. It was developed in Greece but has
an additional letters with sounds different from Greek.
Characteristics of Writing
Types of Characteristics
1. Class/Gross Characteristics- these are characteristics that can be found commonly in the
specimen writing of a person.
2. Individual Characteristics- characteristics which are highly peculiar and personal which is
unlikely to occur in other handwriting.
2. Beard- is an introductory up and down strokes found in some capital letters. Also sometimes
called as double hitch.
5. Central Part- is the body of the letter characterized by small rounded or circular stroke.
6. Ductus-link and Ductus-broken- refers to the connection between each letters which are
either joined or disconnected.
10. Knob- is a tiny pool of an ink found at the beginning or ending stroke of a letter. It is also
termed as “Blots.”
12. Stem/Shank/Staff- known as the backbone of the letter described as a long downward
stroke.
13. Whirl- is the single upward stroke found opposite the stem.
14. Initial/Terminal Spur- a long running initial and terminal stroke of a letter.
16. Embellishment/Rubrics- this are the flourishes and designs useful only for ornamentation but
not essential or unnecessary to the legibility of ones writing.
Writing Movement
- it is the act of moving to form letters and symbols and all factors relative to the motion
of the writing instrument. It is a primary determinant of the speed of writing of a person.
NOTES ON FORENSIC SCIENCE BY CLBN | 2022 | 30
Types of Writing Movement
1. Finger Movement- commonly employed by beginners. It is the action of the thumb, index
and middle fingers in writing. This writing movement results into a rough lines and irregular
connections between letters. The motion of the pen appears slow and dull.
2. Hand Movement- writing movement that has limited freedom and involves the action of the
entire hand. The wrist is the pivotal point of the writing.
3. Lumbrical- this are the combination of the extensor and flexor muscles that forms a lateral or
horizontal strokes.
Line Quality
- the term used to describe the smoothness of a line and a writing movement.
- the quality of movement can be distinguished into five classes:
a. Clumsy, illiterate and halting.
b. Hesitating and painful through weakness or disease.
c. Nervous and Irregular
d. Strong, heavy and forceful
e. Smooth flowing and rapid
1. Pen Pressure- this refers to the degree of weight applied in a writing which may be heavy or
light.
2. Pen Emphasis- it is the act of intermittently or periodically forcing the pen against the paper
surface with an increase in speed. It is characterized
Classification of Skill
a. Poor Skill- characterized by lack of legibility and symmetry or any of its features.
5. Speed- it refers to the rate of movement of a writer and interpreted as either fast, slow, or
moderate.
6. Pen Lift- is the interruption of the strokes caused by sudden removal of the pen and leaves a
gap at certain points of a word or letter.
7. Shading- it is the widening of a line in a letter because of the application of pressure and
there is an increase in the width of the strokes.
8. Pen Position- it is the location and angle of the pen to the surface of the paper.
9. Pen Hold- it is helpful in identifying the position of the pen by carefully examining the ink
stroke of the letters or words.
10. Pen Scope- it refers to the reach of the hand or the coverage of writing while the wrist is at
rest.
11. Retracing or Retraced- it is a stroke that goes back over another writing stroke that creates
superimposition of line in the letter.
12. Retouching or Patching- a stroke that goes back over the defective portion of the stroke to
correct or alter the words or letters being written.
2. Transitory Change- those changes that exist because the factors or causes that is still affecting
the writer, the normal writing condition of the writer will revert back to its normal form once
that causes seize to exist.
3. Tremors- is the weakening of the strokes characterized by a wavering or shaky strokes resulting
to irregular pen lines attributed to brain impulses which affect the muscles.
a. Genuine Tremor
Old Age- indicates muscular weakness in writing and shows unusual departures
of letters from its intended course. It also shows carelessness and unconscious
strokes.
b. Tremor of Fraud
The strokes are too heavy resulting to widening of the strokes of a letter.
B. COMPARISON- (comparison of all the characteristics after analysis) the elements of the known
and unknown specimen after thorough examination and analysis must be compared.
Signatures
Evidential Signature- specimen signature which was executed in a particular date, time,
and place under a particular writer’s condition and for a particular purposely.
Classes of Signature
3. Careless Scribble- used for not so important document such as delivery of mail
or receipt of purchase equipment etc.
Forgery
Indications of Forgery
c. Tremor
e. Patching
1. Simple Forgery- also known as “spurious signature.” It is a forgery wherein a person does not try
to copy any model or facsimile of a signature they are attempting to forge.
3. Traced Forgery- a forged signature that completely resembles the model signature by the
process of tracing the outline of the genuine signature. This method of forgery is easy to detect
since “a person cannot create his own signature that is exactly alike”
Methods of Tracing
a. Projection or Transmitted Light Process (Direct Tracing)- it traces a signature through
a transmitted light at the bottom of both paper then trace the outline appearing at
the bottom of the paper.
b. Carbon Outline Process (Indirect Tracing)- the forger use a carbon paper. The carbon
paper will be placed at the middle of two papers then the model signature at the top
will be traced with dry pen or any pointed instrument which leaves an imprint to the
fraudulent document bearing the exact pattern of the original signature.
c. Indentation Process- a forger will trace the model signature with adequate pressure
over a blank paper using a stylus or any pointed writing materials that form an indent
signature. The depression created on a blank paper will now be overwritten with an
ink to make the indented signature visible.
i. Alteration- is the change or modification in any form to the original content of the
document either by addition or deletion to replace it with substances which is not part of the
original preparation.
Methods of Alteration
Erasure- refers to the removal of letters, words or symbols in a document either through
mechanical or chemical. It can e detected through transmitted light or ultra-violet light
examination.
iii. Charred Document- refers to partly burned document. Detected through Infra-red Light.
iv. Invisible Writing- writing that is incapable to be seen and no visible ink strokes. It is done
by applying Sympathetic Inks. It can detected through the application of heat and ultra
violet process.
v. Contact Writing- it is the application of the partially visible ink strokes cause by sudden
contact of a paper with another sheet containing fresh ink. It can be detected by Ultra-
Violet Light.
1. Microscopic Examination- it used in the detection of retouching, patching and unnatural pen lifts
especially in signature analysis. It aids in the decipherment of erasures in a document with a very
minute details.
2. Transmitted Light Examination- done by allowing the light at the bottom of the paper to passed
through. It aids in the detection of erasures.
3. Oblique Light Examination- it is done by reflecting the light that is pointed at a certain angle to
the paper surface.
4. Ultraviolet Examination
5. Electrostatic Detection- using the electrostatic detection apparatus (ESDA), forensic document
examiner will be able to detect indented writings.
6. Video Spectral Comparator (VSC)- used in the examination of obliterated writings and
watermarks.
Typewriter
- a mechanical or electronic device that has a set of keys (alphanumerical values) when
pressed will create an imprint to the paper and produce a visible writings by means of
carbon ink.
Typeface- it is the printing surface of the typeblock which bears the character (letters, numbers,
or symbols) in a typewriter.
Typeface Defect- it is the damage in the typeface that produces an abnormal print in a paper.
There are different types of typeface defects:
e. Vertical Mal-alignment- characters are either printed below or above of its proper
alignment.
f. Horizontal Mal-alignment- characters are either printed at the right or left of its proper
alignment.
--END--
Polygraph- comes from the Greek word “Poly” means “many or more than one” and
“Graphein” means “to write.”
- it is one of the instrument used to monitor and record the physiological changes of the
person specifically the pulse beat, respiration and skin resistance.
- the word polygraph was first used by Thomas Jefferson to describe one of his
invention which could rewrite repeated words but not intended to be used for lie
detection.
- polygraph is only used as a means of interpreting the changes of the physiological
reactions but does not precisely determined deception on the part of the subject.
- it is being compared to an X-ray machine in which it records the internal changes in
the human body and subject for an interpretation.
- states that the specific nervous system can be stimulated which results to
involuntary mental and emotional responses that can be identified if a person has
the intent to deceive.
- the word “Ordeal” came from the Latin word “Dei Indicum” which
means “a miraculous decision.” If the wound or injury made by such ordeal heals, a
person is considered innocent, otherwise, the accused is said to be guilty. It relies on
the belief that a person is declared guilty or not through a “Divine Providence”
a. Ordeal of Hot Water- a person will be instructed to retrieve a stone from boiling
water.
b. Ordeal of Boiling Oil- practiced in West Africa. A person must a retrieve an item
in a boiling oil and those who refused the task will be automatically adjudged guilty.
c. Red Hot Iron Ordeal- the accused will touched a hot metal 9 (nine) times using
his tongue.
d. Order of Hot Needle- a person’s lips will be teased by a hot needle.
e. Ordeal of Cold Water- a person will be accused of witchcraft and the accused
who sink or drown is considered innocent while those who floats will be tagged as
witch.
f. Ordeal of Rice Chewing- an accused is required to swallow rice and if he failed to
swallow or spit it out dry, he will be adjudged guilty.
g. Ordeal of Red Water (The Trial of the Eucharist)- an accused is required to run
for an hour and immediately eat a cup of rice and drink dark-colored water. It will
serve as emetic and once a person vomits the rice, he will be considered innocent.
h. Ordeal of the Cross- the accused and the accuser must stand on the side of the
cross and have to stretch out their hands horizontally. The first person who lowers
their arms will lose.
i. The Test of the Axe- a group of person will be arranged in circle and an axe will
be spun in the center of the group. When the axe’s blade stop at a particular person,
he is considered as guilty.
j. The Test of the Candle- the accuser and the accused are each given a candle
with the same length. These candles will be lighted at the same time. The one with a
candle that burns longer determines who speaks the truth.
k. Donkey’s Tail (Ash Tail) Ordeal- all accused person are required the strike a
donkey’s tail and when the chosen donkey cries, an accused will be adjudged guilty.
1. Brain Waves
2. Brain Imagery
3. Eye Tracking
4. Facial Analysis
5. Narco-Interrogation
6. Reaction Time
9. Use of Alcoholic Beverages- it is due to the belief in “In Vino, Veritas” (In Wine,
There is Truth)
11. Polygraphy
1. Angelo Mosso- made used of the “plethysmograph” and the “scientific cradle” that
measures the flow of blood. He advocates that the “detection of fear” has a direct
influence in the physiological reaction of the body.
3. Francis Galton- used the word association test. It was injected with several relevant
and irrelevant words and would be presented to the patient. There will be an inner
reaction by showing either delay or more rapid reaction.
4. Sir James Mackenzie- devised the ink polygraph which records the vascular pulses
of the person.
5. Dr. William Marston- the inventor of the systolic-blood pressure along with the
“discontinuous technique” in which there is a repeated inflation of the cuff after
obtaining readings during examination.
6. Sticker- made the earliest application of psychogalvanometer to forensic issues.
7. Veraguth- first to use the word association test with galvanometer and termed the
psychogalvanic skin reflex.
8. Vetturio Benussi- used the Marey Pneumograph used to record the inspiration-
respiration or the subject’s breathing in the detection of deception.
10. Leonard Keeler- he designed the “kymograph” and added to the polygraph
instrument. In 1938, he included the “Psychogalvanometer” as the third instrument.
He also developed the “Relevant-Irrelevant Technique” and considered as the
“Father of Modern Polygraphy”
NOTES ON FORENSIC SCIENCE BY CLBN | 2022 | 39
11. John Reid- addition of a portable chair that is able to detect muscular movements or
known as “Reid Polygraph”
12. Cleve Backster- formulated the numerical scoring or “Backster Zone Comparison
Technique”
13. Richard O. Arther- pioneered the Arther II polygraph which consists of a marker used
to record the beginning and ending of a question until the subject answered.
o Emotion- the word emotion came from the French word emouvoir, which means
“to stir from up”
o Lie- it is the deliberate way of giving information to someone that is not true.
Types of Lie
1. Big Lie- the person you are lying to already knew the truth.
3. Emergency Lie- a truth shall not be told because it may cause harm to other
person.
7. Misleading Lie-
Psychophysiology- it refers to the study of the effect of the human mind to the body.
This specific reactions is because of the application of the “stimuli” into the human body
which brings signals to the brain and this stimulation of the brain results to physiological
reactions.
The Nervous System- the complex network of interconnecting nerve and cells which is
responsible in carrying messages to and from the brain to various parts of the body. It is
divided into two: the Central Nervous System and the Peripheral Nervous System.
- it is the main functioning system of the nervous system which consist of the brain
and spinal cord.
Brain- it receives and transmits the stimuli and it dictates the body how to react from
such signal.
Spinal Cord- the main responsible in sending signals to and from the particular parts
of the body.
2. Peripheral Nervous System- this are series of nerves that connects the central
nervous system to the organs of the body.
Somatic Nervous System- it concerns with the voluntary activities of the body and
reactions that can be controlled.
Autonomic Nervous System- it concerns with the involuntary activities of the body
or the reactions that cannot be controlled such as heartbeat and breathing. It is the
main concern in polygraphy.
Responses to Threat
a. Blood Pressure Cuff- attached at the upper right arm (brachial artery) of a
subject.
5. Pen and Inking System- it provides for the permanent record of the examination in
the chart paper.
Polygraph Examination
- refers to activities that takes place between a polygraph examiner and a subject.
It is also referred to as, “Psychophysiological Detection of Deception (PDD)”
- it encompasses the procedure from pre-test examination to post-test interview or
interrogation.
1. They must be free from any prohibited drugs for 12 hours before the exam.
1. It must be spacious
2. Well ventilated and well lighted
3. Sound Proof
4. Must not consist of colorful decorations as it may affect the outcome of
the examination.
6. Preparing the subject for the test- if the subject is highly nervous, it is advisable to
prolong the pre-test interview.
1. Primary Markings- markings being placed at the beginning and end of the
examination during each particular set of questions and answers.
2. Secondary Markings- are markings that must be placed only if there are
distorted tracings or artifacts.
a. Irrelevant Questions- it is used to establish the norm for the examinee and questions
that has no connection with the matter under investigation
b. Symptomatic Question- done to ensure that the subject will not be asked with un-
reviewed questions.
Ex. Do you believe that I will not ask you questions we have not reviewed?
Ex. Regarding the crime of robbery, are you willing to answer the question
truthfully?
o Primary Relevant- questions that has direct involvement of the subject under
investigation.
Ex. Do you know who owns that unlicensed firearm used to kill Jose?
e. Control Questions- it is the same in nature with the relevant question designed to gain
response from truthful subject. It is used in comparison with the relevant question. It is
also termed as Comparison Question.
Polygraph Techniques
b. Peak of Tension Test- a question which consist of padding questions. Only one
relevant and series of irrelevant questions is being used in this technique.
c. Card Test (Acquaintance Test)- used to obtain the reaction of the subject if he
commits deception. Subject is instructed to answer “NO” to all cards even if it is
repeatedly shown to him.
e. Silent Answer Test- the subject will answer only in his mind.
f. Comparison Question Test- the responses given on the relevant and control questions
are being compared.
3. Result Errors
--END—
BALLISTICS
There is a “PROJECTILE,” since the one in motion refers to the metallic or non-
metallic ball being propelled by the firearms.
Its development was derived from the Roman War machine called the “Ballista” (a gigantic
catapult used to hurl missile)
It is now developed in a contemporary society and can be interchangeably used with the
word “Firearms and Bullet Identification”
When used in conjunction with the word “Forensic,” it refers to the application of ballistics
in the administration of justice like Forensic Firearms Investigation and Identification.
1. INTERNAL BALLISTICS- refers to the motion of the projectile from the breech up to the muzzle
of the firearm. The processes involved in this branch are:
c. Burned priming mixture passes through the flash hole into the propellant charge
f. Pressure is developed.
2. EXTERNAL BALLISTICS- refers to the study of the bullets’ or missiles’ flight after it leaves the
gun muzzle and before it strikes the target. The process involve are:
d. Gravitational Effect
Accurate Range- the distance in which the shooter has the control of his shots.
Effective Range (Wounding Capability)- distance where the projectile can inflict
damage.
Maximum Effective Range- the farthest distance the projectile is effective against
the intended target.
f. Velocity- rate of speed of the bullet in flight. It is expressed in Feet per Second (f/s).
h. Pull of Gravity- the downward reaction of the bullet due to its weight.
3. TERMINAL BALLISTICS
- refers to the impact or effect of the bullet on the target. It is used to determine the
knocking power of the bullet once it hits the target.
- this can be sub-divided into two:
Penetration Potential- capability of the bullet to penetrate various materials.
4. FORENSIC BALLISTICS- it is a discipline that refers to the investigation and identification of the
cartridge and what firearm it is specifically fired at. The branch of science which the police used
as their guide in their investigation.
a. Field Investigations- it is all the investigative activities done in the field involving the use of
firearms and ammunitions. It is the procedures and methods from collection up to the
transmittal of fired shells and bullets to the crime laboratory as well as the firearms used at
the crime scene.
c. Legal Proceedings- the presentation of evidence and technical reports to the trial court as
well as the taking of the testimony of the expert witness.
FIREARMS
1247 and 1311- the earliest used of small cannon was in Seville, Spain.
1449- first recorded used of the hand cannon as a cavalry weapon. The hand cannon was heavy
and inefficient so the creation of the small arms or hand guns was developed.
Matchlock- the first major advance in pistol that can be fired using one hand. A slow-burning
piece of cord or a match is used to ignite the priming charge. The part that holds the piece of cord
is known as the “Serpentine”, the forerunner of the modern trigger.
Wheel lock (arquebus)- credited the creation to Johann Kiefuss of Nuremberg, Germany in
1517. It is designed made for ambush than the matchlock. A type of firearm that has serrated
wheel. When the trigger is pulled, the serrated wheel will rub against the iron pyrite and generate
spark. The spark will pass through the “flash pan” and provides combustion to the loose powder.
Flintlock- the same with the wheel lock but replaced the iron pyrite with a flint.
Snaphaunce (1570)- early form of flintlock. A weapon with a mainspring inside the lock plate and
a priming pan cover which had to be manually pushed back before firing.
Miquelet- like the snaphaunce, it is also a type of flintlock where the mainspring will be
automatically pushed back before firing.
Revolver- the earliest form of revolver was made during the days of King Charles I in 1650. The
original patents of revolver belongs to Samuel Colt in 1835.
Self-loading Pistol (1892)- the first successful self-loading pistol appeared. Patented by Austrian
Schonberger and made by company Steyr.
1896- creation of the self-loading pistol with the introduction of 7.63 mm Mauser
Alexander Lacassagne- first to recognized the significance of the striations etched found on a
bullet from a murder victim
1. COL. CALVIN GODDARD- known as “The Father of Modern Ballistics.” Through his expertise, he
was able to established a comparison microscope used to determine whether or not a bullet or
shell was fired on a particular firearm.
2. HORACE SMITH- founded the Smith and Wesson, the maker of the breech-loading rifles.
7. Uziel Gal- he invented a sub-machine gun in the 1950’s wwhich was used by the Israeli Army
during its Sinai campaign in 1956.
DEFINITION OF FIREARM
A. LEGAL DEFINITION
- Sec. 877 of Revised Administrative Code, Sec. 290 of Nat’l Internal Revenue Code and
Republic Act No. 8294 as follows:
“FIREARMS OR ARMS as herein used, includes rifles, muskets, carbines,
shotgun, pistols, revolvers, and all other deadly weapons from which the bullets, balls,
shots, shells, or other missiles maybe discharged, by means of gun powder or other
explosives. This term also include air rifles and air pistols not classified as toys under the
provision of Executive Order No. 712. The barrel of any firearm shall be considered a
complete firearm for all purposes hereof.
B. TECHNICAL DEFINITION
CLASSIFICATION OF FIREARMS
Smooth-Bore Firearms= firearms that have no rifling inside the gun barrel. Ex. Shotgun and
musket
Artillery (Missile)= type of firearms that propels projectile with more than one inch diameter.
C. SHOULDER ARMS- those types of firearms that are fired from the shoulder
Rifles= shot through a rifled bore barrel with a measurement of more than 22 inches.
Single Shot Firearms= designed to fire only one shot every loading. Ex. Pistol, Revolver,
Shotgun
Repeating Arms= designed to fire several loads or shot in one loading. Ex. Automatic Pistol,
Rifle, Machine Gun.
Slide Action Type= loading take place by back and forth manipulation either under or over
the gun. One shot per loading.
Pistol= derived from the Italian word “Pistoia” which means “city.”
Revolver= designed to position the cartridge for firing by the action of the rotating cylinder
that serves as a chamber.
o Single Action= a revolver wherein the hammer should be manually cocked before
squeezing the trigger.
o Double Action= a revolver that does not need manual cocking. The hammer will
automatically cock after pressing the trigger.
SHOTGUN
- smooth bore shoulder arms designed to fire a number of lead pellets or shots.
- it is classified depends on its barrel construction.
o Cylinder Bore Type= the bore diameter is the same throughout the barrel.
o Choke Bore Type= the bore has a diminishing diameter (choke) towards the
muzzle of the shotgun. It is designed for more accurate shots.
o Paradox Gun= it has a rifling a few inch from its muzzle point. It is usually found
on a “Buck shot” guns.
o Double Barreled Shotgun- two barrels that is either position side by side or over
and under.
2. Freakish Guns- it is a gun in which it cannot be identified as a real gun or is designed in a different
manner to avoid easy identification.
4. Tool Gun- it has a resemblance of a gun but is intended to be used in carpentry and construction of
furniture.
5. Zip Gun- a home-made gun that is usually used in street crimes or gang wars. Locally known as
“Paltik”
AMMUNITION
The first form of ammunition is consisted of a loose powder that is carried through a flask or horn
and loaded inside the barrel through the muzzle of the firearm. Early projectiles used are stone
balls and arrows.
By the 15th century, lead ball is wrapped in a wad filled with black powder.
At the later part of the 16th century, a pre-measured charges were wrapped in a paper bag. This
paper bags will be torn and poured in the barrel followed by the wadding then the bullet.
Towards the end of the 1600s, the bullet was tied into the top of the powder bag resulting in the
first “self-contained” cartridge.
DEFINITION OF AMMUNITION
A. LEGAL DEFINITION
Chapter VII, Sec. 290 of the NIRC and also in Sec. 877 of the RAC defined as:
- it refers to ammunition as a “loaded shell” for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotgun,
revolver, and pistols from which a ball, bullet, shot, shell, or other missile may be fired by mean of
gunpowder or other explosive. The term also includes ammunition for air rifles as mentioned
elsewhere in the code.
B. TECHNICAL DEFINITION
-the term ammunition refers to a group of cartridge or to a single unit or single cartridge.
- a complete unfired unit consisting of a bullet, cartridge case, gun powder and the primer
PARTS OF CARTRIDGE
1. Bullet- a projectile being propelled through the barrel of the firearm by means of the expansive
forces of gases once the gunpowder or propellant is burned. It is termed as “slug” in the police
parlance.
2. Cartridge Cases- a cylindrical container for the gunpowder and the one that holds the bullet.
Sometimes called as “Shell” or “Case” and “shell cup” in a shotgun.
3. Gunpowder- it is a powder charge that once ignited by the primer will build a tremendous
pressure inside the contained cartridge case and suddenly propel the bullet from the barrel up to
the target. Also termed as “Propellant”
4. Primer- contains a highly sensitive priming mixture that initiates combustion to gunpowder once
struck by the firing pin. Termed also as “Percussion”
1. Primer- contains a highly priming compound that explodes when hit by the firing pin.
2. Case- holds the other parts of the shell. It is either made of plastic or brass.
3. Powder Charge- propels the shell once burned and formed pressure inside the shell.
4. Wad- it separates the shot from the powder. It also holds the pellets once it passes through the
barrel and until it leaves the muzzle. It is made up of plastic or paper.
5. Pellets or Slug- shotguns varies depends on the projectile it propels either it is a pellet/shots or
slugs.
Rim-fire Cartridge- developed by Flobert. The priming compound is located at the rim of
the case and ignites once the cavity of the rim was struck by the firing pin.
Center-Fire Cartridge- the priming cap is placed at the center of the base of the cartridge
case. Most commonly used cartridge in our time.
Rimmed Case Type- a cartridge that has its rim on the shell.
Semi-Rimmed Type- the diameter of the cartridge case is bigger than its rim.
Rebated Type- it is a rimless type of cartridge but has a rim diameter smaller than the
body of the case.
Caliber- term or unit of measurement found mostly on a rifled type of firearms like pistols,
revolver and rifles. It can be converted into millimeter.
Gauge (U.S.) & Bore (U.K.)- a unit of measurement found mostly on a smooth-bored
firearms like shotguns. The gauge is the number of lead balls or pellets of the bore
diameter equal to the weight of one pound. Ex. 1/12 of a pound is 12-Gauge and 1/20 of a
pound is 20-Gauge.
Foster Slug- developed by Karl Foster. Fired on a choked bore shotgun and allows
an accurate shot with a range of 50-70 yards.
Sabot Slug- used primarily in rifled barrel to provide much higher velocity. It is usually
fired in a paradox gun.
BULLET
- The word “Bullet” was derived from the “French word” “Boullete” which means a small ball.
- it refers to a metallic or non-metallic cylindrical ball propelled from a firearms. In a police
parlance, it is termed as “slug.” In a shotgun, it is termed as “shots” or “pellets”
TYPES OF BULLETS
A. Lead Type Bullet- composed of a lead metal and alloyed with quantities of antimony to give it
hardness.
B. Jacketed Bullet- it is covered by thin layer of a much harder material like copper or zinc alloy
added with a thick coat of lacquer to prevent corrosion. It is commonly used in high-powered
weapons.
C. Soft Point or Semi-Jacketed- a bullet covered with a jacket but reveals the lead at nose of
the bullet.
D. Hollow Point- the nose has a cavity that makes the bullet expand on impact especially at soft
targets.
E. Saboted Bullet- a bullet that is smaller than the bore diameter. A bullet surrounded by a
plastic sheet that discards once it leaves the muzzle thus creating a much higher velocity.
TYPES OF BULLETS ACCORDING TO THE BULLET TIP (NATO COUNTRIES COLOR CODING)
B. Tracer Bullet (RED)- used in military operations where the bullet leaves a trace on its tail while
on its flight.
C. Dark Ignition Tracer (ORANGE)- known as delay tracer bullet. The bullet will ignite some
distance away from the muzzle.
CARTRIDGE CASE
- a metallic or non-metallic container, usually cylindrical in shape, which holds the primer, powder
charge or bullet. It is made up of 70% copper and 30% Zinc.
- It is also termed as Shell, Case, Casing or Brass.
1. Base- it is the bottom portion of the shell where head stamp and primer will be found. Head
stamp indicates the caliber and manufacturer of the ammunition.
2. Rim- it limits the forward movement of the cartridge in the firearms chamber or cylinder.
3. Extracting Grooves- a depressed portion between the body and rim of the shell that is actually
being withdrawn from the chamber.
4. Primer Pocket- it holds the primer in the central position and prevents the gas from escaping.
8. Crimp- it is located at the mouth of the case to hold the bullet in place and avoid the bullet being
pulled out from the case.
10. Vent or Flash Hole- it is the hole at the bottom of the body but located inside the primer. It is
where the ignited priming mixture pass through to provide combustion to the gunpowder. There
are two types flash holes namely:
o Boxer Type- a cartridge that has only one flash hole. It was designed by Colonel Edward
Boxer.
o Berdan Type- a cartridge that has two flash hole designed by Col. Hiram Berdan.
Primer
- it is considered as the ignition system of the cartridge. It contains the highly sensitive
compound. When struck by enough force from the firing pin, it will ignite into a flame and imparts
combustion to the propellant. The action of the primer is called, “Percussion.” It is commonly
found on the center-fire type of cartridge.
1. Primer Cup- it covers the priming mixture, the anvil and the disc.
2. Priming Mixture- the highly sensitive compound that actually ignites. Also called “Percussion
Powder.”
3. Anvil- it absorbs the blow of the firing pin and provides that creates friction which in turn
provides ignition for the priming mixture.
4. Disc- provides insulation for the priming mixture against attack from moisture.
GUNPOWDER
HISTORY OF GUNPOWDER
Black Powder
- Black powder is the first known gunpowder and believed to have originated in CHINA. It was
used in fireworks and signal during the 10th century. It seems discovered by accident by an alchemist
who seeks for an immortality while inventing the elixir of life.
- In 142 AD, during the Han Dynasty, in the “Book of the Kinship of the Three,” author Wei
Boyang was the first person to write regarding gunpowder. He described the mixture of three powders
that would “fly and dance” violently that later on pave way to the creation of fireworks.
- By 904 AD, during the Tang Dynasty, it was only the time when the people began to use
gunpowder for a weapon. It was evident after the invention of small cannonballs inside the bamboo
tubes. It was the idea that pave way to the creation of guns and cannons.
Smokeless Powder
- people realize that the use of black powder is inefficient and messy that made the invention of
smokeless powder.
- In 1864, the first smokeless powder were made when both nitrocellulose (gun cotton) and
nitroglycerin developed in Europe.
- In 1884, a French Chemist named Paul Viellie improves the stability issues of the guncotton. He
treated the guncotton with mixture of ether and alcohol. These formulation is called “Poudre B.” It
is the first “single base powder.” It was first used in a rifle named Lebel Model 1886.
- In 1888, Alfred Nobel created the “Ballistite” The chemical formula was 45% guncotton, 45%
nitroglycerine and 10% camphor. It was the first “double-base powder.” It has even greater range
than Poudre B.
- In 1889, Sir James Dewar and Sir Frederick Abel invented the cordite. It was made of
nitroglycerine, guncotton and petroleum substance with the addition of acetone to gelatinized the
substance.
FIREARMS MANUFACTURE
a. Drilling- first procedure to be done to a metal is to drill a hole using a Gun Drills or Deep
Hole Drills. This procedure only creates irregularities on the inside surface of the barrel for
the meantime.
b. Reaming- the procedure that creates a very fine surface into the bore of the barrel after
the drilling operation which creates a perfect circular hole.
c. Cut Rifling- it creates the spiral grooves inside the barrel using some form of a cutter or
the rifling operation process.
d. Lapping- is the process of polishing the land and grooves of the barrel to remove the
remaining imperfections and machining marks for an uniform end to end surface of the
barrel.
FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION
- it is the process of determining a firearm through close examination of bullet and the
shell casing by looking at the reproducible marks created by the firearm. It is based on the
principle of uniqueness and distinguishing characteristics of evidences.
- All cases of firearms identification involve two examinations: Class Characteristics and
Individual Characteristics.
CLASS CHARACTERISTICS
A. Caliber (Bore Diameter of the barrel)- either caliber or gauge and the
distance between two opposite lands of the barrel.
B. Number of Lands and Grooves- the number of lands and gooves in a rifled
barrel always has the same number.
D. Width of Grooves
E. Direction of Twist- the rifling inside the gun barrel may either twist to the left
or to the right and will cause the bullet to rotate making stability to the bullet
in flight.
F. Pitch of Rifling- it is the measure of twisting of the lands and grooves for
every one complete turn (360 degree)
Types of Rifling
1. Steyer Type= rifling having 4 lands and 4 grooves, right twist, and equal width of lands and
grooves. (4RG=L)
2. Carbine Type= rifling having 4 lands and 4 grooves, right twist, and grooves is 2 times the
width of the lands. (4RG2x)
3. Smith and Wesson= rifling having 5 lands and 5 grooves, right twist, and equal width of lands
and grooves. (5RG=L)
4. Colt= rifling having 6 lands and 4 grooves, left twist and grooves is 2 times the width of the
lands. (6LG2x)
5. Browning= rifling having 6 lands and 6 grooves, right twist and grooves is 2 times the width of
the lands. (6RG2x)
6. Winchester= rifling having 6 lands and 6 grooves, right twist and grooves is 3 times the width
of the lands. (6RG3x)
7. Webley= rifling having 7 land and 7 grooves, right twist and grooves is 3 times the width of the
lands. (7RG3x)
o INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS
- characteristics which are peculiar and cannot be found in other types of firearms.
It is acquired during or after the manufacture of the firearm. These are the product
of manufacturing imperfections. It is also the effects on the firearm after it has
been used.
- Two things marked by the same tool will produce the same markings but no two things
marked by two different tools will create the same markings. Just like the effects of the
firearm into the bullet and shell once its fired from the said firearm.
1. Land Marks- marks left on a fired bullet caused by the contact of the elevated portion
(lands) to the bullet.
3. Skid Marks- it is due to the sudden forward movement of the bullet from the chamber
before it spins to the barrel.
5. Shaving Marks- usually found on bullet fired from a revolver wherein the cylinder is
poorly aligned to the barrel.
1. Firing Pin Mark- it is found on the base portion of the shell near the center of the primer
of the shell. It is considered as the most important marks for identification on fired shell.
2. Breech Face Mark- it is caused by the backward movement of the shell on the breech
block of the firearm.
3. Extractor Mark- it is found on the extracting groove once the fired cartridge is withdrawn
from the chamber.
4. Ejector Mark- it is found on the rim of the case cause by the removal of the fired case
from the firearm.
5. Shearing Mark- marks created around the firing pin mark or rippled-like marks.
6. Magazine Lip Mark- this markings found around the cartridge during the loading into the
magazine.
1. Given a bullet, to determine the caliber of firearm from which it was fired.
- most prominent and common tool used in comparing the test bullet or shell to the bullet
and shell found at the crime scene.
B. Torsion Balance
- used in getting at least three test bullets and shells. After taking a test bullets or shells, a
mark must indicate the last two digit of the firearm’s serial number and the number of test
bullet e.g. (T-88-1, T-89-2 and T-90-3)
D. Chronograph
FROM THE PNP FIELD MANUAL ON INVESTIGATION OF CRIMES OF VIOLENCE AND OTHER
CRIMES (2011)
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