Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering

Series Editor: J. Paulo Davim

Kurian Antony
J. Paulo Davim Editors

Advanced
Manufacturing
and Materials
Science
Selected Extended Papers of ICAMMS 2018
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial
Engineering

Series editor
J. Paulo Davim, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Aveiro,
Aveiro, Portugal
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15734
Kurian Antony J. Paulo Davim
•

Editors

Advanced Manufacturing
and Materials Science
Selected Extended Papers of ICAMMS 2018

123
Editors
Kurian Antony J. Paulo Davim
Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering
Muthoot Institute of Technology and University of Aveiro
Science Aveiro
Kochi, Kerala Portugal
India

ISSN 2522-5022 ISSN 2522-5030 (electronic)

Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering
ISBN 978-3-319-76275-3 ISBN 978-3-319-76276-0 (eBook)
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Contents

Effect of Magnetic Field to Reduce Emissions and Improve

Combustion Performance in a Spark-Ignition Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Vishnu Sankar, Sanath M. Chandran, Tharun Tomy, Unni Raj,
Vivek Samson and K. Ramachandran
Experimental Investigation on Reverse Engineering
Techniques Employing Response Surface Methodology
for Freeform Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
G. Sreeram Reddy, V. V. Satyanarayana, Manzoor Hussain
and J. Jagadesh Kumar
Effect of Process Parameters and Cryotreated Post Tempered
Electrodes on the Radial Overcut of AISI 304 During EDM:
A Comparative Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Munmun Bhaumik and Kalipada Maity
Shrinkage Porosity Reduction in Aluminium Alloy A356 Using
Simulation Tool with Assisted Rapid Prototyping Casting . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Suresh Laxman Chittewar, Rajesh M. Metkar
and Santosh Tanaji Ghutukade
Finite Element Analysis of Rail Vehicle Suspension Spring for Its
Fatigue Life Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
M. A. Kumbhalkar, D. V. Bhope and A. V. Vanalkar
Analysis of Optimized Roller Burnishing Parameters
Using ANSYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Priyanka S. Yadav and Dayanand A. Ghatge
Resistance Spot Welding of Cold Rolled Mild Steel
with Filler Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Sushil T. Ambadkar and Deepak V. Bhope

v
vi Contents

Study on Squeeze Casting of Aluminum Matrix

Composites—A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
L. Natrayan and M. Senthil Kumar
Development and Investigation of Microstructure and
Mechanical Properties of Cast and Hot Forged AL2014-TIB2
In Situ Composite by Stir Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
M. Senthil Kumar, R. D. Hemanth, B. Ashok Kumar, M. Venkateswarlu
and P. Kuppan
Mechanical Characterization and Comparative Evaluation of the
Different Combination of Natural and Glass Fiber Reinforced Hybrid
Epoxy Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
C. M. Meenakshi and A. Krishnamoorthy
Use of Polylactic Acid (PLA) Material for Asymmetric Spur Gear
Manufactured by 3-D Printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Laxman B. Abhang and Akshay Govardhan Dekhane
Tribological Study of AA2024-B4C Composites Using ANOVA . . . . . . . 115
Bhargavi Rebba, N. Ramanaiah and S. Rajesh
A Review on Effects of Various Parameters in Modulated
Tool Path (MTP) Machining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
P L. Jayananthan and B. Aravind Kumar
Machining of Difficult to Cut Materials by Electrochemical
Discharge Machining (ECDM) Process: A State of Art Approach . . . . . 139
Manpreet Singh and Sarbjit Singh
Development of Super Hydrophobic Surfaces
for Oil Spill Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Alex K. Babu, Alwinson Kuriakose Geevarghese, Althaf Easa,
Anthea Judette Maxi Fernandez, Rakesh Reghunath, Soney C. George
and R. Asaletha
FEA Study of the Multiple Structural Orientations on Selective
Laser Melted Cobalt Chrome Open-Porous Scaffolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Aby K. Abraham and V. G. Sridhar
Effect of Silicon Carbide as Filler Reinforcement on the Mechanical
Properties of Glass Fiber Epoxy Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Antara Bhattacharjee, S. Sujaykhosh and B. K. Nanda
Optimization of Weld Bead Geometry of C263 Nimonic Alloy
Electron Beam Weld Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Shaik Rifshu Hussain, K. P. V. Krishna Varma, Sriniwash Anand
and C. Lavanya
Contents vii

Development of a System for Simultaneous Rotation of Multiple

Stacks of Uranium Dioxide Pellets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
M. Sriniwash Anand, Meesala Shivasai, G. Sai Sasank, Gorkala Madhu
and Shaik Rifshu Hussain
Investigation on the Influence of Nano Structured Zirconia
Coating on the Corrosion Inhibition of SS 304 Stainless Steel . . . . . . . . 203
A. V. Ajay, Sivakumar S. Nair, Sreejith Mohan and Y. Vaisakh
Size Effect in Mechanical Behavior of Nb Microwires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
K. S. Athira and Atul H. Chokshi
Modeling and Predicting the Mechanical Properties of Nano Clay
Dispersed Natural Fiber Hybrid Intra-ply Woven Fabric Composite
by Using Response Surface Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
K. Jayakrishna, M. Rajesh, A. Soundhar, K. Surendhar
and M. T. H. Sultan
Design and Evaluation of Al Hybrid Composite for
Connecting Rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
M. S. Kiran Sankar, S. Akhil and O. Harikrishnan
Literature Review of Hard Turning and It’s Thermal Aspects . . . . . . . 245
Shahu Patil, Priya Jadhav and Satish Kumar
Photocatalytic Degradation of Rhodamine-B by Advance Oxidative
Process Using Electrochemically Synthesized ZnO–V2O5
Nanostructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Jenice Jean Goveas, Naveen Praveen Mascarenhas
and Richard Adolf Gonsalves
Facile Synthesis and Characterisation of Nanocomposite Doped
Chitosan—Polystyrene Polymer Blends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Naveen Praveen Mascarenhas, Jenice Jean Goveas,
Richard Adolf Gonsalves, T. Chandra Shekara Shetty and Vincent Crasta
Influence of EDM Control Factors for Aluminium
Hybrid Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Kamalkishor Ghisulal Maniyar and Dilip Sahebrao Ingole
Thermal Conductivity of Silicon Nitride Reinforced Al6061
Based Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
R. Keshavamurthy, N. P. Muthuraju and H. Govindaraju
Grinding of Inconel 718 Using Soap Water Jet and Liquid
Carbon Dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Arnab Kundu, Sirsendu Mahata, Manish Mukhopadhyay, Ayan Banerjee,
Bijoy Mandal and Santanu Das
viii Contents

Mechanical Properties of Al7075-SiC-TiO2 Hybrid Metal Matrix

Composite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
G. S. Pradeep Kumar, R. Keshavamurthy, Vijay Tambrallimath,
Riya Biswas and Yogesh Sahebrao Andhale
Study on Machinability of Aluminum Alumina Metal Matrix
Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
M. Sucharitha and B. Ravi Sankar
Performance Evaluation of Cutting Parameters for Surface
Roughness & Power Consumption in Turning of 904L Stainless
Steel Using Vegetable Oil Based Cutting Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Rushikesh P. Waydande and Dayanand A. Ghatge
Experimental Study on the Effects of Bio Ethanol Petrol Blends
in a Spark Ignition Engine: Performance Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
P. Anu Nair, S. Sarath, Agresh S. Kumar, Akshay Jegy George
and Anoop G. Das
An Experimental and Theoretical Study on the Effect of
Microstructure on the Tensile Behavior of Polylactide Nano
Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Anupam Glorious Lobo, B. K. Sarojini, Sabu Thomas, Adeeb Aman,
Mahammad Nawaz and Abdul Mujeeb
Oxidation and Hot Corrosion Performance of Al2O3-40%TiO2
Coating on Nickel Based Superalloys at 800 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Naveen Kumar, Vivek Kumar and S. B. Mishra
Numerical Simulation of Crack Propagation in Double
Torsion Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Karuppasamy Pandian Marimuthu, Kwangmin Lee and Hyungyil Lee
Structural and Dielectric Properties of Polycrystalline Calcium
Copper Titanate (CCTO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
J. Mohammed, Isah I. Garba, K. U. Yerima, A. Muhammad, U. F. Zulfatu,
Mubarak S. Abubakar, Jyoti Sharma, T. Tchouank Tekou Carol,
Sachin Kumar and A. K. Srivastava
Investigation on Mechanical and Wear Properties
of Aluminium Based Metal Matrix Composite Reinforced
with B4C, Gr and Fly Ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
M. H. Faisal and S. Prabagaran
Aluminium Carbon Nanotube Composites—A Review
on Latest Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
A. H. Sajeeb Rahiman and D. S. Robinson Smart
Contents ix

Effect of Mechanical and Metallurgical Analysis of Magnesium

and Aluminium Alloys Using Diffusion Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
R. J. Golden Renjith Nimal, M. Sivakumar, S. Arungalai Vendan
and G. Esakkimuthu
Operation Sequence Dependent Part Family Formation for
Reconfigurable Manufacturing System (RMS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Rutuja Krishnat Shivads and Martand Tamanacharya Telsang
Modeling and Analysis of Tool Wear Based on Cutting Force and
Chip-Tool Interface Temperatures in Turning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
L. B. Abhang and M. Hameedullah
On the Mechanical and Microstructural Properties of Novel
A356/Kevlar Surface Composite Fabricated via Friction Stir
Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
S. Pradeep Devaneyan, D. Peter Pushpanathan and Adhesh Parambath
Production of Biodiesel from High FFA Non-edible Nahar Oil and
Optimization of Yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Santosh Kumar Dash and Pradip Lingfa
Microstructural Evaluation, Tribological Behavior and Mechanical
Properties of Cu–Ni Alloy After Addition of Chromium Under
Spinodal Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Sagar C. Jirapure and Atul B. Borade
Development of Fire Resistant Polymeric Nano Composites Using
Plasma Modified Calcium Silicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
G. Ajeesh, P. Sanjana, M. Raji Sivani, S. Govardhan, A. Sudhin
and Philip Goerge
Welding Metallurgy of Corrosion Resistant 21st Century Ni-Based
Superalloy 686 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
B. Arulmurugan, M. Sathishkumar, K. Gokulkumar, K. Mageshkumar,
P. Subramani, M. Venkateshkannan, Manikandan and Arivazhagan
Effect of Magnetic Field to Reduce
Emissions and Improve Combustion
Performance in a Spark-Ignition Engine

Vishnu Sankar, Sanath M. Chandran, Tharun Tomy,

Unni Raj, Vivek Samson and K. Ramachandran

1 Introduction

Recently, researchers have made many devices for reducing exhaust emissions [1]
and fuel consumption [2, 3] of an engine in a very productive manner. But it has
few disadvantages like high cost [4] and some side effects [5] that affect engine
performance. In general, burning of 1 kg fuel releases nearly 1.1 kg water vapor
and 3.2 kg carbon monoxide [BP Australia Limited, 2000]. In addition, problems
such as incomplete combustion, presence of unburned hydrocarbons, oxides of
nitrogen, and sulphur dioxide etc. also affect the performance of the engine. The
most common type of fuel saving is done by adding chemical compounds to the
fuel [6, 7]. Unwanted exhaust emission is due to incomplete combustion of carbon
dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide which results in higher exhaust gas
emissions. Usage of fuel saving gadgets is also not recommended due to its high
cost [8]. In order to overcome these difficulties, we propose a motor vehicle
incorporated with a magnetic device, whose fuel consumption and emission char-
acteristics are then analyzed. The present research works describes about the fab-
rication of a low cost bike associated with a magnetic device to reduce emission
characteristics as well as fuel consumption. The strength of magnetic field lines
needed was around 5000 Gauss which is provided by a powerful neodymium
magnet. These magnets are cost effective, weightless, safe and environment friendly
[9]. The fuel is exposed to a magnetic field by a magnetic source which is placed in

V. Sankar
S. M. Chandran (&)
T. Tomy
U. Raj
V. Samson

Rajagiri School of Engineering and Technology, Kakkanad, Kerala, India
e-mail: Sanathmchandran@gmail.com
V. Sankar
e-mail: vishnusankar9369@gmail.com
K. Ramachandran
Holy Kings College of Engineering and Technology, Muvattupuzha, Kerala, India

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 1

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_1
2 V. Sankar et al.

fuel supply line to magnetize the fuel before it enters the engine cylinder. It is easy
to attach the magnetic device on the fuel line because of its robustness. The
magnetic field lines acting on the fuel disperses the hydrocarbon cluster into smaller
particles thereby improving the efficiency of combustion [10]. Moreover, it also
reduces unburned hydrocarbon present in the emission. Results are validated by
conducting experiments in a petrol engine for comparing the effect that magnetic
field has on fuel consumption and exhaust emissions.

2 Methodology

The main combustible elements present in a fuel are carbon, hydrogen, sulphur etc.
Fuel must contain one or several of these elements so that combustion takes place.
During combustion, the chemical energy of fuel will be converted into heat energy.
For utilizing the energy of the fuel in its most usable form, transformation of fuel
from one state to another is required. One way is to convert solid form to liquid/
gases form [11]. Through this method energy of fuels is utilized more effectively
and efficiently for various purposes. The straight run gasoline can be obtained either
by distilling crude petroleum or by synthesis technique [12]. It contains undesirable
compounds like unsaturated straight chain hydrocarbons and sulphur compounds.
But, it has a boiling range of 40–120 °C. This leads to the unsaturated hydrocar-
bons getting oxidized and polymerized. This also leads to gum and sludge for-
mation on the storage system. Sulphur compounds adversely affect tetraethyl lead,
which is added to gasoline to improve its ignition properties. Moreover, it also leads
to the internal combustion engine getting corroded. The sulphur compounds can be
removed from gasoline with sodium plumbite, an alkaline solution [7]. When a
gasoline fuel is burnt, it reacts with oxygen to produce heat. Two neodymium
magnets having field strength of 1500–2000 Gauss and 2500–2800 Gauss used for
making of magnetic field and strength of magnets is validated by Gaussmeter or
magnetometer. Magnetic fuel saver can reduce the fuel consumption in a petrol
engine. Fuels are in liquid form in the oil tank. It undergoes combustion when it is
vaporized and mixed with air. In order to improve the combustion, fuel particles
should be turned to finer tiny particles. Magnets will help to ionize the fuel [13, 14].
Fuels are classified from group of hydrocarbons. When hydrocarbon molecules
flow along the direction of magnetic field, they change their orientation to a
direction opposite to the applied magnetic field. As a result, the molecule config-
uration changes and intermolecular force between the molecules weakens. Thus,
presence of magnetic field disperses the molecules into fine tiny particles thereby
making the fuel less viscous.
Effect of Magnetic Field to Reduce Emissions and Improve … 3

3 Experimental Findings

Magnetic fuel treatment illustrates about the magnetic field interaction of hydro-
carbon molecules of fuel with oxygen molecules. Liquid fuel consists of many
organic compounds, predominantly hydrogen and carbon atoms. Densely packed
structures called pseudo compounds are formed because of different types of
attractive forces. These compounds can be further organized into clusters or
association which is relatively stable. When the fuel mixes with the air, oxygen is
not able to penetrate into the pseudo compounds. This hinders the availability of
appropriate quantities of oxygen to the interior of the molecular groups (associa-
tions). This is the reason for incomplete combustion which leads to the formation of
carbon deposits, carbon monoxide and large quantities of hydrocarbons being
emitted into the environment. Researchers have proved [15] that external forces
such as magnetic field can polarize the hydrocarbon fuel. The magnetic field pro-
duces a moment due to the movement of outer electrons in the hydrocarbon chain,
which moves the electrons into a higher energy level. This causes the breakage of
fixed valence electron which has a vital role in the bonding process of fuel.
Nevertheless, hydrocarbon fuel becomes directionalized. This magnetic alignment
permits rapid bonding within respective oxidizing media. It leads to complete
combustion of hydrocarbon fuel. Hydrocarbon molecules interact with high mag-
netic field which leads to their breaking up into small associates with high specific
surface [16]. This also leads to improved combustion. In accordance with Van Der
Waals discovery of weak clustering force, hydrocarbons in magnetically energized
fuel have a higher affinity towards oxygen which is the reason for optimal com-
bustion in the engine chamber. The outcomes of fuel with high magnetic field are
improved fuel combustion, increased engine power and reduction in fuel con-
sumption. Improved fuel combustion can cause reduction of carbon, carbon
monoxide and other hydrocarbon emissions. In the present work, objective was to
understand the effect of magnetic field on combustion and emissions in a spark
ignition engine. In order to fix magnet on fuel line, we need circular disk type
magnets having dimension of diameter 1 inch, such that it should be around the fuel
line. Geometry of the magnet helps for easy installation on fuel line. The magnetic
installation is as shown in Fig. 1.
The performance tests were carried out for a single cylinder, four stroke petrol
engine. The setup consists of an engine and an exhaust gas analyzer. The engine
specification is detailed in Table 1. Initially, engine was made to run with petrol as
fuel for all tests. The accurate measurement of the fuel consumption rate was taken
by the Burette method. The fuel consumption rates were measured for different
engines on different loading conditions and exhaust gases and emission from the
engine were also analyzed and measured by exhaust gas analyzer during experi-
mental tests as shown in Fig. 2. It measures exhaust gases such as hydrocarbons,
carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and carbon dioxide concentrations for each
load. This process was repeatedly done with magnetic installation and without
magnet installation. The results were then compared.
4 V. Sankar et al.

Fig. 1 Magnet installed

around the fuel line

Magnet

Table 1 Engine specification Manufacturer Bajaj

Model Bajaj CT100
Displacement [cc] 99.27
Engine type Single cylinder, Four-stroke
Maximum power [ps @ RPM] 8.2[ps] @ 7500 [RPM]
Maximum torque [Nm @ RPM] 8.05[Nm] @ 4500 [RPM]
Fuel delivery system Carburetor
Top speed [km/h] 110 [km/h]
Transmission 4 speed constant mesh
Stroke  bore [mm] 42  46

In the experiment, exhaust gases are analyzed at different engine speeds by

varying the fuel supply using valve. Fuel from the fuel tank is conveyed to the
magnetic device after it passes through the valve. Exhaust gasses after combustion
from the engine is passed to the gas sensor. The gas sensor detects the exhaust
gasses and it is given to the measuring device to detect the concentrations of various
components. When hydrocarbon fuel (CH4) is combusted, oxidation of hydrogen
atoms will take place. Further carbon atoms are subsequently burned
(CH4 + 2O2 = CO2 + 2H2O) which leads to carbon dioxide and water [17]. Since
the time for oxidizing hydrogen atoms during high speed combustion process is
very less, as in normal condition, only few carbon atoms will be partially oxidized
which results in incomplete combustion. Oxygen molecules combine with hydro-
gen molecules readily. However, the reaction between carbon and oxygen is of too
low energy. The optimal fuel efficiency (combustion efficiency) and performance is
obtained by the application of magnet around the fuel line and it is first indicated as
an increase in amount of carbon dioxide (CO) produced and it has been validated by
the values in emission control device.
Effect of Magnetic Field to Reduce Emissions and Improve … 5

Fig. 2 Experiment set-up (1 Engine, 2 Magnetic device, 3 Measuring device for exhaust gases, 4
Fuel tank, 5 Gas sensor, 6 Valve and 7 Flexible tube)

4 Results and Discussions

The percentage of the exhaust gases which was measured during engine operation,
for three different speeds, with and without magnetic field is shown in the graphs.
Fuels which are basically Hydrocarbons possess a “cage like” structure, so that
during the combustion process oxidizing inner carbon atoms is difficult.
Furthermore they combine into much larger groups of pseudo compounds and they
form clusters (associations). The entry of oxygen in the correct amount into the
interior of these clusters is obstructed and it is this lack of oxygen into the cluster
which hinders the proper or complete combustion [18]. The exhaust would theo-
retically consist of carbon dioxide, water vapour and nitrogen from air, which does
not involve in the combustion. Practically, the exhaust emission consists of CO, H2,
HC, NOx and O2 gases. Nevertheless, complete combustion of fuel will never be
achieved and incomplete oxidized carbon is evident in the form of HC, CO or it will
deposit on internal combustion engine chamber walls as black carbon residue.
Hydrocarbon fuel molecules exposed to magnetic field tend to decluster, leading to
smaller particles which are readily penetrated by oxygen. Thus it helps in better
combustion. They become normalized & independent, distanced from each other,
having bigger surface available for binding (attraction) with more oxygen for
oxidation. According to van der Waals’ theory of weak-clustering force, hydro-
carbons are bound strongly with oxygen in such magnetized fuel, which ensures
proper burning of mixture in the engine chamber. This results in the reduction of
CO by 10% in Fig. 3.
It was found that the percentage of CO2 increased by about 3% as shown in
Fig. 4 but the percentage of HC was reduced by 5% as shown in Fig. 5. This is
because Magnetic field helps to improve the combustion level, which leads to the
reduction of exhaust emission of dangerous gaseous. The amount of unburned
6 V. Sankar et al.

Fig. 3 Graph plotted with RPM versus CO

hydrocarbon can also be reduced when combustion rate is improved. This system
use oxygen for conversion of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide and hydrocarbon
to water and carbon dioxide. Magnetizer was used to develop strong flux fields to
change the hydrocarbon molecule from its para state to higher energized ortho state.
In the para H2 molecule, the spin state of one atom relative to another is in opposite
direction (“counter clockwise”, “anti-parallel”, “one up & one down”), rendering it
diamagnetic. In the ortho molecule, spins are parallel (“clockwise”, “coincident”,
“both up”), with same orientation for the two atoms. The ortho-hydrogen is more
reactive than its para-hydrogen counterpart. This results in the reduction of emis-
sion and improved combustion performance when the magnetic field is applied.
It has been found that, today’s hydro-carbon fuels deposit carbon residue which
clogs the carburetor and the fuel injector, leading to reduction in efficiency and fuel
wastage. It also leads to pinging, loss of effective horsepower, stalling and large
reduction in mileage of the vehicle. In an internal combustion engine, power is
obtained as a result of combustion of liquid fuel. For complete combustion to occur,
the liquid fuel should get completely vaporized and then get mixed with air. If
incomplete combustion takes place, it leads to harmful tail pipe emissions like
carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen and sulphur, which reacts in the atmo-
sphere to form smog. The fuel generally used in an internal combustion engine is
compound of molecules. Each molecule consists of a number of atoms made up of
number of electrons, which orbit their nucleus. These molecules which already
possess magnetic movements also have positive and negative electrical charges. But
these molecules are not properly aligned and hence the fuel cannot actively com-
bine with oxygen during the combustion process. Hence it is necessary to ionize
Effect of Magnetic Field to Reduce Emissions and Improve … 7

Fig. 4 Graph plotted with RPM versus Carbon dioxide

Fig. 5 Graph plotted with RPM versus Hydro Carbon

and realign the fuel molecule or the hydrocarbon chain. This is achieved by the
application of magnetic field. During magnetization of the fuel, the bonds between
hydrocarbon chain breaks down which results in lowering its density, surface
tension and, hence smaller particulars and droplets during atomization or injection
8 V. Sankar et al.

within an internal combustion engine. Finer particles and droplets help in improved
evaporation rates, better mixing of fuel and oxidizer, also improved promotion of
oxidation. The net effect of this is better rate of combustion, an increase in power,
and reduced pollutants. Increased oxidation of the hydrocarbon fuel has positive
effects on combustion. Quicker and more complete oxidation results in more rapid
and more complete combustion of the fuel.

5 Conclusion

Magnetizer is able to lower the NOx level. Since all oxygen is bound up with
hydrocarbon fuel and formation of unwanted nitrogen compound is hindered. After
burning stoichiometric fuel through proper magnetic lines of force, the engine will
get maximum energy per litre along with lowest possible level of toxic emissions.
The number of HC decreases with increase in mileage of *15–25%. Thus it leads
to the reduction in emission and increased combustion efficiency. Since, fuel
energizer increases combustion efficiency and thereby saves fuel; there is a
reduction in CO emissions. Fuel associated with magnetic field is cost effective and
hence it reduces the exhaust emission rate. Magnetic treatment does not need
external energy source. The other key features of using magnet on automobiles are,
decrease in fuel consumption per liter, higher initial torque, reduced knocking and
detonation, smooth running, decrease smoke emission, faster A/C cooling, no fuel
wastage and long term maintenance free engine.

Fig. 6 Final view of spark-ignition engine with magnetic field

Effect of Magnetic Field to Reduce Emissions and Improve … 9

Table 2 Cost Estimation Item Price

Bike chases 2500
Engine 3000
Magnet 300
Mono shock 800
FZ chain lock 45
Silencer 550
CD unit 180
Petrol tap 200
Painting 600
Total Rs. 8175

References

1. Hricak RZ (1994) Air fuel magnetizer. U. S. Patent No. 5333133, 7

2. Cummins JCL (1976) Early IC and automotive engines. SAE paper 760604, Society of
Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, Pennsylvania, USA pp 18–26
3. Mingdong S et al (1984) Study on the combustion efficiency of magnetized petroleum fuels.
Chin Sci Bull
4. Keith H (1991) Magnetic fields raise fuel efficiency. New Scientist 131
5. Kiran RK, Muley KS (2006) Two stroke cycle engine performance and fuel treatment
devices. Overdrive-an automobile magazine, New Delhi, 23–28
6. Nedunchezhian N, Dhandapani S (1999) Experimental investigation of cyclic variation of
combustion parameters in a catalytically activated two stroke SI Engine combustion chamber.
SAE-India, Paper 990014:1–16
7. Govindasamy P, Dhandapani S (2007) Experimental investigation of cyclic variation of
combustion parameters in catalytically activated and magnetically energized two-stroke SI
engine. J Energy Environ 6:45–59
8. Govindasamy P, Dhandapani S (2007) Experimental investigation of the effect of magnetic
flux to reduce emissions and improve combustion performance in a two stroke
catalytic-coated spark-ignition engine. Int J Automot Technol 8(5):533–542
9. Bowker RR (2000) Permanent magnet design guide. Magnet Sales and Manufacturing & Co,
USA, pp 11–67
10. Chavan S, Jhavar P (2016) Effect of application of magnetic field on the efficiency of petrol
engine. IRJET (Int Res J Eng Technol) 3(9):152–161
11. Yujuan C et al (1989) Reduction of viscosity of crude oil by a strong magnetic field and its
application. Acta Petrolei Sinica
12. Yazhong Y (1990) The applied test of wax protection by intensive magnetism. Oil and gas
storage and transportation (China)
13. Pera I, Pines P (1987) Magnetizing hydrocarbon fuels and other fluids. U. S. Patent
No. 4716024
14. Okoronkwo CA, Nwachukwu CC Dr, Ngozi LC Dr, Igbokwe JO (2010) The effect of
electromagnetic flux density on the ionization and the combustion of fuel (an economy design
project). Am J Sci Ind Res 1(3):527–531, ISSN: 2153-649X. https://doi.org/10.5251/ajsir
15. Chavan S, Jhavar P (2016) Effect of application of magnetic field on emission of petrol
engine. IJIR (Imperial J Interdisc Res) 2(10):2121–2128
10 V. Sankar et al.

16. Ugara V, Latude S, Muduafale K, Dihole A (2005) Performance of I.C engines under the
influence of strong magnetic field. IOSR J Mech Civ Eng 11–17
17. Farisa AS, Hazim Mohammed SJ (2012) Effect of magnetic field on fuel consumption &
exhaust gas emission in two stroke petrol engine. Sci Direct 18:327–338
18. Patel PM, Rathod GP, Patel TM (2014) Effect of magnetic field on performance and emission
of single cylinder four stroke diesel engine. IOSR J Eng 4:28–34
Experimental Investigation on Reverse
Engineering Techniques Employing
Response Surface Methodology
for Freeform Surfaces

G. Sreeram Reddy, V. V. Satyanarayana, Manzoor Hussain

and J. Jagadesh Kumar

1 Introduction

The reverse engineering concepts are particularly useful whenever the products
original designs are lost and need to produce it using the surface characteristics thus
reducing the product development lead time. In reverse engineering the CAD model
created from physical component is rebuilt for freeform surface construction which
is a NURBS model [1, 2]. The quality of the freeform surface so generated depends
on the curvature and susceptible to level of noise contamination [3]. The curve
characteristics are investigated by employing height decision method and achieved
the data simplification [4]. By using non-contact and contact measurement tech-
niques the freeform surface and the part machining of a scaled down sports car is
studied for the effective utilization of reverse engineering concepts [5]. Design of
experimental techniques is undertaken and deviation from CAD models, repro-
ducibility and measurement uncertainty are evaluated for various configurations [6].
A methodology for reconstruction of a surface in the reverse engineering has been
attained with cost reduction and improved computational efficiency [7].
Hierarchical space decomposition model and octree data structures are used for the
scanned data in the construction of surface was found to be more robust and stable
[8]. Parameter optimization study is undertaken for reconstruction of the surface by

G. Sreeram Reddy (&)
V. V. Satyanarayana
J. Jagadesh Kumar

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vidya Jyothi Institute of Technology,
Hyderabad, Telangana, India
e-mail: sreeramgundeti@gmail.com
V. V. Satyanarayana
e-mail: vvs@vjit.ac.in
M. Hussain
Department of Mechanical Engineering, JNTUH College of Engineering,
Sultanpur, Medak, Telangana, India

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 11

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_2
12 G. Sreeram Reddy et al.

reverse engineering techniques [9] and found that the accuracy level depends on the
number of triangles, point cloud data and noise reduction [10].
In the present investigation various responses pertaining to reverse engineering
free form surface have been evaluated and the optimal factor conditions are
identified.

2 Experimental Methodology

2.1 Component Selection

The component part employed in the investigation was machined using CNC mill.
The part has the free form surface possessing sharp edges smooth enough to acquire
a point cloud data by employing a Faro make laser scanner which has the capability
to scan up to 19,200 points/s with 35 lm accuracy. The data acquired is a point
cloud along the chosen scanned line and analyzed for various sample sizes.

2.2 Responses Measurement

The investigation involved varies from a sample size of 20% of population to whole
population in steps of 20%. The responses evaluated are deviation, curvature
deviation, memory, defects and process time. The offset distance between actual
surface and reverse engineered model is taken in root mean square values for
calculating deviation (Fig. 1), while curvature deviation is done with Gaussian
curvature and original CAD model (Fig. 2). The defects include intersections, non
manifold edges, small holes, tunnels, spike edges etc. (Fig. 3). Processing time and
memory from the CAD model to reverse engineered surface construction have been
identified from the computer system employed.

2.3 Input Factors and Their Levels

Three factors are chosen at 5 levels each to evaluate their effect on the responses
under consideration. Trial runs are conducted while fixing the limits in the domain
for the parameters (Table 1).
Experimental Investigation on Reverse Engineering Techniques … 13

Fig. 1 Deviation analysis

Fig. 2 Gaussian curvature JPEG image

2.4 Design of Experiments

The experiments are conducted as per the central composite design of the response
surface methodology [11] and a response polynomial is fitted and is in the form;
14 G. Sreeram Reddy et al.

Fig. 3 Model with defects statistics

Table 1 Process parameters

S. No Parameters Notation −2 −1 0 1 2
1 Noise reduction level A 0 1 2 3 4
2 Triangle count (%) B 20 40 60 80 100
3 Smoothing levels C 0 2 4 6 8

Y ¼ b0 þ b1 x1 þ b2 x2 þ b3 x3 þ b4 x21 þ b5 x22 þ b6 x23 þ b1 x1 x2 þ b8 x2 x3 þ b9 x1 x3

The coefficients b0, b1 … are computed by the least square method and analysis
of variance is performed by Yate’s algorithm [12]. The analysis is conducted for
95% confidence level and 5% level of significance. The experimental matrix
comprises of 20 runs for the factors at their levels is depicted in Table 2.

2.5 Results

Experiments are conducted randomly to avoid the bias for various sample sizes.
The results for all the responses at a sample size of 40% of population are given in
Table 3.
Table 2 Experimental matrix
Parameters Runs
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A −1 1 0 −1 0 1 0 −1 1 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 −1 0 −2
B −1 1 −2 −1 0 −1 0 1 1 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0
C 1 1 0 −1 0 −1 0 −1 −1 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 −2 1 0 0
Experimental Investigation on Reverse Engineering Techniques …
15
16 G. Sreeram Reddy et al.

Table 3 Experimental results

Runs Deviation Curvature deviation Defects Memory Processing time
(mm) (%) (MB) (s)
1 0.036 62 9 4.63 8.79
2 0.0305 62.6 16 9.26 11.16
3 0.0404 62.3 0 2.31 9.48
4 0.0298 62.6 21 4.63 9.2
5 0.0294 63.3 0 6.94 10.12
6 0.0291 63.2 15 4.63 11.27
7 0.0294 63.3 0 6.94 9.28
8 0.0286 62.9 26 9.26 9.13
9 0.0278 63.2 15 9.26 10.43
10 0.0294 63.3 0 6.94 8.85
11 0.0357 62.2 16 4.63 10.23
12 0.0294 63.3 0 6.94 9.37
13 0.0294 63.3 0 6.94 9.46
14 0.0341 62.7 0 6.95 10.36
15 0.0304 62.7 0 6.94 12.49
16 0.0294 63.3 0 6.94 10.75
17 0.03 64.5 122 6.94 9.15
18 0.0302 62.2 13 9.26 9.55
19 0.028 63.3 0 11.5 9.25
20 0.0291 61.8 0 6.94 7.23

3 Analysis and Discussion

The deviation has varied from 0.028 to 0.0357 mm while the curvature deviation is
in the range 61.8–64.5%. Largest number of defects to a tune of 122 is recorded
while the processing time is in the range 7.23–11.27 s with a maximum memory of
11.5 MB. The deviation is invariant with the parameter combination triangle count

100
Deviation (mm) 8
Deviation (mm) Deviation (mm)
8
0.031
0.034
B: % of Triangles

C: Smoothing levels

C: Smoothing levels

80 6 6
0.032 0.03

0.029
0.03
60 6 4 6 4 6

0.03 0.029

40 0.031 2 0.028
2
0.032
0.028

20 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 20 40 60 80 100 0 1 2 3 4
A: Noise reduction Level B: % of Triangles A: Noise reduction Level

Fig. 4 Contour plots for deviation

Experimental Investigation on Reverse Engineering Techniques … 17

Curvature deviation (%) Curvature deviation (%) Curvature deviation (%)

100 8 8 62.8
62.6

C: Smoothing levels

C: Smoothing levels
62.6
62.8
B: % of Triangles

80 6 63
6 62.8 63

60 6 4 63.2 6 4 63.2 6
62.8
63.2
63.4
63.4
40 63 2 2
62.6 63.6 63.6

20 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 20 40 60 80 100 0 1 2 3 4
A: Noise reduction Level B: % of Triangles A: Noise reduction Level

Fig. 5 Contour plots for curvature deviation

100
Defects 8
Defects 8
Defects
0
2
C: Smoothing levels

C: Smoothing levels
B: % of Triangles

80 1 6 6

0
0
60 6 4 6
0 4 6

0 10 10

40 2 2
20
20

30
30 0
20 0
0 1 2 3 4 20 40 60 80 100 0 1 2 3 4

A: Noise reduction Level B: % of Triangles A: Noise reduction Level

Fig. 6 Contour plots for defects

100
Memory (mb) Memory (mb) Memory (mb)
9 8 8 6.946 6.946
6.945
C: Smoothing levels

C: Smoothing levels

6.944
B: % of Triangles

80 8 6 6

7
60 6
4 5 6 6 7 8 9 4 6

6
40 2 2

5 6.943
6.944 6.944
20 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 20 40 60 80 100 0 1 2 3 4
A: Noise reduction Level B: % of Triangles A: Noise reduction Level

Fig. 7 Contour plots for memory

and noise reduction level. A similar trend is found with the parameter combination
smoothing level and noise reduction level (Fig. 4). The interaction of process
parameters on curvature deviation is found to be following parabolic trends (Fig. 5)
and harping at a maximum value of 63%. The contour graphs shown in Fig. 6
illustrates that the factor smoothing level alone is governing the occurrence of
defects in the reverse engineered model and the other factors did not have any
18 G. Sreeram Reddy et al.

Process Time (sec) Process Time (sec) Process Time (sec)

100 8 8
10

C: Smoothing levels

C: Smoothing levels
B: % of Triangles

9.6
80 6 9.8 6

10.5 9.5 10
10 9 10.5
60 9 9.5 6
4 6 4 6

9.6
40 2 2
9.8 9.4

20 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 20 40 60 80 100 0 1 2 3 4
A: Noise reduction Level B: % of Triangles A: Noise reduction Level

Fig. 8 Contour plots for process time

Table 4 ANOVA for deviation

Analysis of variance table (partial sum of squares—type III)
Source Sum of squares DF Mean square F value
Model 1.809E−004 9 2.010E−005 13.67
(A)—Noise reduction level 7.563E−008 1 7.563E−008 0.051
(B)—% of triangles 9.168E−005 1 9.168E−005 62.37
(C)—Smoothing levels 4.001E−005 1 4.001E−005 27.22
AB 3.125E−008 1 3.125E−008 0.021
AC 2.813E−007 1 2.813E−007 0.19
BC 9.031E−006 1 9.031E−006 6.14
A2 6.870E−008 1 6.870E−008 0.047
B2 3.411E−005 1 3.411E−005 23.21
C2 9.893E−006 1 9.893E−006 6.73
Residual 1.470E−005 10 1.470E−006
Total 1.956E−004 19

recognizable effect. The memory consumed in building the reverse engineered

model is said to be affected only due to triangle count while the noise reduction
level and smoothing level had insignificant impact as illustrated in Fig. 7, with the
increase of noise reduction level alone the processing time for creating the reverse
engineered model has increased and invariant with other factors (Fig. 8). The data
has been subjected to ANOVA and the ‘F’ ratios are computed for the significance
of coefficients. A typical ANOVA for deviation has been given in Table 4 and the
regression equations for all the responses have been enlisted in Table 5.
The analysis has also been carried out for all the sample sizes and observed that
the curvature deviation has increased with small and large sample sizes while the
value is lowest with medium sized samples. The curvature deviation is primarily
governed by the parameter smoothing level and to a lesser extent by another
parameter triangle count as shown in Fig. 9.
Experimental Investigation on Reverse Engineering Techniques … 19

Table 5 Regression equations

S. No Response Regression equations
1 Deviation 0.033258 − 1022202E−004 * C−6.64063E
−006 * B * C + 7.27983E−007B2 + 3.92045E−005 * C2
2 Curvature 0.62529 + 4.51723E−003 * A + 1.63472E−004 * B−1.25646E
deviation −003 * C−7.66315E−004 * A2−1.00625E−006 * B2
3 Defects +33.67045 − 12.64489 * C + 0.95952 * C2
4 Memory +3.46804 + 0.058227 * B−4.75852E−006 * B2
5 Process time +8.86213 + 0.52153 * A

Fig. 9 Variations of the curvature deviation with respect to runs for different % of sample sizes

The memory size and processing time have been increased in proportion with the
sample size but governed by the factors triangle count and noise reduction
respectively. The response in the study of defects is depending only on the
parameter smoothing levels and is independent of sample size.

4 Conclusions

The curvature deviation is governed by all the parameters under study while the
deviation is influenced by triangle count and smoothing levels only. The remaining
responses namely memory, defects and processing time are affected by one factor
each. The optimal parameter combination can be computed depending upon the
responses undertaken.
20 G. Sreeram Reddy et al.

References

1. Chang KH, Magdum S, Khera S, Goel VK (2003) An advanced computer modeling and
prototyping method for human tooth mechanics study. Ann Biomed Eng 31(5):621–631
2. Kruth JP, Kerstens A (1998) Reverse engineering modelling of free-form surfaces from point
clouds subject to boundary conditions. J Mater Process Technol 76:120–127
3. Mousa MH (2011) Matching 3D objects using principle curvatures descriptors. In: IEEE
Pacific Rim conference on communications, computers and signal processing (PacRim),
Canada, pp 447–452. ISSN: 1555-5798
4. Chang DY, Chang YM (2002) A freeform surface modelling system based on laser scan data
for reverse engineering. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 20:9–19
5. Piratelli-Filho A, Souza PHJ, Arencibia RV, Anwer N (2014) Study of contact and
non-contact measurement techniques applied to reverse engineering of complex freeform
parts. Int J Mech Eng Autom 1(3):166–175
6. Barini EM, Tosello G, De Chiffre L (2010) Uncertainty analysis of point-by-point sampling
complex surfaces using touch probe CMMs DOE for complex surfaces verification with
CMM. Precis Eng 34:16–21
7. Min Z (2011) A new approach of composite surface reconstruction based on reverse
engineering. Procedia Eng 23:594–599
8. Azernikov S, Miropolsky A, Fischer A (2003) Surface reconstruction of freeform objects
based on multiresolution volumetric method. J Comput Inf Sci Eng 3(4):334–338
9. Li Y, Huang X, Gong C, Wang K (2004) An engineering rules based parameterization
approach for turbine blade reverse engineering. In: Proceedings of the Geometric Modeling
and Processing (GMP’04)
10. Al-Ahmari AMA, Aalam J (2015) Optimizing parameters of freeform surface reconstruction
using CMM measurement. J Meas 64(10):17–28
11. Montgomery C (1997) Design and analysis of experiments, 4th edn. Wiley, New York
12. Box GEP, Hunter JS, Hunter WG (2005) Design of experiments. Wiley, New York
Effect of Process Parameters
and Cryotreated Post Tempered
Electrodes on the Radial Overcut
of AISI 304 During EDM:
A Comparative Study

Munmun Bhaumik and Kalipada Maity

1 Introduction

Electro discharge machining (EDM) is a kind of nonconventional machining pro-

cess where the series of repetitive electrical discharge that occurs between the tool
and workpiece are responsible for the material removal [1]. Muthukumar et al. [2]
developed a model for radial overcut (ROC) using response surface methodology
(RSM) during EDM operation of Incoloy 800. They concluded that lower value of
voltage and current considerably minimize the ROC. Bhaumik et al. [3] established
semi empirical model for material removal rate (MRR) and ROC using dimensional
analysis and found a good correlation between experimental and numerical results.
Later on, the effect of cryotreated double tempered tungsten carbide electrode on
the dimensional accuracy of AISI 304 stainless steel during powder mixed EDM
(PMEDM) was investigated. They reported that cryotreated double tempered
electrode provides least ROC compared to untreated electrode [4].
Cryotreatment is the recent advancement in the domain of machining to enhance
the tool life as well as to reduce the machining cost. Cryotreatment is a kind of heat
treatment applied to a material at low temperatures [5]. Kumar et al. [6] reported
that tool wear reduced by using cryotreated double tempered copper electrode
compared to untreated copper electrode during EDM of Inconel 718. Jefferson and
Hariharan [7] performed a comparison study using untreated and cryotreated
electrodes during micro EDM (µ-EDM) of AISI 304 stainless steel. They reported
58% reduction of tool wear using cryotreated tungsten carbide tool followed by
cryotreated brass and copper electrodes with a reduction of 51% and 35%
respectively. Kalsi et al. [8] performed multi tempering after cryotreatment of
tungsten carbide inserts. They reported that the wear behaviour of inserts signifi-
cantly enhances for third tempering after cryotreatent.

M. Bhaumik (&)
K. Maity

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIT, Rourkela 769008, Orissa, India
e-mail: munmunbhaumik@gmail.com

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 21

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_3
22 M. Bhaumik and K. Maity

From the above literature survey, it is apparent that machining performance is

enhanced by using cryotreated post tempered electrodes. Dimensional accuracy
plays an important role in the EDM products. For achieving the dimensional
accuracy, the ROC should be as least as possible. The aim of this study is to
evaluate the effect of process parameters (pulse on time, peak current, duty cycle,
gap voltage and flushing pressure) and cryotreated post tempered tungsten carbide
electrodes on the radial overcut (ROC) of machined AISI 304 stainless steel and
compare them with the findings while using untreated electrode. The microstruc-
tural analysis has also been carried out on the machined surfaces.

2 Experimental Details

In this investigation, the EDM operation of AISI 304 stainless steel was executed in
ELECTRONICA-ELECTRAPLUS PS 50 ZNC EDM machine. Experiments have
been carried out using three different types of electrode i.e. untreated (UT), cry-
otreated single tempered (CT1) and cryotreated double tempered electrode (CT2).
The level of machining parameters and the experimental outline are tabulated in
Tables 1 and 2 respectively.
ROC of the machining holes were evaluated from the observed data by using
this formula

Dh  Dt
ROC ¼ ð1Þ
2

Dh and Dt are diameters of machined hole and electrode.

Tungsten carbide electrodes were considered for the deep cryogenic treatment at a
temperature of −193.15 °C for 24 h. Further, one electrode was subjected to single
tempering, while the another one was subjected to double tempering at 200 °C for
relieving stress induced by cryogenic treatment. The variation of temperature with
time curve is depicted in Fig. 1.

Table 1 Experimental Working parameters Description

conditions
Workpiece material AISI 304 stainless steel
Electrode material Tungsten carbide
Dielectric fluid EDM oil
Peak current (IP) (A) 2, 4, 6, 8, 10
Gap voltage (Vg) (V) 40, 50, 60, 70, 80
Pulse on time (Ton) (µs) 50, 100, 150, 200, 300
Duty cycle (ґ) (%) 55, 60, 65, 70, 75
Flushing pressure (FP) (kgf/cm2) 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6
Machining time (min) 10
Effect of Process Parameters and Cryotreated Post Tempered … 23

Table 2 Experimental outline for machining of AISI 304 stainless steel

Sl. No IP (A) Vg (V) Ton (µs) г (%) FP (kgf/cm2)
1 2 45 50 60 0.2
2 4 45 50 60 0.2
3 6 45 50 60 0.2
4 8 45 50 60 0.2
5 10 45 50 60 0.2
6 5 40 50 60 0.2
7 5 50 50 60 0.2
8 5 60 50 60 0.2
9 5 70 50 60 0.2
10 5 80 50 60 0.2
11 5 45 50 60 0.2
12 5 45 100 60 0.2
13 5 45 150 60 0.2
14 5 45 200 60 0.2
15 5 45 300 60 0.2
16 5 45 50 55 0.2
17 5 45 50 60 0.2
18 5 45 50 65 0.2
19 5 45 50 70 0.2
20 5 45 50 75 0.2
21 5 45 50 60 0.2
22 5 45 50 60 0.3
23 5 45 50 60 0.4
24 5 45 50 60 0.5
25 5 45 50 60 0.6

250
Tempering cycle
200
150
Temperature( °C)

100
50
0
-50 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

-100
-150 Soaking time
-200
Cryogenic treatment and tempering
-250
Time (hr)

Fig. 1 Temperature versus time for the cryogenic treatment and tempering process
24 M. Bhaumik and K. Maity

3 Results and Discussion

Radial overcut (ROC) is the deviation between the machined hole produced during
EDM operation and the electrode. ROC is an inherent feature in EDM process
which is unavoidable. To achieve the accuracy of EDMed products, minimization
of overcut is required. Therefore, it is essential to distinguish the influence of
machining parameters on the overcut. Accordingly, by controlling the EDM
parameters a perfect groove can be created during machining. In this investigation,
the influence of various EDM parameters and cryotreated post tempered electrodes
on the accuracy of ROC has been discussed.
Figures 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 depicts the effects of process parameters, untreated and
cryotreated post tempered electrodes on radial overcut. ROC enhances with the
increase of pulse on time, peak current and gap voltage for all the electrodes. This
occurs because increase of all the parameters the discharge energy increases
resulting removal of high amount of molten material from the workpiece.
Consequently, ROC enhances. The double tempered electrode exhibits less overcut
than the other two electrodes. When peak current increases from 2 to 10 A, ROC
reduced up to 11.1 and 28.8% using cryotreated single and double tempered
electrodes related to untreated electrode respectively.
When pulse on time increases from 50 to 300 µs, ROC reduced up to 17.4% for
single tempered and 22.85% for double tempered electrode respectively. ROC
decreased up to 10.46% for single tempered and 18.18% for double tempered
electrode, when gap voltage increases from 40 to 80 V. ROC is maximum at 75%
duty cycle and minimum at 55% duty cycle. ROC decreased up to 20 and 30% for
single and double tempered electrodes respectively, when duty cycle increases from
55 to 75%. ROC decreases with the increase of flushing pressure because of the

Fig. 2 Effect of peak current 0.09

on ROC UT CT1 CT2
0.08

0.07

0.06
ROC (mm)

0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

0
2 4 6 8 10
Peak current (A)
Effect of Process Parameters and Cryotreated Post Tempered … 25

Fig. 3 Effect of pulse on 0.04

time on ROC UT CT1 CT2

0.035

0.03

ROC (mm)
0.025

0.02

0.015
50 100 150 200 250 300
Pulse on time (μs)

Fig. 4 Effect of gap voltage 0.0285

on ROC UT CT1 CT2
0.0265

0.0245
ROC(mm)

0.0225

0.0205

0.0185

0.0165
40 50 60 70 80
Gap voltage (V)

efficient removal of heat generated during sparking facilitating a reduction in the

temperature around the surface of the electrode at a higher flushing pressure [9].
ROC for the untreated electrode is higher than the cryotreated post tempered
electrodes. When flushing pressure increases from 0.2 to 0.6 kgf/cm2, ROC reduced
up to 22.2 and 16.66% for single and double tempered electrodes respectively.
The mechanical (hardness) and thermal property (thermal conductivity) of the
tungsten carbide electrode enhances after cryotreatment because of the refinement
of carbide grain size and grain boundary. During machining, the roundness of the
26 M. Bhaumik and K. Maity

Fig. 5 Effect of duty cycle 0.04

on ROC UT CT1 CT2
0.035

0.03

ROC (mm)
0.025

0.02

0.015

0.01

0.005
55 60 65 70 75
Duty cycle (%)

Fig. 6 Effect of flushing 0.026

pressure on ROC
UT CT1 CT2
0.024

0.022

0.02
ROC (mm)

0.018

0.016

0.014

0.012

0.01
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Flushing pressure kgf/cm2

untreated electrode gets damaged owing to poor thermal properties. The cryotreated
electrodes possess high thermal conductivity compared to untreated electrode.
Therefore, during sparking electrode surface going through less melting and
vaporization compared to untreated electrode and the roundness of the electrode is
maintained. Consequently, the cryotreated post tempered tungsten carbide elec-
trodes provide better dimensional accuracy due to uniform sparking and proper
maintenance of electrode shape than that of untreated electrode.
Effect of Process Parameters and Cryotreated Post Tempered … 27

4 Microstructural Analysis

Figure 7a–c depict the SEM images of EDMed surface machined by using the
untreated, cryotreated single and double tempered electrodes at IP = 6 A,
Vg = 45 V, Ton = 50 µs, ґ = 60%, FP = 0.2 kgf/cm2 respectively. From the SEM
images, it is observed that the machined surface has complex exterior such as
cracks, craters, spherical particles, pores, pockmarks, and voids because of the rapid
heating and quenching.
From these images, it is apparent that a lesser number of surface cracks and
small craters are observed for the surface machined by cryotreated post tempered
electrodes compared to untreated electrode. The recast layer thickness also found to
be lesser for the cryotreated post tempered electrodes. The EDMed surface
machined by cryotreated post tempered electrodes show comparatively smoother
surface than the surface machined by the untreated electrode.

Fig. 7 Surface texture machined by a untreated, b cryotreated single and c cryotreated double
tempered tungsten carbide electrodes
28 M. Bhaumik and K. Maity

5 Conclusions

The effect of process parameters (viz. pulse on time, peak current, duty cycle, gap
voltage and flushing pressure) on radial overcut (ROC) during electro discharge
machining (EDM) of AISI 304 stainless steel were studied using tungsten carbide
electrodes (untreated, cryotreated single and double tempered). The conclusions
based on the experimental results are as follows:
• Minimum ROC were observed at lower value of peak current, pulse on time,
gap voltage and duty cycle and higher value of flushing pressure.
• Cryotreated post tempered electrodes significantly reduces the radial overcut.
• Comparatively smoother surface have been observed for cryotreated post tem-
pered electrodes compared to the surface in the case of untreated electrode.

References

1. Pandey PC, Shah HS (1980) Modern machining processes. Tata Mcgraw-Hill, New Delhi
2. Muthukumar V, Rajesh N, Venkatasamy R, Sureshbabu A, Senthilkumar N (2014)
Mathematical modeling for radial overcut on electrical discharge machining of Incoloy 800
by response surface methodology. Procedia Mater Sci 6:1674–1682
3. Bhaumik M, Maity KP, Mohapatra KD (2016) Determination of material removal rate and
radial overcut in electro discharge machining of AISI 304 using dimensional analysis. Appl
Mech Mater 852:160–165
4. Bhaumik M, Maity KP (2017) Effects of process parameters and cryotreated electrode on the
radial overcut of AISI 304 in SiC powder mixed EDM. Surf Rev Lett. https://doi.org/10.1142/
S0218625X18500294
5. Gu K, Wang J, Zhou Y (2014) Effect of cryogenic treatment on wear resistance of Ti-6Al-4V
alloy for biomedical applications. J Mech Behav Biomed 30:131–139
6. Kumar A, Maheshwari S, Sharma C, Beri N (2012) Machining efficiency evaluation of
cryogenically treated copper electrode in additive mixed EDM. Mater Manuf Process 27:
1051–1058
7. Jefferson JM, Hariharan P (2013) Machining performance of cryogenically treated electrodes in
microelectric discharge machining: a comparative experimental study. Mater Manuf Process
28:397–402
8. Kalsi NS, Sehgal R, Sharma VS (2014) Effect of tempering during cryogenic treatment of
tungsten carbide-cobalt bonded inserts. Bull Mater Sci 37(2):327–335
9. Chowdary YR, Yuvaraj C, Rao KP, Durgaprasad B (2012) Neural network for prediction of
EDM of Al/SiC-graphite particulate reinforced hybrid composites. Int J Emerg Technol Adv
Eng 2(12):730–739
Shrinkage Porosity Reduction
in Aluminium Alloy A356 Using
Simulation Tool with Assisted Rapid
Prototyping Casting

Suresh Laxman Chittewar, Rajesh M. Metkar

and Santosh Tanaji Ghutukade

1 Introduction

The rate of solidification affects the microstructure of casting material which again
influences the mechanical properties such as hardness, strength etc. The placement
of riser plays an important role in casting and mainly depends upon the shape and
size of casting used. Placement of riser also depends on thermal properties of
casting material and mold design. The aluminium alloys (Al-alloys), are prone to
defects, such as shrinkage, one of the chronic problems, which impact on the
quality of the castings [1]. Due to the increasing use of aluminium castings,
shrinkage characteristics are useful for improving mechanical properties of the
castings. Prediction of the liquid metal during solidification has been important to
consider the different modes of shrinkage and trace the evolution of the liquid metal
free surface. With the rapid development of computer science and technology,
many different kinds of casting simulation software have being sprung up all over
the world. Similarly prototypes are very important for realization of concepts in
design, manufacturing and analysis. The rapid prototyping processes can be broadly
classified into process that uses laser and ones which does not [2]. The laser based
processes requires high level of care and maintenance and the machinery is very
costly as compared to non-laser based processes. Fused Deposition Modeling
(FDM) is second most widely used rapid prototyping technology, after
Stereo-lithography (uses laser). In FDM a plastic filament is unwound from a coil
and supplies material to an extrusion nozzle which moves over the table in the

S. L. Chittewar (&)
S. T. Ghutukade

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Annasaheb Dange
College of Engineering and Technology, Ashta, Sangli, India
e-mail: slc_mech@adcet.in
R. M. Metkar
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Government College of Engineering,
Amravati, Amravati 444604, India

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 29

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_4
30 S. L. Chittewar et al.

required geometry and deposits a thin bead of extruded plastic to form each layer of
the required geometry [3]. Several materials are available for the process including
Polylactic acid (PLA) and sand casting process, Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene
(ABS) and investment casting wax.
From the existing and recent literature records it is found that the currently
available casting solidification simulation software’s have a lot of capabilities to
analyse the defects. Various researches and their finding related to improvement in
casting quality and reduction of shrinkage defects by means of simulation software
has been mentioned in this paper. Rao [4] has studied on the simulation of the
mould filling solidification of casting of green sand ductile iron casting sand and
concluded that the use of casting simulation software like ProCAST can able to
eliminate the defects like shrinkage, porosity etc. in the casting. It also improves
yield of the casting and at the same time gating system can be optimize. Sutaria [5]
worked on a new idea where optimization of casting feeding is done with the help
of feed paths. The computation of feed-paths is done by method known as Vector
Element Method (VEM). Ramu et al. [6] had developed a solid model of flywheel
by using Pro-E and exported it to MAGAMA-5 simulation software to simulate the
model and to develop the optimal design of pattern so as to avoid the foundry
defects which will be helpful in reducing the production cost and also increase in
the yield of casting. Hosseini et al. [7] studied the effect of cooling rate on the
solidification parameters, microstructure, and mechanical property of LM13 alloy.
To obtain different cooling rates, different mould configuration was used. The
cooling rates and the solidification parameters were determined by using
computer-aided thermal analysis method. Ravi [8] has discussed on the basics of
casting simulation. He gave the advantages of using casting simulation software in
foundry and what are the features of simulation tool why they should be used in
foundry, simulation includes mold filling visualization, solidification analysis and
to predict location of internal defects such as shrinkage porosity, misrun. Choudhari
et al. [9] discussed the simulation process of casting solidification with the
AutoCAST-X software of a intricate shape small size casting of LM6 (Al alloy)
metal. With the help of AutoCAST software hotspots in the casting were located
and also suggested optimum position for placing feeder in the casting. Application
of exothermic sleeve was also studied by them as feedaids. The simulation study
has shown the improvement in feeding yield and quality of the casting.

2 Methodology

The entire study has been carried out in three section viz. casting design calculation
of Aluminium component (Al alloy A356), numerical simulation using
AutoCAST-XI software and preparation of pattern using 3D printing process with
the help of Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) technique. The material here for
pattern was taken Polylactic acid (PLA) and had done validation with experimental
trial. Sand casting is used as a manufacturing process (Fig. 1).
Shrinkage Porosity Reduction in Aluminium Alloy A356 Using … 31

Fig. 1 Rapid casting system process chain

2.1 3D Modelling, Methoding, Simulation

The first step is to create a 3D CAD model of the cast part in CAD software and
export it to simulation software AutoCAST-XI (Fig. 2).
Simulation has been performed in AutoCAST-XI software according to the
design dimensions obtained for pattern with allowances, gating system and feeder.
Later on, the optimum location of the feeder was identified based on hot spot. The

Fig. 2 Solid model of casting

32 S. L. Chittewar et al.

location of hot spot has been used as criterion to place the feeder. Based on this
location as an input, feeder shape and size has been modeled using AutoCAST-XI
software. Simulation based trials do not involve wastage of material, energy and
labour, and do not hold up regular production. Computer simulation provides a
clear understanding of the casting phenomena to identify the location and extent of
internal defects, ensuring defect-free castings.

2.2 Part and Mold Box

Figure 3 shows the part module of AutoCAST-XI software. The sub modules
include properties, thickness, holes, optimize. In this module properties are assigned
to component manually or may be selected from database of software. Also
thickness module shows global maximum and minimum thickness of component
along with that holes are identified in the component. The mould box dimensions
have been taken as 174.43 mm  185.88 mm  146.02 mm as shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Mold shape and size

Shrinkage Porosity Reduction in Aluminium Alloy A356 Using … 33

2.3 Feeder Design

The feed module enables designing and optimizing the feeders and feed aids to
obtain maximum yield with desired quality. With the help of casting simulation
software results are shown such as cooling animation, feed metal paths, and
shrinkage porosity distribution. Here, the last solidifying region of the casting or
hotspots in casting has been identified and feeder is placed exactly over the hotspot
so that to provide feed metal during solidification (Fig. 4).

2.4 Solidification Simulation

Casting solidification is simulated to view the progress of cooling from casting

surface to interior, and to predict the location of shrinkage defects such as porosity
and cracks. This helps in verifying and optimizing the design of feeders, so that the
desired quality and high yield are achieved.
Figure 5 shows that the hotspot inside casting is being shifted in the riser which
means the last solidifying is now riser not the part.

Fig. 4 Feeder placement

34 S. L. Chittewar et al.

Fig. 5 Hotspot shifting inside riser

2.5 Shrinkage Porosities

The shrinkage porosity was computed from the temperature and gradients using
metal-specific process characteristics, which can be adjusted to calibrate the results
with respect to the observed location of shrinkage porosity (Table 1). The shrinkage
porosities at various riser heights had been calculated and effect of riser height on
shrinkage cavity has been studied which is shown in figures.

Table 1 Variation of S. No. Riser diameter Riser height Yield

shrinkage porosity w.r.t to
riser height 1 15 10 80.54
2 15 13 80.70
3 15 15 84.75
4 15 17 80.42
5 15 20 80.20
6 15 25 79.60
Shrinkage Porosity Reduction in Aluminium Alloy A356 Using … 35

H = 10mm SP 3.75% H = 15mm SP 3.023%

H = 20mm SP 4.11% H = 25mm SP 4.88%

By changing riser height the shrinkage porosity values are also altered. The
lowest value for shrinkage porosity is 3.023 for riser height 15 mm. Similarly the
effect of Riser height on yield was also studied. By taking number of iterations on
simulation software the riser height were varied and accordingly the yield of casting
component was noted. It was found that on riser height 15 mm the casting has
maximum yield of 84.75% (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6 Riser height versus

yield plot
36 S. L. Chittewar et al.

2.6 Pattern Printing

In this study pattern was made with rapid prototyping process using Fused
Deposition Modelling (FDM) technique with PLA as pattern material. Pattern was
fabricated by 3D Digital Systems Pvt Ltd. The CAD model of the part is sent to a
tabletop 3D printer for fabricating of plastic pattern. The CAD model (STL file) is
first processed offline in a computer containing an open source slicing software,
which generates the G-code file hatching motion of the 3D printer. This file is
copied into an SD card, which is inserted in the card reader attached to the printer.
Then the printer prints according to G-codes of part that is saved in SD card,
Semisolid plastic comes out of the nozzle and gets deposited on a platform layer by
layer (Fig. 7).

3 Experimental Validation

The results obtained from software are then performed experimentally in the
foundry. The optimal design selected from the software method was implemented
in the foundry trail. The process consists of mould box preparation as shown in
Fig. 8 thereafter followed by metal pouring and casting is allowed to solidify.
The casting removed from mould box it is then send to post processing work
such as grinding, finishing, polishing etc. after all that process a finished casting
product is obtained and can be used for specific applications as per requirement
(Fig. 9).

Fig. 7 3D printing of pattern

Shrinkage Porosity Reduction in Aluminium Alloy A356 Using … 37

Fig. 8 Casting process

Fig. 9 Finished part

4 Conclusions

Based on the study of the results, the following conclusions are drawn:
1. The application of computer aided methoding, solid modeling, and casting
simulation technologies in foundries allow to predict and minimize the casting
defects.
2. Computer simulation tool allows rapid development of casting by reducing
number of foundry trails.
3. It has been observed that by placing riser above hotspot there is reduction in
shrinkage porosity in part.
4. Also optimum values of riser height and neck had been calculated with no. of
iterations and their effects on yield have been studied.
5. By use of optimal design parameters the pattern is produced by rapid proto-
typing technique and casting is produced with maximum yield and minimum
defects.
38 S. L. Chittewar et al.

Acknowledgements The Authors would like to thank VNIT, Nagpur for providing their facilities
to carry out the research work. I would like to express my gratitude to Mr. Prateek Lohia of 3D
Labs India for providing 3D printed pattern.

References

1. Sabau AS, Visvanathan S (2002) Microporosity prediction in aluminum alloy castings. Metall
Mater Trans 33B:243–255
2. Pranjal J, Kuthe AM (2013) The manufacturing engineering society international conference.
MESIC 2013, vol 63, pp 4–11
3. Khandelwal H, Ravi B (2014) Tabletop foundry for training, research and small enterprises.
Indian Foundry J 7(2):23–29
4. Rao P, Chakaraverthi G (2011) Application of casting simulation. Int J Therm Technol 1
5. Sutaria M, Casting Simulation Case Study (2010) Shaft pin (cast iron-green sand casting).
Indian Foundry J 56(12):53
6. Ramu T et al (2012) Modeling, simulation and analysis in manufacturing of a flywheel casting
by S.G.Iron. Int J Materi Biomater Appl 2(4):25–28
7. Hosseini VA, Shabestari SG, Gholizadeh R (2013) Study on the effect of cooling rate on the
solidification parameters, microstructure, and mechanical properties of LM13 alloy using
cooling curve thermal analysis technique. Mater Des 50:7–14
8. Ravi B (2010) Casting simulation-best practices. Transactions of 58th Indian Foundry
Congress, Ahmadabad, pp 1–6
9. Choudhari CM, Narkhede BE, Mahajan SK (2014) Modelling and simulation for optimum
design and analysis of riser in sand casting with experimental validation. Appl Mech Mater.
Trans Tech Publications, Switzerland 464:657–661
Finite Element Analysis of Rail Vehicle
Suspension Spring for Its Fatigue Life
Improvement

M. A. Kumbhalkar, D. V. Bhope and A. V. Vanalkar

1 Introduction

The paper represents a case study over an investigation for fatigue failure response
of primary inner suspension spring of a high-speed main line locomotive for goods
hauling trains which has three motor on individual axle and is referred to as Co-Co
frame assemblies, is main part of the locomotive. Total weight of the rail road
vehicle is supported by the bogie frames and provides a means for transmission of
the tractive effort to the rails. To absorb and isolate the superstructure from the
shocks is an important function of frame caused by variations in the trackbed and
hence suspension system minimizes the transmission of these shocks to the loco-
motive under frame [1].
The helical spring is the simplest element which is found in many mechanical
systems. It makes it conceivable to maintain a tension or a force in a suspension
system [2] of railway vehicle, to assimilate the shocks and to diminish the vibra-
tions. Fatigue is the most well-known reason for failure in springs. Fatigue breakage
by and large starts at the surface and the settled tensile stresses bring on additional
development of the created cracks and prompt premature failure of the springs.

M. A. Kumbhalkar (&)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, JSPM Narhe Technical Campus,
Pune, Maharashtra, India
e-mail: manoj.kumbhalkar@rediffmail.com
D. V. Bhope
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi College of Engineering,
Research & Technology, Chandrapur, Maharashtra, India
e-mail: dvbhope@rediffmail.com
A. V. Vanalkar
Department of Mechanical Engineering, KDK College of Engineering,
Nagpur, Maharashtra, India
e-mail: avanalkar@yahoo.co.in

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 39

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_5
40 M. A. Kumbhalkar et al.

Fig. 1 Photographs of failed primary inner spring and arrangement of middle axle suspension
spring near middle wheel

The helical suspension spring framework has a noteworthy significance on the

operation of rail road vehicle, considering the effect of curving and tracking [3].
The suspension system of rail road vehicle has the main function to control
isolation and shock absorption between the bogie and frame [4]. The function of
primary springs of middle axle of each frame is also to permit free movement in
lateral direction. A primary suspension mounted between wheelbase and bogie with
inclined damper at end axles and linkage to restrict lateral movement at middle axle.
The middle axle has an assembly of concentric suspension spring of inner and outer
opposite handed spring to acquire load without damper. This paper focuses on
premature fatigue failures of inner suspension spring due to dynamic effect. The
failure region of middle axle primary inner suspension spring and arrangement for
mounting on middle axle housing is shown in Fig. 1.

2 Fatigue Analysis

The middle axle primary inner suspension spring is subjected to variable loads and
hence the fatigue analysis approach is used to investigate the failure of the spring
using finite element method. A progression of forward and reverse loading por-
trayed a fatigue; where plasticity is initiated in each cycle. The fatigue life of a
suspension spring can be communicated as the number of loading cycles for the
initiation of crack and the number of cycles propagates that crack to failure [5].
A computational model for fatigue examination of suspension spring has been
exhibited. A maximum and minimum load is often used for simulation of the cyclic
loading in fatigue analyses on helical suspension spring [6].
The actual crack starts at the cause which develops gradually over the fatigue
zone, with a typical growth rate. The progression marks shows up which is because
of the varieties in the load that brought about relating varieties in the crack growth
rate. Eventually, the crack reaches the point where the remaining material gets
overstressed, and the overload zone results. The progression marks indicate how the
crack has developed and are just present in fractures where there have been gen-
erous varieties in the component stress as the crack develops over the piece [7]. The
Finite Element Analysis of Rail Vehicle Suspension … 41

(a) Fatigue fracture with benchmark (b) Fatigue crack initiation and
propagation

Fig. 2 Schematic representation of fatigue fracture surface

schematic representation of fatigue fracture surface showing crack origin and its
progression is shown in Fig. 2.
This section discusses the finite element analysis of helical suspension spring of
rail vehicle using a numerical tool ANSYS to find its fatigue life. Analytically, the
forces acting on suspension springs and shear stresses induced are calculated for
static condition and continued to fatigue analysis for displacement variation of 6–
8 mm as per the observation of rubbing marks over dampers. Fatigue analysis has
been carried in ANSYS considering the load ratio, ultimate and endurance shear
limit for chrome vanadium material.
It is observed that the spring gets deflected at some instances as observed from
rubbing marks over the end axle dampers as shown in Fig. 3. Because of this the
additional force acts over the spring. But the band of polished surface on the
damper indicates that, there is the displacement of the spring in the range of 6–
8 mm which may cause the fatigue failure of spring. The maximum and minimum
load corresponding to the additional deflection of 6–8 mm is given Table 1.
The basic S-N curve for fatigue analysis of suspension spring can be plotted for
fully-reversed stress cycle for its alternating stress values. The typical loading
condition with mean stress is shown in Fig. 4.
The accompanying conditions are utilized to characterize a stress cycle with both
alternating and mean stress. The stress range is the mathematical contrast between
the maximum and minimum shear stress in a cycle: The shear stress amplitude is
one-half of the stress extend: The mean shear stress is the arithmetical mean of the
maximum and minimum shear stress in the cycle [8]:

Ds smax  smin smax þ smin

Ds ¼ smax  smin sa ¼ ¼ sm ¼
2 2 2
42 M. A. Kumbhalkar et al.

Fig. 3 Rubbing and polishing marks over end axle damper

Table 1 Parameters for fatigue analysis of inner suspension spring

Particulars Symbol and Inner suspension spring
unit For 6 mm For 7 mm For 8 mm
deflection deflection deflection
Minimum dmin (mm) 64.6 64.6 64.6
deflection
Minimum load Fmin (N) 9351.46 9351.46 9351.46
Maximum dmax (mm) 70.6 71.6 72.6
deflection
Maximum load Fmax (N) 10,219.62 10,364.37 10,509.13
Mean load Fm (N) 9784.54 9857.92 9930.29
Alternating load Fa (N) 434.08 506.46 578.83
Wahl’s factor K 1.29 1.29 1.29
Mean shear stress sm (N/mm2) 626.46 630.77 634.72
Variable shear sa (N/mm2) 27.79 32.42 37.06
stress
Stress ratio R 0.92 0.90 0.89
Equivalent shear seq (N/mm2) 688.07 702.66 717.89
stress
Finite Element Analysis of Rail Vehicle Suspension … 43

Fig. 4 Typical cyclic loading parameters

Two proportions that are regularly characterized for the portrayal of mean shear
stress are the shear stress ratio R and the amplitude ratio A [8]:

smin sa 1  R
R¼ A¼ ¼
smax sm 1 þ R

This method define various curves to connect the endurance limit on the alter-
nating stress axis to the yield shear strength, Sys, ultimate shear strength Sus, or true
fracture shear stress Sfs on the mean stress axis. A Soderberg criteria given below is
mainly used for ductile material for S-N curve [3, 8].

FS:sm FS:Kf :sa

þ ¼1
Sys Ses

where Kfs is fatigue shear stress concentration factor and seq is equivalent to
allowable stress Sys/FS [8].

Sys :Kf :sa Sys Sys :Kf :sa

þ sm ¼ þ sm ¼ seq
Ses FS Ses

3 Finite Element Analysis for Fatigue Life of Suspension

Spring

FE analysis of inner suspension spring has been carried out to find its fatigue life in
ANSYS 12.0 with the help of 3-D, 10-node SOLID 187 element [9, 10]. A stress
ratio is given as input for fatigue analysis in ANSYS and it is given in Table 1.
Stress-Life (S-N) curve with low cycle and high cycle fatigue life has to be pro-
vided in material property of spring material. Hence S-N curve has been plotted for
44 M. A. Kumbhalkar et al.

Fig. 5 S-N curve for spring material and alternating stress values for fatigue life using ANSYS

ultimate shear strength of 1152.4 N/mm2 and endurance shear strength of

395.6 N/mm2 as shown in Fig. 5. Considering fatigue strength factor as unity, an
equivalent alternating shear stress is determined and it is given in Table 1.
The finite element analysis revealed the fatigue life and factor of safety contours
as shown in Fig. 6 and the results are tabulated in Table 2.
From Fig. 6 and from Table 2, it is observed that, the spring has finite life of
1.89  104 cycles. While examining the failed specimen as shown in Fig. 1, it has
been observed that the cross section of failure resembles to that of fatigue failure is
shown in Fig. 7 with the fatigue life. The fatigue life varies from 10 cycles to 105
cycles for the zone nearer to the inner side of the coil which indicates finite life. The
progressively increases for the cross section slightly away from the inside diameter
but still this region is having the finite life. While the rest of the cross section has
the life more than 106 cycles and which corresponds to infinite life. Thus during the
service of the spring the crack initiates at the inner side of the spring after very few
cycles of operation and it propagates through the cross section. Upto 105 cycles the
length of crack growth is estimated to be 2–2.5 mm. After observation of cross
section of failed spring it is seen that the polished surface at the failure zone has the
band of approximately 3–3.5 mm. It has been found that the actual fatigue failure
zone of spring is more than fatigue zone observed in FE results.
The reasoning for this difference is, when the crack initiates at the inner surface,
the stress on rest of the cross section increases which further decreases the fatigue
life. As the crack proceeds there is possibility that the actual crack growth will be
Finite Element Analysis of Rail Vehicle Suspension … 45

Fig. 6 FE analysis of inner spring for its fatigue life and safety factor

Table 2 Fatigue life and factor of safety for inner suspension spring
Particulars Symbol and Inner suspension spring
unit For 6 mm For 7 mm For 8 mm
deflection deflection deflection
Factor of F.S. 1.17 1.13 1.09
safety
Fatigue life Cycles 1.89  104 1.62  104 1.40  104

Fig. 7 FE result for fatigue zone of middle axle inner suspension spring showing crack initiation
and propagation of 2–2.5 mm

more as compared to theoretical FE results due to progressive increase in stress

magnitude. This analysis reveals that the spring fails due to fatigue failure as it is
having finite life.

4 Modifications Suggested in Suspension System of Rail

Vehicle

The present investigation reveals that the inner suspension spring fails due to
fatigue failure. To avoid the failure of spring, following modifications are
suggested.
46 M. A. Kumbhalkar et al.

i. Reduction of Load on Middle Axle Inner Suspension Spring

In first modification, the addition of shim shall lead to decrease in pre-stressing of
middle axle springs and the life of springs will get enhanced. Due to increase in the
load on end axle springs, there is rise in stress magnitude. But this would likewise
mean using the end axle springs to their expanded limit as the shear stresses in them
will increment as of now they are stresses on substantially lesser than that of center
axle springs. This evening-out of stresses in all springs should yield better life for
each of the spring.
By increasing the height of end axle spring and reducing forces on middle axle
spring, the life of inner suspension spring is observed to be enhanced and shown in
Fig. 8. Also the fatigue zone represents decrease in crack propagation length for
shim addition of 5, 6 and 10 mm as shown in Fig. 9.
ii. Change in the Damping Coefficient of Inclined Damper
The second modification revealed that the primary suspension has maximum dis-
placement of 6–8 mm contributed from the dynamic analysis observed as per the
polished marks on damper. So there is need to reduce this dynamic amplitude of
spring by modifying damping coefficient of an existing damper to increase its
fatigue life. The existing damper has damping coefficient of 50,000 N s/m. Hence
by considering frequency ratio of 1 and excitation amplitude of 1.3 mm, the dis-
placement amplitude response is determined for varying damping coefficient as
shown in Fig. 11. From Fig. 11, it is observed that when damping coefficient is
increased from 100,000 N s/m to 250,000 N s/m, displacement amplitude reduces
from 3.58 mm to 2.21 mm and this reduces dynamic amplitude of suspension
spring. The fatigue analysis is carried out corresponding to the dynamic spring
deflection of 7, 5.27, 4.42 and 3.97 mm and given in Table 3 and its fatigue zone
with crack propagation obtained by FE analysis is shown in Fig. 10. Hence it is
suggested to increase damping coefficient of damper to increase life of inner sus-
pension spring i.e. from 1.62  104 cycles to 6.67  106 cycles.

Fig. 8 Fatigue life of inner

suspension spring by adding
shim at end axle spring
Finite Element Analysis of Rail Vehicle Suspension … 47

Fig. 9 Fatigue zone of middle axle inner suspension spring for 5, 6 and 10 mm shim addition

Table 3 Fatigue life of inner suspension spring for modification of damping coefficient for
second and third suggested modification
Modifications Particulars Inner suspension spring
suggested For 7 mm For 5.27 mm For 4.42 mm For 3.97 mm
deflection deflection deflection deflection
Damping 100,000 150,000 200,000 250,000
coefficient
(N s/m)
Second Fatigue life 1.62  104 1.94  105 7.64  105 6.67  106
modification (cycles)
Third Fatigue life 2.34  107 7.68  107 8.1  107 –
modification (cycles)

(a) 7 mm deflection (b) 5.27 mm deflection

(c) 4.42 mm deflection (d) 3.97 mm deflection

Fig. 10 Fatigue zone for dynamic middle axle inner suspension spring deflection of 7, 5.27, 4.42
and 3.97 mm
48 M. A. Kumbhalkar et al.

Fig. 11 Displacement
amplitude of suspension
spring for increase in damping
coefficient

Thus the damping coefficient of 250,000 N s/m will reduce the dynamic
amplitude to 1.99 mm and the expected life of inner suspension spring will be
approximately 6.67  106 cycles which is considered to be infinite life. Hence
damping coefficient of 250,000 N s/m is recommended for existing suspension
(Fig. 11).
iii. Provision of Shim Along with Change in Damping Coefficient of Inclined
Damper
Third modification discusses, the shim provision on end axle box housing reduces
the shear stress on middle axle primary inner suspension spring, also increase in
damping coefficient of inclined damper reduces the amplitude of suspension spring
and both modification increases its fatigue life as discussed earlier. As discussed in
first modification, the provision of shim of 5–7 mm thick at end axle box housing is
highly recommended for increase in fatigue life of inner suspension spring but due
to the stringent rules and regulations only 5 mm thick shim is incorporated at end
axle box housing. Due to this failure rate of middle axle inner primary suspension
spring has been reduced by 88% without affecting other suspension springs. So it is
felt necessary to study the effect of combination of both the modifications to
increase fatigue life of inner suspension spring and due to this, the advantages of
shim provision and modification of damping coefficient can be achieved effectively.
From the calculation, it is observed that the modification of damping coefficient
from 100,000 N s/m to 250,000 N s/m leads to shear stress of 640 N/mm2 and
590 N/mm2 without and with shim provision respectively as shown in Fig. 12.
Hence, provision of shim along with damping coefficient of 150,000 N s/m reduces
the shear stress to 598 N/mm2 which will definitely improve the fatigue life of
spring and given in Table 3 and the contour plot for fatigue life is shown in Fig. 13.
Thus the provision of shim along with modification of damping coefficient of
damper is strongly advisable to avoid failures of middle axle primary inner sus-
pension spring.
Finite Element Analysis of Rail Vehicle Suspension … 49

Fig. 12 Shear stress in inner suspension spring provision of shim along with change in damping
coefficient of inclined damper

(a) 7 mm deflection (b) 5.27 mm deflection

(c) 4.42 mm deflection

Fig. 13 Fatigue zone for dynamic middle axle inner suspension spring deflection of 7, 5.27, 4.42
and 3.97 mm
50 M. A. Kumbhalkar et al.

iv. Design Modification of Primary Suspension Spring

The fourth modification suggested, for improving the fatigue life of primary springs
it is necessary to reduce the load shared by middle axle suspension springs by
decreasing the stiffness of spring. This can be achieved by increasing the mean
diameter of middle axle suspension spring. Though increase in mean diameter has
the effect on increase in stress magnitudes but the reduction of stiffness reduces the
load shared by the spring and will lead to lower stress values which may improve its
fatigue life. The suspension springs of WAG-9 rail vehicle are mounted on axle box
provide for each wheel. An axle box has collars to mount inner and outer spring
according to coil and outer diameter of spring. Accordingly, a WAG-9 rail vehicle
axle box housing has a provision to mount outer spring with maximum 221 mm
outer diameter and maximum 36 mm coil diameter and to mount inner spring with
maximum 110 mm outer diameter and maximum 18 mm inner diameter.
A schematic representation of spring mounting in axle box housing of WAG-9 rail
vehicle is shown in Fig. 14.
The force distribution and static stress analysis is carried out for the modified
mean diameter of inner and outer primary suspension spring which are compared
with results given in Chapter “Experimental Investigation on Reverse Engineering
Techniques Employing Response Surface Methodology for Freeform Surfaces” for
the case of rail vehicle moving on straight track. From analytical analysis, it is
observed that the shear stresses in the spring slightly reduces for inner and outer
suspension spring and increases for end axle spring. The shear stress and fatigue life
for the modified suspension spring is given in Table 4 and contour plot for fatigue

Fig. 14 Schematic representation of spring mounting in axle box of WAG-9 rail vehicle
Table 4 Comparison of shear stresses and fatigue for existing and proposed suspension spring for increase in mean diameter
Particulars Unit Existing parameters Proposed for WAG-9
Middle axle End axle spring Middle axle End axle spring
Outer spring Inner spring Outer spring Inner spring
Force (W) N 31268.7 9351.46 40451.38 28050.3 7936.68 42757.68
Deflection (d) mm 65.6 64.6 45.6 69.26 67.26 49.26
Finite Element Analysis of Rail Vehicle Suspension …

Shear stress N/mm2 583 598.36 530.98 541.33 539.96 561.25

Fatigue life Cycle 3.2  106 1.62  104 4.64  107 5.48  107 5.8  104 5.3  107
51
52 M. A. Kumbhalkar et al.

(a) Inner Spring (b) Outer Spring (c) End Axle Spring

Fig. 15 Contour plot for fatigue life of primary suspension spring

life is shown in Fig. 15 which shows very little improvement in shear stress and
fatigue life as compared to the original spring and hence, this modification is not
advisable.

5 Conclusion

The fatigue analysis reveals that the middle axle inner suspension spring has a finite
life of 1.89  104 cycles which clearly indicates that the spring fails because of
fatigue failure observed from the cross section of the failed spring with crack
initiation at inside diameter. It has been also roughly estimated that the spring
failure occurs within 90 days and it has been also confirmed from loco shed
authorities.
To reduce the failure rate of inner suspension spring and hence to increase its
fatigue life, four types of design modifications are suggested. Out of these four
suggested modifications, the first modification of provision of shim for end axle box
housing is highly recommended as it leads to least changes in the existing sus-
pension system, while the second and third modifications requires changes in the
dampers with required damping coefficients and leads to new design and devel-
opment of dampers. This modification is also advisable but it is not in the juris-
diction of Electric Loco Shed to replace dampers immediately without the necessary
permissions from rail authorities. The fourth modification is not recommended as it
marginally improves the fatigue life of middle axle inner suspension spring and in
finite life zone.

References

1. Iwnicki S (2006) Handbook of railway vehicle dynamics. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis, USA
2. Michalczyk K (2009) Analysis of helical compression spring support influence on its
deformation. Arch Mech Eng LVI(4)
Finite Element Analysis of Rail Vehicle Suspension … 53

3. Puff R, de Bortoli MGD, Bosco R Jr (2010) Fatigue analysis of helical suspension springs for
reciprocating compressors. In: International compressor engineering conference, paper 1989
4. Harak SS, Sharma SC, Harsha SP (2014) Structural dynamic analysis of freight railway
wagon using finite element method. Procedia Mater Sci 6:1891–1898
5. Sangid MD (2013) The physics of fatigue crack initiation. Int J Fatigue 57:58–72
6. Fajdiga G, Sraml M (2009) Fatigue crack initiation and propagation under cyclic contact
loading. Eng Fract Mech 76:1320–1335
7. Sachs NW (2005) Understanding the surface features of fatigue fractures: how they describe
the failure cause and the failure history. J Fail Anal Prev 2(5):11–15
8. Shigley JE, Mischke CR (2006) Mechanical engineering design. TATA McGraw Hill, Eighth
Edition, ISBN: 0−390−76487−6, pp 292–318
9. Prawoto Y, Ikeda M, Manville SK, Nishikawa A (2008) Failure analysis of automotive
suspension coil springs. In: AIST steel properties & applications conference, Detroit, MI,
USA, 35–48
10. Abidin MIZ, Mahmud J, Latif MJA, Jumahat A (2013) Experimental and numerical
investigation of SUP12 steel coil spring. Procedia Eng 68:251–257
Analysis of Optimized Roller Burnishing
Parameters Using ANSYS

Priyanka S. Yadav and Dayanand A. Ghatge

1 Introduction

Burnishing process is a superficial plastic deformation process which is used to

improve surface integrity properties by producing fine grain size in the surface
region of various materials. Burnishing is a cold working process, in which the
material is displaced from peaks to valleys of the surface profile by planetary
motion of a tool over the bored or turned surface. Due to the compressive force
applied by the tool over the work piece, compressive stresses are developed over
the workpiece surface. Compressive stresses can be also over the work piece sur-
face by processes like laser shot peening, shock peening, etc. but the stresses were
found to be reduced when introduced to heat. This thermal relaxation of com-
pressive stresses makes the component life shorter and the performance of work-
piece reduces. Thus, burnishing was introduced as a process that could impart
thermally unvarying surface compressive stresses [1].

2 Development of Compressive Stresses Over the Work

Piece Surface

In roller burnishing, a hard roller is pressed against a rotating cylindrical work piece
and parallel to the axis of work piece. The pressure of tool is thus applied over the
surface of the work piece. This creates stress over the surface of the work piece. When

P. S. Yadav (&)
Faculty of Engineering, Yashoda Technical Campus, Satara, India
e-mail: priyankaydv26@gmail.com
D. A. Ghatge
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College
of Engineering, Satara, Maharashtra, India

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 55

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_6
56 P. S. Yadav and D. A. Ghatge

this stresses exceeds the yield strength of the material, it results in the plastic flow of
the material from the peaks of the surface irregularities into the valleys. This induces
thermally stable compressive residual stresses over the surface of the work piece [1].

3 Finite Element Analysis

Introduction: Finite element analysis is a computerized method for predicting how

a product reacts when it is exposed to the practical forces, vibrations and other
physical effects. It shows whether a work piece will break, crack, wear out or work
safely for the purpose and at the working conditions for which it was designed [2].
ANSYS: In this research work the finite element analysis is carried out by
ANSYS software. ANSYS is a complete CAE (Computer Aided Engineering)
package. It is mostly useful in finite element analysis. The finite element method is
a numerical method that involves complicated physics, geometry, boundary con-
ditions. In finite element method, a given domain is viewed as a collection of sub
domains and over each sub domain the governing equation is approximated by any
of the traditional vibrational methods. ANSYS can be used for analysis of struc-
tures, stress analysis, fluid dynamics, thermal analysis, etc. [2].
Loading conditions: The loading conditions in the present experimentation are
dynamic as the point of application of force changes continuously. The use of
ANSYS is done for stress analysis and deformation obtained of the work piece. The
work piece used for experimentation is drawn as model in ANSYS and then
analysed (Fig. 1).
The experimentation parameters are shown in Table 1.
The experimentation is carried out at various combinations of process parame-
ters and the results obtained with the help of Taguchi design of experiment
approach and main effects plot is shown (Figs. 2 and 3; Table 2).
The analysis by ANSYS is now done for the optimized parameter conditions.
The material properties for EN9 steel are as follows:

Density: 7.85e−006 kg mm−3

Young’s modulus (MPa) Poisson’s ratio Bulk modulus (MPa) Shear modulus (MPa)
2.06e+005 0.28 1.5606e+005 80,469

ANSYS results:
ANSYS for optimum set found for surface roughness: The force applied
during this stage is 498.17 N. The optimum parameter set found for best surface
roughness value is as follows:

Speed (rpm) Feed (mm/revolution) Depth of penetration (mm) Number of passes

500 0.08 0.3 3
Analysis of Optimized Roller Burnishing Parameters Using ANSYS 57

Fig. 1 Model to be analysed

Table 1 Process parameters and their levels [3, 4]

Factors Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
Spindle speed (N) 500 800 1100
Feed (f) 0.08 0.10 0.12
Depth of penetration (DOP) 0.1 0.2 0.3
Number of passes (NOP) 1 2 3

Main Effects Plot for Means

Data Means
Speed Feed
1.6

1.4

1.2
Mean of Means

1.0
500 800 1100 0.08 0.10 0.12
DOP NOP
1.6

1.4

1.2

1.0
0.1 0.2 0.3 1 2 3

Fig. 2 Main effect plots for means of surface finish

58 P. S. Yadav and D. A. Ghatge

Main Effects Plot for Means

Data Means
Speed Feed
240

235
230
225
Mean of Means

220

500 800 1100 0.08 0.10 0.12

DOP NOP
240
235
230
225
220

0.1 0.2 0.3 1 2 3

Fig. 3 Main effects plot for means of surface hardness

Table 2 Optimized parameter set

Response Speed Feed (mm/ Depth of penetration Number of
parameter (rpm) revolution) (mm) passes
Surface 500 0.08 0.3 3
roughness
Surface hardness 800 0.12 0.3 2

Results: 1. Maximum stress developed: 0.28139 MPa; 2. Maximum deformation

occurred: 1.2936 mm (Figs. 4, 5 and 6).
ANSYS for optimum set found for surface hardness: The force applied
during this stage is 616.83 N. The optimum parameter set found for best surface
roughness value is as follows:

Speed (rpm) Feed (mm/revolution) Depth of penetration (mm) Number of passes

800 0.12 0.3 2

Results: 1. Maximum stress developed: 0.3648 MPa; 2. Maximum deformation

occurred: 1.7986 mm (Figs. 7, 8 and 9).
Analysis of Optimized Roller Burnishing Parameters Using ANSYS 59

Fig. 4 Force applied for surface roughness parameter set

Fig. 5 Result for deformation occurred for surface roughness parameter set

Fig. 6 Result for stresses developed for surface roughness parameter set
60 P. S. Yadav and D. A. Ghatge

Fig. 7 Force applied for surface hardness parameter set

Fig. 8 Result for deformation occurred for surface hardness parameter set

Fig. 9 Result for stresses developed for surface hardness parameter set
Analysis of Optimized Roller Burnishing Parameters Using ANSYS 61

4 Conclusion

1. As there is very less deformation obtained thus the work piece dimensions are
not much affected. So the work piece remains within tolerance limit.
2. We know that, lower the stress developed on the work piece surface, higher is
the work piece fatigue life. Thus, the component fatigue life can be improved by
burnishing process.

References

1. http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/8463/10/10_chapter%201.pdf
2. https://www.autodesk.in/solutions/finite-element-analysis
3. Deshmukh A, Patil RN (2015) Analysis and optimization of roller burnishing process on
cylindrical surface micro hardness of aluminium alloy. Int J Innov Res Sci Eng Technol 4
(7):6044–6055
4. Qureshi NM, Patil Vaibhav B, Teli Basavaraj D, Mohite Radhika S, Patil Sonal S (2015)
Analysis of effect of ball and roller burnishing processes on surface roughness on EN8 steel.
Int J Eng Res Technol (IJERT) 4(6):311–315
Resistance Spot Welding of Cold Rolled
Mild Steel with Filler Metal

Sushil T. Ambadkar and Deepak V. Bhope

1 Introduction

Car designers today seek materials with the very best stiffness, mass reduction, and
safety performance. Safety and crashworthiness, are being preferably considered for
material selection, other factors being mass saving, formability, weldability, cor-
rosion resistance, fatigue resistance, cost etc. Resistance spot welding has been the
dominant welding process employed by the automotive factories for joining of steel
sheet for body structures because of its inherently low cost and high speed. Spot
welds are the primary method of joining automotive structural components. Mild
steel is an excellent candidate for car body structural applications due to weight
savings, enhanced crashworthiness, tough mechanical and fire-resistant properties
with good formability. Efforts are going on to improve spot weld properties by
improving microstructure, phases of the weldments by changing techniques of
welding, welding different metals and newer welding designs. Resistance spot
welding of dissimilar metal and subsequent changes in microstructure and response
to mechanical testing are under investigation.
Advanced high strength steels (AHSS) like dual phase (DP) steel and
transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) steel offers excellent strength and
formability, thus exploring the probability for improved crash performance with
weight reduction. The mechanical properties of these steels are controlled by the
martensite and the ferrite volume fractions [1, 2]. But these steels are uneconomical
and hence are used in higher end vehicles only. Also, it has been stated that spot

S. T. Ambadkar (&)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Government College of Engineering,
Chandrapur, MS, India
e-mail: sushipme@gmail.com
D. V. Bhope
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi College of Engineering,
Research and Technology, Chandrapur, MS, India

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 63

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_7
64 S. T. Ambadkar and D. V. Bhope

welding of AHSS steels has weldability issues due to the relatively higher alloying
content in these steels [3]. Diminished mechanical performance with interfacial
failures are problems encountered in TRIP steel weldments [4].
Looking at this, techniques to increase strength of traditional mild steel in spot
welding can be explored to improve its crash performance. Whereas weldability of
mild steel has been verified, same cannot be said about AHSS steels. Alternate
technique/method to increase strength of mild steel spot welds can be explored so as
to maintain its unique position in automotive industry due to its excellent
mechanical behaviour. One of such effort was investigated by adding filler metal to
cold rolled mild steel spot weldment. Its composition and carbon percentage was
determined and test coupon was selected by referring literature. The material was
cut and surface prepared by removing dirt, oxide layer, for spot welding. The spot
welding was carried out on K J Thermoweld make spot welder. Experimentation
was carried out to determine the range of filler metal to be added for investigations.
The weld cycle was kept constant and spot welding was carried out with different
quantities of filler metal. Tensile testing was carried out and response to these
testing was investigated with load-displacement curves.

2 Experimental

The materials used in the present study are typical for automotive body applications
and were 1.25-mm-thick CR Mild Steel sheets. The chemical composition of this
material is shown in Table 1.
Tensile tests were carried out at a nominal cross-head movement speed of 1 mm/
min to obtain the baseline tensile stress-strain curves of the base steel sheets.
A Resistance spot welder with specifications as mentioned below was used to weld
the specimen. The welder is K J Thermoweld make and its detailed specifications
are as follows (Table 2).
The cycle in the spot welder can be controlled with the help of parameters as
mentioned in Table 3. The machine was microcontroller based and energy levels
were programmable.
Weld coupons were 70 mm long and 25 mm wide. Spot welding was done for a
1.25 mm thick sheet. The electrode was made from C15000 copper alloy and has a
5 mm face diameter. The water flow in the electrode was maintained at 4 lit/min in
all experimentations (Fig. 1).
The spot welding schedules for experimentation is shown in Table 4. The
parameters for experimentation is mentioned in setting parameter column in
Table 4. The experimentation was carried out to determine the extent filler metal in
mg to be added for further investigations. The filler metal was added from 30 to
80 mg. The schedule followed is mentioned in Table 4 and was maintained
unchanged with addition of filler metal. Specimens were also welded without filler
metal with same unchanged parameters. Specimens were then tested and
load-displacement curve plotted to determine breaking strength. The failure mode
Table 1 Composition of CR mild steel
Sample C% Si% Mn P% S% Cr% Mo% Ni% Al% Cu% Nb% Ti% V%
identity %
Cold rolled mild 0.047 0.011 0.25 0.0060 0.0181 0.036 0.0070 0.0286 0.052 0.047 <0.005 0.0012 <0.003
steel
Resistance Spot Welding of Cold Rolled Mild Steel …
65
66 S. T. Ambadkar and D. V. Bhope

Table 2 Spot welder specification

Machine Model K J THERMOWELD Unit TSP 30
Rating KVA @ 50% duty cycle KVA 30
Max. available current (short circuit) @ throat depth: 460 mm K.Amp 15
Optimum weldability{@ 460 throat depth}
Minimum mm 0.3 + 0.3
Maximum mm 1.5 + 1.5
Machine dimensions (Approx.L  W) mm 1020  520
Height 1500
Net Wt. (for 460 mm throat) (+30 kg. for 200 mm throat (approx) Kgs. 450
Shipping Wt. (For 460 throat) (+ 30 kg. for 200 throat) (approx) Kgs. 525

Table 3 Spot welder parameters

Function of soft button as indicated Red Indication Description
Squeeze time SQZ 00–99 cycle
Preheat time W1 00–99 cycle
Energy level W1 00–99% programmable
Cool (I) time C1 00–99 cycle
Slope for W2 SLP 0–99 cycle
Weld Time W2 00–99 cycle
Weld energy (% heat setting) W2 00–99% programmable
Cool (II) time C2 00–99 cycle
Anneal time W3 00–99 cycle
Energy level W3 00–99% programmable
Hold time HLD 00–99 cycle
Off time OFF 00–99 cycle

was also observed and was interpreted by visual inspection. Some of the spot weld
specimens were cut across the cross section normal to the length and mounted for
macrostructure and microstructure observations following standard metallographic
procedures.

3 Result and Discussion

Investigations are carried out by adding small quantity of filler metal from 30 to
120 mg in spot weldments. Weld cycle and joint specifications are kept constant
and only filler metal quantity was varied. Variation in is strength, plasticity is
subsequently determined using stress-strain curve. The average breaking strength is
observed to be maximum for 30 mg of filler metal. A linear reduction in breaking
Resistance Spot Welding of Cold Rolled Mild Steel … 67

Table 4 Machine variables for experimentation

Function of soft button as indicated Red indication Description Setting parameter
Squeeze time SQZ 00–99 cycle 04
Preheat time W1 00–99 cycle 0
Energy level W1 00–99% programmable 0
Cool (I) time C1 00–99 cycle 34
Slope for W2 SLP 0–9 cycle 02
Weld time W2 00–99 cycle 37
Weld energy (% Heat Setting) W2 00–99% programmable 20
Cool (II) time C2 00–99 cycle 28
Anneal time W3 00–99 cycle 0
Energy level W3 00–99% programmable 0
Hold time HLD 00–99 cycle 05
Off time OFF 00–99 cycle 05

Fig. 1 Test coupon

strength is clearly visible with subsequent addition of filler metal. The failure mode
is predominantly button pullout for majority of specimen with 30 mg of filler metal
as shown in Fig. 2. The plasticity was found to be maximum with the addition of
30 mg of filler metal with gradual reduction with further addition of filler metal.
Addition of 30 mg of filler metal lead to increase in breaking strength which is
7.029% greater than breaking strength of weldment with no filler metal. Thus
30 mg of filler metal produce optimum results and hence considered to be the
optimal quantity in the given weld cycle. Two distinct failure modes were observed
during mechanical testing: interfacial fracture and nugget pullout.
The average breaking strength is observed to be 10.81 kN corresponding to
addition of 30 mg of filler metal. The nugget diameter for specimen 6 with maxi-
mum strength of 11.25 kN is found to be 5.26 mm and failure mode button pullout.
So the addition of 30 mg of filler metal improved nugget diameter and breaking
strength of the weldment. A gradual reduction in nugget diameter and depth of
penetration with increase in filler metal was observed resulting in reduction in
strength (Figs. 3, 4; Table 5).
The weld cycle was constant during experimentation. This ensured constant
temperatures throughout experimentation, uniform solidification, uniform cooling
68 S. T. Ambadkar and D. V. Bhope

Fig. 2 Resistance spot welder

Fig. 3 Few tested specimens

Ave breaking strength KN Displacement at maximum load mm

11 5
10.5 4
Ave 3 Displacement
10 breaking
2 at maximum
strength
9.5 1 load mm
KN
9 0
0 50 100 0 50 100

Fig. 4 Variation of average breaking strength and displacement with filler metal
Resistance Spot Welding of Cold Rolled Mild Steel … 69

Table 5 Results obtained with filler metal

Specimen Weight of Breaking Average Type of Displacement Average Nugget
no. filler load kN breaking failure at max load value diameter
material by load kN (mm) (mm) (mm)
weight (mg)
3a 0 10.06 10.01 Interfacical 3.3 3.2 4.13
6a 0 9.96 3.1 3.9
2 30 10.44 10.81 Pullout 3.5 3.85 4.57
and
interfacial
3 30 10.89 Button 3.9 4.75
pull out
5 30 10.65 Button 3.6 5.01
pull out
6 30 11.25 Button 4.4 5.26
pull out
7 40 10.47 10.21 Pullout 2 2.7 4.46
and
interfacial
8 40 10.26 Pullout 3.8 4.12
and
interfacial
9 40 9.81 interfacial 2.1 3.76
10 40 10.32 interfacial 2.9 4.23
11 50 10.38 9.99 interfacial 2.3 3.1 4.8
12 50 10.23 Pullout 3.1 4.25
and
interfacial
22 50 10.20 interfacial 2.5 3.67
23 50 8.88 interfacial 3 3.24
24 50 10.17 Pullout 4.3 4.2
and
interfacial
25 50 10.08 interfacial 3.4 4.6
14 60 10.05 10.02 Pullout 1.8 2.52 4.4
and
interfacial
26 60 10.2 Pullout 2.8 4.27
and
interfacial
27 60 10.14 interfacial 2.8 3.21
28 60 9.69 interfacial 2.7 3.25
15 70 9.42 9.45 interfacial 2.3 2.8 3.15
16 70 9.36 interfacial 4.3 3.11
29 70 8.97 interfacial 2.4 3.23
30 70 9.72 interfacial 2.2 3.04
31 70 9.78 interfacial 2.8 3.19
(continued)
70 S. T. Ambadkar and D. V. Bhope

Table 5 (continued)
Specimen Weight of Breaking Average Type of Displacement Average Nugget
no. filler load kN breaking failure at max load value diameter
material by load kN (mm) (mm) (mm)
weight (mg)
17 80 9.9 9.79 Pullout 3 3.06 3.71
and
interfacial
18 80 9.75 interfacial 3.1 3.65
32 80 9.57 interfacial 3 3.25
33 80 9.69 interfacial 2.8 3.55
34 80 10.05 interfacial 3.4 3.56

due to water cooled electrode and hence no changes in the phases were observed
due to the addition of filler metal. No significant effect on grain size, shape, dis-
tribution was observed due to the addition of filler metal and these were observed to
be same as that of weldment without filler metal. Three separate microstructural
zones were visible in joint region: (i) Weld nugget (ii) Heat affected zone and
(iii) Base metal. The heat affected zone must have experienced a maximum tem-
perature and a cooling rate which are inversely proportional to its distance from the
fusion line during welding. The fusion boundary in heat affected zone consisted of
martensite and ferrite. This can be attributed to quenching effect due to water cooled
copper electrodes with short welding cycle [5]. The microstructure of the region
away from fusion boundary consisted of ferrite and pearlite (Figs. 5, 6).

4 Determination of Filler Metal Quantity for Investigation

Invetigations were carried out by adding small quantity of filler metal from 30 to
80 mg in spot weldments. Weld cycle and joint specifications were kept constant
and only filler metal quantity was varied. Variation in is strength, plasticity was

(a) (b)

Fig. 5 Weld metal and HAZ of specimen no 2, 8 (Filler metal 30, 40 mg)—Weld metal shows
Widmanstatten ferrite, Normal ferrite (Whitish) and Pearlite (blackish), HAZ shows martensite
(black) and ferrite
Resistance Spot Welding of Cold Rolled Mild Steel … 71

(a) Weld metal (b) HAZ

Fig. 6 Weld metal and HAZ of specimen no 27, 60 (Filler metal 60 mg, No filler metal)—Weld
metal shows Widmanstatten ferrite, Normal ferrite (Whitish) and Pearlite (blackish), HAZ shows
martensite (black) and ferrite

subsequently determined using stress-strain curve. A direct corelation between

addition of filler metal and average breaking strength was observed. The average
breaking strength was observed to be maximum for 30 mg of filler metal. A gradual
reduction in breaking strength was clearly visible with subsequent addition of filler
metal. The failure mode was predominantly button pullout for majority of specimen
with 30 mg of filler metal.
Thus 30 mg of filler metal produced optimum results and hence found to be the
desired quantity in the given weld cycle.

5 Investigation into Effect of Addition of Filler Metal

on Mechanical Properties of Resistance Spot Weldments

Mechanical properties like breaking strength/load carrying capacity and plasticity

were investigated by plotting stress-strain curves corresponding to small quantity of
filler metal from 30 to 80 mg in spot weldments. These properties were also
invstigated for weld specimen without filler metal. Addition of 30 mg of filler metal
lead to increase in breaking strength which was 7.029% greater than breaking
strength of weldment without filler metal. It was seen that increasing filler metal
(30 mg) leads to increase in the maximum load and failure energy of joint primarily
due to increase in fusion zone and its depth penetration. Two separate failure modes
were observed during mechanical testing: interfacial fracture and nugget pullout.
Thus increase in energy absorption capability lead to enhanced vehicle crashwor-
thiness due to filler metal. The interfacial failure results in fracture through nugget,
whereas in pullout mode, nugget withdrawal from one sheet results failure. The
reliability of the spot welds during vehicle lifetime is excellent if pullout failure
mode is guaranteed and hence process parameters should ensure button pull out
failure [6, 7].
Increase in breaking strength with addition of filler metal was associated with
improvement in failure mode as button pull out as pointed out by Pouranvari et al.
[7]. Specimen with increasing quantity of filler metal showed interfacial failure or
72 S. T. Ambadkar and D. V. Bhope

combination of pull out and interfacial mode with inferior mechanical properties.
The plasticity was found to be maximum with the addition of 30 mg of filler metal
with gradual reduction with further addition of filler metal.

6 Investigation into the Changes in Nugget Diameter

with Addition of Filler Metal in Resistance Spot
Weldments

Invetigations were carried out by adding small quantity of filler metal from 30 to
80 mg in spot weldments. The average breaking strength was observed to be 10.81
KN corresponding to addition of 30 mg of filler metal. The nugget diameter for
specimen 6 with maximum strength of 11.25 kN was found to be 5.26 mm and
failure mode button pullout. So the addition of 30 mg of filler metal improved
nugget diameter and breaking strength of the weldment. There was reduction in
nugget diameter and penetration with increase in filler metal resulting in reduction
in strength. At a given current in a cycle, filler metal can be accommodated opti-
mally, the quantity of which depends on plate thickness. This addition of 30 mg of
filler metal contributes in fusion zone and resulted in increase in fusion zone size
and penetration. Diffusion controls the penetration of filler metal through the base
metal during welding. This was in accordance with the results obtained by
Hasanbasoglu and Kacar [8]. Increase in load-bearing area due to increase in nugget
size in the joint resulted in improved failure load for the joint [9]. A direct corre-
lation between joint tensile load and nugget diameter in the case of the spot welded
specimen is observed [10]. Expulsion of metal may begin then due to excess
availability of filler metal, resulting in weak joint and higher areas of stress con-
centration. But no expulsion of metal was visible in present experimentation.

7 Summary

The main results in this study are listed as follows;

1. It was observed that there is increase in strength of spot weldments with the
addition of filler metal. The maximum breaking load was observed to be 11.25
kN with the addition of 30 mg of filler metal. This strength is maximum for any
quantity of filler metal. The breaking strength is observed to be maximum at
10.44 kN without the addition of filler metal. The average increase in breaking
strength is found to be 7.029% with the addition of 30 mg of filler metal.
Gradual reduction in breaking strength is observed with increase in addition of
filler metal.
2. Gradual transformation from button pullout mode to interfacial failure mode was
visible with increase in filler metal. All failure modes for the weldments without
Resistance Spot Welding of Cold Rolled Mild Steel … 73

filler metal are observed to be interfacial. The specimen with 30 mg of filler

metal fail with button pull out mode. All other specimen with filler metal in
excess of 30 mg is found to fail by interfacial failure mode.
3. The plasticity of the specimens is found to be varying with the addition of filler
metal. The addition of 30 mg of filler metal produce average displacement at
maximum load, a measure of plasticity at 3.85 mm. This is found to be
decreasing with further addition of filler metal in the weldment. Spot weldments
without filler metal give average displacement at maximum load to be 3.2 mm.
4. Superior mechanical properties and desired button pullout mode are obtained
with the addition of 30 mg of filler metal. Hence 30 mg of filler metal is found
to be optimum quantity of filler metal in the given weld cycle.

References

1. Rathbun RW, Matlock DK, Speer JG (2003) Fatigue behavior of spot welded high-strength
sheet steels. Weld J 82(8):207–218
2. Matlock DK, Krauss G, Ziaebrahimi F (1984) Strain hardening of dual phase steels: an
evaluation of the importance of processing history. In: Krauss G (ed) Deformation,
processing, and structure, ASM International, Materials Park, Ohio, pp 47–87
3. Smith S, den Uijl N (2006) Resistance spot welding of advanced high strength steels for the
automotive industry. In: The 4th international seminar on advances in resistance welding.
Wels, Austria, pp 30–60
4. Khan MI, Kuntz ML, Biro E, Zhou Y (2008) Microstructure and mechanical properties of
resistance spot welded AHSS. Mater Trans JIM 49(7):1629–1637
5. Li MV, Dong D, Kimchi M (1998) SAE technical paper 982278. SAE International,
Warrendale, PA
6. Chao YJ (2003) Sci Technol Weld Join 8:133–137
7. Pouranvari M, Asgari HR, Mosavizadeh SM, Marashi PH, Goodarzi M (2007) Sci Technol
Weld Join 12:217–225
8. Hasanbasoglu A, Kacar R (2007) Resistance spot weldability of dissimilar materials (AISI
316L-DIN EN 10130-99 steels). Mater Des 28:1794–1800
9. Ozyurek DA (2008) An effect of weld current and weld atmosphere on the resistance spot
weldability of 304L austenitic stainless steel. Mater Des 29:597–603
10. Sun DQ, Lang B, Sun DX, Li JB (2007) Microstructures and mechanical properties of
resistance spot welded magnesium alloy joints. Mater Sci Eng A 46:494–498
Study on Squeeze Casting of Aluminum
Matrix Composites—A Review

L. Natrayan and M. Senthil Kumar

1 Introduction

Composite materials have led to increase the rate of development in engineering

field, Metal matrix composite (MMC) are generally reinforced with other metal,
ceramic organic compounds. Reinforcements significantly improved the properties
such as high tensile strength, toughness, hardness, low density and good wear
resistance compared to base metal. It has increasing attentiveness to fabricate
composites at low cost [25], commonly AMMCs are used now automobile, air-
plane, aerospace then many supplementary fields [17], silicon carbide (SiC), gra-
phite (Gr) and aluminium oxide (Al2O3) are most generally used reinforcements. Al
alloy-SiC reinforcement gets increases the toughness, thickness, ductile strength
then wear resistance [23]. Al2O3 reinforcement has good compressive strength and
wear resistance [29]. Gr used as the solid lubricant, between these materials, SiC
and Gr particles reinforcement in hybrid composite gives low friction coefficient
and high wear resistance [5, 8, 14]. Al/SiC/Gr hybrid composite revealed that the
presence of SiC particles has improves the strength and hardness, compensate the
wearying properties of Gr [12, 14]. AMMC properties particle distribution has
shown a very spirited role and is better by intensive shearing.

L. Natrayan (&)
M. Senthil Kumar

School of Mechanical and Building Sciences, VIT University,
Chennai 600127, Tamilnadu, India
e-mail: natrayanphd@gmail.com

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 75

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_8
76 L. Natrayan and M. Senthil Kumar

2 Squeeze Casting Technique

Though the idea of squeeze casting periods back towards 1800 [3, 33]. Till 1931
squeeze casting research was not accompanied [24]. Squeeze casting methods
remains mixture of the closed die forging plus gravity die casting. Applied pressure
in closed die halves metals has changed to solidifies. The functional pressure then
the sudden interaction of melted metal through the die surface generates quick heat
transfer that crops a porous free casting by mechanical properties imminent the
twisted product. The Squeeze casting technique has various names such as extru-
sion casting, liquid metal, Squeeze forming.
Its offers low operating costs, low shrinking porosity, high metal yield, excellent
surface finish. Premium quality castings and higher rates of heat removal through
the metal mold boundary are found due to the close interaction among the mold and
liquid metal. Squeeze casting process is illustrated schematically in Fig. 1 [33]. The
method is essentially separated hooked on two types: indirect and direct method.
Squeeze pressure is applied through the die-closing punch this action is direct
process, such the Squeeze pressure is applied as after closing die by the secondary
ram this method is indirect process, particular feature of the squeeze casting
technique over predictable die casting method.
• Squeeze casting method has suitable prospective for critical application due to
internal soundness obtained under pressure in solidification process.
• Absence of shrinkage porosity.
• Wrought alloys as well as casting alloys can stay squeeze casting to finish
suitable for long freezing alloys too.
• Squeeze casting has earlier cycle times.
• Good dimensional reproducibility is possible with Combination of thin die
coatings and high quality of reusable dies, applied corresponding pressure to die
is recycled to form the components.
• In squeeze casting has formed forging quality of the components.
• Dimensional precision, extraordinary grade of surface finish, clear shape.

Fig. 1 Squeeze casting

process [33]
Study on Squeeze Casting of Aluminum Matrix Composites … 77

• Squeeze forming consequences an extraordinary amount of modification in

structure of the composite. Particle dimension reduced towards the amount of
50% of that usually gravity cast composite produce better microstructure.
• In squeeze casting method material molded as exhibit higher toughness and
good equiaxed grain structure then material formed through gravity casting.
• Because of the better microstructure, mechanical properties shown Major
improvement.
Compared the mechanical and microstructure properties, Al-8% SiC particles
has fabricated through chill casting, sand casting and squeeze casting methods [19].
Chill and sand casting products has increased in the grain size of microstructure,
therefore chill and sand cast used in less quality parts for requiring engineering and
non-engineering applications, though squeeze cast yields might remain used in as
cast state in industrial requests demanding high excellence parts.

3 Single and Multiple-Reinforced AMC

SiC particle reinforced Al-MMC increased the tensile strength, hardness and density,
but impact toughness decreased [18, 20]. Weak matrix bonding, clustering elements
and atom cracking are the most affected behaviour of composites, the impact
behaviour of all materials has not actual significant in the test temperature [27].
AA 7034/SiC/15p-PA and Al 7034/SiC/15p-UA MMCs microstructures,
modulus, strength and ductility decreased with an increase in temperature. The
cyclic fatigue life supplementary prominent aimed at under-aged microstructure, at
ageing condition to growing the load fraction its gets higher fatigue strength [30].
AMMC based on pre ceramic-polymer-bonded SiC with polymer content 1.25 wt%
discussed provided appropriate constancy to the preforms towards support com-
posite dispensation. PMS subsequent discusses the preferred strength to the SiC
preforms on Al-SiC composites mechanical properties gets without damaging [28].
Squeeze cast reinforcement of Al2O3 and SiC exhibit better mechanical and
physical properties, high ultimate tensile and impact strength and hardness, such as
low coefficient of thermal expansion. It can used potential lightweight material in
automobile filed, the results found with addition of Al-SiC reinforcement gets low
wear rate then reinforcement of Al2O3 [34]. Element clustering on flow behaviour
of Al reinforced SiC particle, results found the plastic deformation is affected
desperately and mechanical reaction of the matrix is high than the elastic response
[2]. Particle clustered microstructure experiences grater ratio on particle crack then
chance dispersal [21]. Effect of vary the volume fraction in Al-Al2O3 particles
results found that increase in volume of fraction and decreased the fissure hardiness.
It has decrease due to the inter-particle spacing among nucleated micro cavities [9].
Al reinforcement of SiC/Gr found that tensile strength has decreased with increased
in Gr particle size, elastic module and tensile strength both has depend on size of
the Gr particle [6, 11].
78 L. Natrayan and M. Senthil Kumar

4 Mechanical Properties of AMC with Various

Reinforcement

SiC/Al2O3 particles shown density decreased due to porous of composite, the

porosity in matrix has an effect on the particle size. The tensile strength and porosity
of particle reinforced metal matrix composites improved owing to decreasing
particle size and unit volume has growing surfaces area of particles [1].
Al2O3/SiC reinforcements improved the tensile strength of aluminum alloy
composites. Figure 2 shows the composite reinforcement obtained for Al2O3/SiC
particle 10 vol. %. Tensile strength and porosity are dependent on reinforcement
size. In composite expose addition to particulate in base alloy to increase the tensile
strength in reinforcements [32].
Al2O3/SiC particles in aluminum matrix during deformation cause the interface
to crack and debonding since the matrix undergoes plastic flow while the particles
do not deform. Tensile elongation has decreased with increased in the Al2O3/SiC
particle size in Al alloys based composites. Tensile strength increased with decrease
in ductility, with decreasing particle size [4, 11, 31] (Fig. 3; Table 1).
Moderate ductility and higher tensile strength has accomplished in the decrease
of reinforcement particle size, the reinforcement of constant volume fraction, SiC
small particle size delivers extra boundary area, it helps by way of nucleation
locations aimed at the grain development through squeeze casting process and
through the ensuing heat treatment the grain has growth. Hence, it has commonly
unexpected grain size of the reinforcement has decreased as well as the conse-
quence of a smaller amount capture length between ceramic particles in addition to

Fig. 2 Tensile strength and

porosity increase depending
on Al2O3/SiC particle size
[32]
Study on Squeeze Casting of Aluminum Matrix Composites … 79

Fig. 3 Effects of the volume fraction and size of Gr particles on mechanical properties of Al/SiC/
Gr composites [11]

Fig. 4 Tensile strength and

elastic modulus in different
Particle size of Gr with
Al6061/40% SiC [26]

get higher mechanical strength in metal matrix result due to the higher dislocation
[15, 31] (Fig. 5).
Since the discussion Al/SiC/Gr composites obviously establish the particles size
of graphite particles and the volume fraction has affected extraordinary in elastic
modulus and the tensile strength has depends on particle size of the graphite and
volume fraction. Figure 4 shows the correlation among the elastic modulus and
tensile strength of Al/SiC/Gr MMCs. In graph tensile strength has decrease as well
as elastic modulus also decreases [26].

5 Tribological Behaviour of al MMCs

Wear is the tolerant loss of the material owing to frictional resistance among the
interaction surfaces [22]. Changed reinforcements have dissimilar effect on the
tribological behavior of AMMC. Different researches have been made to fabricate
80 L. Natrayan and M. Senthil Kumar

Table 1 Mechanical properties of Al 6061 based alloys with and without various reinforcements
[7]
Alloy Young’s modulus. Yield stress. Tensile strength. Elongation.
MPa  103 MPa MPa %
6061 (T6) 69 286 310 12
6061 + 15% SiC (T6) 91 342 364 3.2
6061 + 20% SiC (T4) 98 405 460 7.0
6061 + 25% SiC (T4) 115 430 515 4.0
6061 + 10% Al2O3 (T6) 81 296 338 7.5
6061 + 15% Al2O3 (T6) 87 317 359 5.4
6061 + 20% Al2O3 (T6) 98 359 379 2.1

Fig. 5 Hardness value of the

composite and unreinforced
material versus the again time
[15]

such Al-MMC with high wear resistance. Wear and friction performance is
dependent on various tribological factors.
The wear intensity increases by increase of sliding distance. Through raising the
SiC wt%, wear decreases with increase in 20 wt% of SiC particles (Fig. 6), again
raising the wt% of SiC particles such as 20–40%, wear also increases [16]. Increase
the reinforcement volume fraction the normalized wear rate gets decreases, and then
limits subsequently this develops seeming remains around 20% [4, 13, 31]. The
normalized coefficient of friction reached the comparable need on the reinforcement
volume fraction, the wear ratio and particle size reduces to increase the rein-
forcement [35] (Fig. 7).
The friction coefficient has decreases due to increase of SiC content, friction
coefficient increases after 30% of SiC content [13]. The authors have reported Al/
SiC/Gr MMCs are statistically the dry sliding friction behaviour. Friction coefficient
has mostly affected in load factor shadowed through sliding speed. Increase the load
and sliding distance is to coefficient of friction also gets increased [10].
Study on Squeeze Casting of Aluminum Matrix Composites … 81

Fig. 6 sliding distance and

wear intensity with various wt
% of SiC in Al/SiC/Gr hybrid
composites [16]

Fig. 7 Sliding distance and

wear loss and for different wt
% of graphite content [4]

6 Conclusion

The following are conclusions on the review of Squeeze casting:

Aluminum based metal matrix reviewed for different reinforcements resulted in
fine micro-structures with higher strength components, good surface texture and
low levels of porosity. Aluminium alloys with reinforcement of Al2O3 increased the
tensile strength and hardness along with ductility. SiC reinforced matrix improved
the tensile and hardness behavior up to 10 wt% and decreased the tensile strength
and hardness with the increasing wt% due to agglomeration of the hard ceramic
particles that leads to porosity. SiC reinforced AMMCs reported better wear
resistance than Al2O3 reinforced MMCs. Addition of graphite particles increased
the wear resistance. The coefficient of friction has reduced and wear resistance gets
increase due to increased the reinforcement on the wear behaviour of MMCs.

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stirring speed and stirring time on distribution of particles in cast metal matrix composite.
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3. Chernov DK (1878) Reports of the Imperial Russian Metallurgical Society

4. Doel TJA, Bowen P (1996) Tensile properties of particulate-reinforced metal matrix
composites. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf 27(8):655–665
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produced by liquid and semisolid double stirring process. Mater Sci Technol 16(5):556–563
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properties of SiC/Al2O3 particulate-reinforced spray-deposited metal-matrix composites.
J Mater Sci 28:2245–2259
8. Hollinggrak J (1819) Casting metals, UK Patent 4371
9. Kannan S, Kishawy HA (2006) Surface characteristics of machined aluminium metal matrix
composites. Int J Mach Tools Manuf 46:2017–2025
10. Kumar S, Panwar RS, Pandey OP (2013) Effect of dual reinforced ceramic particles on high
temperature tribological properties of aluminum composites. Ceram Int 39:6333–6342
11. Leng Jinfeng (2008) Mechanical properties of SiC/Gr/Al composites fabricated by squeeze
casting technology. Scripta Mater 59:619–622
12. Leng J, Jiang L, Zhang Q, Wu G, Sun D, Zhou Q (2008) Study of machinable SiC/Gr/Al
composites. J Mater Sci 43:6495–6499. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-008-2974-6
13. Lim SC (1998) Recent developments in wear mechanism maps. Tribol Int 31:87–97
14. Mahdavi S, Akhlaghi F (2011) Effect of SiC content on the processing, compaction behavior,
and properties of. Al6061/SiC/Gr hybrid composites, J Mater Sci 46:1502–1511. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s10853-010-4954-x
15. Mahdavi S, Akhlaghi F (2011) Effect of the SiC particle size on the dry sliding wear behavior
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Development and Investigation
of Microstructure and Mechanical
Properties of Cast and Hot Forged
AL2014-TIB2 In Situ Composite by Stir
Casting

M. Senthil Kumar, R. D. Hemanth, B. Ashok Kumar,

M. Venkateswarlu and P. Kuppan

1 Introduction

The most economical method available for fabrication of aluminum matrix com-
posites (AMC) is stir casting, in recent times enormous research is involved in
developing metal matrix composites. AMCs are prepared by combining advanced
materials of two or more different types by analyzing the tailored properties [1, 2].
Exclusive properties of AMCs are good wear resistance, high structural efficiency,
high specific strength, low density, very good electrical and thermal properties
[3, 4]. Hence, it finds its applications in infrastructure, automotive, military and
aerospace industries [5]. Stir casting method is preferred compared to the other
processes due to its simplicity, flexibility and its application in large volume pro-
duction [6–8]. Literature review carried out exhibited very few studies have been
done on aluminum matrix using TiB2 as reinforcement in evaluating the
microstructure and mechanical properties. This paper mainly focuses on investi-
gating the mechanical properties (hardness, density, impact strength and tensile
strength) and microstructure of Al-TiB2 samples prepared by stir casting technique.

M. S. Kumar (&)
R. D. Hemanth
B. A. Kumar

School of Mechanical and Building Sciences, VIT University,
Chennai 600127, Tamilnadu, India
e-mail: msv305@yahoo.co.in
M. Venkateswarlu
Research and Engineering Centre, Amara Raja Batteries Ltd,
Karkambadi, Tirupati 517520, Andhra Pradesh, India
P. Kuppan
School of Mechanical Engineering, VIT University,
Vellore 632014, Tamilnadu, India

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 85

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_9
86 M. S. Kumar et al.

2 Experimental Details

A12014 alloy and raw material selected was TiO2 and B2O3 for this investigation to
obtain 10 and 15 wt% In situ reactant of TiB2 particles through the following
reaction

10Al þ 3TiO2 þ 3B2 O3 ¼ 5Al2 O3 þ 3TiB2

1 kg of raw materials (Al2014) was melted using electric furnace (Fig. 1) of 6

KW at 850 °C in a graphite crucible. The scum powder is added into the mold to
settle the impurities. Commercially available Hexa-chloroethane tablets were added
to dissolve the gases and in turn remove the porosity of the final cast product. To
achieve a fine vortex, molten metal was agitated by using mechanical stirrer.
Ceramic coated stainless blades were rotated at a speed of 350 rpm for 15 min.
A fine vortex was created to disperse uniformly the TiO2 and B2O3 reinforcements.
The composite melt was maintained at a constant temperature of 850 °C for 25 min
which allowed for the In situ reaction to occur. Molten metal is poured into the
mould (Fig. 2b) and upon solidification; the composite billets were removed from
the mould.
In order to perform studies on hot forging, billets were hot forged Billets were
pre-heated at 400 °C in muffle furnace for 3 h and finally subjected to hand forging
process on the anvil. The stir casted and hot forged billets were machined to obtain
suitable shape and size as per the ASTM test standards.

Fig. 1 Electric furnace

Development and Investigation of Microstructure and Mechanical … 87

Fig. 2 a Stirring b Pouring the molten metal

3. Results and Discussions

4 Microstructure Studies

Optical micrographs (Fig. 3) revealed that during solidification dendrites are

formed and the alloying elements of Al2014 such as Cu and Mg are higher than that
of their solubility limit. As a result, the intermetallic phases like CuAl2, CuMgAl2
and Mn3SiAl2 etc., that forms around the dendrites during casting enables grain
refinement and strengthening of alloy indicated as black regions. Cast Al2014-10%
TiB2 and forged Al2014-10%TiB2 samples indicate homogenous distribution of
reinforcement with minimal porosity in the matrix alloy. Homogenous distribution
of reinforcement is observed within the matrix. Good bonding and wettability is
confirmed by the existence of TiB2 particles inside the dimples. Micrograph
observation showed much shallower dimples. The TiB2 particles are well dispersed
in Al matrix in an equal manner under both forged and cast conditions. However,
on comparison, TiB2 particles are more uniformly distributed in the forged com-
posited, this can be ascribed to thermo mechanical deformation during forging.

Fig. 3 Microstructure (a) Casted Al2014-15%TiB2 (b) Forged Al2014-15%TiB2

88 M. S. Kumar et al.

5 Brinell Hardness Test

Hardness measurements were done by applying 150 kgf load on a universal

mechanical tester (UMT) for a duration of 10 s. Hardness was measured at five
different locations and average was taken in order to reduce the probability of error
in measurement due to the indenter resting on the harder particles. The diameter of
the indentation was measured by using simple microscope. Brinell hardness number
for Al2014 and developed composites are shown in Fig. 4. Hardness of the cast and
In situ reinforced TiB2 with 15 wt% composites showed the highest hardness. This
results confirm that the bonding strength increased with the addition of reinforce-
ment. Increase in reinforcement content in the matrix alloy subsequently increased
the hardness of composite. In situ forged composite possess higher hardness
compared with the cast composites.

6 Density

Density of Al2014 composites were measured by using Archimedes principle.

Figure 5 shows the variation in density of cast and cast composites. It is observed
that increasing the reinforcement content in the matrix alloy, increased the density
of composite for cast as well as forged composites. Al2014-15%TiB2 forged
composite exhibited the highest density. The porosity (Fig. 6) of the composites
were evaluated using the relation:

% porosity ¼ fðqT qEX Þ  qT g  100%

Fig. 4 Variation in Brinell 80

hardness of Al2014 alloys and 70
its composites
60
50
Casted
40
30 Forged
20
10
0
Al2014 Al2014-10%TiB2 Al2014-15%TiB2
Development and Investigation of Microstructure and Mechanical … 89

Fig. 5 Variation in densities 2.9

of Al2014 alloys and its
2.85
composites
2.8

2.75

2.7

2.65

2.6
AL2014 Al2014-10%TiB2 Al2014-15%TiB2

Fig. 6 Variation in porosities 6

of Al2014 and Al2014-TiB2
composite 5

4
Casted
3
Forged
2

0
Al2014 Al2014- Al2014-
15%TiB2 15%TiB2

7 Impact Strength

Impact strength evaluation was performed on Al2014 base alloy, Al2014-10%TiB2

and Al2014-15%TiB2 composites in an impact testing machine. The specimens
used for this test were prepared as per ASTM standards. This test was conducted by
applying 100 kgf load on Al2014 and developed composites to calculate the impact
strength. Figure 7 shows the variation of the impact strength levels of Al2014 alloy
and composite with TiB2 at 10% and 15 wt%. The impact strength increased with

Fig. 7 Variation in Impact 0.05

Strengths of Al2014 and 0.045
Al2014-TiB2 composite 0.04
0.035
0.03
0.025 Casted
0.02 Forged
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
Al2014 Al2014-10%TiB2 Al2014-15%TiB2
90 M. S. Kumar et al.

Fig. 8 Specimen after impact

test

increase in composition and was found to be highest for forged Al2014-15%TiB2

composite (0.047 Unit). Figure 8 shows the specimens after impact test was
performed.

8 Tensile Strength

The tensile tests were conducted on composite samples using universal testing
machine as per ASTM standard. Figure 9 shows the tensile strength of cast and
forged metal matrix composites. Tensile strength was found to increase with
increasing wt% of reinforcements, subsequently it showed better tensile strength
with forged composites. The results clearly define that the interfacial bonding
between the matrix and reinforcement plays a crucial role in defining the tensile
properties. The higher hardness and superior mechanical properties of TiB2

Fig. 9 Variation of micro 250

hardness of tensile strength
Al2014 composite with TiB2 200

150
Casted
100
Forged
50

0
Al2014 Al2014- Al2014-
10%TiB2 15%TiB2
Development and Investigation of Microstructure and Mechanical … 91

particles contributed to the improved ultimate tensile strength. Tensile strength of

Al2014-10%TiB2 and Al2014-15% TiB2 forged composites exhibited the highest
compared to the cast composites. Al2014-15% TiB2 forged composite reported the
highest tensile strength of 201.92 unit.

9 Conclusion

Al2014-TiB2 composites were successfully fabricated by using liquid metallurgical

Process as cast and forged Al2014 and Al2014-TiB2 composites. The following
were the conclusions.
• Composite density increased with increasing wt% of reinforcements
• Homogenous distribution of TiB2 particles was observed in both as cast and hot
forged composites
• Hardness, tensile and impact strength of composites increased with the
increasing wt% of TiB2
• Mechanical properties of forged composites were high compared with cast
composites.
The results of this research on Al2014-TiB2 composite showed improved
mechanical properties compared to Al2014 alloy.

References

1. Rajan TP, Pillai RM, Pai BC (1998) Review reinforcement coatings and interfaces in
aluminium metal matrix composites. J Mater Sci 33(14):3491–3503
2. Jayamathi M, Seshan S, Kailas SV, Kumar K, Srivatsan TS (2004) Influence of reinforcement
on microstructure and mechanical response of a magnesium alloy. Curr Sci 87(9):1218–1231
3. Mandal D, Dutta BK, Panigrahi SC (2006) Microstructure and mechanical properties of Al–
2 Mg alloy base short steel fiber reinforced composites prepared by vortex method. J Mater Sci
41(15):4764–4770
4. Zhang DL, Brindley C, Cantor B (1993) The microstructures of aluminium alloy metal matrix
composites manufactured by squeeze casting. J Mater Sci 28(8):2267–2272
5. Surappa MK (2003) Aluminium matrix composites: challenges and opportunities. Sadhana
28:319–334
6. CanKurnaz S (2003) Production of saffil fibre reinforced Zn-Al (ZA 12) based metal matrix
composites using infiltration technique and study of their properties. Mater Sci Eng A
346:108–115
7. Xing Chen, Chengxiao Yang, Leding Guan, Biao Yan (2008) TiB2/Al2O3 ceramic particle
reinforced aluminium fabricated by spray deposition. Mater Sci Eng A 496:52–58
8. Ramesh CS, Pramod S, Keshavamurthy RA (2011) Study on microstructure and mechanical
properties of Al 6061–TiB2 in-situ composites. Mater Sci Eng A 528(12):4125–4132
Mechanical Characterization
and Comparative Evaluation
of the Different Combination of Natural
and Glass Fiber Reinforced Hybrid
Epoxy Composites

C. M. Meenakshi and A. Krishnamoorthy

Nomenclature
GFG Glass and Flax Fiber Reinforced Epoxy Composite Laminate.
GSG Glass and Sisal Fiber Reinforced Epoxy Composite Laminate.
GKG Glass and Kenaf Fiber Reinforced Epoxy Composite Laminate.
GAG Glass and Aloe Vera Fiber Reinforced Epoxy Composite Laminate.

1 Introduction

Asian researchers are showing interest in cellulose fiber reinforced plastics,

advantage of these fibers as reinforcement is their low density, which is an
important factor of consideration in the structural industry. Widely there are many
research works are ongoing in this regard, [1] has proved that banana/bamboo
hybrid fiber reinforced epoxy composite has a good impact strength, [2] based on
many reviews saying that plant fibers are good replacement for synthetic fiber in
terms of cost, density, and renewability and Co2 emission. [3] has found that jute–
epoxy composites have good tensile and flexural strength compare to jute-polyester
composites [4] found out that sisal/Glass fiber composite is performing well with
the tensile load and [5] saying research and development of biodegradable com-
posites will lead to the use of suitable local materials with possible local manu-
facturing of products through local technological capabilities meeting not only local
but global demand also [6] have quoted that hybridization with the glass fiber
showed a positive response on the tensile, flexural, impact and water absorption
properties of the hybrid composites.

C. M. Meenakshi (&)
A. Krishnamoorthy

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology,
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
e-mail: cmmeenakshi84@gmail.com

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 93

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_10
94 C. M. Meenakshi and A. Krishnamoorthy

In this work Flax, Sisal, Kenaf, and Aloe Vera fibers are used along with glass
fiber in epoxy resin; four types of composite laminates are prepared and compared
for their mechanical strengths.

2 Materials and Methodology

Materials and Laminate Fabrication. In this work the resin considers is Epoxy
resin (LY 556) and the hardener used is Araldite HY-951, the matrix is prepared by
mixing the resin and hardener in the ratio of 10:1 and the natural fibers used are
flax, sisal Kenaf and Aloe Vera fibers in the form of biaxial mats brought from
weavers association Chennai. The glass fiber used is 600 Gsm biaxial glass fiber
mat from Sakthi fibers, Chennai.
Even though there are many advanced composite laminate preparation methods
like vacuum bag molding methods are available till hand lay-up method is consider
as one of the simpler and widely used methods for thermoset laminate preparation,
the same is followed here in this work. Initially, the Glass, natural fiber mats and are
cut into 300  300 mm sizes, Epoxy and Hardener are mixed in the ratio of 10:1.
In the approximate weight fraction of 30 W% (10% Natural fiber and 20% Glass
fiber) fiber and 70 W% resin, different types of laminates are prepared with the
combination of Glass-Flax-Glass, Glass-Sisal-Glass, Glass-Kenaf-Glass and
Glass-Aloe vera-Glass in each combination 2 laminates are prepared. Highest care
has been given to produce a uniform and homogeneous composite laminate of
300  300  3 mm. The 3 mm thickness is achieved by laying up alternate layers
of resin and fiber mat in the above-mentioned order. The fabricated specimens are
shown in Fig. 1 and the detail combination scheme is given in Table 1.

3 Mechanical Testing

Composite laminates prepared are cut into appropriate smaller samples of ASTM
standards, for various test procedure and the test results are obtained.
Tensile Test. The tensile test is carried out in accordance with ASTM D-638
standards on a Universal testing machine (UTM) UTN-60 with minimum gradua-
tion 1 kN and maximum capacity of 600 kN at room temperature. The test is carried
out in such a way till the sample gets fractured by gradually applying the load and
the ultimate tensile strength, elongation at the peak load and ultimate stress are
found out. The load Vs displacement graph is auto generated by the machine. The
samples before and after test are presented in Fig. 2.
Flexural Test. The flexural test is carried out in a UTM on Samples cut in
accordance with ASTM D-790 standard the testing procedure is as per the
three-point bending test method by placing the specimen on the universal testing
machine and applying load till the specimen fracture and break. Results are
Mechanical Characterization and Comparative Evaluation … 95

Fig. 1 Sample Laminates of different type of composite a for GFG b GSG c GAG d GKG

Table 1 Type of composites and their configuration

S. No Nomenclature Composite type Layer 1 Layer 2 Layer 3
1 GFG Glass and Flax Fiber Glass Flax Fiber Glass
Reinforced Epoxy Fiber Mat Mat Fiber Mat
2. GSG Glass and Sisal Fiber Glass Sisal Fiber Glass
Reinforced Epoxy Fiber Mat Mat Fiber Mat
3. GKG Glass and Kenaf Fiber Glass Kenaf Fiber Glass
Reinforced Epoxy Fiber Mat Mat Fiber Mat
4. GAG Glass and Aloe Vera Fiber Glass Aloe Vera Glass
Reinforced Epoxy Fiber Mat Fiber Mat Fiber Mat
96 C. M. Meenakshi and A. Krishnamoorthy

Fig. 2 Tensile test specimens

Fig. 3 Flexural test

specimens

compared and flexural strength of the materials is identified. The samples before
and after test are presented in Fig. 3.
Impact Test. Impact energy is the energy that the specimen absorbs once a
sudden load is applied. Izod impact testing is an ASTM standard method of
determining the impact resistance. Material specimens are prepared to confirm to
ASTM D4812. A pendulum from a particular height is released which strike the
specimen and breaks it. From the amount of energy spent to break the specimen, its
impact energy can be found out. Samples after test are shown in Fig. 4.
Mechanical Characterization and Comparative Evaluation … 97

Fig. 4 Impact test specimens

4 Result and Discussion

Tensile Test. Figure 5 shows the variation in tensile strength among the four types
of composite laminates and Table 2 give the tensile strength value. The tensile test
results show that Glass–Kenaf fiber reinforced composite is having a high tensile
strength of 91 N/mm2 in an average which is 42% higher than the tensile strength
(52 N/mm2) of Glass–Flax composite. The average tensile strength value of
glass-sisal and glass-aloe Vera is 62 and 67 N/mm2 respectively. The
auto-generated load versus Displacement graph of tensile test is shown in Fig. 6.
And the breaking stress values are 52.978, 62.938, 92.208 and 69.99 N/mm2
respectively in the order of GFG, GSG, GKG and GAG. Also, the ultimate load
applied, after which the sample failed, for each type is 2.23, 2.66, 3.60, and 2.70 kN
in the same order above. From the tensile test result of this work, the overall
understanding is that the Glass–Kenaf fiber reinforced with Epoxy resin is giving a
good tensile strength compared to other natural fibers considered in this work. The
theoretical value of tensile strength of all the composites is obtained using the
formula [3]:

Fig. 5 Comparison of tensile 100

strength
80

60
Tensile strength
40 (N/mm2)
20

0
GSG GFG GKG GAG
98 C. M. Meenakshi and A. Krishnamoorthy

Table 2 Overall mechanical performance of different composite laminate

S. Composite Tensile strength Flexural strength Impact energy
No type (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (J/m)
1 GSG 62.4 204.95 17
2 GFG 52.978 155.334 13.4
3 GKG 91.41 255.442 16.4
4 GAG 67.488 199.268 15.6

Fig. 6 Sample load versus displacement graph from tensile test a for GSG b GFG c GKG d GAG

rt = P/bh

where,
P-Ultimate load of the specimen, b-Initial width of the specimen, h-Initial
thickness of specimen.
The value obtained for different composites are rt = 64 N/mm2 for GSG,
53 N/mm2 for GFG, 90 N/mm2 for GKG and 66 N/mm2 for GSG respectively.
Flexural Test. The resulted value of flexural test performed in UTM is given in
Table 2 and the variation among values for different composites is shown in Fig. 7.
Overall the flexural load withstanding capacity of natural fiber reinforced com-
posites are very good due to their elastic nature. Out of the samples tested the
Mechanical Characterization and Comparative Evaluation … 99

Fig. 7 Comparison of 300

flexural strength
250

200
Flexural
150 strength
(N/mm2)
100

50

0
GSG GFG GKG GAG

flexural strength of Glass–Kenaf Composite is very high (255 N/mm2) and the
values of the other composites are as in Table 2. Flexural strength of the material
depends not only on the brittle or ductile nature of the fiber also on the resin, epoxy
exhibits a ductile behavior which contributes to the good flexural strength of the
epoxy –Fiber reinforced composites, the variation in flexural strength of the hybrid
composites is due to the variation in stiffness of the natural fibers used as the other
two member resin and glass fiber are common in all the laminates prepared. Kenaf–
Glass fiber reinforced composite is showing good flexural strength due to the high
stiffness value of kenaf with the resin and glass fiber and flax glass is showing a
lower value due to the lower stiffness value of flax fiber and so on. The theoretical
values of flexural strength of all the composites are obtained using the formula
[3, 7] :

rf = 3PL/2bh2

where,
P-Ultimate load of the specimen, L-Span length of the specimen, b-Width of the
specimen, h-Thickness of specimen.
The value obtained for different composites are rf = 200 N/mm2 for GSG,
153 N/mm2 for GFG, 254 N/mm2 for GKG and 202 N/mm2 for GAG respectively.
Impact Test. The impact test is carried out to find the toughness of the com-
posite laminates prepared; the test is carried out on ASTM D4812 sized samples.
The pattern of failure observed in impact testing is fiber breakage and delamination.
The value of impact resistance for each composite laminate is given in Table 2 and
the comparison are shown in Fig. 8. Generally, higher cellulose content in natural
fiber allows for more fracture to happen. Kenaf–Glass and Sisal–Glass fiber rein-
forces epoxy laminates shows better impact energy value (17 and 16.3 J/mm2) than
the other two laminates tested, Flax-glass laminate is the inferior player among the
four laminates.
The pictorial comparison of overall mechanical properties of the composites
laminates prepared is shown in Fig. 9 which is a proof that Kenaf-Glass composite
laminate exhibits a superior performance to other types.
100 C. M. Meenakshi and A. Krishnamoorthy

Fig. 8 Comparison of impact 18

strength 16
14
12
10
Impact
8
Energy(J/m)
6
4
2
0
GSG GFG GKG GAG

GSG GFG GKG GAG

255.442

204.95 199.268

155.334

91.41
62.4 52.978 67.488

17 13.4 16.4 15.6

Tensile strength (N/mm2) Flexural strength Impact Energy(J/m)

(N/mm2)

Fig. 9 Comparisons of overall mechanical strength

5 Conclusion

This particular work is carried out to find out the mechanical strength of glass and
natural hybrid fiber reinforced epoxy composite and the following conclusions are
made.
• This works shows that successful fabrication of homogeneous composite lam-
inates is possible by hand lay-up methods.
• Experimentation and theoretical values of tensile and flexural strength are
coinciding with each other which show the accuracy of the experimentation
followed.
• The various test results of the all hybrid composites infer that Kenaf/Glass fiber
reinforced Epoxy composite is showing good mechanical strength having 40–
50% higher value to the least performing member flax-glass composite.
• The flexural strength values of all the hybrid fiber reinforced composites are
reasonably good.
From the above absorption, it is understood that hybrid fiber composites can be
used as an alternate for glass fiber composites depend on the strength required by
which the synthetic content in polymeric matrix composites can be reduced.
Mechanical Characterization and Comparative Evaluation … 101

References

1. Ramachandran M et al (2016) Experimental study of bamboo using banana and linen fiber
reinforced polymeric composites. Perspect Sci. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pisc.2016.04.063
2. Saxena M et al (2011) Composite materials from natural resource: recent trends and future
potentials. Adv Compos Mater www.intechopen.com—Analysis and man-made materials
3. Gopinath A, Kumar MS, Elayaperumal A (2014) An experimental investigations on
mechanical properties of jute fiber reinforced composites with polyester and epoxy resin
matrices. Procedia Eng 97:2052–2063
4. Ramesh M, Palanikumar K, Hemachandra Reddy K (2013) Comparative evaluation of
properties of hybrid glass fiber-sisal/jute reinforced epoxy composites. Procedia Eng
51:745–750
5. Satyanarayana KG et al (2009) Biodegradable composites based on lingo cellulosic fibers- an
overview. Prog Polym Sci 34:982–1021
6. Nunna S et al (2014) A review on mechanical behavior of natural fiber based hybrid
composites. J Reinf Plast Compos. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731684412444325
7. Gupta MK, Srivastava RK (2014) Tensile and Flexural properties of sisal fiber reinforced
epoxy composites: an comparison between unidirectional and mat form of fibers. Procedia
Mater Sci 5:2434–2439
Use of Polylactic Acid (PLA) Material
for Asymmetric Spur Gear
Manufactured by 3-D Printing

Laxman B. Abhang and Akshay Govardhan Dekhane

1 Introduction

The concept of an asymmetric spur gear drive is that large and small pressure angles
are considered for the drive and coast sides. The two profiles of gear tooth are
performing different functions for most gear drives. The one side carrying higher
workload than the other. The coast profile is unloaded or very lightly loaded during
operating the drive for given time period. Asymmetric gear is made by using the
two involutes of different base circle diameter i.e. base circle diameter of coast side
and base circle diameter of drive side. Mostly the pressure angle on drive side is
modified so that we can get more contacting area while the tooth meshing. One of
the important advantage of asymmetric gears is reduction of contact stress on the
drive flanks, resulting in higher load capacity. Such types of benefits of asymmetric
gears are well known. One of the moto of asymmetric gear teeth design is to
improve performance of the primary drive profiles than the performance off the
opposite coast profiles. The optimum selection of the pressure angles for the driving
and coast side of the teeth is important for the design of gear drives of asymmetric
geometry. Benefits of asymmetric tooth side surfaces enables to increase the load
carrying capacity and long life to the drive tooth side. So, the geometry and design
of asymmetric spur gears gives an important problem. There are few articles of
involute gears with asymmetric (buttress) teeth. They consider the small pressure
angle profile (as a rule 20°) for the drive side and high pressure angle profile for the
coast side teeth. Such an approach enables to decrease the bending stresses and
keeps contact stresses on the same level as for symmetric teeth with equal pressure

L. B. Abhang
Pravara Rural Engineering College, Loni, Ahmednagar, Maharashtra, India
e-mail: lbabhang@gmail.com
A. G. Dekhane (&)
Vishwabharati Academy’s College of Engineering, Ahmednagar, Maharashtra, India
e-mail: agdekhane@gmail.com

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 103

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_11
104 L. B. Abhang and A. G. Dekhane

angle. Asymmetry of the tooth increases the contact ratio beyond the conventional
gears’ limits. Recently, a more interest has been observed in the involute gear drives
of asymmetric tooth profiles. These gear drives can be used in automotive trans-
missions, wind turbines, gear pumps, lifting and other units in which the loading is
unidirectional of movement. Its use tends to many advantages, the most significant
of which is the increase of the carrying capacity of the gear drive in the driving
direction of movement. Asymmetric gear tooth profile optimization leads to sig-
nificant contact and bending stress reduction. This stress reduction gives the higher
load carrying capacity, extended lifetime, reduced vibration, higher efficiency,
higher reliability, reduced cost [1].
Methodology:
For the above work proposed, the methodology is as follows:
• Study of difference between symmetric and asymmetric spur gears
• Profile of the asymmetric spur gear
• Calculation of design parameters of the involute spur gear with asymmetric teeth
• Modeling of the asymmetric gear in the 3D software (CATIA)
• Finite Element Analysis of the gear for bending stress analysis
• Manufacturing of the asymmetric spur gear by 3D printing method
• Experimental analysis of the gear model
• Comparison between the FEA and experimental analysis
• Result & Discussion

2 Design & Modeling

By calculating different parameters,

Number of teeth = Zp = Zg = 32
ac = 20°
ad = 25°, 30°, 35°
Material Assumed: Polylactic Acid (PLA)
Thickness of gear = 9 mm
Ft = 189.342 N

2.1 Modelling of Gear in CATIA V5 R20

The design of the gear is done by using the mathematical formulae referred from the
gear design book. The materials used for the gear is poly lactic acid (PLA).
Therefore, for the analysis purpose, the model has to do on the modeling software
and analysis will be carried out by FEA software.
Use of Polylactic Acid (PLA) Material for Asymmetric Spur … 105

For the modelling as well as analysis CAD/CAE software’s used:

1. CATIA V5 R20
2. ANSYS Workbench 16.0

2.2 Process of Drawing

(1) Open CATIA V5.

(2) Go to Part Design.
(3) Select plane and sketch tool.
(4) Draw dedendum circle of diameter 83.35 mm, base circle of diameter
89.35 mm and addendum circle of diameter 95.36 mm.
(5) Draw axis line at angle 4.50 and second axis line at an angle 250 as shown in
figure.
(6) Draw a circle from dedendum circle coinciding the axis line.
(7) By using quick trim command, trim the data.
(8) Similarly, follow the step (7) with pressure angle 20° and again trim the
unwanted circle.
(9) Draw the lines & Exit workbench.
(10) Using “pad” command, add thickness 9 mm as per design (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 CATIA drawing

106 L. B. Abhang and A. G. Dekhane

3 Fea of Asymmetric Spur Gear

ANSYS has developed product lines that allow you to make the most of your
investment and choose which product works best in your environment. ANSYS is a
Finite Element Analysis (FEA) code mostly used in the Computer-Aided
Engineering (CAE) area.

3.1 Pre-processing

The pre-processing step is described as defining the model and includes

– Define the geometric domain of the problem.
– Define the element type(s) to be used.
– Define the material properties of the model.
– Define the geometric properties of the elements (length, area).
– Define the element connectivity’s (mesh the model).
– Define the physical constraints (boundary conditions).
– Define the loadings (Figs. 2 and 3).

3.2 Post Processing

Analysis and evaluation of the solution results is known to as post processing.

Postprocessor software is having sophisticated routines used for sorting, printing,
and plotting selected results from a finite element solution [11]. Examples of
operations that can be accomplished include:
– Sort element stresses in order of magnitude.
– Animate dynamic model behaviour.
– Produce colour-coded temperature plots (Figs. 4, 5 and 6).

Fig. 2 Imported model

Use of Polylactic Acid (PLA) Material for Asymmetric Spur … 107

Fig. 3 Tooth meshing

Fig. 4 Equivalence stress for

angle 20°–25°

Fig. 5 Equivalence stress for

angle 20°–30°
108 L. B. Abhang and A. G. Dekhane

Fig. 6 Equivalence stress for angle 20°–35°

4 Manufacturing of Asymmetric Gear by 3D Printing

Method

3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing (AM), refers to processes used

to create a three dimensional object in which layers of material are built under
computer control to create an object. Object can be of any shape or geometry are
produced using digital model data from 3D model or another electronic data source
such as an Additive manufacturing (AMF) file. The futurologist Jeremy Rifkin
claimed that 3D printing signals the beginning of third industrial revolution, suc-
ceeding the production line assembly that dominated manufacturing starting in the
late 19th century. The term 3D printing originally referred to a process that deposits
a binder material on to a powder bed with inkjet printer heads layer by layer. Now a
days, this term is used in popular and wider variety of additive manufacturing
processes.

4.1 Material Selection

Previously the selection material used for the 3D printing is major task for the
manufacturer. Now a wide variety of materials are supplied in different states
(powder, filament, pellets, granules, resin etc.). Specific materials is used for
specific platforms resulting correct applications (an example would be the dental
field) with material properties that more precisely suitable for the application.
However, there are now so many proprietary materials from the many different 3D
printer vendors to cover them all here. Instead, this paper gives the most popular
type of material in a more generic way. And also a couple of materials which stand
out (Tables 1 and 2).
Nylon, or Polyamide, is mostly used materials in powder form with the sintering
process or in filament form with the FDM process. It is having strong enough,
Use of Polylactic Acid (PLA) Material for Asymmetric Spur … 109

Table 1 Properties of PLA material

Density 1.34 g/cm3
Yield load 0.57 kN
Ultimate load 0.82 kN
Yield strength 46.22 N/mm2
U.T.S. 66.49 N/mm2
% Elongation 14.57
Shore hardness 40D, 41D, 45D

Table 2 Data of material selection

Material Density (g/cm3) Yield strength U.T.S. % Elongation Hardness
(N/mm2)
PLA 1.34 46.22 66.4 14.57 40D
ABS 1.04 61 42.5 23 103
Nylon 1.14 85 76 2 88
Epoxy resin 1.56 – 85 0.8 78.3D
Acrylic 1.19 – 74 3 100

flexibility and durable plastic material which has proved applicable for 3D printing.
Naturally, it is in white colour but it can be coloured in pre-printing or post-printing.
This material can also be mixed (in powder format) with powdered aluminium to
produce other common 3D printing material for sintering process—Alumide.
ABS is one of the most commonly used plastic for 3D printing and other
processes, and is widely used on the entry-level FDM 3D printers in filament form.
It is also having strong enough and available in a wide range of colours. We can
have ABS in filament form from a number of non-proprietary sources, that is the
another reason why it is too much popular.
PLA is one more option, a bio-degradable plastic material that has gained
traction with 3D printing. It may be used in resin format for DLP/SL processes also
we can use it in filament form for the FDM. It comes in a variety of colours,
including transparent, which has proven to be a very useful option for some
applications of 3D printing.
A specially developed LayWood used for entry-level extrusion 3D printers. It
may come in filament form and is a wood/polymer composite.
We can use metals, ceramics, paper, biomaterials and other materials for 3D
printing process. But the very important part for the 3D printing is selection of right
material for your print job. For the same consideration, there are numerous factors
to consider, including strength, flexibility, accuracy, and special conditions the
material may require in order to print correctly. Mostly 3D printer manufacturers
are using ABS and PLA, but the differences between these two aren’t immediately
apparent. And the question is, which one is best optimum for your 3D printing
needs? First, let’s know about what exactly the two materials are. These two are
comes in category of thermoplastics. Thermoplastics become malleable when
110 L. B. Abhang and A. G. Dekhane

superheated, thus it is allowed to you to mould and sculpt them into different size
and shapes before cooling. However, you can repeat the process without disturbing
the integrity of the material. While both are used for making objects in 3D printing
via similar processes, ABS and PLA differ in some means, and therefore some
printers will only catch ABS or PLA—or both, depending on the machine at hand.
By observing the different properties about the details of ABS and PLA, one can
say that there are some similarities between the two. Both requires a dry location for
storing purpose, and furthermore, each is susceptible to moisture. Both ABS and
PLA gives smell while printing, as heating the thermoplastic resulting off fumes.
ABS will smell like hot plastic and may require ventilation while PLA may be smell
mildly sweet, but the strength of these smells is going to be dependent on your
printer. However, there are also major differences between these two thermoplas-
tics. ABS is going to give your components better structural integrity and will be
more suited to mechanical use given the material can better withstand the elements,
but it will also require specific types of printers and printing surfaces. On the other
side, PLA will give you more precise prints and better aesthetic quality, also more
flexibility with printing conditions if you can do without the strength and resilience
of ABS.
So, I have selected Polylactic Acid (PLA) for manufacturing of asymmetric gear
with the help of 3D printing manufacturing process (Figs. 7 and 8).

Fig. 7 3D manufactured
asymmetric gear

Fig. 8 3D manufactured
asymmetric gear meshing
Use of Polylactic Acid (PLA) Material for Asymmetric Spur … 111

5 Experimental Stress Analysis

In this study, for the testing of bending stress in the gear tooth “Computerized
Universal Testing Machine (UTM)” is used. I have carried out experimentation of
this project in ‘Ahmednagar Auto and engineering association’ in Testing Lab. The
capacity of this UTM is 100 KN (Figs. 9 and 10).
The main component of this machine are hydraulic grip, hand control, digital
display, ball screw and dustcover, coloumn, nutund adjustable gap nut, compres-
sion plate, sensor, oil cylinder, base etc.
For loading and clamping purpose, the gear component should be mounted in
such a way that the tooth of a gear must come along the downward direction of tool
so that line loading on gear tooth occurred accurately. For this purpose it is nec-
essary to cut the gear so that cut section should clamp properly in the UTM. The
following figure shows the cutting of gear according to requirement.
It becomes easy to mount the cut section of gear on the UTM. A clamping device
is also required to clamp properly and the component should not move from its
position even if there is high loading. In Fig. 11, the gear component is simply

Fig. 9 Computerized
universal testing machine

Fig. 10 Gear cutting

112 L. B. Abhang and A. G. Dekhane

Fig. 11 Loading on gear

tooth

Graph 1 Stress versus strain

Table 3 Comparison of results obtained by ANSYS software and experimentation

S. No. Pressure Stress obtained by ANSYS Stress obtained by experimentation
angles N/mm2 in N/mm2
1 20°–25° 26.01 27.00
2 20°–30° 23.18 24.70
3 20°–35° 20.76 22.30

mounted on the plate and in Fig. 11, the component is clamped by using clamping
device and the loading is started by using loading tool (Graph 1).
The 3300 N load is applied on the component as there is line loading preferred
for the spur gear testing. The readings are noted for different values of loads.
Different values of stress are obtained for different values of loads. Digital display
shows the values of stress at particular loading.
The computerized universal testing machine gives the graphs of load versus
displacement, stress versus displacement and stress versus strain.
The combine results obtained is tabulated and a report made by the testing
engineer in the autocluster, ahmednagar is attached below. Mr. Prasad helped me
Use of Polylactic Acid (PLA) Material for Asymmetric Spur … 113

for clamping and adjusting the machine component and getting the results. Firstly I
have calculated the values of stress obtained by using ANSYS software and then
values of stress shown by computerized universal testing machine. These values are
tabulated in the following table for comparison between software results and
experimentation (Table 3).

6 Conclusion

From this research and by observing results obtained by using ANSYS software
and experimental results by using computerized universal testing machine, I have
concluded that as the pressure angle on drive side increases, the bending stress
decreases and bending load capacity increases.

References

1. Kapelevich A (1998) Geometry and design of involute spur gears with asymmetric teeth.
Received Apr 1998; received in revised form 15 Oct 1998; accepted 23 Oct 1998
2. Alipiev O (2011) Geometric design of involute spur gear drives with symmetric and
asymmetric teeth using the realized potential method. Department of Theory of Mechanisms
and Machines vol 46. University of Ruse, Bulgaria, p 32
3. Kapelevich AL, Shekhtman YV (2003) Direct gear design: bending stress minimization.
September/October 2003 Gear Technology
4. Ingole GB. Analysis of stress relieving features of asymmetric spur gear. Novateur
Publication’ Int J Innov Eng Res Technol [IJIERT]. In: ICITDCEME’15 Conference
Proceedings. ISSN: 2394-3696
5. Kapelevich AL, Shekhtman YV. Rating of asymmetric tooth gears. American Gear
Manufacturers Association, Alexandria
6. Dhaduti SC, Sarganachari SG. Review of composite asymmetric spur gear. Int J Eng Res 4
(2):73–75. ISSN: 2319-6890 (online), 2347-5013 (print)
7. Prajapati JM, Vaghela PA (2013) Comparison of result of analytical and modeling software
for critical section thickness, tip thickness of asymmetric spur involute gear tooth. Int J Eng
Res Technol (IJERT) 2(11). ISSN: 2278-0181
8. Ekwaro-Osire S, Durukan I, Alemayehu FM (2009) An inverse problem technique for spur
gears with asymmetric teeth. In: Proceedings of the SEM annual conference 1–4 June 2009.
Society for Experimental Mechanics Inc, USA
9. Karagi SR, Patil PS (2014) Effect of pressure angle and back up ratio on asymmetric spur gear
tooth bending stress, vol 3, no 4. ISSN: 2278-0149
10. Marimuthu P, Muthuveerappan G (2014) Effect of addendum height and teeth number on
asymmetric normal contact ratio spur gear based on load sharing. J Mech Eng 2(4):132–136.
https://doi.org/10.13189/ujme.2014.020402
11. Agrawal S (2012) Evaluation of bending stress at fillet region of an asymmetric gear with a
hole as stress relieving feature using a FEA software ANSYS. Int J Comput Appl 51(8)
(0975–8887)
Tribological Study of AA2024-B4C
Composites Using ANOVA

Bhargavi Rebba, N. Ramanaiah and S. Rajesh

1 Introduction

Because of their excellent combination of low density and high thermal conduc-
tivity, Aluminium alloys are widely used in automobile, aerospace and mineral
processing components [1, 2]. Nevertheless, they suffer from poor tribological
properties. To prevail over this, hard reinforcement phases, such as particulates,
fiber or whiskers are well known for their high-specific strength, have been uni-
formly distributed [3]. Composites have bestowed revolutionary materials around
the world for structural, mechanical, automobile as well as other critical applica-
tions where the property value needs to be tailored [4]. Particle reinforced alu-
minium metal matrix composites are a class of composite materials which are
having desirable properties including low density, high specific stiffness, high
specific strength, controlled co-efficient of thermal expansion, increased fatigue
resistance and superior dimensional stability at high temperatures etc. [5, 6]. These
materials have emerged as the important class of advanced materials giving engi-
neers the opportunity to use the material properties according to their requirement.
Radically these materials differ from the conventional engineering materials from
the perspective of homogeneity. Particulate reinforced metal matrix composites
have drive into a new path to produce high strength and high wear-resistant

B. Rebba (&)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Usha Rama
College of Engineering, Telaprolu, Andhra Pradesh, India
e-mail: rebba.bhar2@gmail.com
N. Ramanaiah
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Andhra University
College of Engineering, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India
S. Rajesh
Department of Mechanical Engineering, SRKR College
of Engineering, Bhimavaram, Andhra Pradesh, India

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 115

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_12
116 B. Rebba et al.

materials by introducing hard ceramic particles and solid lubricant in the metal
matrix [7]. Introduction of ceramic particles such as SiC, Al2O3, TiC, B4C, and
ZrO2 to matrix metal enhances hardness and thermal shock resistance [8].

2 Experimental Details

2.1 Materials

AA2024 used for the matrix is procured from perfect metal works, Bangalore,
Karnataka, India, particles of B4C (particle size approximately 40 lm) were pur-
chased from Sigma Aldrich, Bangalore, Karnataka, India and The chemical com-
position of the matrix alloy is given in the Table 1.

2.2 Sample Preparation

AA2024-B4C composite specimens were fabricated through liquid metallurgy

method to ensure uniform distribution of the reinforcements. Five various com-
positions were cast by varying the wt% of B4C particles by increasing the wt% by
1. Calculated amount of base metal was preheated at 450 °C for 3 h before melting.
The preheated matrix alloy was first heated above the liquidus temperature to melt
completely. It was then slightly cooled below the liquidus temperature to maintain
the slurry in the semi solid state. Magnesium ribbons were added to the molten
metal to improve the wettability of the particles reinforced in the metal matrix. B4C
particles which were preheated at 500 °C were then added to the molten metal
slowly and stirring was performed at a constant speed of 300 rpm for 10 min. The
molten metal was then poured into the preheated cast iron moulds to minimize the
casting defects. SEM and XRD analyses were performed on the composite samples
fabricated. The microstructures, SEM images and EDS are presented in [9].

2.3 Design of Experiment

Analyzing wear procedure in composites is a complicated task which involves a

number of operating variables and consequently, understanding how the wear
characteristics of the composites are affected by different operating variables is very

Table 1 Composition of Con Cu Mg Si Fe Mn Zn Ti Cr

matrix metal
% 4.29 1.29 0.07 0.20 0.54 0.03 0.06 0.01
Tribological Study of AA2024-B4C Composites Using ANOVA 117

Table 2 Process parameters Parameter Levels

and their levels
1 2 3 4 5
Applied load 10 20 30 40 50
% Reinforcement 0 1 2 3 4
Sliding distance 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Sliding velocity 1.5 3 4.5 6 7.5

much essential. Design of experiment (DOE) is a very effective and useful statistical
tool to model and analyze the influence of process parameters on output perfor-
mance. Prudent selection of the control factors is the most important stage while
using the DOE. By using Taguchi’s L25 orthogonal array, in the present work, four
parameters (process variables), i.e., applied load, % reinforcement, sliding distance
and sliding velocity at five levels are considered as listed in the Table 2. The study
of influence of these parameters on the wear behaviour of the AMC is done using
this L25 orthogonal array experimental procedure. The objective of experiment is to
minimize wear rate and coefficient of friction. The Signal to Noise (S/N) ratio,
which condenses the multiple data points within a trial, depends on the type of
characteristic being evaluated. The S/N ratio characteristics can be classified into
three varieties, viz. “nominal is the best”, “larger the better” and “smaller the better”
characteristics. In this study, “smaller the better” characteristic was opted to analyze
the dry sliding wear resistance. The S/N ratio for wear rate and coefficient of friction
using “smaller the better” characteristic is as follows, given by Taguchi:

X
n
S/N ¼ 10 log1n Y2i
i¼1

where y1, y2 … yn are the response of coefficient of friction and wear and n is the
number of observations. The response table for signal to noise ratios reflects the
average of selected characteristics for each level of the factor. This table presents
the ranks based on the delta statistics, which compares the relative value of the
effects. S/N ratio is a response which combines repetitions and the effect of noise
levels into one data point. Analysis of variance of the S/N ratio is carried out to
identify the statistically significant parameter.

2.4 Wear Test Procedure

The wear test specimens are shown in Fig. 1. All the tests were proposed to be done
at room temperature. The initial weight of the specimen was measured in a single
pan electronic weighing machine with a least count of 0.0001 g. The experiments
118 B. Rebba et al.

Fig. 1 Wear test sample

were conducted as per the standard orthogonal array L25. The selection of the
orthogonal array is dependent on the condition that the DOF for the orthogonal
array should be greater than or at least equal to sum of those of wear parameters. In
the present investigation an L25 orthogonal array was chosen and the experimental
plan is shown in Table 3. The pin was held against the counterface of a rotating EN
31 hardened to 60 HRc grounded to 1.6 Ra surface roughness steel disc with a wear
track diameter 60 mm. The first column was assigned to the applied load (AL),
second column was assigned to the % reinforcement (% R), Third column was
assigned to sliding distance (SD), and fourth column was assigned to sliding
velocity (SV). The output to be studied is wear rate and coefficients of friction of the
test samples are repeated three times corresponding to 25 tests. The weight of the
specimen after performing the test was also measured to calculate the wear of the
AMCs.

2.5 Analysis of Results

The focus of the experimental plan is to find the important factors and the com-
bination of factors influencing the wear procedure to achieve the minimum wear
and coefficient of friction. The experiments were developed based on an orthogonal
array, with a target of relating the influence of sliding speed, applied load and
sliding distance. These design parameters are distinct and intrinsic feature of the
process that influence and determine the composite performance. The results of the
experiments performed are given in Table 4. The experimental results are analyzed
with the help of MINI-TAB15, statistical analysis software which is being exten-
sively used in many fields of engineering research. Taguchi recommends analyzing
the S/N ratio using conceptual approach that involves plotting the effects and
identifying visually the significant factors.
Tribological Study of AA2024-B4C Composites Using ANOVA 119

Table 3 Experimental plan S. No. AL %R SD SV

1 1 1 1 1
2 2 1 2 2
3 3 1 3 3
4 4 1 4 4
5 5 1 5 5
6 2 2 3 1
7 3 2 4 2
8 4 2 5 3
9 5 2 1 4
10 1 2 2 5
11 3 3 5 1
12 4 3 1 2
13 5 3 2 3
14 1 3 3 4
15 2 3 4 5
16 4 4 2 1
17 5 4 3 2
18 1 4 4 3
19 2 4 5 4
20 3 4 1 5
21 5 5 4 1
22 1 5 5 2
23 2 5 1 3
24 3 5 2 4
25 4 5 3 5

2.6 Results of Statistical Analysis of Experiments

The obtained results were analyzed using the software MINITAB 15 specifically
used for DOE applications. Table 4 shows the experimental results for wear rate
and coefficient of friction. To analyze the quality characteristics, the experimental
values are transformed into signal to noise ratio shown in Table 5. The influence of
control parameters such as applied load, reinforcement percentage, sliding distance,
and sliding speed on wear rate and coefficient of friction has been analyzed using
signal to noise response table. The ranking of process parameters using signal to
noise ratios obtained for different parameter levels for wear rate and coefficient of
friction are given in Tables 6 and 7 respectively. The control factors are statistically
significant in the signal to noise ratio and it could be observed that the sliding
distance is a dominant parameter on the wear rate and coefficient of friction
120 B. Rebba et al.

Table 4 Experimental S. No. AL %R SD SV WL COF

results
1 10 0 500 1.5 0.0056 0.579
2 20 0 1000 3 0.0071 0.598
3 30 0 1500 4.5 0.0119 0.657
4 40 0 2000 6 0.0137 0.672
5 50 0 2500 7.5 0.0164 0.753
6 20 1 1500 1.5 0.0112 0.651
7 30 1 2000 3 0.0153 0.74
8 40 1 2500 4.5 0.0186 0.782
9 50 1 500 6 0.0058 0.579
10 10 1 1000 7.5 0.0043 0.565
11 30 2 2500 1.5 0.0192 0.797
12 40 2 500 3 0.0067 0.592
13 50 2 1000 4.5 0.0101 0.643
14 10 2 1500 6 0.0061 0.585
15 20 2 2000 7.5 0.0087 0.625
16 40 3 1000 1.5 0.0096 0.639
17 50 3 1500 3 0.0129 0.663
18 10 3 2000 4.5 0.0108 0.648
19 20 3 2500 6 0.0125 0.661
20 30 3 500 7.5 0.0051 0.575
21 50 4 2000 1.5 0.0179 0.765
22 10 4 2500 3 0.0148 0.687
23 20 4 500 4.5 0.0049 0.57
24 30 4 1000 6 0.0053 0.579
25 40 4 1500 7.5 0.0075 0.604

followed by applied load, sliding speed and reinforcement percentage. Figures 2, 3,

4 and 5 shows the influence of process parameters on wear rate and coefficient of
friction graphically.

2.7 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

Results are analyzed by analysis of variance (ANOVA) with a confidence limit of

95%. By performing ANOVA, it can be decided which independent factor domi-
nates over the other and the percentage contribution of that particular independent
variable. The factors AL (applied load), SD (sliding Distance) and SV (sliding
velocity) are significant as their p-value is less than 0.005. The percentage contri-
bution of the process parameters on the wear loss and coefficient of friction of the
Tribological Study of AA2024-B4C Composites Using ANOVA 121

Table 5 Signal to noise S. No. WL COF S/N for WL S/N for COF
ratios of wear loss & COF
1 0.0056 0.579 45.0362 4.74,643
2 0.0071 0.598 42.9748 4.46598
3 0.0119 0.657 38.4891 3.64869
4 0.0137 0.672 37.2656 3.45261
5 0.0164 0.753 35.7031 2.4641
6 0.0112 0.651 39.0156 3.72838
7 0.0153 0.74 36.3062 2.61537
8 0.0186 0.782 34.6097 2.13586
9 0.0058 0.579 44.7314 4.74643
10 0.0043 0.565 47.3306 4.95903
11 0.0192 0.797 34.334 1.97083
12 0.0067 0.592 43.4785 4.55357
13 0.0101 0.643 39.9136 3.83578
14 0.0061 0.585 44.2934 4.65688
15 0.0087 0.625 41.2096 4.0824
16 0.0096 0.639 40.3546 3.88998
17 0.0129 0.663 37.7882 3.56973
18 0.0108 0.648 39.3315 3.7685
19 0.0125 0.661 38.0618 3.59597
20 0.0051 0.575 45.8486 4.80664
21 0.0179 0.765 34.9429 2.32677
22 0.0148 0.687 36.5948 3.26087
23 0.0049 0.57 46.1961 4.8825
24 0.0053 0.579 45.5145 4.74643
25 0.0075 0.604 42.4988 4.37926

Table 6 Response table for Level AL RP SD SV

S/N ratios of wear loss
1 42.52 39.89 45.06 38.74
2 41.49 40.40 43.22 39.43
3 40.10 40.65 40.42 39.71
4 39.64 40.28 37.81 41.97
5 38.62 41.15 35.86 42.52
Delta 3.90 1.26 9.20 3.78
Rank 2 4 1 3

AMCs is also calculated and has been presented in the Tables 8 and 9. The con-
tribution of sliding distance is highest followed by applied load, sliding velocity,
and % reinforcement. The results clearly indicate that increase in load & sliding
distance levels increased the wear loss and increase in % of reinforcement & sliding
velocity levels decreased the wear loss.
122 B. Rebba et al.

Table 7 Response table for Level AL RP SD SV

S/N ratios of COF
1 42.52 39.89 45.06 38.74
2 41.49 40.40 43.22 39.43
3 40.10 40.65 40.42 39.71
4 39.64 40.28 37.81 41.97
5 38.62 41.15 35.86 42.52
Delta 3.90 1.26 9.20 3.78
Rank 2 4 1 3

Fig. 2 Main effects for plot for S/N ratios—wear rate

2.8 Optical and SEM Images of the Wear Tracks

Figures 6 and 7 shows the worn out surfaces of the pin at 20 N AL, 0 RP, 1000 m
SD, and 3 m/s SV. Large, distinct parallel and continuous grooves are formed in the
zero-reinforced aluminum pin. These grooves indicate the occurrence of extensive
plastic deformation. The depth of the grooves is also higher, suggesting severe
abrasion. This characteristic is more predominant in brittle fractures with contin-
uous plow marks. Figures 8 and 9 depicts the worn out surface of the pin at 10 N
AL, 4% RP, 1500 m SD, and 3 m/s SV. As the reinforcement increases to a higher
value, the large distinct grooves are reduced to fine scratches along the sliding
direction and are visible on the surface shown. Many researchers [10, 11] described
Tribological Study of AA2024-B4C Composites Using ANOVA 123

Fig. 3 Main effects for plot for means—wear rate

Fig. 4 Main effects for plot for S/N ratios—COF

124 B. Rebba et al.

Fig. 5 Main effects for plot for means—COF

Table 8 ANOVA for wear loss

Source Seq SS DF Variance Calculated F-value % Contribution
AL 64e−4 4 173e−4 21.625 13.2
%R e−4 4 129e−4 16.125 9.82
SD 32e−4 4 817e−4 102.125 62.18
SV 65e−4 4 164e−4 20.5 12.48
Error 68e−4 8 8e−5 2.32
Total 52e−3 24 100.00

Table 9 ANOVA for COF

Source Seq SS DF Variance Calculated F-value % Contribution
AL 0.013514 4 0.00337 7.67 11.20
%R 0.010848 4 0.00271 6.775 8.99
SD 0.079680 4 0.01992 45.27 66.03
SV 0.014861 4 0.00371 8.43 12.31
Error 0.001776 8 0.00044 1.47
Total 0.120674 24 100.00
Tribological Study of AA2024-B4C Composites Using ANOVA 125

Fig. 6 Wear track of

unreinforced metal

Fig. 7 Wear track of 4%

AA2024-B4C

the dominance of oxidative wear during the dry sliding wear of aluminum MMCs.
The projected B4C particles in the pin dig into the surface of the counter face. The
Fe content of the digged surface of the counter face may react with the aluminum of
the pin and form Fe2O3. Moreover, the B4C particles crush against the very minute
particles, resulting in a layer called the mechanical mixed layer (MML). The oxide
layer of the lubricant phenomena may be enhanced by the increase in the RP of
B4C, suggesting that the worn surface is oxidized. This phenomenon results in low
WVL and causes the delaminating wear mechanism.
126 B. Rebba et al.

Fig. 8 SEM image—Wear

track of 0% RP

Fig. 9 SEM image—Wear

track of 4% RP

3 Conclusions

Dry sliding experiments were performed on aluminum MMCs with reinforcement

of B4C particulates of up to 4% reinforcement with an increment of 1% using a
pin-on-disc experimental setup. Following are the conclusions drawn from the
investigation.
1. From both, statistical analysis using S/N ratios and ANOVA, it is concluded that
the sliding distance is the highest contributing factor for wear in the AMC
followed by applied load, sliding velocity and reinforcement percentage.
Tribological Study of AA2024-B4C Composites Using ANOVA 127

2. COF is also influenced predominantly by sliding distance followed by applied

load, sliding velocity and reinforcement percentage.
3. The wear loss and COF increased with the increase in sliding distance and
applied load.
4. The wear loss and COF decreased with the increase in sliding velocity and %
reinforcement.

References

1. Kumar S, Balasubramanian V (2008) Developing a mathematical model to evaluate wear rate

of AA 7075/SiCp powder metallurgy composites. Wear 264:1026–1034
2. Brown KR, Venie MS, Woods RA (1995) The increasing use of aluminium in automotive
applications. JOM 47:20–23
3. Nair SV, Tien JK, Bates RC (1985) SiC reinforced aluminium metal matrix composites. Int
Mater Rev 30(6):275–290
4. Yamasaki T, Zheng YJ, Ogino Y, Terasawa M, Mitamura T, Fukami T (2003) Formation of
metal–TiN/TiC nanocomposite powders by mechanical alloying and their consolidation.
Mater Sci Eng A 350A:168
5. Ibrahim IA, Mohamed FA, Lavernia EJ (1991) Metal matrix composites. Rev J Mater Sci
26:1137–1157
6. Sinclair I, Gregson PJ (1997) Structural performance of discontinuous metal matrix
composites. Mater Sci Technol 3:709–725
7. Zhan Y, Zhang G (2003) Graphite and SiC hybrid particles reinforced copper composite and
its tribological characteristic. J Mater Sci Lett 22:1087–1089
8. Liang YH, Wang HY, Yang YF, Wang YY, Jiang QC (2008) Evolution process of the
synthesis of TiC in the Cu−TiC−C system. J Alloy Compd 452:298–303
9. Rebba B, Ramanaiah N (2014) Studies on mechanical properties of Al 2024-B4C composites.
Int J Adv Mater Manuf charact 4(1)
10. Basvarajappa S, Chandramohan G (2005) Wear studies on metal matrix composites: a
Taguchi approach. J Mater Sci Technol 21(6):845–850
11. Ravikiran A, Surappa MK (1997) Effect of sliding speed on wear behaviour of A356 Al-30
wt.% SiCp MMC. Wear 206(1, 2):33–38
A Review on Effects of Various
Parameters in Modulated Tool Path
(MTP) Machining

P L. Jayananthan and B. Aravind Kumar

1 Introduction

Research on continuous and entangling of chips is plentiful over the decade. Many
methods were developed to avoid Nesting of chips, which are usually common with
ductile materials. But every method has its own limitations. The researchers at
UNC, Charlotte came with Modulated Tool Path (MTP) which utilizes the machine
axes through G-code commands to avoid nesting of chips. MTP can be used with
any depth of cut, any disparate material (even for pyrophoric materials like depleted
uranium), with all types of cutting tools and with all part shapes without any
additional hardware. User selectable chip lengths and lower cutting temperatures
are the ancillary features of MTP machining.
MTP correlates sinusoidal oscillations with conventional tool path with the use
of machine axes and G codes to build segmented chips. From the works of Smith
et al. [1], Fig. 1 gives an exaggerated representation of MTP. Other waveforms
apart from sinusoid can also be used to produce tool path oscillations. The repeated
interpretation of programmed tool path oscillations tangential to the direction of
work piece movement leads to the formation of a segmented chip with each
oscillation. This paper aims to give a succinct review on effects of various
parameters used in MTP over the erstwhile years of research in order to gain a
better understanding of various selection parameters to gear up towards the
implementation of MTP in machining operations.

P.L. Jayananthan (&)
B. Aravind Kumar

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SRM University,
Kattankulathur, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
e-mail: palajayanan@gmail.com

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 129

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_13
130 P.L. Jayananthan and B. Aravind Kumar

Fig. 1 Exaggerated
representation of MTP

2 Parameter Selection Considerations

MTP performance relies on various parameter selections—among them, the Phase

shift between Successive cuts, Oscillation amplitude relative to the global feed
direction (Raf), Oscillation per spindle revolution (OPR) and user-defined chip
length are highly significant. Figure 2 gives a time domain simulation of MTP over
successive passes to give a clear idea of chip breaking [1].
Phase shift. The oscillation of the tool should be correctly phased with the
spindle revolution so that at a point of time the phase between them becomes zero
and the chip breaks. Otherwise, the two subsequent passes will coincide and con-
tinuous chips will be produced. Figure 3 shows examples of chip breaking
parameter in which the blue line of 4.5 Hz is correctly phased and produces broken
chips, whereas the red line of 5 Hz is not correctly phased which leads to contin-
uous chips [2].
Amplitude ratio (Raf). Amplitude ratio (Raf) is defined as the oscillation
amplitude relative to the global feed per revolution. It is defined as the ratio of the
tool oscillation amplitude (A) and the global axis feed per revolution (f). Figure 4
[1] suggests that the minimum Raf required to produce broken chips is 0.5. The
range of phase shift which creates broken chips for Raf = 1, is in the range of

Fig. 2 Time domain

simulation over successive
passes
A Review on Effects of Various Parameters in Modulated Tool … 131

Fig. 3 Chip thickness versus

time [2]

1.047–5.236 [3]. The combination of low feed and high Raf can lead to a large
range of phase shifts which lead to broken chips, but it is not useful as increasing
range of phase shift demands larger machine axes which is not possible. In Fig. 5 it
is observed that for higher values of Raf, there is minimum contact time between
the tool and the workpiece. Because larger oscillation amplitude will leave the cut
for a longer period of time [4]. As shown in Fig. 6 [2] Raf will only influence the
chip thickness and it will not influence the chip length [3, 5]. If the value of Raf

Fig. 4 Phase shift versus

amplitude ratio [2]

Fig. 5 Time in cut with

respect to Raf [3]
132 P.L. Jayananthan and B. Aravind Kumar

Fig. 6 Parameter map relating OPR, Raf and chip length to diameter [2]

increases, the chip thickness will also increase, and Raf will not influence the length
of the chip, but it will vary the size of the chip by a factor of two over a range of
zero to four. As the value of Raf increases, the number of chips required will
decrease. So the number of chips produced while MTP machining will depend on
the value of Raf.
Oscillations of the Tool Per Work Piece Revolution (OPR). OPR is a com-
bination of spindle speed and oscillation frequency. It is observed that the value of
OPR influences the chip length, increase in tool frequency will generally decrease
the chip length [2]. From Fig. 6, it can be observed that the chip length shows a
mirror trend at every integer values of OPR and at decreasing chip length the value
of OPR increases. The values of OPR and Raf will change for each part diameter.
For increasing part diameters we need increasing values of OPR. The user has to
select the values of OPR and Raf depending on the part diameter and broken chip
length. Selection of values of OPR and Raf depends on surface finish and kurtosis
values [3].
Chip length. The chip length is defined as the circumferential distance of the
material flows past the tool while the tool is engaged in cutting. The combination of
Raf and phase shift will determine the chip length. The local diameter of the
workpiece influence the chip length, the increase in local diameter will lead to
larger chip lengths as the angular displacement of the workpiece from the time the
tool enters and exit the work piece is same regardless of the local diameter [3]. For
lower values of waves per revolution (wpr) it is difficult to get uncut chip length
shorter than 6 in. As the frequency of oscillation increases the chip gets shorter. We
can conclude that a small number of waves per revolution (wpr) will give maximum
benefit. The chip length and uncut chip length are given by [3, 5]:
A Review on Effects of Various Parameters in Modulated Tool … 133

pD  ð2Raf þ 1Þ
Chip length ¼ ð1Þ
OPR  Raf

Uncut chip length ¼ rh ð2Þ

where R is the radius of path, h is the angle of rotation of the part that creates one
chip, D is the diameter of the part.

3 Miscellaneous Effects of MTP in Machining

Temperature. The Temperature rise in machining depends on the length of metal

cut in continuous segments rather than on the length of non cutting intervals [6, 7].
MTP machining reduces the length of metal cut in continuous segments which
restricts the maximum temperature produced during machining. Smith et al. [4, 8]
used Phoenix infrared high speed thermal imaging camera to measure the tem-
perature at interrupted conditions. The infrared intensity measured by the camera
was calibrated with a cutting insert and a curve fit of temperature-intensity data.
This temperature-intensity data was made to find the relationship between tem-
perature and infrared intensity using the Eq. (3).

T ¼ 76:5 lnðIÞ  535:12 ð3Þ

where temperature (T) is in Celsius and I is the infrared intensity of the camera. The
tests were performed with 1018 carbon steel at a frequency of 6.8 Hz and by
varying instantaneous rate. The results of the tests carried out by Smith et al. is
tabulated in Table 1 [4]. From the table, it is inferred that interrupted cuts have the
lower temperature when compared to continuous cuts. Conventional cuts range
from 37.6 to 48.7 °C and interrupted cuts range from 33.5 to 41.0 °C.
Tool Wear. Temperature of the tool and the feed rate factors which influence the
tool wear mostly. Smith et al. [2] conducted the tests with high speed steel inserts to
find the effect of MTP machining in Tool wear. A conventional turning pass is
compared with two MTP passes with Raf 2.5 and 1.23. Two digital microscopes
were setup to view the wear along the tool profile and along the crater. Pictures
were taken and compared at every fourth pass at a depth of cut of 0.025 per pass.
Finally, it was observed that conventional cut has higher wear along its tool profile
and deeper crater wear when compared with MTP machining. The insert machined
with 2.5 Raf shows lesser crater wear when compared with other two. Based on the
results it is observed that for increasing value of Raf there will be lesser tool wear
and crater wear along the tool. Also, the amount of time the insert is engaged in the
cut has a greater influence over the tool wear than the instantaneous feed rate.
Surface Texture and Residual stress. The surface finish created by a con-
ventional turning operation leads to barber pole surface texture scallops along the
length of the workpiece. Due to the nature of MTP, the machined surface has a
134 P.L. Jayananthan and B. Aravind Kumar

Table 1 Thermal imaging results

Raf A (mm) Time in cut (%) Maximum instantaneous Max. temp (°C)
feed (mm/rev.)
6.50 0.3302 37.2 3.006 35.8
5.50 0.2794 38.0 2.544 33.5
4.50 0.2286 39.1 2.082 41.0
3.50 0.1778 41.0 1.619 34.0
2.75 0.1397 43.3 1.273 35.6
2.00 0.1016 47.5 0.925 37.5
1.50 0.0762 53.6 0.694 35.8
1.15 0.0584 66.2 0.528 35.1
Conventional 100.0 0.051 37.6
Conventional 100.0 0.051 39.6
Conventional 100.0 0.051 41.6
Conventional 100.0 0.051 47.0
Conventional 100.0 0.051 48.6

raised threadlike structure, because the surface finish is determined by the com-
posite impact of multiple machining passes that occur in opposite direction with
changing feed rate. Based on the tests conducted by Smith et al. [2] it is concluded
that selection of different oscillation parameters influence the surface texture and
both the conventional machining and the MTP machining results in a similar type
of surface texture. The results also imply that MTP process did not influence the
surface texture of the workpiece.
Schmidt et al. [9] performed tests to compare residual stress of materials
machined with conventional and MTP machining using different types of materials
like Aluminum 6061-T6, Tantalum 97Ta3W, Stainless steel Nitronic33 and
Inconel718. The plots for normal and shear stresses for each / rotation did not
provide a clear pattern as lattice spacing is not consistent for both types of
machining. Among the materials used for testing, tantalum 97Ta3W showed
minimum compressive residual stress in MTP machining while compared to con-
ventional machining. Therefore MTP process can be considered for obtaining
predictable compressive residual stress for Tantalum 97Ta3W.

4 Limitations to MTP Machining

Dynamic Limitation of Machining Axis. The deviation of final amplitude and

frequency from the initially assigned amplitude and frequency values over the
machining time is known as dynamic limitation of machining axis. Each Computer
Numerical Control (CNC) machine has its own frequency range and oscillation
amplitude over which it can reliably execute the MTP programmed commands.
A Review on Effects of Various Parameters in Modulated Tool … 135

Fig. 7 Chip length versus WPR for Raf = 1 [1]

Dynamic limitation will influence the surface quality and profile accuracy of the
final material. Cross axis coupling and axes synchronization are two major tests
performed to determine the dynamic limitation of the machine. In cross axis cou-
pling one axis is oscillated and the deviations are measured from the desired null
response on another axis. In axes synchronization oscillation motion commands
were given on both axes and their response is plotted against each other which leads
to an X-Z plot of 45°. The axes synchronization error is calculated as the deviation
of the X-Z plot from 45° line. Figure 7 shows the axis synchronization errors
detected with sensor nest test. The work of Berglind and Ziegert [10] clearly
explains that operations outside the desired range of amplitude and frequency of a
specific CNC machine can be corrected by introducing required motion delays in
the machine response (Fig. 8).
Chip Compression Ratio. Chip compression ratio is the ratio of uncut chip
thickness to cut chip thickness. It is known that cut chip thickness ratio is always
greater than uncut chip thickness. As the volume of the material remains constant,
the thickness of the chip increases and the length of the chip decreases. The chip

Fig. 8 Axes synchronization errors detected with sensor-nest test

136 P.L. Jayananthan and B. Aravind Kumar

compression ratio is calculated by measuring the length of the chip and comparing
it with the predicted values. The average compression ratio from the results was
given as 3.71 [1].

5 Conclusion

Entangling chips and high machining temperature are the major problems during
machining, MTP will be considered as an effective alternative to conventional
machining as it works with all conditions, do not need any external device and the
codes for MTP can easily be programmed with normal G codes of machine axis.
This paper indicates how the MTP parameters like oscillation frequency, amplitude
ratio, and phase shift and chip length should be selected. It is suggested that for
effective MTP machining the phase shift between oscillation of tool path and
spindle revolution should be correctly phased. The amplitude ratio selected should
be above 0.5 and it should not be of large range due to its demand on machine axes.
Chip length depends on OPR, as higher values of OPR lead to shorter chip length.
And the chip length depends on the local part diameter. Lower temperatures in the
range of 33.5–41.0 °C were obtained for MTP machining and for conventional
machining the higher temperature should be in the range of 37.6–48.6 °C. So, MTP
machining is consistently cooler than conventional machining. It is observed that
for higher values of Raf the crater wear and flank wear decreases along the tool and
MTP machining exhibit lower tool wear when compared with conventional
machining. The Surface texture of both the machined surfaces resembled the same.
Dynamic limitation of machine axes can be controlled by introducing motion delays
in the oscillating tool path programming. On the whole, the MTP machining pro-
cess is better than the conventional machining process in all the aspects.

References

1. Woody BA et al (2008) Assessment of the process parameters and their effect on the chip
length when using CNC toolpaths to provide chip breaking in turning operations. In:
Proceedings of the 3rd ASME MSEC conference, Evanston, IL, USA
2. Smith KS et al (2010) Simulating the effect of modulated tool-path chip breaking on surface
texture and chip length. No. Y/DX-2887. Oak Ridge Y-12 Plant (Y-12), Oak Ridge
3. Berglind L, Ziegert J (2013) Chip breaking parameter selection for constant surface speed
machining. In: ASME 2013 international mechanical engineering congress and exposition,
vol 2. American Society of Mechanical Engineers
4. Smith S et al (2009) Measurement of tool temperature using thermal imaging in interrupted
cut turning. In: Proceedings of the ASME 2009 international manufacturing science and
engineering conference, West Lafayette, IN, USA
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applications. Procedia Manuf 1:546–555
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(2):261–274
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operations. No. Y/DX-2883. Oak Ridge Y-12 Plant (Y-12), Oak Ridge
Machining of Difficult to Cut Materials
by Electrochemical Discharge
Machining (ECDM) Process:
A State of Art Approach

Manpreet Singh and Sarbjit Singh

1 Introduction

The miniaturized products has gained acceptability in the field of micro electro
mechanical system (MEMS), micro fluidic and ‘Lab-on-a-chip’ devices [1, 2].
There are numerous manufacturing techniques used to generate miniaturized
products such as electrical discharge machining (EDM), wire electrical discharge
machining (WEDM), laser beam machining (LBM) etc. [3, 4]. However, the pro-
cess capabilities of these processes were dependent upon material properties. The
research fraternity all over the world are making sincere efforts to develop pro-
cesses, which can handle variety of materials irrespective of their mechanical or
chemical properties. ECDM process is one of the promising machining process that
can handle various materials regardless of their material properties [5].
Initially, this process was attempted to machine glass by Karafuji and Suda in
1968 [6], later this process shows potential for machining of composites [7], steel
plates [8], ceramics [9] and super-alloys [10]. As shown in Fig. 1a, the ECDM
setup consists of two electrodes i.e. tool electrode and auxiliary electrode known as
cathode and anode respectively. The work piece to be machined is placed under-
neath the tool electrode and dipped in electrolyte. The tool electrode is partially
dipped up to few mm in electrolyte, while the anode electrode is positioned at few
centimetres away from cathode electrode. The electrolysis process started, when a
voltage is applied through a DC power source. Because of electrolysis process, the
hydrogen gas bubbles generates on cathode electrode as shown in Fig. 1b. The size

M. Singh (&)
S. Singh

Department of Mechanical Engineering, PEC University of Technology,
Chandigarh 160012, India
e-mail: gurayamanpreet5800@gmail.com

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 139

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_14
140 M. Singh and S. Singh

of hydrogen bubbles increases with increases in current density of the tool elec-
trode. Therefore, a casing of hydrogen gas layer i.e. a thin hydrogen gas film is
generated along the vicinity of the tool electrode as represents in Fig. 1c. This
hydrogen gas film behaves as an insulating layer between cathode electrode and
electrolyte [11]. As the applied potential over electrodes crosses the breakdown
strength of gas film, the discharge induced at cathode electrode is shown in Fig. 1d.
Therefore, the work piece in close region of tool electrode get melting, vaporizing
and thermally eroding due to spark energy [12].
With the development of ECDM process, the researchers come out with different
hypothesis/philosophy on mechanism of ECDM. Ghosh et al. [13] observed that
electrical discharge is formed due to switching phenomenon, not due to disruption
of insulating gas film. Jalali et al. [14] observed machining mechanism as mixture
of local heating and chemical etching. Therefore, researchers with different ideas on
ECDM process gives different names to the machining process i.e. electrochemical
spark machining (ECSM) by Tandon et al. [7], electro erosion dissolution
machining Khairy et al. [8], electrochemical arc machining (ECAM) by Crichton
et al. [15], micro electrochemical discharge machining by Langen et al. [16] and
spark assisted chemical engraving (SACE) by Fascio et al. [17]. The primary aim of
this study is provide comprehensive knowledge and literature regarding various
materials machined on ECDM process. The authors believe that information pro-
vided in this paper is quiet useful in future for machining of advance materials.

Fig. 1 Mechanism of ECDM process a basic ECDM setup, b hydrogen bubbles generations at
tool electrode, c hydrogen bubbles coalesce to form gas film, d spark initiation
Machining of Difficult to Cut Materials by Electrochemical … 141

2 Various Developments and Statistical Analysis

of ECDM Process

This review article highlights machining behaviour of various difficult to cut

materials machined by ECDM process. The various historical developments of
ECDM process reported in past years are shown in Fig. 2a. Historical developments
represent various phases of ECDM process for evolution from machining of glass to
other engineering difficult-to-cut materials. The historical developments of ECDM
process is classified into three phases.
In First phase (1968–1999) micro-holes were drilled on glass, steel plate and
carbon fibre epoxy composites. The quality of the drilled hole in terms of cracks,
heat affected zone, taper, overcut etc. were not as desired by the researchers. In the
second phase (1999–2010) the researchers used hybridization of the ECDM process
to improvement in output quality characteristics. They attempted in the domain of
micro-machining with powder mixed electrolyte [18], ultrasonic vibrated elec-
trolyte [19] and analysis of gas film formation during the process [20].
Third phase (2010–2017) includes further enhancement in process capability of
ECDM process by incorporating hybridization of the hybrid ECDM process. In this
phase the researchers attempted the effect of magnetic assistance during ECDM
process [21], grinding aided ECDM [22] and rotary tool electrode ECDM [23] etc.
for machining of difficult-to-cut materials.
Developments in ECDM process includes micro machining of glass, steel,
ceramics, composites and super-alloys with better output characteristics. The sta-
tistical analysis of various materials machined by ECDM process for last ten years
are represents in Fig. 2b. The figure shows that ECDM process is widely used for
machining of non-conductive materials like glass, composites and ceramics. On the
other hand, machining of conductive materials like steel, super-alloys and MMC

Fig. 2 a Historical developments in ECDM process, b statistical analysis of last 10 years for
various materials machined by ECDM process
Table 1 Overview of difficult-to-cut materials machined by ECDM
142

Authors name & year Material Process used Output response Findings Generic inferences
Wuthrich R, Hof LA, Glass SACE • Critical voltage • Gas film thickness is • Gas film thickness
Lal A, Fujisaki K, • Gas film thickness decreased with can be controlled
Bleuler H, MandinPh, addition of surfactant with change in
Picard G (2005) to electrolyte physical properties of
electrolyte
Wuthrich R, Glass SACE • MRR • Improved MRR and • Machining at higher
Despont B, Maillard P, • Overcut machining at higher depth is possible with
Bleuler H (2006) depths vibration assisted tool
electrode in ECDM
Han MS, Min BK, Borosilicate glass Additives mixed • Surface roughness • Surface integrity of • TWR can be
Lee SJ (2007) ECDM machined samples controlled with
can be improved with change in density of
powder mixed electrolyte
electrolyte
Coteata M, Steel sheet ECDM • Tool wear rate • Electrolyte density • Surface
Slatineanu L, (TWR) has significant characteristics of
Dodun O, Ciofu C influence on TWR as E-glass-fibre-epoxy
(2008) compared to other composite are very
factors such as poor due to
voltage and tool incomplete cutting
electrode diameter
Manna A, Narang V E-glass- fibre-epoxy ECSM • MRR • Machining of • Difficult-to-cut
(2012) composite • Overcut E-glass-fibre-epoxy materials can be
composite is poor easily machined with
due to incomplete triplex hybridization
of ECDM
(continued)
M. Singh and S. Singh
Table 1 (continued)
Authors name & year Material Process used Output response Findings Generic inferences
cutting and burning
of fibres
Liu JW, Yue TM, Metal matrix Grinding-aided ECDM • MRR • Enhanced MRR and • TWR is directly
Guo ZN (2013) composite (MMC) • Surface roughness surface quality related to material
Behroozfar A, Alumina and silica ECDM • TWR •TWR is lower in and their composition
Razfar MR (2016) tungsten carbide tool
electrode as compared
to steel and brass tool
electrode
Malik A, Manna A E-glass-fibre-epoxy Wire ECSM • MRR • Machining rate is • Micro-slicing of
(2016) composite • Spark gap width significantly E-glass-fibre-epoxy
enhanced with composite is
applied voltage and successfully carried
wire speed out by travel wire
Yan Z, Zhengyang X, Super-alloy Tube electrode ECDM • MRR •MRR is increased ECSM
Jun X, Di Z (2016) • Recast layer with increase in inner • Machining
diameter of tubular characteristics is
electrode improved with
Machining of Difficult to Cut Materials by Electrochemical …

change in inner
structure of tubular
electrode
143
144 M. Singh and S. Singh

has also been attempted by several researchers. Table 1 shows the machining
overview of various difficult-to-cut materials with different findings and generic
inferences.

3 Materials Machined on ECDM Process

This section elaborates machining behaviour of various difficult-to-cut materials

machined on ECDM. This section includes machining behaviour of glass, com-
posites, ceramics, steel and super-alloys by ECDM process.

3.1 Glass

Glass is widely used in MEMS technology due to its transparency and chemical
resistance properties [24]. At starting stage of ECDM, machining of glass was
attempted [6]. Later on this method was used for machining of other materials such
as composites, ceramics etc. The idea of 3D micro structuring and local surface
modification on glass surface with ECDM has been firstly investigated by Fascio
et al. [24]. The machining behaviour of glass with ECDM has been explored
Wuthrich et al. [25–28]. The Wuthrich observed two regimes in drilling of glass i.e.
firstly known as discharge regime (200–300 µm depth) and secondly hydrodynamic
regime (depth higher than 300 µm). Machining characteristics of glass in discharge
regime were superior to hydrodynamic regime. It was because of limited electrolyte
availability in hydrodynamic regime. The lacks of electrolyte availability at higher
machining depth were controlled with vibration assisted tool electrode in ECDM
[29]. Bhondwe et al. [30] investigated machining of soda lime glass by ECDM
process and showed that MRR is momentously influenced by electrolyte concen-
tration and duty factor. In other studies machining of glass have been reported with
different input characteristics such as applied voltage and depth [31], powder mixed
electrolyte [18] and current signal [20].
Yang et al. [32] observed effect of surface roughness of tool electrode on ECDM
performance in machining of quartz. Similarly, studies on machining of glass and
quartz have been reported by researchers [33–36]. Machining of glass with various
constraints such as vibrated tool electrode [37], magnetic assisted ECDM [21], tool
feed rate [38] has been investigated by the research fraternity.

3.2 Composites and Ceramics

Composites have gained reputation in the field of aerospace, automobile and

electronic industries owing to their high temperature, wear resistant and high
Machining of Difficult to Cut Materials by Electrochemical … 145

strength-to-weight ratio properties [39–42]. However, superior properties of these

materials make it more difficult to frame into desired shape by traditional machining
techniques. Therefore, various research groups investigated machining of com-
posites by advanced manufacturing process i.e. ECDM process. Initially, machining
of partially conductive material carbon fibre epoxy composite by ECSM process
have been reported by Singh et al. [43]. They concluded that tool feed rate is key
factor that will affect quality characteristics of machined surface. Liu et al. [44]
successfully carried out machining of particulate reinforced metal matrix composite
(MMC) with ECDM process. Liu et al. [22] reported machining of particulate
reinforced MMC with superior surface characteristics by grinding aided ECDM
process. Similarly, various research groups investigated machining of E-glass,
fibre-epoxy composite by ECSM process. Machining surface of E-glass,
fibre-epoxy composite in micro drilling is poor due to burning and heating [45]. On
the other hand, micro slicing is successfully carried out on E-glass, fibre-epoxy
composite by travel wire ECSM process [46].
In modern industry ceramics attained lots of interest owing to their numerous
applications in industrial field like computer parts, heat exchanger and internal
combustion engine [47]. Machining of partially conductive piezoelectric ceramic
and silicon nitride ceramics has been reported by Singh et al. [43] and Sarkar et al.
[9] respectively. They revealed that applied voltage is momentous factor that will
affect the material removal rate (MRR) and HAZ. The modelling of the ECDM
process has been attempted by Shanmukhi et al. [48] during micro-drilling of
silicon nitride ceramics. Machining of aluminium oxide ceramic (Al2O3) have been
investigated by various research groups by ECDM process with different devel-
opments [49–52]. In machining of aluminium oxide ceramic spark is directly
controlled with change in shape of tool electrode tip [49]. Micro-holes were suc-
cessfully drilled in aluminium oxide ceramic with use of abrasive tool electrode
[50], electrolyte flow method in machining [51]. Micro-slicing of aluminium oxide
ceramic surface is effectively done by travel wire ECSM process [52].

3.3 Steel and Super-Alloys

With reference to process capability of ECDM, various researchers investigated

machining of steel by ECDM process. Initially, machining of steel with wire
ECAM process has been reported by 1988 [53]. In this study, machining accuracy
is enhanced with coaxial flushing of electrolyte. Coteata et al. [54–56] observed tool
wear mechanism in drilling of small holes on steel plate by ECDM process. Tool
wear rate (TWR) is significantly influenced by solution density, applied voltage and
tool diameter. Krotz et al. [57] drilled micro-holes in steel plate of 1 mm thickness
by micro-ECAM process. Huang et al. [58] successfully drilled micro-holes in
stainless steel plate with rotary tool electrode in ECDM. At high rotating speed,
TWR is decreased owing to increase in heat dissipation capacity by centrifugal
action.
146 M. Singh and S. Singh

Nickel based super-alloys are widely used in air craft engine owing to their better
mechanical and heat resistant properties [59]. A novel technique tube electrode
high-speed electrochemical discharge drilling (TEHECDD) is effectively used for
machining of film cooling holes in super-alloys [10, 23, 60]. In these studies, MRR
is appreciably increased with increase in inner diameter of tubular tool electrode.

4 Conclusions and Future Scope

ECDM is the proficient hybrid machining process which can broadly acceptable for
machining of conductive and non-conductive difficult-to-cut materials. The
exploration had done on ECDM is significantly focussed on machining of glass
followed by ceramics, steel, composites and super-alloys. Moreover, it revealed that
large class of new advent materials can also machined by ECDM irrespective to
their properties. Indeed, even known since presence of ECDM, this process stays in
a lab for research work. Therefore, this process require lots of exploration for
transforms it from lab work to industrial application. The essential requirement for
conversion of this process to industrial application is reproducible machining.
In ECDM process, the gas film phenomenon is a key element that responsible for
conversion of ECDM process to reproducible machining. Therefore, lots of efforts
are required for control of stability and dynamics of gas film.
In the recent years, various research groups enhanced process capability of
ECDM by triplex hybridization i.e. MMC is successfully machined by grinding
aided ECDM process. The other triplex hybridization of ECDM such as vibration
assisted ECDM, magnetic assisted ECDM and rotary tool electrode ECDM have
been successfully attempted by several researchers. It concluded that triplex
hybridization of ECDM process is proficient way to machine difficult-to-cut
materials.

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Development of Super Hydrophobic
Surfaces for Oil Spill Separation

Alex K. Babu, Alwinson Kuriakose Geevarghese, Althaf Easa,

Anthea Judette Maxi Fernandez, Rakesh Reghunath,
Soney C. George and R. Asaletha

1 Introduction

The rise of twentieth century has witnessed considerable increase in the usage of
petroleum and oil products in the global sector. In the present scenario, the oil and
petroleum industries present worldwide are innumerable. The major reasons include
advancement in the field of transportation and automobile industries, rising needs of
ever increasing population, lack of advancement in technologies promoting usage
of ecofriendly sources of energy such as electric power, solar energy etc. This leads
to the continuous consumption of conventional sources of energy leading to

A. K. Babu (&)
A. K. Geevarghese
A. Easa
A. J. M. Fernandez
R. Reghunath

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amal Jyothi College
of Engineering Kanjirapally, Kanjirapally, Kerala, India
e-mail: lifewithalex95@gmail.com
A. K. Geevarghese
e-mail: alwinsonkk@gmail.com
A. Easa
e-mail: althafeasa@gmail.com
A. J. M. Fernandez
e-mail: antheafernandez56@gmail.com
R. Reghunath
e-mail: rakeshreghunath@amaljyothi.ac.in
S. C. George
Department of Basic Science, Amal Jyothi College of Engineering,
Kanjirapally, Kerala, India
e-mail: soneycgeorge@amaljyothi.ac.in
R. Asaletha
Department of Basic Science, Cochin University College of Engineering Kuttanad,
Kuttanad, India
e-mail: asalethar@cusat.ac.in

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 151

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_15
152 A. K. Babu et al.

exhaustion. The consumption of natural resources at such an alarming rate has not
only depleted the same but has other implications too. The major impact is nothing
but the pollution of natural resources, especially water and soil. The most dangerous
effect is that it makes even the air we breathe intoxicated. Recently, frequent water
pollution, particularly oil spillage, chemical leakage, organic water effluents from
industries have caused severe ecological problems. The absence of an efficient
method of treatment may cause long term harm to the environment and ecological
system [1, 2].
The treatment of polluted water resource by the oil spills has become a serious
matter of concern. The conventional methods used for the treatment are:
• Bioremediation [3–5]
• Chemical catalytic decomposition [6, 7]
• Absorption and separation [8–10].
But it is tedious to handle the vast industrial pollution or oil spill by bioreme-
diation and catalytic decomposition owing to its less efficiency. The method of
physical sorption by utilizing porous materials could lead to a simple, quick and
efficient separation of harmful organic content. This resulted in the concentration of
research in making of cheap, practical sorbents for separation of oil spill from water
bodies. The polar property of water can be efficiently utilized for the separation of
organic liquid matter. The harmful organic contents are nonpolar and this property
is exploited for the absorption of same by developing a non-polar surface. As water
is polar, it will get repelled by non-polar porous material i.e., the surface will be
super hydrophobic [11, 12] (contact angle >150°). The separation of oil and organic
solvents directly from water can be performed by the naturally available porous
absorbent materials such as natural fibers, saw dust etc. But they have got some
limitations such as low absorption capacities, deficient selectivity and poor recy-
clability, ease of availability, ease of fabrication, chemical as well as physical
stability and inertness to various organic solvents.
All these aspects have inspired scientists across the world to develop new porous
absorbent materials possessing high absorption capacity, high porosity, large
specific surface area, high selectivity, chemical inertness and excellent recyclability
so that they can perform oil-water separation effectively. In order to serve this
purpose, super hydrophobic and superoleophilic (oil contact angle <5°) materials
have been developed which can absorb oil and organic contamination while
repelling water completely. Many sorbent materials such as cross-linked polymers
[13, 14] and resins, fibers [15], polymer gels [16], organic-inorganic hybrid [17],
silica [18] and Nano composites [19] have been developed extensively. However,
these materials have shown low sorption capabilities along with poor selectivity and
their high cost and complicated fabrication process have limited their use.
Recent studies of novel oil sorbents have focused on super hydrophobic sponges
and sponge-like materials that exhibited superior oil sorption capacity. In the study
conducted by Gupta [20], He and Tai, melamine sponge is used as the core
absorbing material and it is treated with reduced graphene oxide. This coating has
Development of Super Hydrophobic Surfaces for Oil Spill … 153

helped in achieving super hydrophobicity. But the major drawbacks were the dif-
ficulty in synthesizing graphene, huge expense of the material and its poor recy-
clability. Gui et al. [21] reported the synthesis of Carbon Nano Tube sponges by
chemical vapour deposition technique. CNTs were self-assembled into a 3
dimensionally interconnected framework. The obtained super hydrophobic sponge
has the following features of having Contact angle >156°, Sorption capacity of the
sponge is up to 180 times its own weight and Porosity >99%. The Drawbacks of
the sponge are High cost of the CNTs and the Complex preparation processes. Zhao
et al. [22] used ultralight nitrogen doped graphene and CNT as the coating material.
The superhydrophobic sponge thus obtained were Ultralight, super elastic aerogel
[23], with Density <1 mg/cc, Porosity 99.9% and Absorption capacity up to 200–
900 times its own weight. But the limitations of the sponge were the high cost and
Complex preparation procedure. Nguyen et al. [24] integrated solution-exfoliated
graphene onto melamine sponges for oil absorbency, this was using a dip coating
method. This process made the sponge superhydrophobic andit showed excellent
absorption capacities up to 165 times of the initial weight. In particular melamine
sponges have been shown to be an excellent scaffold for producing
high-performance oil absorbents with 3D porous structure, as it is composed of a
micro scale interconnected framework with good compressibility and is easy to
chemically surface modify. Chen et al. [25] directly carbonized melamine sponges
at 1800 °C and successfully prepared superhydrophobic sponges with extraordinary
absorbency. Gao et al. [26] in his Experiment immersed melamine sponge in the
MoS2 nanosheet solution with ethanol by a squeezing and vacuum degassing
procedure, and MoS2 nanosheets were assembled on the MF sponge into a 3D
MoS2 sponge with a colour change from white to black. Finally, the coated sponge
was directly dried to yield the SMS.
With the demand of finding an ideal sorbent material having the above men-
tioned desirable properties, we have come across melamine sponge which is used as
the core absorbent material. The sponge is made super hydrophobic and super-
oleophilic by special surface treatment technique using octadecyltrichlorosilane and
acetone. The surface treatment can alter the wettability and absorption efficiency of
the material and thus the sponge can be benefitted to separate polar and non-polar
solvents from polar or non-polar mixture.

2 Materials Required

The commercially available white melamine sponge, a density of 0.075–0.085 g/

cm3 and porosity of 99.44%, was used as the sponge sample, since melamine
sponge exhibited superior oil absorption capacity [27]. The oils and organic sol-
vents used in different tests and analysis include acetone, toluene, butanol
octadecyltrichlorosilane, lubricating oil, petrol, and diesel.
154 A. K. Babu et al.

3 Experimental Section

Raw samples of melamine sponges were treated with octadecyltrichlorosilane and

these treated sponges were heated to a temperature of 120 °C. The procured mel-
amine sponge was cut into 2.5  2.5  3 cm 3 pieces and immersed in the solution
of octadecyltrichlorosilane in toluene (0.5 wt%) for 5, 10, 20, 30 and 45 min.
Subsequently the sponge was removed from the solution and squeezed to extract
the absorbed solution. Thereafter they were repeatedly washed in fresh toluene by
the sorption-squeezing process and finally dried at 120 °C for 1 h. Experimental
procedure for developing super hydrophobic sponge is shown in Fig. 1.
In this study, melamine sponges were treated with octadecyltrichlorosilane and
the treated sponges were heated to a temperature of 120 °C. commercially available
melamine sponges were cut into 2.5  2.5  3.0 cm3 cube pieces and where
immersed in a solution of octadecyltrichlorosilane in toluene (0.5 wt%) for 5, 10,
20, 30 and 45 min. The absorption capacities of the treated sponge are measured by
immersing the sponge in different solutions of petrol, diesel [28], lubrication oil and
butanol. The weights of the sponge were taken before the experiment and were
immersed in the said solution for a certain fixed time interval. The immersed sponge
was weighed, and was squeezed to remove the solution and is immersed again for
the next time interval. The same cycle is repeated for rest of the solutions. In order
for the treated sponge to be commercially useful, it is necessary to obtain the
number of times the treated sponge can be used. The weight of the sponge is taken
and is then immersed into different solutions like petrol, diesel, lubricating oil and
butanol for 6–10 cycles for equal intervals of time.
The saturated sponge is weighed for the amount of solution absorbed, and is then
squeezed manually until it is void of the absorbed solution, and it is therefore used
for the next cycle. Hydrophobic sponge developed and a chemical for testing is
shown in Fig. 2. The treated melamine sponges were characterized by Fourier
Transform Infrared Spectroscopy. Fourier transform Infrared spectra were measured
in the spectral range of 600–4000 cm−1 on a Nicollet 380 FT-IR, KBr tablet,
Thermo Electron Corporation spectrometer. Sample is mixed with a mulling agent
such mineral oil and pressed between plates made of sodium chloride Sodium
chloride is used because it has no IR absorptions. Glass or plastic plates would have
IR absorptions of their own, Sodium chloride plates are good from 4000 to

Fig. 1 Experimental procedure for sponge preparation

Development of Super Hydrophobic Surfaces for Oil Spill … 155

Fig. 2 a Chemical treated sponge, b solutions for testing

650 cm−1 and below 650 cm−1 they begin to absorb, so Potassium bromide plates
can be used in place of sodium chloride and are transparent to 400 cm−1, but they
are more expensive. Downside of this method is absorptions due to the mineral oil
and Sample is mixed with solid potassium bromide and pressed into a pellet under
high pressure. There is no absorptions from mulling agent and it only works for
solids. Finally the Sample is dissolved in carbon tetrachloride and pressed between
salt plates. The morphologies of melamine sponges were observed by scanning
electron microscopy. The Ultra high resolution scanning electron microscopy
(S-5200) was used for the analysis. Contact Angle measurement was conducted
using optical tensiometers. The hydrophobicity is measured using the analysing the
contact angle.

4 Results and Discussion

Melamine sponges used in this study has an open cell form like structure. It mainly
consist formaldehyde-melamine-sodium bisulfite copolymer, which is widely used
as an abrasive cleaner and as soundproofing material. Melamine sponge used here
has a density of 7–9 mg/cm3, high porosity of 99.5%, high elasticity. All these are
ideal characteristics for sorption materials. The silanization was performed by
dipping the melamine sponge into an octadecyltrichlorosilane solution at room
temperature for 5–30 min, followed by a drying step at 120 °C for 1 h.

4.1 Sorption Capacity Studies

The weight absorption capabilities of solvents were measured for all four types of
sponges and shown in Fig. 3 and, it was found that diesel exhibited highest value of
weight absorption capability for all types of sponges, as shown in. By contrast,
Petrol exhibited lowest value of weight absorption capability since it is highly
156 A. K. Babu et al.

volatile compared to other solvents. It is inferred that weight of the sponge increases
with increase with immersion time of the sponge and it reaches a constant value
where further increase in weight does not take place, as the sponge has reached its
maximum equilibrium state where further absorption of the solvent is not possible.

4.2 Recyclability Studies

In order to obtain the number of times the treated sponge can be used the recy-
clability tests were conducted and the result was plotted in the following graph
shown in Fig. 4. Weight of the sponge absorbed after each 2-min interval was
plotted against the number of cycles which implies that even after a number of uses,
the rate of absorption of the sponge remains almost constant even after an average
of eight cycles.

4.3 Contact Angle Studies

The hydrophobicity of the melamine sponge materials was characterized by water

contact angle measurements. The hydrophobicity of the silanized melamine sponge
was characterized by water contact angle measurements. As shown in Fig. 5, the

Fig. 3 Absorption studies in different solvents

Development of Super Hydrophobic Surfaces for Oil Spill … 157

Fig. 4 Recyclability studies in different solvents

water contact angle of the treated melamine sponge notably increased as a function
of silanization time, from 0° for the melamine sponge to 30° ± 1.5° after 5 min of
silanization. After 10 min, the value reached 70° ± 1.2° and a maximum of
109° ± 1.1° after 30 and 45 min, indicating the super hydrophobic characteristics
of the functionalized sponges.
For analyzing the stability of the drop formed on the surface of the sponge,
variation in the contact angle formed was measured for a contact angle of 45 min
30 min. It was found that for 45 min silanization the contact angle measured shows
more stability when comparing with 30 min silanization as shown in Fig. 6.
Experimental setup for measuring contact angle and measured angle is shown in
Figs. 7 and 8 respectively.

4.4 FTIR Analysis

The formations of self-assembled monolayer on the sponge skeleton were charac-

terized by FTIR analysis. Molecules with symmetric bonds such as N2, O2, or F2 do
not absorb in the infrared since bond stretching [29] does not change the dipole
moment of the molecule. The FTIR spectrum of the treated sponge is given in
Fig. 9 The two primary modes of vibration are stretching and bending [30].
Stretching modes are typically of higher energy than bending modes and often
divided into two a symmetric and asymmetric stretch; the asymmetric stretch is
usually of higher energy. The different inferences from the spectrum of the
158 A. K. Babu et al.

Fig. 5 Effect of silanization time on contact angle

Fig. 6 Stability analyses for contact angle

Development of Super Hydrophobic Surfaces for Oil Spill … 159

Fig. 7 Experimental setup

for contact angle
measurement

Fig. 8 Measuring contact

angle 109°

melamine sponge are: The N–H bond (3400 cm−1) disappears in the treated sponge.
Formation of Si–N (873 cm−1), Si–O (1100 cm−1) and Si–C (1275 cm−1).
Formation of C–H stretching (3000–2840 cm−1), CH2 bending (1465 cm−1), CH3
bending (1375 cm−1) and CH2 (four or more CH2 groups) rocking at (720 cm−1).

Fig. 9 FTIR spectrum of treated sponge

160 A. K. Babu et al.

Fig. 10 SEM image of a untreated sponge, b treated sponge

4.5 Morphological Studies

Morphology of sponge surfaces were examined using scanning electron microscopy

before and after silanization of the sponge as shown in Fig. 10. Generally, the wet
ability of the surface depends on the surface chemical composition and the surface
topographical microstructure [31]. Melamine sponges consist of a three dimen-
sional hierarchical and porous structure with pore size in the range of 100–150 µm
with smooth skeletons of average diameter approximately 10 µm. After silanization
a thin layer of the alkylsilane self-assembled monolayer, which finally led to the
superhydrophobicity of the treated melamine sponge.

5 Conclusion

In this study, we explored the experimental process to fabricate the hydrophobic

sponges and analyse its surface, microstructure, hydrophobicity, absorption
capacity and reusability. The melamine sponges were treated with octadecyl-
trichlorosilane, after the treatment, the characteristic of melamine sponge was
changed from hydrophilic to hydrophobic which is attributed to the removal of
branched NH bonds in melamine which decreased the NH2 functional groups and
an increase in oxygen containing functional groups, resulted in a decrease of the
polarity. The silanization occurred through secondary amine groups attached to the
surface of sponge skeletons with alkylsilane compounds, forming a layeron their
surface. The maximum contact angle which was obtained from the experiment was
about 109°. The sponge is easier to fabricate by this method compared to other
methods and less time consuming. It could be bought into more practical appli-
cations specifically it finds applications can be in oil spills and also can be designed
for the industrial ducts so that the oil content in the water could be reduced thereby
Development of Super Hydrophobic Surfaces for Oil Spill … 161

reducing water pollution. In summary, a one-step, facile, and cost-effective method

was reported for the fabrication of robust, superhydrophobic sponges by silaniza-
tion of commercial melamine sponges via a solution-immersion process.

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FEA Study of the Multiple Structural
Orientations on Selective Laser Melted
Cobalt Chrome Open-Porous Scaffolds

Aby K. Abraham and V. G. Sridhar

1 Introduction

This paper presents the manufacturing of the customized bone porous scaffold and
its compressive property evaluation employing FEM. Additive producing processes
manufacture end-use elements from CAD models by supplemental material layer by
layer, and also the final elements are usually created in an exceedingly single step
while not the necessity for any further process. Earlier accumulative producing
techniques were used for “Rapid Prototyping” within the domain of product style
and development for the conception effective, pattern building, assembly verifica-
tion and purposeful testing. Within the recent times, Additive producing techniques
are being employed throughout the fabrication of actual end-use commodities for
varied sectors. one in all the fascinating province with vital potential impact is that
the medical field, wherever implants, scaffolds and pros-thesis are being
factory-made victimization Additive producing Technique [1]. Traditional ways of
scaffold fabrication embrace fiber bonding, solvent casting and particulate action
[2], membrane lamination, gas foaming, refrigerant evoked section separation [2, 3]
then on. However, all of those techniques are primarily supported manual work and
lack of a corresponding de-signing process; thus further procedure was required to
on-taking appropriate form and also the microstructure. These ancient techniques
even have several disadvantages like long fabrication periods; poor repeatability
and short property of pores [4]. To overcome the constraints of those typical
techniques, automatic computer-controlled fabrication techniques, like Additive
producing (AM), are being explored. Pre-production stage Finite element analysis

A. K. Abraham (&)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, GISAT, Kottayam, India
e-mail: abyk.abraham2014@vit.ac.in
V. G. Sridhar
School of Mechanical and Building Sciences VIT Chennai, Chennai, India

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 163

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_16
164 A. K. Abraham and V. G. Sridhar

(FEA) was carried out to designed cobalt chrome scaffolds for the mechanical
properties evaluation.
The researchers present the patient-specific implant’s fabrication and its property
evaluation. Metallic materials like cobalt alloys have been successfully soiled in
clinical applications for orthopedic implants for a long-time [1]. Besides good
biocompatibility and non allergic tissue response, cobalt chrome has an elastic
modulus lesser than of that of stainless steel [3]. There are still some complications
associated with dense metallic implants such as sterile loosening being one major
problem until the end prosthetic treatment leading to wavering of the implants and
to obvious early revision [2, 4]. One reason in the loss of bone that has been
identified is an insufficient and reduced load transfer into the adjacent bone stock
due to the stiffness mismatch between implant and the surrounding tissue, known as
stress shielding [5, 6]. In order to decrease the mass and implant stiffness, to
increase the load shift through the bone up to tissue and to progress the raw boned
fixation for enough long-term stability, open porous structures can be engaged for
designing customized or typical implants [7–10]. There are different potential of
incorporate porosity into dense materials, like space receptacle particles [11], direct
3D printing [12] or additive manufacturing [13, 14]. The final offers the advantage
of fabricating capricious geometrical structures with a spacious range of involuntary
properties [15], shapes [16, 12] and material designs with prearranged nonlinear
properties or the use of multipart, cellular and purposeful mesh arrays [8].
By using additive manufacturing techniques open-porous scaffolds can be
made-up in a wide range of design variations with specific properties satisfying
both mechanical and biological prerequisites. It is vital to know that geometry
deviation, the worn material as well as the engaged additive manufacturing tech-
niques have an influence on scaffold properties. The fabrication of structures using
additive manufacturing technologies is grave characterized by the belongings of the
process; moreover the accuracy of the fabricated scaffolds is compulsory for the
evaluation of the perfunctory properties of open-porous structures. In addition,
the properties of fabricated scaffolds can be openly controlled by the geometrical
shape and the structural opus of the scaffolds [17]. Thus, mechanical properties can
be custom-made to the patient-precise requirements of the relevance area, e.g. an
elastic modulus parallel to that of person cortical bone. Instead, persuade of the unit
cell orientation has to be resolute. Furthermore, the functional correlation involving
porosity and elastic modulus as well as the strut orientation and the loading angles
play a critical role in the assessment of open-porous structures. Challis et al.
investigated the directional hope of the Young’s modulus on conventional
encrusted grid structures and topology-optimized structures by via the finite element
method. By using topology optimization techniques they generated a design with
isotropic characters. i.e., that had no route of low stiffness. By scaling the size of the
struts, any exact elastic modulus could be implemented; still they found a non-linear
relationship between the porosity and the elastic modulus.
Amendment and drop of the scaffolds stiffness is essential in order to prevent
stress shielding of the nearby bone tissue just about stiff implants [5, 6]. As we
know the mechanical properties of bone depends on several factors and the
FEA Study of the Multiple Structural Orientations on … 165

properties vary about a broad range [17]. So it is extremely important that the
mechanical properties of an additive manufactured construction for a medical
application has the same values as the bone. This should be the way to defeat the
mismatching of elastic properties stuck between the human bone and the metallic
implant in the boundary and with that the troubles caused by stress shielding of the
bone due to the extreme stiffness of the metallic implant. But the direction of the
structural elements from end to end the production influences the mechanical
properties obviously.

1.1 Design of the Open-Porous Scaffold

For this study structural can developed by CAD software, the design data exported
to fabrication through SLM technology. In this study a twisted design of crossing
struts had reated. Two different designs in varying dimensional parameters in width
(a), depth (b) and height (c) strut diameter (d) are used and the designed properties
of the structural composition are investigated.

Based on structural unit, heavy cylindrical scaffolds modeled as a linear pattern

of the sole unit. Based with DIN EN 50106 (Testing of Metallic Materials,
Compression Test) the ratio between height (H) and outer diameter (D) of the
model in between 1 and 2 in order to prevent buckling of the scaffolds under load
compression. All parts were built with a height (H) of 18.0 mm and a diameter
(D) of 17.0 mm. The design of the sole unit and the geometry for scaffold parts
(twisted) is shown in Fig. 1 and the geometric components for the investigated
models are listed in Table 1.
166 A. K. Abraham and V. G. Sridhar

Table 1 Overview of geometric parameters for the unit structure variation relating to the
investigated designs of large-size scaffolds for mechanical testing. All values are derived from
CAD data and are given in mm
Configuration Height c Width a Depth b Strut diameter d
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
T1 3.00 2.12 2.12 0.90
T2 4.00 2.83 2.83 1.10

Table 2 Spatial orientation of the twisted designs T1 and T2

Design difference for the purpose of anisotropic material properties for the
segmentation of anisotropic material properties the spatial direction of the twisted
design has rotated within the external cylindrical shape of the scaffolds being
perfunctorily tested (Table 2). The model parameters for the turning round of the
twisted scaffolds are the same as scheduled in Table 1 with the listed strut diameter.
FEA Study of the Multiple Structural Orientations on … 167

The sole organization has been rotated by 45° and 90° approximately the y-axis and
in combination with the x- and the y-axis, in that order.
This direction categorizes that all specimens built in the same SLM process. The
twisted design T2 manufactured in orientation types I, II, III, IV and V. The twisted
design T1 prototyped in orientation types I, IV and V. The orientation of the unit
cell and the consequential scaffold shapes are shown in the listed overview. The
views lateral view and top view are total representations of the scaffold configu-
rations. The illustrations allow for a better accepting of the modeling of the unit cell
and the behavior struts. The final structure has been rotated by 90° around y-axis
T-90-0 (IV) and rotated around both axes T-90-45 (V).

1.2 Porosity

Even though the cell structure remains the same there are alters in the porosity of
the specimens caused by a mix together of structural cell specimens. In order to
confirm the accuracy and the reproducibility of the manufacturing process com-
pared to the CAD data, porosity for the scaffolds with the twisted design under
dissimilar loading orientations was calculated. Porosity for CAD scaffolds as well
as for fabricated scaffolds was calculated according to the subsequent equations.

PorosityCAD ¼ ð1  Vstr=VcylÞ  100%

where Vstr is the volume of the CAD scaffold struts and Vcyl is the overall volume
enclosed by the outer periphery.

PorositySLM ¼ ð1  qsc=q0Þ  100%

where 0 is the density of non-porous cobalt chrome (i.e. 8.5 g/cm3) and sc is the
density of the manufactured scaffolds, average bone mineral density is around
3.88 g/cm3 in males and 2.90 g/cm3 in females (Table 3).
The FEA is a tool that allows calculation of stress sharing in the contact area of
implants with bone. The purpose of this work is to evaluate the things of biome-
chanical aspects of implant design with fascination conditions on the implant, the
bone–implant interface. This paper focuses on various scaffolds models implants
with fixation of implant to bone with dense stress shielding effect is simulated using
FEA software to compare the results with the mechanical design variations.

Table 3 Scaffolds cad porosities described in percentage

Model T1-1 T1-4 T1-5 T2-1 T2-2 T2-3 T2-4 T2-5
% CAD porosities 55.5 55 54.5 60 58.5 56 59.5 60
168 A. K. Abraham and V. G. Sridhar

1.3 Finite Element Analysis of Designed Scaffolds

Three dimensional cobalt chrome model is performed in solid modeling software,

The model exported by ANSYS and subdivided into nodes and elements.
Collection of elements is called mesh and it is make mesh optimization to get more
accuracy results. Mesh optimization is occurred until the FEA results and analytical
solutions are similar to each other. After the determination of mesh model, apply
boundary conditions, initial conditions, and load stress are applied on the designed
model. Scaffold bottom plate (A) side is fixed and the upper side scaffold with
pressure plate is applied on the 1000 N force on upper plate surface. Then FEA
analysis of seven models is performed and results are compared with the each other.
It is aimed to determine the total von-mises stress and the elongation.

1.4 Results and Discussion

Analysis results are classified according to the different pore sized scaffold models
listed below table.

Table 4 Classified scaffold model pore size analysis results

Model T1-1 T1-4 T1-4 T1-5 T2-1 T2-2 T2-3 T2-4 T2-5
Max. 0.03692 0.17948 0.12019 0.050616 0.093846 0.27017 0.15981 0.2746 0.03692
deformation
in mm
Max. 75.501 464.8 256.2 78.749 427.14 565.46 260.42 171.35 75.501
equivalent
von-mises
stress in
MPa
% CAD 55.5 54.5 55.5 60 58.5 56 59.5 60 55.5
porosities
FEA Study of the Multiple Structural Orientations on … 169

Finite Element Analysis was carried out using ANSYS 13 software, to compare
the stress fields developed under uniaxial compression. It was found from the
compression testing that the behavior of the material is linear at 1000 N. In finite
element simulation the same compressive load was applied, and the finite element
analysis was carried out using ANSYS 13, for the eight compression testing
models. The details of the experimental stress and deformations are presented in
Table 4. Porosities varied between 60.0 and 56.0% in model T2 and between 55.5
and 60% in model T1. The examination of the developed models shows diver-
gences between CAD—porosity, all other values lie in between them. Models
T1-IV and T1-V correspond to the CAD dimensions. Models T1-IV and T1-V
correspond to the CAD dimensions. Porosity of the scaffolds also has an influence
on the structural designs. In the case of the examined structure and dimensions, this
connection is directly represented in a functional relation to the characteristic values
obtained in the analysis. Finite element analysis of cobalt chrome specimen was
completed and thereby compared the properties with the properties with various
twisted designs. Thus SLM process has been able to produce the customized bone
porous scaffold with properties similar to human bone.

References

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on the mechanical properties of selective laser melted Ti6Al4V open-porous scaffolds. Artic
Mater Des
2. Long M, Rack HJ (1998) Titanium alloys in total joint replacement—a material science
perspective. Biomaterials 19:1621–1639
3. Vannoort R (1987) Titanium—the implant material of today. J Mater Sci 22:3801–3811
4. Bahraminasab M, Sahari BB, Edwards KL, Frahmand F, Arumugam M (2013) Aseptic
loosening of femoral components—materials engineering and design considerations. Mater
Des 44:155–163
5. Tigges S, Stiles RG, Roberson JR (1994) Complications of hip-arthroplasty causing
periprosthetic radiolucency on plain radiographs. Am J Roentgenol 162:1387–1391
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6. Merle C, Streit MR, Volz C, Pritsch M, Gotterbarm T, Aldinger PR (2011) Bone remodeling
around stable uncemented titanium stems during the second decade after total hip
arthroplasty: a DXA study at 12 and 17 years. Osteoporos Int 22(11):2879–2886
7. Niinomi M, Nakai M (2011) Titanium-based biomaterials for preventing stress shielding
between implant devices and bone. Int J Biomater
8. Harrysson OL, Cansizoglu O, Marcellin-Little DJ, Cormier DR, West HA (2008) Direct metal
fabrication of titanium implants with tailored materials and mechanical properties using
electron beam melting technology. Mater Sci Eng C Biomim Supramol Syst 366–373
9. Murr LE, Gaytan SM, Medina F, Lopez H, Martinez E, Machado BI, Hernandez DH,
Martinez L, Lopez MI, Wicker RB, Bracke J (2010) Next-generation biomedical implants
using additive manufacturing of complex, cellular and functional mesh arrays. Philos Trans R
Soc A 368:1999–2032
10. Marin E, Fusi S, Pressacco M, Paussa L, Fedrizzi L (2010) Characterization of cellular solids
in Ti6Al4V for orthopaedic implant applications: trabecular titanium. J Mech Behav Biomed
Mater 3:373–381
11. Wegrzyn J, Kenton R, Hanssen AD, Lewallen DG (2015) Performance of porous tantalum
versus titanium cup in total hip arthroplasty: randomized trial with minimum 10-year
follow-up. J Arthroplast
12. Devika D, Arumaikkannu G (2011) Evaluation of mechanical behaviour of bone, implant and
bone–implant interface by numerical simulation of two surgical fixation procedures using
finite element analysis. Int J Comput Appl Technol 42(2/3)
13. Adachi T, Osako Y, Tanaka M, Hojo M, Hollister SJ (2006) Framework for optimal design of
porous scaffold microstructure by computational simulation of bone regeneration.
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14. Borden M, Attawia M, Khan Y, Laurencin CT (2002) Tissue engineering microsphere-based
matrices for bone repair: design and evaluation. Biomaterials 23:551–559
15. Boschetti F, Raimondi MT, Migliavacca F, Dubini G (2006) Prediction of the micro-fluid
dynamic environment imposed to three-dimensional engineered cell systems in bioreactors.
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16. Ahmed SE, Raheem E, Hossain S (2011) Absolute penalty estimation. In: Springer
International Encyclopedia of statistical science. New York
17. Begum SR, Arumaikkannu G (2015) Computational fluid dynamic analysis and additive
manufacturing of customised bone scaffolds. Prog Comput Fluid Dyn 15(3)
Effect of Silicon Carbide as Filler
Reinforcement on the Mechanical
Properties of Glass Fiber Epoxy
Composites

Antara Bhattacharjee, S. Sujaykhosh and B. K. Nanda

1 Introduction

Composites are structural materials made up of one or more constituents at the

macroscopic level and are insoluble in each other. Depending on the type of
reinforcements, composites are divided into fiber-reinforced, particulate-reinforced,
flake-reinforced composites. Fiber reinforced (FR) polymer composites are widely
used owing to high strength to weight ratio, higher stiffness, strength and fatigue
properties. Among these FR composites, glass fiber reinforced epoxy (GFRE)
composites are commonly used because these are cheap, readily available and can
be easily manufactured. These find application in aerospace, automotive, marine,
structural and machine tool industries as they have low densities, high strength,
high stiffness, impact resistant and are non-corrosive. Further, the strength and
stiffness of the FR composite can be increased by reinforcing it with particulates.
Raghavendra et al. [1] observed that calcium sulphate filled fiber reinforced
epoxy composites exhibit high tensile strength and low impact strength and
increased hardness compared to neat composites. The mechanical properties of the
fiber reinforced polymer matrix primarily depend upon the strength and modulus of
the fibers, the strength and chemical stability of the matrix and the effectiveness of
the bonding between fibers and matrix in transferring stress across the interface.
Nassar et al. [2] observed that unfilled carbon fiber reinforced epoxy composites
exhibit homogeneous nature whereas CFRE composites with filler reinforcements
exhibit heterogeneous nature due to the uneven distribution of the fine particles in

A. Bhattacharjee
S. Sujaykhosh (&)
B. K. Nanda

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIT Rourkela, Rourkela, Odisha, India
e-mail: sujaykhosh24@gmail.com

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 171

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_17
172 A. Bhattacharjee et al.

the matrix. Agarwal et al. [3] have shown that addition of SiC particulates enhances
the thermo-mechanical properties of GFRE composites. Suresha et al. [4] have
demonstrated that filling glass epoxy composite with graphite particulates improves
the mechanical properties such as hardness, tensile strength, tensile modulus, per-
centage elongation as well as wear resistance.
Therefore, the current research focuses on the evaluation of the effect of SiC
particulate reinforcements on mechanical properties of GFRE composites.
Mechanical properties such as tensile strength and flexural strength are estimated.
Moreover, the best composite is identified which can be used as a substitute for
structures in automotive and aerospace industries.

2 Material Selection and Methodology

Bi-directional woven E-glass fiber mat is used as the fiber reinforcement and epoxy
under trade-name Bisphenol-A-Diglycidyl ether is used as the matrix material. The
hardener (chemical name: tri-ethylene tetra-amine) is mixed with epoxy in the
weight ratio of 1:10. Silicon Carbide particulate of average diameter 250 µm is
used as filler reinforcement. 15 layers of glass fiber mats are used for a single
specimen.
Hand lay-up technique is used for fabrication of the laminated composites. This
is one of the most common methods used for the preparation of fiber reinforced
composites in small amounts as it is simple and economic. It is an open molding
process. The mold is coated with an anti-adhesive release agent. The filler material
is mixed with epoxy and hardener according to requirement. This mixture is applied
over the fiber mat placed in the mold using a brush. Similarly, 14 more layers of
fiber mats and the epoxy hardener mixture are added one by one. Mold relieving
spray and sheet is used to cover the mold surface. Adequate care is taken to ensure
proper mixing of epoxy and hardener as well as matrix coating on the glass fibers.
Hand roller is used frequently to remove any trapped gas or tangled fibers. The
composite is cured under load of 400 N at room temperature for 24 h.
The combinations of weight percentage of the various constituents used for
manufacturing composites are given in the Table 1.

Table 1 Material Composite Glass fiber wt% Matrix wt% SiC wt%
designation and compositions
C1 46 50 4
C2 44 50 6
C3 42 50 8
C4 40 50 10
Effect of Silicon Carbide as Filler Reinforcement on the … 173

Fig. 1 Specimen geometry for tensile test samples

3 Experimentation

Samples for tensile tests are made as per ASTM standard ASTM3039-76. The
effective length of the specimens is maintained 152 mm with an average thickness
of 5 mm. The schematic configuration of specimens for the tensile test is shown in
Fig. 1. Samples for flexural tests are prepared as per ASTM standard ASTM
D2344-84. Tensile and Flexural tests are done in the Universal testing machine
(INSTRON UK/SATEC 600 kN). Microstructural analysis of the fractured surfaces
of the broken tensile samples is done using scanning electron microscopy (SEM,
Model: JEOL-JSM 6480LV).

4 Results and Discussions

4.1 Tensile Properties

The engineering stress strain curves for the 4 composite samples are obtained from
the tensile tests. The variation of tensile strength with SiC particles content is shown
in Fig. 2. It can be seen that the tensile strength value increases with the increase in
the SiC weight percentage. But the rate of increase of tensile strength decreases for
higher SiC content. The high strength and aspect ratio of SiC particles as well as the
good interfacial adhesion between epoxy and SiC particles attribute to the increased
tensile strength. The tensile strain value decreases with increase in the SiC content.
This shows that the presence of SiC particulates makes the composite more brittle.
The microstructural analysis of fracture surface of the broken tensile samples are
given in Fig. 3. We can see from the images that more than one mode of failure is
involved in the 4 cases. The main observable failure modes are matrix cracking,
fiber matrix debonding and fiber failure with fiber elongation. The uneven distri-
bution of the SiC fillers in the matrix material and the presence of cavities are the
reasons for the variation in failure modes. Moreover, it can be observed that with
increase in SiC content, average diameter of pores have increased and a number of
pores have joined to form a bigger crack as evident from Fig. 3c, d.
174 A. Bhattacharjee et al.

1.7
90 (b)
Tensile Strength (MPa)
(a)

Tensile Strain (%)

1.6
80 1.5
1.4
70 1.3
1.2
60
1.1

50 1.0
4 6 8 10 4 6 8 10
Silicon Carbide wt. % Silicon Carbide wt. %

Fig. 2 Effect of SiC particle content on tensile property of GFRE composites a tensile strength,
b tensile strain

Fig. 3 SEM images of the fractured GFRE composite samples with a 4 wt%, b 6 wt%, c 8 wt%
and d 10 wt% SiC particle content

4.2 Flexural Test

The flexural strength of the GFRE composites reinforced with SiC fillers with
different % filler loading is plotted in Fig. 4. From Fig. 4, it is observed that the
Effect of Silicon Carbide as Filler Reinforcement on the … 175

Flexural Modulus (GPa)

Flexural Strength (MPa)
(a) (b)
120 40

105 30

90 20

75 10

60 0
4 6 8 10 4 6 8 10
Silicon Carbide wt. % Silicon Carbide wt. %
Flexural extension at max

(c)
12.0
flexural load (mm)

10.5

9.0

7.5

4 6 8 10
Silicon Carbide wt. %

Fig. 4 Effect of SiC particle content on a flexural strength, b flexural modulus and c flexural
extension at maximum flexural load of GFRE composites

flexural strength of the composite material increases with increase in SiC content.
The composite C2 shows an exception to this and have lower flexural strength than
C1. This is due to an unexpected early failure of the composite by delamination
since the matrix material between two fiber layers was unable to hold or transfer the
load.

5 Conclusions

The study of the effect of SiC reinforcements on the mechanical properties of glass
fiber epoxy composites has resulted into the following conclusions:
• The tensile strength of the glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite increases with
the increase in SiC content. However, the percentage elongation of the samples
is found to decrease with increase in SiC content.
176 A. Bhattacharjee et al.

• The microstructural analysis of the fracture surface is done. The different failure
modes observed in the composites are matrix cracking, fiber matrix debonding
and fiber failure.
• The flexural strength of the glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite is increased
with the addition of SiC particulates.

References

1. Raghavendra PN, Amaresh Kumar D (2015) Effect of silicon carbide and calcium sulphate on
E-glass/epoxy composites. IJMET 6(7):08–15
2. Nassar A, Nassar E (2014) Thermo and mechanical properties of fine silicon carbide/chopped
carbon fiber reinforced epoxy composites. Univers J Mech Eng 2(9):287–292
3. Agarwal G, Patnaik A, Sharma RK (2013) Thermo-mechanical properties of silicon
carbide-filled chopped glass fiber-reinforced epoxy composites. Int J Adv Struct Eng 5
(1):21–28
4. Suresha B, Chandramohan G, Renukappa NM, Siddaramaiah (2006) Mechanical and
tribological properties of glass-epoxy composites with and without graphite particulate filler.
J Appl Polym Sci 103:2472–2480
Optimization of Weld Bead Geometry
of C263 Nimonic Alloy Electron Beam
Weld Joints

Shaik Rifshu Hussain, K. P. V. Krishna Varma,

Sriniwash Anand and C. Lavanya

1 Introduction

1.1 Electron Beam Welding

Electron Beam Welding (EBW) is an integration welding process in which a

high-velocity electrons beam is used to join two materials. The kinetic energy of the
electrons is transformed into heat upon impact which melts the work pieces and let
it flow. EBW can also be performed under vacuum conditions to stop dissipation of
the ray. It had been developed by the German scientist Karl-Heinz Steigerwald, at
the time working on various electron beam applications.
In fusion attachment the two surfaces of metals soften either directly or in
conjunction with the filler and therefore the inter-mixed liquefied metal solidify to
make a welded joint. A strong metallurgical bond is made giving adequate strength
to the joint. Procedure to form a hole using EBM has been shown in Fig. 1 and the
schematic of the set up used is as shown in the Fig. 2.

1.2 EBW Equipment

The equipment includes Electron gun, generating the electron beam, Working
chamber evacuated to “low” or “high” vacuum, Work piece manipulator
(positioning mechanism), Supply and control/monitoring electronics.

S. R. Hussain (&)
K. P. V.Krishna Varma
S. Anand

Mechanical Department, CMR College of Engineering and Technology,
Hyderabad, India
e-mail: sunnyhussain140@gmail.com
C. Lavanya
Mechanical Department, GITAM University, Visakhapatnam, India

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 177

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_18
178 S. R. Hussain et al.

Fig. 1 Key hole formation

Fig. 2 Line diagram of EBW

equipment

1.3 Nimonic C263 Alloy

Nimonic C263 Alloy, an air thawed nickel-base alloy, was developed by

Rolls-Royce Ltd. to provide a sheet material that can be fabricated readily and can
show improved ductility in welded assemblies to replace Nimonic 80A alloy. It had
been designed as sheet material to satisfy specific standard in terms of proof stress
Optimization of Weld Bead Geometry of C263 Nimonic Alloy … 179

Table 1 Composition of Nimonic C263 alloy

Element C Si Mn S Ag Al B Bi
% 0.04 0.40 0.60 0.007 0.0005 0.60 0.005 0.0001
Element Co Cr Cu Fe Mo Pb Ti Ni
% 21.0 21.0 0.20 0.70 6.1 0.0020 2.4 Balance

and creep strength. It is now accessible in all standard forms. The techniques used
for this alloy for welding are similar to those that are in general use for other
age-hard enable nickel-base alloys. It’s a precipitation-hard enable
nickel-chromium-cobalt alloy with an addition of Mo for solid-solution strength-
ening. It’s high strength and corrosion resistance in conjunction with smart
formability and high-temperature plasticity in welded structures. The alloy is very
appropriate for sheet applications. Utilized in gas turbines for rings, casings, and
varied sheet fabrications. The composition of the nimonic alloy has been as shown
in Table 1.

2 Literature Survey

2.1 Electron Beam Welding

Nickel-base super alloys always had been a great interest in the materials research
field for aerospace and industrial applications. The properties like creep and
de-oxidation make them the core material for aero-engine components in hot sec-
tions, such as turbine discs, blades and casings. In such applications, the possibility
to assemble different parts by welding is a fundamental task for the design and
industrialization of these products. Thus, the study of the welding properties of this
type of material is given most importance in order to obtain sound welds. Their hot
cracking sensitivity, arising from a synergy of phenomena such as wide solidifi-
cation temperature interval, chemical composition and thermal stresses, is the most
important problem which has to be solved since it enormously compromises the
low cycle fatigue resistance. For this reason, high power density welding tech-
nologies, with a selected attention to EBW, are the foremost favourite. In fact, they
ensure a minimum size of the Fusion Zone (FZ) as well as of the Heat-Affected
Zone (HAZ) and decrease in distortion and residual stresses. In particular, the high
vacuum, which characterizes the EBW, avoids material to get contaminated and
yields deep penetration. Experimental results allotted on a restricted number of
nickel-base alloys, showed that it’s attainable to get sound welds by optimizing the
attachment speed, pre-heating, beam focus and attachment current [1].
180 S. R. Hussain et al.

2.1.1 Bead Geometry

The weld bead shape is an indication of bead geometry which affects the load
carrying capability of the weldments and variety of passes required to fill the groove
of a joint. Reinforcement is the crown height of the weld bead from the bottom
plate. It affects the strength of the weld joint [2]. The weld bead geometry has been
shown in Fig. 3 and the flow chart for RA has been shown in Fig. 4.
The process parameters are as shown in Table 2. The input and output param-
eters as shown in the Table. The input parameters being voltage, beam current,
focus current, speed and standoff distance. The output parameters being the bead
height, bead width, back bead width, weld penetration.

2.1.2 Input and Output Process Variables in EBW

Koleva [3, 4] used statistical regression analysis to develop the correlation of input
parameters. Dey et al. [5] used nonlinear regression analysis to predict the bead
profile.

2.2 Full Factorial Experiment

A full factorial experiment consists is used when there are two or more factors, with
different attainable values or levels and whose experimental values consider taking
into account all the possible combinations of these levels across all such factors.
A full factorial design may also be called a fully crossed design.

Fig. 3 Weld bead geometry

Optimization of Weld Bead Geometry of C263 Nimonic Alloy … 181

Fig. 4 Flow chart of RA

Table 2 Process variables Input parameters Output parameters

1. Voltage 1. Bead height
2. Beam current 2. Bead width
3. Focus current 3. Back bead width
4. Speed 4. Weld penetration
5. Standoff distance

2.3 Regression Analysis

It is used to determine the relationships among variables. For modelling and ana-
lysing several variables, there are several approaches. When the focus is on the
relationship between a dependant and one or more independent variables it is
widely used to estimate the relationship between variables.

2.4 Genetic Algorithm

The Genetic Algorithms (GA) is defined as a procedure search based on the

mechanisms of genetics and natural selection. These types of algorithms solve
difficult problems in a fast, suitable and reliable way. GA was developed by John
182 S. R. Hussain et al.

Holland. Regression analysis is carried out response-wise. Thus, it might not be

able to capture the complete dynamics of a process. These problems could be
solved using genetic algorithms [6].

2.5 Response Surface Methodology

It analyses the relationships between several explanatory variables and one or more
response variables. In order to obtain an optimal response from a sequence of
designed experiments, RSM is widely used. In factorial experiment or a fractional
factorial design first-degree polynomial model can be used. However, the
second-degree model can be used for optimization (maximize, minimize, or attain a
specific target for) [7].

3 Experimental Setup

3.1 Bead on Plate Welds and Mounting

The experiments were carried on Mnemonic C263 Alloy plates of size 110 mm
95 mm  1.6 mm. 81 bead-on-plate runs were done according to the process
parameter combinations. The specimens were cut into 2 in. samples as marked in
Fig. 6 using an abrasive cutter at a minimum distance of 30 mm from the edge to
make mounts. Mounts of two inch diameter were made one for each run and each
test with Bakelite powder on an Auto-mount machine. The samples are placed on
the repository and taken inside, after which the mixture is heated to 120 °C and
then cooled to 60 °C after ten minutes. The grinding and polishing of all the mounts
was carried out on a polishing machine using the 400, 600, 800, 1000 and 1200
grade papers in the same order. The polished samples were etched using Ralph’s
reagent to reveal the micro-structure. All the etched samples were observed with an
Olympus optical microscope having a magnification range of 50 to 2000 to
measure the bead profile. The bead profiles in terms of output parameters, namely
bead width (BW), back bead width (BBW), bead height (BH) and bead penetration
(BP) for all the runs and test cases were measured and recorded.

3.2 Regression Analysis

Regression analysis was carried out using Minitab-15 software, on the experimental
data collected as per the full factorial design. The parameters were expressed in a
coded form as a function of process parameters, namely V, I, S and F. The Fitted
Optimization of Weld Bead Geometry of C263 Nimonic Alloy … 183

Plots indicate a relation between the input parameters (V, I, S, F) and the Response
Variables. Quadratic form of input Model is seen to yield a better correlation for V,
I and S as indicated by their respective R-Sq values in each graphs; so the Quadratic
model is adopted for further analysis of Regression over the Linear model. The
results of the regression analysis has been shown in Fig. 5 and the bead on the plate
is as shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 5 Interpretation of graphs

Fig. 6 Bead on plate weld

184 S. R. Hussain et al.

The corresponding test statistics are 2.53, −1.52 and 2.97 indicating that these lie
on the extreme ends of t-curve. Thus we reject the null hypothesis and conclude that
the predictors play a significant role in the regression model. The standard deviation
of the error terms is 11.9087.

3.3 Genetic Algorithm

A genetic algorithm (GA) is a method for solving both constrained and uncon-
strained optimization problems based on a natural selection process that mimics
biological evolution. The algorithm repeatedly modifies a population of individual
solutions. Over successive generations, the population “evolves” towards an opti-
mal solution. The run time visualizations using genetic algorithm has been depicted
in Fig. 7.

3.4 Response Surface Methodology—Surface Plots

These plots show how a response variable relates to two factors based on a model
equation. Contour and surface plots are useful for establishing desirable response

Fig. 7 Run-time visualizations (right) generated while the function is being optimized using
genetic algorithm plot functions selected in the optimization tool (left)
Optimization of Weld Bead Geometry of C263 Nimonic Alloy … 185

values and operating conditions. In a contour plot, the response surface is viewed as
a two-dimensional plane where all points that have the same response are connected
to produce contour lines of constant responses. A surface plot displays a
three-dimensional view that may provide a clearer picture of the response surface.

4 Results and Discussions

4.1 Full Factorial Table for the Experiment

Material: Nimonic C263 Alloy

Thickness of Plate (T) mm: 1.6 mm
Dimensions mm: 110  95
No. of Factors: 4
No. of Levels: 3
Standoff Distance (D) mm: 283 mm
The results of the full factorial experiments after a set of design of experiments
are carried out and are tabulated and shown in Table 3 and are as follows.

4.2 Regression Analysis and RSM Surface Plots

Linearity check:
The Fitted Plots indicate a linear relation between the input parameters (V, I, S, F)
and the Response Variable. Quadratic form of input Model is seen to yield a better
correlation for V, I, S and F as indicated by their respective R-Sq values in each
graphs; so the Quadratic model is adopted for further analysis of Regression.
The Normal Probability Plot as seen in Figs. 8 and 9 for V, I, S, F showing their
Goodness of Fit (Anderson-Darling statistic) with <0.005 P indicates that the
observed data can be adequately fit into a statistical model as majority of the data lie
within the control limits in the linear normality distribution.

4.3 Genetic Algorithm

The optimal GA-parameters were obtained through a thorough and careful study.
The necessary conditions that were considered for this optimization are as
follows:
Initial population : 100
Cross over fraction : 0.5
 186

Table 3 Full factorial table for the experiment

Run Voltage Beam Welding Focusing Bead height Bead width Weld Back bead Remarks
order (V) kV current speed (S) m/ current (BH) mm (BW) mm penetration width
(I) mA min (J) A (WP) mm (BBW) mm
a
1 45 12 0.6 103 0.069 2.5 1.262 0.5401
a
2 45 12 0.8 103 0.056 2.125 1.229 0.521
a
3 45 12 1.0 102 0.105 1.656 3.1 0.399
a
4 45 12 1.0 103 0.0678 1.829 1.08 0.717
a
5 45 14 0.8 103 0.09 2.09 1.58 0.44
a
6 45 14 1.0 103 0.07 1.76 1.26 0.48
b
7 45 16 1.0 103 0.07 1.86 1.751 0.32
a
8 50 12 0.6 109 0.066 2.652 1.49 0.56
a
9 50 12 0.8 109 0.06 1.857 1.47 0.454
a
10 50 14 0.6 107 0.0680 1.8185 1.349 0.48
a
11 50 14 1.0 109 0.0985 1.990 1.602 0.511
b
12 50 16 1.0 109 0.04 2.07 1.83 0.46
a
13 55 12 0.6 115 0.06 2.78 1.4 0.56
a
14 55 12 0.8 115 0.05 2.23 1.2 0.6
a
15 55 12 1.0 114 0.092 2.063 1.528 0.6731
a
16 55 16 0.6 113 0.0915 1.9191 1.171 0.662
a
Best weld bead geometry condition
b
Weld conditions of bead with partial penetration
S. R. Hussain et al.
Optimization of Weld Bead Geometry of C263 Nimonic Alloy … 187

Fig. 8 Fitted line plots

Fig. 9 Probability plot

Selection function : roulette

Mutation function : adaptive feasible
Lower bounds[V, I, S, F] :[45, 12, 0.6101]
Upper bounds[V, I, S, F] :[55, 16, 1115]
188 S. R. Hussain et al.

With these conditions different optimized parameters were achieved i.e.

1. The optimized Bead Width was found to be 1.6275 mm.
And the point at which this optimized value was obtained was:

V ¼ 45:374 kV; I ¼ 12:03 mA; S ¼ 0:997 mm=min; F ¼ 101:016 A

2. The optimized Bead Height was found to be −0.0806 mm.

And the point at which this optimized value was obtained was:

V ¼ 45:511 kV; I ¼ 12 mA; S ¼ 1 mm=min; F ¼ 101 A

3. The optimized Weld Penetration was found to be 2.093 mm.

And the point at which this optimized value was obtained was:

V ¼ 46:397 kV; I ¼ 12 mA; S ¼ 0:998 mm=min; F ¼ 101 A

4. The optimized Back Bead Width was found to be 0.3856 mm.

And the point at which this optimized value was obtained was:

V ¼ 45:002 kV; I ¼ 16 mA; S ¼ 0:601 mm=min; F ¼ 115 A

5. To get the optimized area minimum back bead width equation was found to be:
i.e., maximum bead penetration, minimum bead width, and minimum bead
height for a thickness of 1.6 mm, the equation was found to be:
!2 !
ðBWÞ2 þ 4ðBHÞ2 2
1 ðBWÞ  4ðBHÞ
2
AREAnimonic c263 ¼ cos
8ðBHÞ ðBWÞ2 þ 4ðBHÞ2
!  
ðBWÞ3 ðBHÞðBWÞ ðBPÞðBBWÞ
 þ þ 0:8ðBWÞ þ
16ðBHÞ 4 2

Lower bounds [BH, BW, WP, BBW]: [−0.0806, 1.6274, 1.73, 0.03856]
Upper bounds [BH, BW, WP, BBW]: [0.315, 3.419, 2.09395, 1.407]
Thus the optimized value was found to be 1.7421 mm2.
And the point at which this optimized value was obtained was:
BH = 0.049 mm; BW = 1.627 mm; WP = 1.73 mm; F = 0.386 mm.
Optimization of Weld Bead Geometry of C263 Nimonic Alloy … 189

5 Conclusion

The weld bead geometry of the electron beam welds are optimized with respect to
the variation in the welding parameters such as gun voltage, beam current, focus
current and welding speed. Regression equations relating the welding parameters
and the weld bead geometry parameters are developed and optimized using genetic
algorithms. The optimized parameters are mentioned below.
• The input parameters for achieving an optimum bead width of 1.6275 mm were:

V ¼ 45:374 kV; I ¼ 12:03 mA; S ¼ 0:997 mm=min; F ¼ 101:016 A

• The input parameters for achieving an optimum bead height of -0.0806 mm

were:

V ¼ 45:511 kV; I ¼ 12 mA; S ¼ 1 mm=min; F ¼ 101 A

• The input parameters for achieving an optimum weld penetration of 2.093 mm

were:

V ¼ 46:397 kV; I ¼ 12 mA; S ¼ 0:998 mm=min; F ¼ 101 A

• The input parameters for achieving an optimum back bead width of 0.3856 mm
were:

V ¼ 45:002 kV; I ¼ 16 mA; S ¼ 0:601 mm=min; F ¼ 115 A

• The optimum bead geometry to achieve a minimum bead area of 1.7421 mm2
were:

BH ¼ 0:049 mm; BW ¼ 1:627 mm; WP ¼ 1:73 mm; F ¼ 0:386 mm:

References

1. Ferroa P, Zambonb A, Bonolloa F (2004) Investigation of electron-beam welding in wrought

Inconel 706—experimental and numerical analysis
2. Effect of welding parameters on bead geometry and flux consumption—Shodhganga
3. Koleva E (2001) Statistical modeling and computer programs for optimization of the electron
beam welding of stainless steel. Vacuum 62:151–157
4. Koleva E (2005) Electron beam weld parameters and thermal efficiency improvement. Vacuum
77:413–421
5. Dey V, Pratihar DK, Datta GL, Jha MN, Saha TK, Bapat AV (2009) Optimization of bead
geometry in electron beam welding using a genetic algorithm. J Mater Process Technol
209:1151–1157
190 S. R. Hussain et al.

6. Jha MN, Pratihar DK, Dey V, Saha TK, Bapat AV (2011) Study on electron beam butt welding
of austenitic stainless steel 304 plates and its input output modelling using neural networks.
Proceed Inst Mech Eng Part B J Eng Manuf 225:2051 (originally published online 12 Sept)
7. Box GEP, Draper N (2007) Response surfaces, mixtures, and ridge analyses, 2nd edn.
(Empirical model-building and response surfaces, 1987). Wiley
Development of a System
for Simultaneous Rotation of Multiple
Stacks of Uranium Dioxide Pellets

M. Sriniwash Anand, Meesala Shivasai, G. Sai Sasank,

Gorkala Madhu and Shaik Rifshu Hussain

1 Introduction

Our present system is consisting of a live roller tray designed in such a way where it
can be moved upon the linear motion guide. The rods of the tray are supported by
the miniature bearing at both ends. The rods fixed between the bearings are
extended further so that the worm and worm wheel mechanism can be used for
rotating the pellets. A 150 rpm motor is present at the left side of the tray to run the
gear mechanism. To the left side of tray a linear motion guide is fixed. A cantilever
beam is supported at the end of the linear motion guide for proper transferring of
pellets.

2 Design Components and Their Specifications

The components used to design [1] are as follows

(1) Live roller tray.
(2) Gears: worm and worm wheel.
(3) Bearings: deep groove ball bearings.
(4) Synchronous motors.
(5) Linear motion guide.
(6) Cantilever beam.
(7) Pneumatic cylinders.
(8) Flexible coupling.

M. S. Anand (&)
M. Shivasai
G. S. Sasank
G. Madhu
S. R. Hussain

Mechanical Department, CMR College of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad, India
e-mail: anandsrinivash@gmail.com

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 191

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_19
192 M. S. Anand et al.

3 Live Roller Tray

Live roller tray is the development of rod tray in which the cylindrical rods are
welded at both the ends. The rods of live roller tray are supported in the bearings
and are rotated using the help of gear mechanism. The live tray on which the pellets
are automatically rotated for visual inspection consists of 21 cylindrical rods each of
diameter 12.5 mm placed equidistantly from each other at the fixed space of
19.5 mm. The tray ends which supports the cylindrical rods are separated by dis-
tance of 600 mm. The end support is provided with gap so that pellets can pass
easily while transferring for inspection from rod tray to live tray and vice versa.

4 Gears

A gear is a rotating machine part having cut teeth, which mesh with another toothed
part to transmit torque [2].

5 Worm Gear Design Parameter

Worm gear provides a normal single reduction range of 5:1 to 75-1. The pitch line
velocity is ideally up to 30 m/s. The efficiency ranges from 98% for lowest ratio to
20% or highest ratio. The worm box is designed to disperse heat to the surroundings
and lubrication is essential requirement. As the frictional heat generation is gen-
erally to high.

6 Gear Details

According the requirement of the design and limitations of various gears worm gear
mechanism is perfectly suitable for the rotation of pellets.
Development of a System for Simultaneous Rotation … 193

Table 1 Ground worm shaft

Number Axial Number Lead Hand of Total Face Pitch Outside
module of starts angle thread length width diameter diameter
KWG0.5-R1 0.5 1 3°11' R 410 12 9 10

7 Gear Specifications

Worm gear model KWG0.5-R1

MODULE 0.5 GROUND WORM SHAFT [3] (Table 1).

MODULE 0.5 WORM WHEELS (Tables 2 and 3).

8 Bearings

Bearing is a device used for relative motion between machine members. The rods of
the live roller tray are to be rotated for the automated rotation of pellets for which
the rods are supported in the bearings at both ends of tray [4].

9 Radial Shaft Load Between Bearings

(a) Radial loads between bearings

p= radial load
R1, R2= bearing loads
l1, l2= distance from radial load to bearing load
R1= (l2P)/ (l1+l2)
R2= (l1P)/ (l1+l2)

(b) Over hung radial load

P= radial load
R1, R2= bearing loads
l1, l2= distance from radial load to bearing load
R1= (l2P)/ (l1+l2)
R2= (l1P)/ (l1+l2)
 194

Table 2 Worm wheel

Number Transverse Reduction Num. of Num. of Hand of Bore Hub Diameter of Outer
module ratio teeth starts thread diameter pitch diameter
AG0.5-20R2 0.5 1/10 20 1 R 4 9 10 11
Number Total length Mounting distance Hub length Allowable torque (Nm) Backlash (mm) Weight (kgf) Face width
AG0.5-20R2 12 9.5 7 0.27 0.06–0.13 0.01 5
M. S. Anand et al.
Development of a System for Simultaneous Rotation … 195

Table 3 Specifications of worm and worm wheel

Catalogue number KWG AG
Precision KHK W 001 grade 2 KHK W 002
grade 2
Reference angle Axial Rotating plane
Gear teeth JIS 3 type standard full depth Standard full
depth
Normal pressure angle 20° 20°
Material SCM640 CAC702
Heat treatment Teeth induction hardening after –
thermal refining
Tooth hardness 50–55 HRC –
Tooth surface finish Ground Cut
Datum reference surface for gear Shaft (ground position) Bore
cutting and grinding
Secondary operations Possible except tooth area Possible

9.1 Determination of Basic Load Rating

The basic load rating C for a rating life of one million revolution for radial and
angular contact ball bearing, except filling slot bearing, with balls which is not
larger than one in diameter is given by equation:

C ¼ Fc ðicosaÞ0:7 Z2=3 D1:8 N:

where
i number of rows of balls in the bearings.
a nominal angle of contact.
Z number of balls per row.
D ball diameter = (Dcosa)/dm.
dm pitch diameter of ball races.

9.2 Bearing Details

After going through the bearing catalogues NTN 676AZZ deep groove shielded
ball bearings are selected [5]. The bearing details and nomenclature are as follows-
676AZZ-first 6 represent deep groove ball bearing. 7 represent the diameter
series seven, 6A represent nominal bore diameter 6 mm, and ZZ represent shield
non-contact ZZ (Table 4).
196 M. S. Anand et al.

Table 4 Bearing specifications

Inner Outer Width rs Basic load rating Factor Limiting speed Model
diameter diameter (min) Static Dynamic Grease Oil
d D
6 10 2.5 0.1 465 196 15.2 43,000 51,000 676AZZ

10 Motor

A motor is the device that converts electrical energy to mechanical energy.

11 Motor Specification

The motor used are of synchronous type and specifications of selected motor are as
follows. The motor number is 2SK4A-AULA [6].
2SK4A-AULA where 2 represent motor frame size, S represent motor type, K
represent motor series, 4 represent output power, A represent motor shaft type and
another A represent voltage, UL represent recognized and A represent inch size
shaft.

11.1 Specification

Table 5.

11.2 Motor Gear Head Specification

Table 6.

12 Linear Motion Guide

12.1 LM Guide Details

The detail of linear motion guide with model number KR55 20B 1380LP 00000 [7]
are as follows
Development of a System for Simultaneous Rotation … 197

Table 5 Motor specifications

Model round Power Voltage Frequency Current Starting Rated Rated Capacitor
shaft type (W) (VAC) (Hz) (A) torque torque speed (µF)
(N-m) (N-m) (rpm)
2SK4A-AULA 4 115 60 0.24 22 22 1800 1

Table 6 Gear head specification

Model Speed (rpm) Gear ratio Torque (N-m) Weight (Ks)
2GN12.5 KA 114 12.5 0.22 0.7

Interpretation of model number

KR55 20 B 1380L P 0 0 0 0 0
Model Ball Type LM Accuracy Presence/ Presence/ Presence/ Type of Presence/
no. screw of nut rail grade absence absence absence housing absence of
lead length of censor of cover of cover intermediate
housing

And the last 0000 represents control number (Table 7)

Bellows (Table 8)

View of LM Guide model KR55 20B Motor gear head model-SOL2U08

13 Cantoliver beam

The dimensions of this cantilever beam are 500 mm in length, 30 mm in width and
12 mm in height. The rod will be obstructing the transfer of pellets is it’s rectan-
gular. So to avoid this and for easy motion and uninterrupted transferring of pellets

Table 7 LM guide specifications

LM rail length Full length Possible stroke H G N n1 Units total
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) weight (kg)
1380 1489 1098 90 15 10 7 28.6
198 M. S. Anand et al.

Table 8 Bellow specifications

Model LM rail Stroke Min/ Motor Non-motor L1 L2 W T T1
length L length S max side A side B
KR55 1380 998 77.4/0 127 127 223.1 128 154 77 42
75.4

the beam is provided with vertical projection of 15 mm which is controlled by

pneumatic system [8].

14 Pneumatic Cylinders

Pneumatic cylinders are a mechanical device which produces forces, often in

combination with movement, and are powered by compressed gases. To perform
their function, the force is imparted by pneumatic cylinders by converting the
potential energy of compressed gas to kinetic energy.

15 Flexible Coupling

Couplings are used in drive trains to transmit power and motion between two
independent shafts that may not be properly aligned. Flexible coupling generally
allow for some parallel and angular misalignment. Depending upon their design
more misalignment may be accommodated, have higher torsional stiffness and load
capacity, or be capable high speed [9].

16 Result and Calculation

16.1 Gear Selection Calculation

Lead angle of worm = k = 12.5 mm

Pressure angle = / = 20
Speed of pellet required = 10 rpm
Minimum number of teeth on worm gear = 21
Module = 0.5
Lead of worm = l = PaXnW, where Pa = axial pitch of worm = pXm and
nW = number of starts = 1
Development of a System for Simultaneous Rotation … 199

Now lead of worm = p * 0.5 * 1 = 1.571

Velocity ratio = N1/N2=Z2/Z1, 30/10 = 21/Z1
Number of threads in worm = 7

Tank ¼ L=pd1

Pitch diameter of worm = d1 = 2.255

Pitch diameter of worm gear = d2 = Z2p/p = 21 * 1.571/p = 10.5 mm
So the required gear should have pitch diameter of 10.5 mm.

16.2 Motor Power Calculation

Mass of each pellet = 32 gms

Rotation speed of pellet = 15 rpm
Diameter of pellet = 14 mm
Mass moment of inertia of cylindrical pellet = I = Mr2/2 = (0.032 * 0.0072)/
2 = 7.84  10−7 kg m2
Mass moment of inertia of stack of 30 pellets = 7.84  102 * 30 =
2.352  10−5 kg m2
Let the acceleration to be 0.1 s
Angular acceleration = a = ὼ/0.1
Where ὼ = 2pN/60 = 2p * 15/60 = 15.7 rad/s2
Torque required to rotate pellets = I * a = (2.352  10−5) * (15.7) =
−3
7.39  10 Nm.

16.3 ROD

Diameter of rod = 12.5 mm

Speed of the rod if pellet rotates at 15 rpm = D2/D2 = N1/N2 = 12.5/14 = 15/N2,
N2 = 16.8 rpm = 17 (approx.)
Mass moment of inertia of rod = Ir = Mr2/2 [8]
Mass pf cylindrical rod = density * volume = (7  103 * 7.36  10−5) =
0.515 kg
Ir = (0.515) * (6.25  10−3)2/2 = 1.005  10−5 kg m2
For 21 rods it would be = Ir * 21 = 2.1  10−4kg m2
Angular acceleration of rod = ar = ὼr/0.1 = 17.8 rad/s2
Torque required for rotation of rods = Ir * ar = (2.1  10−4) * (17.8) = 3.75 
10−3 Nm
Bearing efficiency may be assumed as 95%
200 M. S. Anand et al.

So due to frictional losses torque = 3.75  10−3/0.952 = 3.94  10−3 Nm

Total torque = T = pellets torque + rods torque = 3.94  10−3 + 7.38  10−3 =
0.01132 Nm
Power required = 2pNT/60 = 1.94 W.

16.4 Motor for LM Guide

Velocity of guide = v = 0.2 m/s

Lead = 20 mm = 20  10−3 m
Length of tray = 600 mm = 0.6 m
Time required = 0.6/0.2 = 3 s
Required rpm of motor with lead 20 mm and time 3 s is, rpm = 30 * 60/3 =
600 rpm
Angular acceleration = ὼ/0.1 = 2pN/60 * 1 = 62.83 rad/s
Mass = density * volume = 7000 kg/m3 * pr2h = 7000 * 4.02  10−4 = 2.81 kg
Mass moment of inertia of ball screw = I=Mr2/2 = 2.81 * 0.012/2 = 1.405 
10−4 kg m2
Torque required = T = I * a = (1.405  10−4 * 62.83) = 0.00882
Power = 2p * 600 * T/60 = 0.55 W.

16.5 Calculation for Linear Motion Guide

LM guide section (C = 31800 N; Co = 61900 N)

Ball screw section (Ca = 3620 N; Coa = 9290 N)
Supporting bearing (Ca = 7600 N; Coa = 3990 N)
Velocity = V = 200 mm/s
Acceleration = a = 1 m/s2
Stroke = ls = 1100 mm, g = 9.81 m/s2.

16.6 Imposed Load on Nut Block

P1 = mg + kcmg * 40 = (25 * 9.81) + 2.83  10−2 * 5 * 9.81 * 40 = 522.87 N

During acceleration
P1a = P1 + KA * ma * 193 = 596.69 N
P1at = − KB * ma * 40 = 150 N
During deceleration
P1d = P1 − KA * ma * 193 = −201.32 N
P1Dt = KB * ma * 40 = 150 N.
Development of a System for Simultaneous Rotation … 201

16.7 Combined Radial and Thrust Loads

During uniform motion, P1E = P1 = 522.87 N

During acceleration, P1aE = P1a + P1at = 746.78 N
During deceleration, P1dE = P1d + P1dT = 150 N
Static safety factor, Fs = C0/pmax = 61900/522.87 = 118.38
Rated life, L = (c/FwPm)3 * 50.

16.8 Rated Life of Ball Bearing

During forward uniform motion, Fa1 = µmg + F = 0.005 * 25 * 9.81 +

2.5 = 3.726 N
During forward acceleration, Fa2 = Fa1 + ma = 3.726 + 25 * 1 = 28.726 N
During forward deceleration, Fa3 = Fa1 − ma = 3.726–25 = −21.27 N
During reverse uniform motion, Fa4 = − Fa1 = −3.726 N
During reverse acceleration, Fa5 = Fa4 − ma = −3.726–25 = −28.726 N
During reverse deceleration, Fa6 = Fa4 + ma = 21.274 N
Static safety factor, Fs = Coa/Famax = 9290/28.726 = 323.4
Bucking load, P1 = ηEip2/l2a = (4 * p2 * 2.06  105 * 204 * p/4)/14892 =
28808.95 N
Permissible tensile compressive load, P2 = (p/4)d21 = 147 * (p/4) * 17.52 =
35357.64 N.

16.9 Bearing Calculation

Load by pellets per mm on the rod = 1.77 g

Load by the self-weight of the rod per mm = 0.83 g
Combined load = 1.77 + 0.83 = 2.61 gm/mm
For UDL in midpoint of the rod the concentrated load will be acting i.e. at center of
gravity as the combined load is less for calculation purpose the load is assumed as
10 gm/mm = 10  103 * 600 = 6 kg = 6 N
Let RA and RB be equivalent dynamic load at both the ends of rod
W = RA = RB = 60/2 = 30 N
Rating lift of ball bearing,
L = (C/W)K  106, where L = rating life, C = Basic dynamic load = 465 N,
W = equivalent dynamic load = 10 N (approx.), K = 3, for ball bearings
L = (465/30)3  106 = 3723.875  106 revolution
Life in hours, LH = L/(60 * N) = (3723.875  106)/(60 * 17) = 3.65  106 h.
202 M. S. Anand et al.

17 Conclusion

The objective of the paper is to simultaneously rotate the multiple stacks of UO2
pellets at adequate speed so that an operator can inspect pellets for any surface
defects present on them. In this we have designed a system, where the live roller
tray rods are rotated so that the pellets laced on it are rotated simultaneously.
The rotation can be interrupted by the operator as and when desired to pick out
the defective pellets manually. After discussing various ideas/concepts, which were
considered to be with minimum drawbacks, have been perused. All the input
conditions such as drawing, rotation, operation and transferring have been suc-
cessfully achieved. The only drawback in this system is to draw and transfer the
pellets from rod-tray to the live roller tray without damaging them as they are made
of soft material. The operator should understand the operation and work on it. The
operator can reverse the rotation of pellets in between the rotation and can also stop
it when he is interested during the inspection time. Hence the input and output
conditions of drawing the pellets into live roller tray from rod tray and transferring
back the pellets after inspection into the rod tray is achieved with on limitations
occurring. In future, by further development this system can be upgraded to higher
level where entire can be carried by using a remote control device.

References

1. Venables M (2006) The IET Manuf Eng J 84(6)

2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear
3. KHK Stock Gears Catalogue
4. Kannaiah P (2006) Machine design. SciTech Publishers
5. NTN Small and Miniature Ball and Roller Bearings Catalogue
6. Synchronous Motors Catalogue
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Investigation on the Influence of Nano
Structured Zirconia Coating
on the Corrosion Inhibition
of SS 304 Stainless Steel

A. V. Ajay, Sivakumar S. Nair, Sreejith Mohan and Y. Vaisakh

1 Introduction

Corrosion resistance is an important material property. Reports indicate that 1/5th of

the global energy and as much as 4.2% of gross national product (GNP) are depleted
year after year due to corrosion [1]. Stainless steel is known for its superior resistance
to corrosion in aggressive environments. However, it is additionally protected when
used in chloride containing environments due to the susceptibility of localized cor-
rosion [2]. Among the variety of stainless steels currently used in the industry, AISI
304 austenitic stainless steel is the most common. However, the low hardness, poor
wear resistance, likelihood of pitting corrosion and stress corrosion cracking in
chloride solution impose limitations to its applications. Hence, reduction in corrosion
is among the priorities and challenges that scientists are devoted to achieve. Though it
is difficult to completely eliminate corrosion, its intensity can be brought down by;
(a) selecting appropriate materials for particular application, (b) using new alloys,
(c) using corrosion inhibitors and (d) depositing protective films and coatings onto
the metal surface. Generally, ceramics and ceramic coatings show good corrosion
resistance in aggressive media on account of its superior passivity, insulating prop-
erties and tribological properties. Therefore, ceramic oxide films and coatings like
TiO2, Al2O3, ZrO2, SiO2, etc. can be achieved on metals to obtain enhanced surface
properties [3–5]. Among these, ZrO2 coatings are preferred due to its superior
hardness, low thermal conductivity, good mechanical and chemical durability and
high temperature properties. In addition to this, since the thermal expansion coeffi-
cient of ZrO2 matches with many of the metals, the coatings are less prone to cracking

A. V. Ajay
S. S. Nair
S. Mohan (&)
Y. Vaisakh

Sree Buddha College of Engineering, Nooranad, Kerala, India
e-mail: drsreejithmohan@gmail.com
A. V. Ajay
e-mail: ajayav007@gmail.com

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 203

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_20
204 A. V. Ajay et al.

or spalling. ZrO2 films can be prepared by techniques such as chemical vapor

deposition [6], plasma spraying [7], reactive sputtering [8], electron beam evapora-
tion [9], pulsed laser deposition [10] and sol-gel synthesis [11]. Among these, the
sol-gel dip coating method is an environmentally friendly technique of surface
protection which avoids the need of traditional toxic pretreatments [12].
There are several works reporting the favorable influence of sol-gel derived ZrO2
on the corrosion protection of steel. Li and co-workers [13] achieved sol-gel zir-
conia coating from zirconium-n-propoxide. In a separate work, acetyl acetone and
ethyl acetoacetate were used to decrease the rate of hydrolysis of the precursor and
improve the homogeneity of the coating [14]. Besides, several works on the
favorable influence of sol-gel ZrO2 coatings on the corrosion protection of stainless
steel have been reported [15, 16].
However, the preparation of ZrO2 nano films through the sol-gel dip coating
technique involve several process parameters. Hence, a one parameter at-a-time
approach fails to indicate the complex interaction of parameters and its effect on
corrosion protection. In such situations, several statistical techniques like design of
experiments, artificial neural networks etc. can be employed. Among the various
DoE techniques, the taguchi method gives better estimate of parameter effects by
conducting of minimal number of experiments. There are no reports on the appli-
cation of taguchi method for identifying the effects of sol-gel ZrO2 coating process
parameters on the corrosion inhibition of AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel.
This work have manyfold objectives. Primarly, to deposit nano structured ZrO2
on the surface of SS 304 austenitic stainless steel through the sol-gel dip coating
technique. The second objective being the estimation of corrosion resistance of the
modified surface using impedance and polarization tests and its comparison with
the uncoated surface. Lastly, to identify the mechanism responsible for the variation
in corrosion resistance for the modified surfaces.

2 Materials and Methods

2.1 Experimental Design

Prior to the commencement of experiments, the coating process parameters which

likely influence the properties of ZrO2 coating have been distinguished through an
extensive literature study. The molar concentration of the ZrO2 sol, dipping time
and annealing temperature were the selected process parameters. Through prelim-
inary experimental trials in the laboratory a workable range of these parameters was
selected as shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Coating process Molar concentration of ZrO2 sol (M) 0.3 0.75 1.2
parameters and their workable
range Dipping time (min) 30 60 90
Annealing temperature (°C) 500 600 700
Investigation on the Influence of Nano Structured … 205

Table 2 Experimental runs and estimated ICorr values for nano ZrO2 coated specimens
Run Concentration Time Annealing Icorr
of ZrO2 (M) (min) temp (°C) (lA/cm2)
1 0.3 30 500 4.85
2 0.3 60 600 5.32
3 0.3 90 700 1.97
4 0.75 30 700 3.15
5 0.75 60 500 3.72
6 0.75 90 600 4.54
7 1.2 90 600 2.89
8 1.2 30 700 2.49
9 1.2 60 500 9.03

Since there were three process parameters each at three levels, a full factorial
design demands the conduct of 33 experiments [17]. Nevertheless, since taking out
these many experimental tests were not only pricey but also time consuming, the
Taguchi methodology of DoE was employed in this study. Agreeing to this
methodology, a set of nine experimental runs was to conducted as indicated in
Table 2.

2.2 Nano ZrO2 Coating

The methodology adopted for the deposition of nano ZrO2 using the sol-gel dip
coating technique is depicted in Fig. 1.
The precursor was Zirconium iso propoxide (98% pure, CDH chemicals). The
solvent used was n-propanol (99.9% pure, Loba chemicals), and acetyl acetone
(98% pure, Loba chemicals) was used as a chelating agent.

2.3 Coating Surface Characterization

The structural analysis of the coating was carried out using X-Ray Diffraction
(XRD) Analysis (Rigaku Ultima III) and its morphological analysis was done using
the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) (TESCAN VEGA SBH). From the XRD
spectra, the average crystallite size of the coating was found using the Scherrer’s
equation as shown below:

0:9k
T¼ ð1Þ
b cos h
206 A. V. Ajay et al.

Fig. 1 Flow chart showing

the preparation of nano ZrO2
using sol-gel dip coating
technique

where T is the mean crystallite size, k is the X-ray wavelength; b is the Full Width
at Half Maxima (FWHM) of the peak corresponding to the diffraction angle, h.
The thickness of the coating was measured using a coordinate measuring
machine (CMM, TESA MICRO HITE 3D).
Investigation on the Influence of Nano Structured … 207

2.4 Evaluation of Corrosion Resistance

To estimate the corrosion rate, the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy

(EIS) was employed. The impedance experiments were conducted using the elec-
trochemical system. In the three-electrode assembly, saturated calomel electrode
(SCE) was employed as the reference electrode. A platinum electrode having an
area of 1 cm2 was taken as the counter electrode. Metal specimens having a cross
section of 1 cm2 was used as the working electrode, while 0.5 M NaCl solu-
tion was used as the electrolyte. The working area of the metal specimens were
exposed to the electrolyte for 1 h. Following this, the polarization curves were
scanned in narrow (±0.02 V vs. open circuit potential) and wide (±0.15 V vs. open
circuit potential) potential window at a scan rate of 0.166 mV/s. The data obtained
in the narrow potential window were used for the determination of the polarization
resistance, i.e. linear polarization method, while the data obtained in wide potential
window were analyzed by the TAFEL extrapolation method to get the corrosion
current (Icorr) value. The corrosion resistance was estimated as a function of cor-
rosion current. Lower values of the corrosion current implied higher corrosion
resistance and vice versa.

2.5 Statistical Analysis

In the statistical analysis, the signal to noise (S/N) ratio was estimated. The equation
for S/N ratio depends on the criterion of the performance parameter to be analyzed,
corrosion current in this case. Since, a lower value of corrosion current was desired;
the following equation for ‘lower the better’ type of S/N ratio was applied.
" #
1X n
g ¼ 10 log yi ð2Þ
n i¼1

where η is the S/N ratio, yi the measured output value for the ith repetition and n the
number of repetitions in a trial [18].

3 Results and Discussion

3.1 Structural Analysis of the Coating

As an example, the XRD spectrum of the ZrO2 coated specimen corresponding to

run no. 9 is shown in Fig. 2
The peaks obtained at 2h values of 25.72° and 30.23° confirmed the presence of
ZrO2 [19]. The peak observed at 44.56° represents Fe in the base material (SS 304).
208 A. V. Ajay et al.

Fig. 2 XRD spectra of nano ZrO2 coated specimen

The average crystallite size of the coating calculated using the Scherrer’s equation
was found to be 25 nm confirming the nano structured nature of the coating.

3.2 Electrochemical Measurements

The potentiodynamic polarization curves for the coated and uncoated specimens are
shown in Fig. 3
From the PDP curves, the Icorr value was estimated by the TAFEL extrapolation
method. The corrosion current for uncoated specimen was 12.45 lA/cm2. Table 2
Shows the ICorr values obtained for the nano ZrO2 coated specimens. A close
examination of Table 2 interestingly reveals variation in Icorr values with each

Fig. 3 Potentiodynamic polarization curves

Investigation on the Influence of Nano Structured … 209

experimental runs. The lowest Icorr value was noted for the experimental run 3 with
0.3 M molar concentration of ZrO2, 90 min dipping time and 700 °C annealing
temperature. Further, it could be observed that run 9 resulted in a higher Icorr value
of 9.03 lA/cm2 and run 2 yielded a median Icorr value of 5.32 lA/cm2. The
aforementioned three experimental runs were thenceforth referred to as critical runs
for analysis. From the measured Icorr value, the corrosion inhibition efficiency (ηpol)
of the critical runs was calculated using the following relationship:
  
gpol ¼ Icorr  I0corr =Icorr  100 ð3Þ

Where Icorr and I′corr represents the corrosion current values of the uncoated and
coated specimens respectively. Table 3 gives the ηpol values of the three critical
runs.
As evident from Table 3 the highest corrosion inhibition efficiency was exhib-
ited by run no. 3 while the lowest was by run no. 9.
Further from the impedance measurements, the percentage of inhibition (ηEIS)
was estimated from charge transfer resistance values by the following Eq. (4):

Rct  R0ct
gEIS % ¼  100 ð4Þ
Rct

where Rct and R′ct are the charge transfer resistances of working electrode with and
without corrosion inhibition coatings.
The ηEIS values of the critical runs are shown in Table 3. As evident, the highest
ηEIS value was noted for run no. 3 while the lowest belonged to run no. 9. To
understand the reason behind the variation of corrosion inhibition behavior, the
specimens corresponding to the three critical runs were subjected to morphological
and thickness analysis. Figure 4 shows the SEM images of the three critical runs.
As apparent, the surface morphology of the coating corresponding to run no.
3 was more homogenous compared to the other two critical runs (2 and 9). This
finding was in accordance with that of Tiwari et al. [20]. As the coating became
more homogenous, the contact of electrolyte with the surface was prevented thereby
enhancing the corrosion resistance.
The thickness of the coating for run nos. 3, 2 and 9 is shown in Table 3. It could
be observed from Table 3 that, the experimental run with the lowest Icorr value and

Table 3 The measured ηpol values for the experimental runs 3, 2 and 9
Designation Icorr (lA/cm2) Rpore Rct Ccoat ηPol ηEIS Coating thickness
(Ω) (Ω) (F) (%) (%) (µm)
Run 2 5.32 40.76 3493 1.114 57.26 63.19 24
Run 3 1.97 29.04 2091 1.188 84.17 70.02 39
Run 9 9.03 68.87 2062 7.927 27.46 49.41 11
Uncoated 12.45 – 1043 2.168 – –
specimen
210 A. V. Ajay et al.

Fig. 4 SEM images of a run 3, b run 2 and c run 9

the highest ηEIS and ηpol values also had the highest thickness and vice versa. As the
coating thickness increases, it inhibits the passivation thereby the corrosion resis-
tance increases [21].

3.3 Statistical Analysis

The statistical analysis of the corrosion current values was carried out to estimate
the optimum process parameter combination yielding the highest corrosion resis-
tance. Table 4 shows the S/N ratios for each process parameter. A lower S/N ratio
implied better performance characteristic.
From Table 4, it is evident that the level 1 of molar concentration, level 3 of
dipping time and level 3 of annealing temperature was influential in increasing the
corrosion resistance.

Table 4 S/N ratios of process parameters of nano ZrO2 coating

Level Molar concentration Dipping time (min) Annealing
of ZrO2 sol (M) temperature (°C)
1 −9.266 −17.579 −14.534
2 −14.352 −11.730 −13.593
3 −16.264 −10.573 −11.755
Investigation on the Influence of Nano Structured … 211

4 Conclusions

This paper describes an experimental study conducted to analyze the influence of

nano ZrO2 coating on the corrosion inhibition of stainless steel SS 304. The coating
was achieved using the sol-gel dip coating method and the corrosion resistance was
estimated through electrochemical measurements in 0.5 M NaCl solution. The
following are the major findings of this study:
a. The coating process parameters had a strong influence on the corrosion current.
The lowest corrosion current value implying the highest corrosion resistance of
as much as 84% was noted for 0.3 M molar concentration, 90 min dipping time
and 700 °C annealing temperature.
b. An increase in homogeneity and thickness of the coating resulted in an increase
in corrosion resistance and vice versa.
c. Statistical analysis revealed that, level 1 of molar concentration of sol, level 3 of
dipping time and level 3 of annealing temperature was influential in reducing the
corrosion current or increasing the corrosion resistance.

References

1. Wang D, Bierwagen GP (2009) Sol–gel coatings on metals for corrosion protection. Prog Org
Coat 64:327–338
2. Oldfield JW (1987) Test techniques for pitting and crevice corrosion resistance of stainless
steels and nickel-base alloys in chloride-containing environments. Int Mater Rev 32:153–172
3. Shen GX, Chen JC, Lin CJ (2005) Corrosion protection of 316L stainless steel by a TiO2
nanoparticle coating prepared by sol–gel method. Thin Solid Films 489:130–136
4. Ruhi G, Modi OP, Singh IB (2009) Pitting of AISI 304L stainless steel coated with nano
structured sol–gel alumina coatings in chloride containing acidic environments. Corros Sci
51:3057–3063
5. Shan CX, Hou X, Choy KL (2008) Corrosion resistance of TiO2 films grown on stainless steel
by atomic layer deposition. Surf Coat Technol 202:2399–2402
6. Ito A, YouY Ichikawa T, Tsuda K, Goto T (2014) Preparation of Al2O3-ZrO2 nanocomposite
films by laser chemical vapour deposition. J Eur Ceram Soc 34(1):155–159
7. Yin B, Liu G, Zhou HD, Chen JM, Yan FY (2010) Microstructures and properties of plasma
sprayed FeAl/CeO2/ZrO2 nano-composite coating. Appl Surf Sci 256(13):4176–4184
8. Li N, Suzuki M, Abe Y, Kawamura M, Sasaki K, Itoh H, Suzuki T (2012) Effects of substrate
temperature on the ion conductivity of hydrated ZrO2 sol. Energy Mater Sol Cells 99:160–165
9. Shen YM, Shao SY, Yu H, Fan ZX, He HB, Shao JD (2007) Influences of oxygen partial
pressure on structure and related properties of ZrO2 thin films prepared by electron beam
evaporation deposition. Appl Surf Sci 254(2):552–556
10. Balakrishnan G, Sairam TN, Reddy VR, Kuppusami P, Song J (2013) Microstructure and
optical properties of Al2O3/ZrO2 nano multilayer thin films prepared by pulsed laser
deposition. Mater Chem Phys 140:60–65
11. Liu WM, Chen YX, Ye CF, Zhang PY (2002) Preparation and characterization of doped
sol-gel zirconia Films. Ceram Int 28:349–354
12. Dimitriya B, Helmuth M, Dmitry GS (2011) Mesoporous silica nanoparticles for active
corrosion protection. ACS Nano 5:1939–1946
212 A. V. Ajay et al.

13. Jianye W, Garth LW (1996) Organic/inorganic hybrid network materials by the sol–gel
approach. Chem Mater 8:1667–1681
14. Briois V, Belin S, Zucolotto C (2004) Solid-state and solution structural study of
acetylacetone-modified tin (IV) chloride used as a precursor of SnO2 nanoparticles prepared
by a sol–gel route. Chem Mater 16:3885–3894
15. Gordon D, Bierwagen P (2009) Sol–gel coatings on metals for corrosion protection. Prog Org
Coat 64:327–338
16. Valérie M (2006) Review on methods to deposit catalysts on structured surfaces. Appl Catal
23:1–17
17. Sreenivas R, Ganesh Kumar C, Shetty P (2008) The taguchi methodology as a statistical tool
for biotechnological applications a critical appraisal. Biotechnol J 3:510–523
18. Sreejith M, Sivapirakasam SP (2016) Application of taguchi method in the optimization of
process parameters for a sol–gel-derived nano-alumina film. Proc imechE Part L: J Mater Des
Appl 230:574–585
19. Gazala R, Modi OP, Singh IB (2013) Hot corrosion behavior of sol-gel nano structured
zirconia coated 9Cr1Mo ferritic steel in alkali metal. J Surf Eng Mater Adv Technol 3:55–60
20. Tiwari SK, Tripathi M, Singh R (2012) Electrochemical behavior of zirconia based coatings
on mild steel prepared by sol–gel method. Corros Sci 63:334–341
21. Lidija C, Helena OC (2013) Enhancement of corrosion protection of AISI 304 stainless steel
by nanostructured sol–gel TiO2 films. Corros Sci 77:176–184
Size Effect in Mechanical Behavior of Nb
Microwires

K. S. Athira and Atul H. Chokshi

1 Introduction

In high-pulsed magnets, a large magnetic field is generated for a very short time
interval. This application necessitates two important properties of the materials
used. One is to have a large conductivity to reduce the Ohmic heating effects. The
other is to have a high strength to withstand the stress due to the Lorentz force
created by the large magnetic field. These two requirements can be met by using
certain techniques to fabricate composites of two or more materials. It is essential to
characterize the strengthening component in this composite. We need to also
compare the processed material to the one before processing to understand the
mechanisms by which the strengthening happens. One way to do this is to extract
out a material from the composite and compare its properties to a commercially
available material.
There could be other parameters that could change the property of the material
apart from the processing. In case of microwires, there could be a change in the
diameter of the wires between the commercially available one and the processed
one. This change has been known to cause changes in properties and this is called
size effect [1].
The aforesaid effect is referred to as an external size effect when the sample
approaches the microstructural length scale that will affect the mechanical prop-
erties of the material. There is also an internal size effect, in which the strength of a
bulk material depends on different microstructural length scales such as grain size,
inter-particle spacing, and inter-dislocation spacing.

K. S. Athira (&)
A. H. Chokshi

Department of Materials Engineering, Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore 560012, India
e-mail: athiraiisc@gmail.com

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 213

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_21
214 K. S. Athira and A. H. Chokshi

The existing research on size effect has been done largely on single crystals,
which has shown a dependence of the yield strength on the size of the specimen [2–
4]. Many models like weakest link theory [5], dislocation starvation [2, 3], and
dislocation source truncation [4] have been proposed to explain the increase of
strength with a decrease in the size of the material. There are very few studies on the
size effect in polycrystalline materials. Some studies show an increase in strength
with a decrease in the size of the specimen, while some others show an increase in
strength.
There has been limited research on the mechanical behavior of Nb wires
extracted from Cu–Nb composite. The present study is on comparing the properties
of Nb wires extracted from Cu–Nb composite to that of commercially available Nb
microwires and to observe the effect of external size and internal microstructure on
their strength.

2 Background

2.1 Size Effect in Polycrystals

Fleck et al. [6] observed that there is no size effect in tensile tests of polycrystalline
Cu microwires. But Greer et al. [7] show that the strength of nanoscale gold pillars
increases with a decrease in the specimen size. Yaxin et al. [8] showed that the
strength of polycrystalline Al wires decreases with a decrease in specimen size.
This shows that the size effect in polycrystals is not well understood and that it
varies from material to material.
Studies have been conducted on the effect of grain size and specimen diameter
on the mechanical properties [9]. There are three areas of mechanical behavior
which are based on the thickness and the number of grains across the thickness, that
have been reported: polycrystalline, multicrystalline and quasi-single crystalline.
Based on the ratio of specimen thickness (t) to that of grain size (d), the shift
between these can be observed. The transition results in a change in the mechanism
that governs size effect. When the t/d ratio is above a certain value, the Hall-Petch
effect dominates and grain size determines strength. At lower t/d ratios, the spec-
imen thickness has a strong effect on the strength.

2.2 Cu–Nb Composite

The Cu–Nb composites can be fabricated using a process called the accumulative
drawing and bundling (ADB) process. The Cu matrix is composed of Oxygen Free
High Conductivity (OFHC) Cu. The composite is produced by inserting a Nb rod in
an OFHC Cu tube and then extruding and cold-drawing it. They are cut into 55 or
Size Effect in Mechanical Behavior of Nb Microwires 215

85 segments (the number comes from the number of hexagons that can be cut out
from a circle). The segments are bundled in a can of OFHC Cu and reduced as
before. This procedure is repeated n times (n = 4 or 5 usually) to get composites
that have 55n or 85n Nb nanotubes embedded in Cu matrix [14].
Dubois et al. [10] examined the microstructure of the composite (Fig. 1). Nb
fibers were observed (55 in this case), and the external Cu jacket is labelled as Cu-4.
Cu matrix is distributed into the inter-filamentary channels, labelled as Cu-0 and
super-filamentary channels, labelled as Cu-1, Cu-2 and Cu-3. The Cu–Nb interfaces
are semicoherent with (111)Cu planes parallel to the (110)Nb planes and perpen-
dicular to the wire axis.

3 Experimental Materials and Procedure

3.1 Materials

Nb microwires are obtained in two ways for the study.

Fig. 1 SEM images showing the microstructure of the Cu–Nb composite. Nb filaments appear in
white color on the highly magnified image (d) [10]
216 K. S. Athira and A. H. Chokshi

A. Cu–Nb composite procured from Prof. L. Thilly (Université de Poitiers, France)

which was fabricated using the ADB process with N = 852 Nb nanotubes in a
Cu matrix. From this, Nb microwires with a diameter of 85 µm were extracted
from it by etching out the Cu matrix using 10 M HNO3 at room temperature.
The whole process took about 30 min.
B. Nb microwire of diameter 250 µm with a purity level of 99.99% was purchased
commercially from Alfa Aesar.

3.2 X-Ray Diffraction

XRD was done on 250 µm wires, 85 µm wires, and a standard Si sample using
PANalytical’s X’PERTPro machine (using a copper source) to determine the grain
size.

3.3 Tensile Testing

The main difficulty with tensile testing was difficulty in gripping the sample and
possibility of misalignment of the sample. The problem was solved using two
techniques. Technique one is to make a groove in the center of an aluminum sample
holder and to stick the wire to the groove so that the misalignment problem is
solved. This is repeated at the other end of the wire. The aluminum holder is stuck
to a paper template that has a rectangular cut in the region of gage length so that it is
easy to handle (Fig. 2a). Another problem faced was slippage of the sample when
tested under tension when normal glues like Fevi Kwick was used to stick the
samples. So, Araldite was used instead of it, and after letting it dry for two days, it
could hold the wire till its UTS. Technique two involved using a sample holder
which was made that was bigger and easier to handle (Fig. 2b).Tensile tests were
carried out on an ADMET machine at a crosshead velocity of 0.03 and 30 cm/min,
on samples of gage length 5 mm, which translates to a strain rate of 10−3 s−1 and
1 s−1, respectively. A Futek load cell with a capacity of 667 N was used for load
measurement and the elongation was calculated from the set crosshead velocity by
the machine itself. In the technique two, the strain was calculated using Digital
Image Correlation (DIC) by recording a video using a microscope. The test was
terminated when the samples fractured.
Size Effect in Mechanical Behavior of Nb Microwires 217

Fig. 2 a Technique one using grooved Al sample holder. b Technique two using the machined
sample holder Fracture surface analysis. The fractured samples were observed under SEM
(ESEM Quanta 200). The images were compared to see the effect of size on the fracture

4 Results and Discussions

4.1 XRD

The XRD data for 250 and 85 µm is plotted in Figs. 3 and 4, respectively. From the
analysis of 110 peak using Scherrer equation, it was found that the 250 µm wires
have a crystallite size of 12 nm and the 85 µm wires have a crystallite size of
10 nm.

Fig. 3 XRD data for 250 µm

wires
110

211
200

310
220
218 K. S. Athira and A. H. Chokshi

Fig. 4 XRD data for 85 µm

wires

110

211
200
310
220

4.2 Tensile Test

The tensile test results are given in Fig. 5.

The average UTS of 250 µm wires from five tests is *940 MPa and that of
85 µm wires is *530 MPa from four tests.

4.3 Fracture Surface Analysis

The fracture surface analysis of both the wires are given in Figs. 6 and 7.
From Fig. 6, a cup and cone mode of fracture is observed and thus it can be said
that the 250 µm wire is plastic in nature. Many ductile dimples and voids could also

Fig. 5 Tensile test data for

both the microwires
Size Effect in Mechanical Behavior of Nb Microwires 219

Fig. 6 Fracture surface of 250 µm wires

Fig. 7 Fracture surface of

85 µm wires
220 K. S. Athira and A. H. Chokshi

be observed. In case of the 85 µm wires, many facets could be observed in the

micrograph. It can be inferred that the wires seem to be considerably plastic in
nature, leading to a knife-edge fracture tip.

5 Conclusions

• From XRD, it was calculated that the 250 µm wires have a crystallite size of
12 nm and the 85 µm wires have a crystallite size of 10 nm. This verified that
both of the wires have similar grain size and so the effect of size on strength can
be due to size effect.
• From tensile tests, the average UTS of 250 µm wires is 940 MPa and that of
85 µm wires is 530 MPa. Thus “smaller is weaker” size effect is observed. But
differences in processing technique make it difficult to compare the two
microwires.
• The fracture surface analysis for 250 µm wires shows a cup and cone type of
fracture with dimples and voids. Thus, it can be said that they are very plastic in
nature. The 85 µm wires were also found to show some plasticity from the
fractographs obtained.

References

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microwires. Scripta Mater 64:717–720
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Modeling and Predicting the Mechanical
Properties of Nano Clay Dispersed
Natural Fiber Hybrid Intra-ply Woven
Fabric Composite by Using Response
Surface Methodology

K. Jayakrishna, M. Rajesh, A. Soundhar,

K. Surendhar and M. T. H. Sultan

1 Introduction

In the recent scenario there has been a significant increase in the usage of natural
fibre because it is biodegradable and eco-friendly but does not provide much
strength when compared to synthetic fibres. Natural fibres are preferred over syn-
thetic fibres for their convincing properties such as low cost, low density, low
weight, recyclability and biodegradability [1, 9]. They are also popular for its high
strength, high stiffness and renewable characters. Natural fibre composites posses
the emergent areas in material science. These are sustainable and recyclable but a
fully bio-degradable composite can be expensive, sensitive to moisture and tem-
perature, and also biodegradation might be difficult to control [2]. On hybridizing a
natural fibre with a synthetic or a natural fibre, the mechanical properties of the
natural fibre can be increased and it can overcome the limitations of natural fibre
composites [3, 10]. After number of investigations on natural fibres as reinforce-
ments it is concluded that it possesses good stiffness when compared to glass fiber
composite [7, 8]. In this work, mechanical properties of the composite were
determined using the Box-Behnken (BBD) experimental design of Response
Surface Methodology (RSM). Based on the experimental design, experimental tests
were conducted to develop a mathematical model and predict the mechanical
properties of banan/jute reinforced with polyester hybrid composite. The model
with predicted values was correlate with experimental values.

K. Jayakrishna (&)
M. Rajesh
A. Soundhar
K. Surendhar

School of Mechanical Engineering, VIT University, Vellore, India
e-mail: mail2jaikrish@gmail.com
M. T. H. Sultan
Laboratory of Biocomposite Technology, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products
(INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 221

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_22
222 K. Jayakrishna et al.

1.1 Experiment Details

1.1.1 Materials and Methods

Jute/banana natural fibre intra-ply hybrid woven mat was used as primary rein-
forcement and montmorillonite (MMT) nanoclay was used as secondary rein-
forcement in a polyester resin matrix [6] (Fig. 1).

1.1.2 Preparation of Composite Specimens

Intra-ply woven composite laminates were prepared by compression moulding

technique. The mould was prepared using a steel sheet of dimensions 300 mm
300 mm  3 mm. The top and bottom parts were covered by EN steel parallel
plates. At first based on experimental design data obtained from BB design of RSM,
nano-clay mixture was prepared. Then, the intra-ply hybrid natural fibre was kept
on it. To remove voids, the stacked laminates were rolled several times using a steel
roller. Then, the mould was coat by two plates by utilizing 20 bar pressure using
compression moulding machine [6]. The curing time and spindle speed were taken
from the experimental design data values obtained from BB design of RSM.

1.1.3 Testing of Composite Specimens

Tensile test and flexural tests were done by universal testing machine (UTM) and
impact test was complete using Izod impact test setup. Three point bending test was

Warp
Banana fiber Jute Fiber

Weft

Fig. 1 Jute/banana hybrid composite

Modeling and Predicting the Mechanical Properties … 223

done as per ASTM standard D-790. Tensile test was done as per ASTM standard
D-638. Izod test was done as per ASTM standard D-256 [6].

1.2 BB Parameters and Levels

BB process control parameters were identified to be nano clay loading, speed and
curing time. Each parameters is placed three equally spaced values generally coded
as level −1, level 0, and level +1. The range of the input parameters Nano clay
loading, speed and curing time were selected as 1–5 (wt%), 700–1000 rpm, 3–5 h
respectively as shows Table 1.

1.3 Design of Experiments

In this study the numbers of trials were designed with the help of Design Expert
software. The factorial portion of the Box-Behnken Design(BBD) is a full factorial
design with all the combination of the parameters at three levels (high +1 and low
−1) and collected of twelve star points and five central points (coded level 0). The
Box-behnken Designs contains 17 experimental values at three input variables and
after conducting experiments the output responses are shown in Table 2.

2 Results and Discussion

2.1 Statistical Analysis

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted with the aim of analyzing the
influence of Nano clay loading, speed and curing time. Tables 3, 4 and 5 shows the
results of ANOVA for tensile strength, flexural strength and impact strength. The
analysis was carried out at 5% significance level and 95% confidence level [5, 11].

Table 1 Parameters and Parameters Level −1 Level 0 Level 1

levels
Nano clay loading (wt%) 1 3 5
Speed (rpm) 700 850 1000
Time (Hr) 3 4 5
224 K. Jayakrishna et al.

Table 2 Experimental values

Run Nanoclay Speed Time Tensile Flexural Impact
loading (rpm) (Hr) strength strength strength
(wt) % (MPa) (MPa) (J/m)
1 3 1000 5 25.7 48.3 290
2 3 1000 3 24.5 46.5 295
3 1 700 4 18.5 34.2 132
4 1 1000 4 20.5 37.8 140
5 5 1000 4 19.6 36.7 156
6 3 850 4 23.4 45 269
7 3 850 4 22.5 45.8 274
8 3 850 4 23 46.2 276
9 3 700 3 24 44 280
10 3 700 5 24.5 45 271
11 5 850 5 20.5 37.8 156
12 5 700 4 21.2 38.2 153
13 1 850 5 17.9 35 140
14 3 850 4 23.7 46 260
15 1 850 3 19.5 35.8 132
16 5 850 3 21.7 36.2 150
17 3 850 4 25 46 279

Table 3 Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for tensile strength

Source Sum of df Mean F value p-value Remarks
squares square Prob > F
Model 84 9 9.33 8.81 0.0045 Significant
A-nano clay loading 5.45 1 5.45 5.14 0.0577
B-speed 0.55 1 0.55 0.52 0.4941
C-time 0.15 1 0.15 0.14 0.7167
AB 3.24 1 3.24 3.06 0.1238
AC 0.04 1 0.04 0.038 0.8514
BC 0.12 1 0.12 0.12 0.7438
A^2 73.3 1 73.3 69.2 <0.0001
B^2 1.53 1 1.53 1.44 0.2687
C^2 1.29 1 1.29 1.21 0.3071
Residual 7.42 7 1.06
Lack of fit 3.87 3 1.29 1.45 0.353 Not significant
Pure error 3.55 4 0.89
Cor total 91.42 16
Modeling and Predicting the Mechanical Properties … 225

Table 4 Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for flexural strength

Source Sum of df Mean F value p-value Remarks
squares square Prob > F
Model 397.3387 9 44.14874 99.61038 <0.0001 Significant
A-nano clay 4.65125 1 4.65125 10.49436 0.0143
loading
B-speed 7.80125 1 7.80125 17.60153 0.0041
C-time 1.62 1 1.62 3.655117 0.0975
AB 6.5025 1 6.5025 14.67123 0.0065
AC 1.44 1 1.44 3.248993 0.1145
BC 0.16 1 0.16 0.360999 0.5669
A^2 373.0322 1 373.0322 841.6521 <0.0001
B^2 0.479605 1 0.479605 1.082107 0.3328
C^2 0.148026 1 0.148026 0.333984 0.5814
Residual 3.1025 7 0.443214
Lack of fit 2.2225 3 0.740833 3.367424 0.1357 Not
significant
Pure error 0.88 4 0.22
Cor total 400.4412 16

Table 5 Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for impact strength

Source Sum of df Mean F value p-value Remarks
squares square Prob > F
Model 75297.31 9 8366.368 151.545 <0.0001 Significant
A-nano clay 630.125 1 630.125 11.41383 0.0118
loading
B-speed 253.125 1 253.125 4.585005 0.0695
C-time 0 1 0 0 1.0000
AB 6.25 1 6.25 0.11321 0.7464
AC 1 1 1 0.018114 0.8967
BC 4 1 4 0.072454 0.7956
A^2 74396.02 1 74396.02 1347.58 <0.0001
B^2 182.0237 1 182.0237 3.297104 0.1123
C^2 142.8658 1 142.8658 2.587813 0.1517
Residual 386.45 7 55.20714
Lack of fit 165.25 3 55.08333 0.996082 0.4803 Not
significant
Pure error 221.2 4 55.3
Cor total 75683.76 16
226 K. Jayakrishna et al.

2.2 Mathematical Model for Tensile, Flexural and Impact

Strength

The quadratic models developed for output variables tensile strength, flexural
strength and impact strength were evaluated by the F test. From the results the
mathematical model is statistically significant to analyze the response variables. The
adequacy of model is tested using ANOVA analysis. It was found that the model
F-ratio of 8.81 was obtained for tensile strength. However, the F-ratio of the lack of
fit is 1.45. It was found that the model F-ratio for flexural strength is 99.61 and the
F-ratio of the lack of fit is 3.36. it was found that the model F-ratio for impact
strength is 151.54 and the F-ratio of the lack of fit is 0.996. Hence the models are
significant and their lack of fit is insignificant [4, 5].

Tensile strength ¼ þ 37:06049 þ 9:02125  A  0:039439  B  5:69917

 C  3:00000E  003  A  B þ 0:050000  A  C þ 1:16667E
 003  B  C  1:04313  A2 þ 2:67778E  005  B2 þ 0:55250
 C2 ðR-Squared value : 0:9189Þ

Flexural strength ¼ þ 21:21562 þ 16:91250  A  0:011500  B  0:083333

 C  4:25000E  003  A  B þ 0:30000  A  C þ 1:33333E
 003  B  C  2:35313  A2 þ 1:50000E  005  B2
 0:18750  C 2 ðR-Squared value : 0:9923Þ

Impact strength ¼ þ 240:70347 þ 208:36667  A  0:47344  C  51:51667

 C  4:16667E  003  A  C  0:25000  A  C þ 6:66667E
 003  C  C  33:23125  A2 þ 2:92222E  004  C 2
þ 5:82500  C2 ðR-Squared value : 0:9949Þ

where, A-Nano clay loading (wt%) B-Speed (rpm) C-Curing time (Hr).

2.3 BB Parameters and Their Influence

The illustration of the predicted models (3D response surface plot) are shown in
Fig. 2 for the depth insight of the results. The tensile strength of intra ply woven
composite is affected notably from the input process parameters, which is validated
Modeling and Predicting the Mechanical Properties … 227

Fig. 2 3D response surface plots showing a the impact of speed and nano clay loading b the
impact of speed and curing time and c the impact of curing time and nano clay loading for the
tensile strength of jute/banana hybrid polymer composites
228 K. Jayakrishna et al.

from the results. Figure 2a displays the impact of speed and Nano clay loading on
the tensile strength of the intra ply woven composites. the tensile strength is
increased by the inclusion of Nano clay weight percentage(3.02 wt%).the tensile
strength value is decreased during addition of nanoclay (more than 3.02 wt%).the
tensile strength is affected by the speed and curing time as shown in Fig. 2b and the
tensile strength is influenced by the curing time and nano clay loading as shown in
Fig. 2c. The nano clay loading 3.02 (wt%), speed 1000(rpm) and curing time five
hours produce the maximum tensile strength value which is seen from the 3D
response surface plot. The observation from Fig. 3 depict the flexural strength.
Figure 3a depict the impact among the nano clay loading, speed and flexural
strength. The flexural strength of the composite is increased during the increased
speed which is observed from the 3D response surface plot. The flexural strength is
also affected by the Nano clay loading. Figure 3b displays the impact of speed and
curing time of the flexural strength. The flexural influenced by the curing time and
nano clay loading shown in Fig. 3c. The observation from Fig. 4 depict the effect of
impact strength under different input conditions. Figure 4a depict the impact of
speed and nano clay loading for the impact strength. Figure 4b depict the impact of
speed and curing time of the impact strength and Fig. 4c display the impact of
curing time and nano clay loading of the impact strength. The nano clay loading
3.02 (wt%), speed 1000(rpm) and curing time five hours produce the maximum
impact strength value which is seen from the 3D response surface plot.

3 Optimization and Validation

The combination has been evaluated with the help of Design Expert software. The
desirability falls between zero and one shown in Table 6. The solution with the
highest desirability and close to 1 is chosen as the optimal setting and the validation
experiments are conducted. The optimum parameter setting is 3.02 (wt%), 1000
(rpm), 5(Hr) is chosen as the optimal solution. Validation experiments results
shown in Table 7. Through confirmatory experiments, it is seen that the error
between predictions and actual values fall within 5%. Thus the model can be
effectively used to predict the mechanical properties. Responses observed were
24.974 (MPa), 47.587 (MPa) and 290.69 (J/m).
Modeling and Predicting the Mechanical Properties … 229

Fig. 3 3D response surface plots showing a the impact of Nano clay loading and speed, b the
impact of speed and curing time and c the impact of Nano clay loading and curing time for the
flexural strength of jute/banana hybrid polymer composites
230 K. Jayakrishna et al.

Fig. 4 3D response surface plots showing a the impact of Nano clay loading and speed, b the
impact of speed and curing time and c the impact of Nano clay loading and curing time for the
impact strength of jute/banana hybrid polymer composites
Modeling and Predicting the Mechanical Properties … 231

Table 6 Optimal solution as obtained by design-expert

Number Nano Speed Time Tensile Flexural Impact Desirability
clay strength strength strength
loading
1 3.02 1000 5 24.974 47.587 290.69 0.9435 Selected
2 3.07 1000 5 24.970 47.577 290.70 0.9431
3 3.09 1000 5 24.967 47.572 290.67 0.9428
4 3.12 1000 5 24.961 47.559 290.58 0.9421
5 2.92 1000 5 24.966 47.567 290.09 0.9416
6 3.02 1000 5 24.945 47.554 290.32 0.9408
7 3.04 1000 5 24.927 47.573 290.19 0.9404
8 3.01 1000 4.5 24.858 47.555 289.36 0.9356
9 2.9 1000 5 24.861 47.534 288.79 0.9342
10 2.96 1000 3 24.901 46.305 288.42 0.8996

4 Conclusion

Modeling and predicting the mechanical properties of jute/banana hybrid polyster

composite investigation was done by using RSM, the following conclusions are
drawn as follows:
(1) The analysis of each input parameter Nano clay loading (wt%), curing time and
speed on tensile strength, flexural strength and impact strength was investigated
in detail. The influential parameters were identified and their levels were fixed.
Experiments were conducted and regression equation has been formed for
tensile strength, flexural strength and impact strength.
(2) ANOVA showed that the model was statistically a reasonably good predictor of
tensile, flexural and impact strength. Through confirmatory experiments, it is
seen that the error between predictions and actual values fall within 5%. Thus
the model can be effectively used to predict the mechanical properties of jute/
banana Hybrid Intra-ply Woven Fabric Composite.
(3) The mechanical properties of the composite is increased by the inclusion of
Nano clay weight percentage up to (3.02 wt%). Further inclusion of nano clay
(more than 3.02 wt%) in the composite decrease the mechanical properties.
 232

Table 7 Confirmation test results

Nanoclay Speed Curing Tensile strength Flexural strength Impact strength % of errors
loading time Predicted Actual Predicted Actual Predicted Actual Tensile Flexural Impact
strength strength strength
3.02 1000 5 24.974 23.88 47.587 46.25 290.69 286 4.581 2.890 1.639
K. Jayakrishna et al.
Modeling and Predicting the Mechanical Properties … 233

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and water absorption behaviour of banana/sisal reinforced hybrid composites. Mater Des 32
(7):4017–4021
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hybrid-natural fiber composites. Compos B Eng 43(2):793–796
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(1):1960–1967
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of nanoclay dispersed natural fiber hybrid intra-ply woven fabric composite. Nanoclay
reinforced polymer composites. Springer, Singapore, pp 281–296
7. Gurunathan T, Mohanty S, Nayak SK (2015) A review of the recent developments in
biocomposites based on natural fibres and their application perspectives. Compos A Appl Sci
Manuf 77:1–25
8. Sanjay MR, Arpitha GR, Naik L, Gopalakrishna K, Yogesha B (2016) Applications of natural
fibers and its composites: an overview. Nat Resour 7(03):108
9. Pickering KL, Efendy MA, Le TM (2016) A review of recent developments in natural fibre
composites and their mechanical performance. Compos A Appl Sci Manuf 83:98–112
10. Sathishkumar TP, Naveen J, Navaneethakrishnan P, Satheeshkumar S, Rajini N (2016)
Characterization of sisal/cotton fibre woven mat reinforced polymer hybrid composites. J Ind
Text 1528083716648764
11. Aly M, Hashmi MSJ, Olabi AG, Benyounis KY, Messeiry M, Hussain AI, Abadir EF (2012)
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Fibers 9(4):256–276
Design and Evaluation of Al Hybrid
Composite for Connecting Rod

M. S. Kiran Sankar, S. Akhil and O. Harikrishnan

1 Introduction

Engine and its components contribute the considerable portion of the weight of an
automobile. By reducing the engine weight and its components, the automobile
total weight can be curtailed and there by enhances the performance and fuel
efficiency. The reduction in weight without compensating the performance is
achieved by using composite materials. The matrix in the composite materials binds
the fibres which contribute different properties to the overall composite. The
selection of the matrix depends upon mainly on the composite application. The
superior properties of AMCs are its greater strength, reduced density, improved
stiffness, improved high temperature properties, improved abrasion and wear
resistance and controlled thermal expansion coefficient [1].
The thesis aims on performance analysis of the automobile connecting rod by the
developed hybrid composite material. The connecting rod is subjected to dynamic
loading state mainly due to combustion pressure and inertia of the reciprocating
parts. In shortly due to the alternate tensile and compressive stresses, the fatigue
strength of the material is a key factor in the evaluation of component reliability.
Automobile internal combustion engine connecting rod is a high volume production
component subjected to complex loading. Proper optimization of this component,
which is critical to the engine fuel efficiency and more vigorously pursued by the
automotive industry in recent years, necessitates a detailed assimilation of the

M. S. Kiran Sankar (&)
S. Akhil
O. Harikrishnan

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sree Buddha College of Engineering,
Pattoor P.O, Alappuzha, Kerala 690529, India
e-mail: kiransankarms@gmail.com
S. Akhil
e-mail: akhils7314@gmail.com
O. Harikrishnan
e-mail: hkrishna3060@gmail.com

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 235

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_23
236 M. S. Kiran Sankar et al.

applied loads and resulting stresses under in-service conditions. The real perfor-
mance of the component is accurately predicted by the dynamic analysis. The
design will be safe if the predicted fatigue life of the component is obtained in the
range 1  106 to 1  108.

2 Design of Connecting Rod

Because of the complex loading conditions of connecting rod, the measurements of

the connecting rod must meet the design criteria to ensure the safety.
The computation are based on the Engine data of Maruti 800 [2] Engine type:
Four-stroke, Displacement: 796 (cc), Max Torque: 59 Nm @ 2500 rpm, Max
Power: 37 BHP @ 5000 rpm, Bore: 68.5 mm, Stroke: 72 mm, Compression ratio:
9.2:1
Density of petrol at 288.855 K = 737.22  10−9 kg/mm3.
Molecular weight M = 114.228 g/mole and Ideal gas constant
R = 8.314 JK−1 mol−1.
From gas equation

``PV ¼ m  Rspecific T''; ð1Þ

Because of the gas pressure minimum load on the piston is equal to the load on
the connecting rod.

2.1 Dimension of I Division

At the centre portion thickness of rib and web section = t

Thickness of flange and web section = t
Width of the section B = 4t
Depth of portion H = 5t
Area of the portion, A = 2  4t  t + 3t  t = 11t2
Moment of Inertia of portion about x-x axis and y-y axis

1
 419t4
``Ixx ¼  4t  ð5t)3  3t  ð3t)3 '' ¼ ; ð2Þ
12 12

1
 131 t4
``Iyy ¼  2t  ð4t)3  3t  ðt)3 '' ¼ : ð3Þ
12 12

Ixx ¼ 3:2, since the value of Ixx are in between 3 and 3.5, therefore I-section
Iyy Iyy
selected is quite acceptable.
Design and Evaluation of al Hybrid Composite … 237

a. Thickness of section

From Rankine-Gordan formula, stress due to axial load,

F ¼ 419t4
Fc fc  .
12 ¼ F ¼ A ¼ 2
1þK l
k
Fc = Crippling load = Maximum gas force  Factor of safety, fc = Allowable
unit stress = 400 N/mm2,
K = Denominator constant = 1/7500, k = radius of gyration
Crippling load, Fc ¼ P  p4  D2  FS ¼ 15:4  p4  68:52  3 ¼ 170260:14 N

 1200 " #12  1

bh3  b1 h31 4t  ð5tÞ3  3t  ð3tÞ3 419 t4 2
``k ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 1:78t ð4Þ
12ðbh  b1 h1 Þ 12ð4t  5t  3t  3tÞ 12  11t2

Solving the above equation we get t4 − 38.69 t2 − 37.13 = 0 ∴ t = 6.29  6

Thickness of the rib and web t = 6 mm
Width of the section B = 4t = 24 mm
Depth or height of the section, H = 5t = 30 mm
Depth near big end H1 = 1.1 H to 1.25 H = 1.2 H = 1.2  30 = 36 mm
Depth near small end, H2 = 0.75 H to 0.90 = 0.85 H = 0.85  30 = 25.5 mm.

2.2 Dimension of Crank Pin and Piston Pin

Maximum gas pressure force (Fig. 1; Table 1),

p p
Fg ¼ FL ¼  D2  P ¼  ð68:5Þ2  15: ¼ 56753:38 N ð5Þ
4 4

3 Experimental Details

The complete fabrication process has been done at Karunya University,

Coimbatore. The fillers selected according to literature review are listed below:
1. Matrix—Aluminium alloy 6061 (Kaizen steels Kochi).
2. Reinforcements—Silicon Carbide (500 mesh) (Universal Steels Koratty), Flyash
(Santiga enterprises, Thana) Graphite (Karunya University Coimbatore).
3. Wetting agent—Magnesium metal powder (Autocast Ltd., Alappuzha).
238 M. S. Kiran Sankar et al.

Fig. 1 Model of the connecting rod

Table 1 Load calculation of crank pin and piston pin

Load on the crank pin Fc = dc  lc  Pbc Load on the piston pin Fp = dp  lp  Pbp (7)
(6)
dc = Diameter of crank pin lp = 1.5 dp to 2 dp
lc = Length of crank pin (lc = 1.25 dc to 1.5 Fp = dp  lp  Pbp = dp  1.75
d c) dp  30 = 52.5 d2p
Pbc = Bearing pressure Fg = Fp, 56753.38 = 52.5 d2p
Fc = dc  lc  Pbc = dc  1.3 Diameter of piston pin,
dc  20 = 26 d2c dp = 32.87 mm  33 mm
Fg = Fc, 56753.38 = 26 d2c Length of piston pin, lp = 57.53 mm  58 mm
Diameter of crankpin,
dc = 46.72 mm  47 mm
Length of crankpin,
lc = 60.73 mm  61 mm

4. Degassing agent—Hexa-chloro ethane tablets (Karunya University

Coimbatore).
5. Graphite crucible (Size No. 6) from Mannar.
The percentage composition of reinforcement chosen are Flyash-14%,
Silcon-8%, Graphite-8% and Magnesium-5%. The weighted amount aluminium is
melted in the furnace and its moved into a stir casting furnace and the temperature
of the furnace was kept around 600 °C for complete melting of the Al6061. When
the temperature reaches around 715 °C degassing was carried out by adding
Hexa-chloro ethane tablets. The predetermined fillers are mixed thoroughly and
Design and Evaluation of al Hybrid Composite … 239

preheated at 415 °C for one hour. Prior to the reinforcement addition, Magnesium
metal powder (100 g) was added to the Al6061 matrix in order to increase weld
ability. At 900 rpm mechanical sintering is carried out by using 3 bladed stainless
steel sinter for 7 min, then its poured to the permanent mould of dimension
100  100  10 mm. After 2 min curing it is then removed [3–6]. To achieve
improved properties heat treatment is also carried out. T6 heat treatment was
completed after aging for three hours at 205 °C. T6 heat treatment was completed
after aging for three hours at 205 °C. The specimens needed for mechanical testing
were prepared from the cast samples using Wire cut Electric Discharge Machining
(WEDM) for prepare the specimens needed for mechanical testing. ASTM E08 is
used for tensile test.
The samples are prepared at Speed spark, Coimbatore using Electronic- Sprint
Cut 734 Wire EDM [7].

4 Real Time Analysis and Its Influence on the System

While doing quasis dynamics of the connecting rod, external loads which are
known from the load analysis are applied to both the crank and piston pin end of the
con rod.
Dynamic analysis of connecting rod mainly consists of three steps data collec-
tion, validation and actual study. Data collection includes Geometrical data, Load
conditions and material properties. The modelling is generally carried out consid-
ering the forces acting on the connecting rod [8]. The material data is customized by
including properties of the hybrid composite to engineering data section. The model
is built up in the Solid works 16 and the model analysis is done in ANSYS by
applying the boundary condition. The solutions are critically examined for the
dynamically developed stress.
Fatigue analysis is done in n-code design life interface of the Ansys software
with the prepared model. For connecting rod fatigue life is. If the fatigue life of the
connecting rod is obtain with in the value (1  106 to 1  108), then the design
will be safe under fatigue loading.

5 Result and Discussions

5.1 Evaluation of Mechanical Properties

5.1.1 Tensile Strength

The Tensile strength, Yield strength and Ultimate strength of composite is 120,
83.50 and 186.10 MPa respectively and percentage elongation measured is 12.80.
The high elastic modulus and hard SiC embedded into the Aluminium matrix are
240 M. S. Kiran Sankar et al.

the root cause for the enhancement of the tensile strength [9–11]. The results show a
sign of increase in the ductility behaviour of the composite. The graphite particles
reduce the inter particle spacing by filling the void spaces between aluminium
particles. Graphite escalates the grain boundary density which upsurge the resistant
to flow. The hard flyash particle precludes the movement of dislocations, thereby
strengthening the composite. Tensile strength of the composite up surges with boost
in the content of flyash particles. Good bonding of smaller size fly ash particles with
aluminium matrix is the root cause for this behaviour [12, 13]. But the augmen-
tation of flyash beyond a certain limit causes reduction in tensile properties due to
poor wettability.

5.1.2 Impact Strength

The average Impact strength of the specimen is found to be 6.67 J. Silicon carbide
absorbs most of the energy because of high value of impact strength. Higher
amount of flyash diminishes the impact strength because it is dispersed as precip-
itate in the aluminium matrix. The dispersion of the filler materials intensify the
impact strength due to increase in density compared to other regions. Higher
amount of graphite addition dwindled the impact strength because it acts as an
effective solid lubricant which accelerates the movement of grains along the slip
planes. Heat treatment increases the impact strength due to the grain refinement
caused by cooling.

5.1.3 Hardness Test

The prepared composite has a high hardness value (52 BHN) in comparison to the
virgin Al alloy. Hardness of the composite changes with addition of different fillers.
Addition of silicon carbide upsurge the hardness of the composite because it pre-
vents the dislocation movement in the composite. The addition of flyash obstacles
the movement of dislocations and there by augmented the hardness of the com-
posite. Increase in the flyash content helps to increase the hardness due to clustering
of particles. Since graphite is a soft dispersed material, the inclusion of graphite
curtails the hardness of the composite.

5.1.4 Density Test

Overall weight of the composite is the sum of the weights of both matrix and the
various fillers added to it. The composite density calculated is 2.25 g/cc. The
composite weight is much lower than that the aluminium matrix due to the addition
of low density fillers. The silicon carbide addition results in the increment of the
Design and Evaluation of al Hybrid Composite … 241

overall density due to the high density of Silicon Carbide. Addition of metered
amount of magnesium also results in density reduction. The first specimen is not
considered for testing because, in the first specimen, the fly ash content is more due
to improper mixing, which reduces the density but cannot be casted to required
shape since flow ability is very low. The overall engine weight (for a normal light
vehicle engine) can be reduced to 22.4% by replacing the conventional Al alloy by
proposed composite.

5.2 Metallographic Analysis

5.2.1 SEM Analysis

The SEM image shows ductile portions coupled with tensile fracture at the SiC
region. Silicon carbide added to the composite causes the entrapment of air bubbles
which causes porosity in the composite. The imperfect blending of silicon carbide
in composite is the reason for air entrapment. The porosity leads to the development
of small cracks and advances on the application of load. Cup and cone type fracture
is seen in some portions even though brittle fracture is seen in majority. The
analysis confesses the uniform dispersion of flyash particles in the aluminium
matrix.

5.2.2 Micro Examination

The microstructure examination remarks the flyash precipitation and distribution of

SiC particles in the grain boundaries of aluminium. Precipitation of Fly ash occurs
due to increased percentage of Fly ash and rapid cooling of the cast. The Fly ash
particles are seen interconnected. The interconnectivity distribution of flyash har-
vest the augmentation of ductility and tensile strength. The highly dendrite structure
of aluminium is refined by the SiC particles owing to the resistance offered to the
freely flowing aluminium grain (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2 Micro structure of Al-SiC-flyash-graphite composite

242 M. S. Kiran Sankar et al.

Table 2 Stresses and deformations in dynamic

General material Aluminium hybrid composite
Tension Compression Tension Compression
Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min
Stress (MPa) 79.38 0.00067 23.30 3  104 79.375 0.00062 23.808 3.2  104
Total 0.073 0.00019 0.004 4  1013 0.078 0.00021 0.004 2.5  10−12
deformation
(mm)
Fatigue life 1  107 1  107
(cycle)

5.3 Dynamic Analysis Results

The composite is designed safely on virtue of the lower value of stress in com-
parison with the yield stress for the selected application. The connecting rod had
trivial deformation with in the safe zone. The tested fatigue life of the connecting
rod made with the composite is 1  107, which is safe for connecting rod (Table 2).

6 Conclusion

The inclusions of desired percentages of SiC, flyash, graphite to the Aluminium

6061 matrix helps to curtail the density by 21.05% compared to the conventional
aluminium alloy. The reinforcement materials accounted the brittle to ductile
transition of Aluminium 6061. The excess slag formation had noticed with the fly
ash percentage beyond 16%. The uniform dispersion of flyash and silicon carbide
augmented the tensile strength and ductility. The silicon carbide inclusion results in
the porosity by virtue diminish the composite property. The span of this project can
be extended to the performance evaluation of Smart hybrid composite. The weight
of the composite can be further abated by adding magnesium/magnesium matrix.
The strength depreciation as a result of magnesium addition can be surmount by
adding CNT, carbon fibre etc.

References

1. Wahab VMN, Daud AR, Ghazali MJ (2009) Preparation and characterization of stir
cast-aluminium nitride reinforced aluminium metal matrix composites. Int J Mech Mater Eng
(IJMME) 4(2):115–117
2. Singha J, Chauhan A (2016) Characterization of hybrid aluminum matrix composites for
advanced applications. A Rev J Mater Res Technol 5(2):159–169
Design and Evaluation of al Hybrid Composite … 243

3. Bhandare RG, Sonawane PM (2013) Preparation of aluminium matrix composite by using stir
casting method. Int J Eng Adv Technol (IJEAT) 3(2). ISSN: 2249–8958
4. Hynes NRJ et al (2015) Production of aluminium metal matrix composites by liquid
processing methods. In: International conference on condensed matter and applied physics
(ICC 2015)
5. Balajia V, Sateeshb N, Manzoor Hussainc M (2015) Manufacture of aluminium metal matrix
composite (Al7075-SiC) by stir casting technique. Mater Today: Proc 2:3403–3408
6. Sahu PS, Banchhor R (2016) Fabrication methods used to prepare Al metal matrix composites
a review. Int Res J Eng Technol (IRJET) 3(10):123–132
7. Ozden S, Ekici R, Nair F (2007) Investigation of impact behaviour of aluminium based SiC
particle reinforced metal–matrix composites. Compos Part A: Appl Sci Manuf 38:484–494
8. Irfan Sadaq S, Yunus SV (2017) Dynamic analysis of a connecting rod using FEA. IJMER 5
(5):2321–5747
9. Ozben T, Kilickap E, Cakir O (2008) Investigation of mechanical and machinability
properties of SiC particle reinforced Al-MMC. J Mater Process Technol 198:220–225
10. Ramachandra M, Radhakrishna K (2004) Study of abrasive wear behaviour of Al-Si (12%)-
SiC metal matrix composite synthesised using vortex method. In: Proceedings of the
international symposium of research students on materials science and engineering, IIT
Madras, India, 20–22 Dec 2004
11. VeereshKumar GB, Rao CSP, Selvaraj N, Bhagyashekar MS (2009) Studies on Al6061-SiC
and Al7075-Al2O3 metal matrix composites. J Miner Mater Charact Eng (JMMCE), USA 9
(1):47–59
12. Malhotra S, Narayan R, Gupta RD (2013) Synthesis and characterization of aluminium 6061
alloy-fly ash & zirconia metal matrix composite. Int J Curr Eng Technol 3(5):1716–1719
13. Vipin K, Sharm RC, Chaudhary SR (2017) Effect of flyash particles with aluminium melt on
the wear of aluminium metal matrix composites. Eng Sci Technol 20(4):1318–1323
Literature Review of Hard Turning
and It’s Thermal Aspects

Shahu Patil, Priya Jadhav and Satish Kumar

1 Introduction

In current manufacturing, scenario manufacturers are trying to do manufacturing at

the lowest cost and higher quality. Because of this trend hard turning is becoming
popular as a pre-grinding process, because lower of low cost associated with it as
compared to grinding. Because grinding wheels are costlier than tooling involved in
hard turning. Hard turning can be performed on the same machine on which soft
turning is done [1]. So it is important to understand hard turning process with all of its
aspects. Material list which can be hard turned is too long, some of them are Inconel,
Stellite and carburized and nitrided irons, Hastelloy, bearing steels, high-speed
steels, hot and cold-work tool steels, die steels and case hardened steels [1].

2 What Is Hard Turning?

Hard turning is the process of turning workpieces having the hardness greater than
45 HRC. Generally, hard turned part are having the hardness of 58–68 HRC [2].
Hard turning can be an alternate option for those machining operations where very
tight tolerances not required. But it cannot replace grinding operation. Material
removal rates are 4–6 times than grinding. Well established hard turning process can
achieve surface finishes below 0.0003 mm, roundness values of 0.00025 mm [1].

S. Patil (&)
P. Jadhav
S. Kumar

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Symbiosis Institute of Technology,
Symbiosis International University, Pune, India
e-mail: patil.shahu@sitpune.edu.in

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 245

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_24
246 S. Patil et al.

3 Cutting Tool Materials

When we consider cutting tool material important factors to consider are application
and finish requirements. Mainly there are following cutting tool materials (1) CBN
(2) Ceramic (3) Cermet (4) Natural and Synthetic Diamonds.
1. CBN—CBN is preferred when workpiece hardness ranges between 50 and 68
Rc. CBN insert will give the surface finish of 11–15 micro-inches. CBN inserts
are available with multiple grades, so important point is to select suitable grade
according to different machining requirements. CBN is costlier than Ceramic
inserts.
2. Ceramic—Ceramic is economical than another type of insert when machining
hardened steel. But the achieved surface finish will not be as good as that
achieved by CBN. Ceramic is not preferred in coolant cutting because it will not
give a good performance because of the presence of thermal shocks.
Ceramics are having same cost structure as that of carbide, which is 3–4 times
less than CBN.
3. Cermet—Cermet will give more advantage than CBN while machining hard-
ened steel turning through a hard case into a softcore. But wear resistance of
cermet is less. Cost of cermet nearly equal to multi-layer coated carbides [3].

4 Importance of Temperature Study

Energy consumed in the cutting process mostly converted into heat. This heat is
generated because of friction at the chip-tool interface and work-tool interfaces.
Because of this temperature in cutting zone increases. If we consider the hard
turning operation, then cutting zone temperature is approximately 1700°. Most of
the heat from the cutting application should be carried away with the chip about 60–
80% of the total heat, the workpiece carries away 10–20% of the heat, while the
cutting tool carries approximately 10% of the heat. Excessive heat in tool and
workpiece increases their temperatures. Increased temperature causes cutting tool to
elongates which result in a dimensional error [4].

5 White Layer

Generally, in dry hard turning temperature in the cutting zone would be around
925 °C. Heat generated in machining heats the material ahead of the tooltip, as a
result, the material gets soften. Hence localized heating improve ease of
machining [1].
Literature Review of Hard Turning and It’s Thermal Aspects 247

Griffiths BJ [5] observed in both wet and dry hard turning that material can lead
to white layer formation, white layer can be formed because of any of following
reasons: (i) Because of high-temperature products will be rapidly heated and
quenched hence they get transformed (ii) material is also subjected to large plastic
deformation and hence material structure will be changed to fine grain
(iii) high-temperature surface also get easily reacted with environment. The White
layer is not visible to naked eyes which is called as featureless. The thickness of the
white layer is usually several micrometers. We can see the white layer only by
destructive sectioning and then observed under a good microscope. Why people are
concerned about white layer because white layer causes fatigue life of surface to
reduce in cases where high contact stresses are present like in bearing races. The
sharp tool may start forming white after becoming dull because after dull edge
cutting zone temperature will be high, which is favorable to white layer formation.
As fatigue life is reduced because of white layer Kalam SA et al. [6] did an
experiment to avoid it. To do this they used Shield gas coolant. They performed the
experiments with CBN inserts in the atmosphere of Shield gas coolant. Shield gas
(Argon with CO2) keeps the cutting temperature low and hence atmospheric
reaction will not happen which is the reason for white layer formation.

6 Temperature Measurement

1. Experimental Methods
Temperature measurement is most difficult in metal-cutting operations. As cutting
edge is heated tool-workpiece interface temperature is very complex and hence it is
difficult to develop a setup for measuring the temperature. Hence measurement of
temperature with accuracy is still a big challenge [7].
We can use different types of equipment for measurement of the tool-chip
interface temperature. Motorcu used an infrared thermometer (IR sensor) to mea-
sure the tool-workpiece interface temperature, a K-type thermocouple was used to
measure tool temperature [4]. Nordgren A and Thakare A [8] used charge-coupled
device (IR-CCD) technique. This imaging technique can be used for temperature
measurement of 500–1000 °C, and with suitable calibration, good accuracy can be
achieved. But the accuracy of the IR technique depends on the emissivity if both
tool and workpiece.
Chinchanikar S et al. [9] investigated the tool-chip interface temperature while
turning of AISI 4340 steel with two hardness values of 35 HRC and 45 HRC by
CVD coated inserts. They develop a setup for temperature measurement based on
tool-work thermocouple. This setup is shown in the Fig. 1.
They used workpiece as a cold end and the tip of inserts as a hot junction to
develop thermocouple. Then emf was measured using a multimeter. For calibration
of temperature, they developed another setup using a heating coil and K-type
thermocouple. The results were recorded and based on regression analysis
248 S. Patil et al.

Fig. 1 Experimental set-up

referred from Chinchanikar S
et al. [9]

regression model was developed for two hardness values. Predicted values of
mathematical models were very close to experimental values. Interface temperature
was more in case of hard work material. Interface temperature has more influence of
cutting speed than the depth of cut.
Chen Lei et al. [10] studied the machined surface temperature with different
experimental methods and 3d FEM method in order to avoid the problem of white
layer formation in hard turning, which causes damage to the fatigue life of work-
piece. They developed two experimental setups (1) tool-foil thermocouple (2) em-
bedded thermocouple method. In tool foil thermocouple method lot of time is
invested in setup preparation. Embedded thermocouple method requires additional
FEM modeling. So both experimental methods were proved as feasible.
2. Analytical Method
Different analytical methods can be used to develop a model which can predict the
temperature value for given set of variables. RSM (Response Surface Methodology)
based Study of Cutting Temperature during Hard Turning With Multilayer Coated
Carbide Insert did by Shihab SK et al. [11]. Gosaia Mehul and Bhavsarb Sanket N
[12] used RSM for studying temperature and tool wear respectively in turning
operation. Sahoo AK and Sahoo B [13] used Regression analysis for developing a
numerical model which can predict temperature values for certain variable condition.
Finite Element Method (FEM) is a good method for material removal simulation,
tool wear study and also for thermal study. Once we model the whole setup of an
experiment in FEM software then by varying different cutting parameters we can see
changes in result in quick time. Kumar SS et al. [14] carried out heat transfer analysis
of cutting tool in DEFORM3D software with tool wear estimations also. Then he
observed that finite element method can predict tool life as well as wear profile.
Singh G et al. [15] find out Optimized setting of input parameters for the
maximum Material removal rate while hard turning AISID3 Die steel using NiN/
TiCN/Al2O3/TiN multi-layer coated inserts with different thickness using Taguchi
method used for optimization. Silva GC et al. [16] Developed fuzzy control
mechanism using an ARDUINO UNO module for data acquisition. Also, FEM
thermal analysis was done in ABAQUS software to obtain temperature results then
those results were compared with the experimental result. Using k-type
Literature Review of Hard Turning and It’s Thermal Aspects 249

thermocouple temperature was measured. Tool wear measured by machining the

workpiece without FUZZY control. Then by using Fuzzy control cutting speed was
varied to maintain cutting temperature conditions. So it is possible to control
temperature using Fuzzy control mechanism.

7 Heat Sources in Machining

Major heat source while machining is shear plane heat source and flank face friction
heat source as here concentration is on the machined surface temperature (Fig. 2).
For FEM modeling advection thermal model concept was used by Chen Lei
et al. [10]. A heat source at a shear plane is applied as constant source and flank face
heat source is moved along cutting tool path by discrete time steps. Experimental
measurements were converted to machined surface temperature by inverse heat
transfer analysis. The shear plane heat source was observed as a major heat source.

8 Effect of Different Cutting Parameters

As we discussed earlier temperature is the main factor for affecting tool life.
Keeping tool-work interface temperature within certain temperature can increase
tool life and also it would lead to better machining of the workpiece. But for
keeping the temperature below certain there are many cutting parameters affecting
the temperature which should be controlled. There are three aims of any machining
operation at a time maximum production rate, the good surface integrity of
workpiece, minimum cost (increased tool life). So while machining, deciding the
optimum cutting parameters keeping above aims of machining is important.
Bapat PS et al. [17] developed temperature distribution model using ABAQUS
software which was based on heat generation. A number of thermal simulations
were carried out to find out the value of temperature and region in which it occurs.

Fig. 2 Heat sources in

machining referred from Chen
Lei et al. [10]
250 S. Patil et al.

Also, temperature was directly proportional to cutting speed. The main reason was
as the cutting speed increases friction between tool and workpiece also increases.
Lotfi M et al. [18] carried simulation of turning of Incone l625 using carbide and
ceramic inserts(PVD-TiAlN coated) in software DEFORM3D. Then observation was
tool wear more in areas where the concentration of temperature and stresses was more.
The values of temperature increase as we increase the depth of cut. Chinchanikar S
and Choudhury SK [19] measured temperature while turning workpiece of AISI 4340
Steel. They observed that the most affecting parameters on temperature are cutting
speed and feed. Klockea F and Lunga D [20] did FEM modeling of turning AISI 1045
steel in software DEFORM™. The study focused on the effect of different parameters
on temperature. The result shows that heating of workpiece mainly depends on uncut
chip thickness. The cutting speed has a considerable effect on the rate of heat flow into
the workpiece. Ravindran VN and Babu RJ [21] A practical explicit 3D FEA model
has been developed using ANSYS to simulate turning of Al 7075-T6 heat treated
alloy. Using Carbide Tipped Tool. They observed that there is a direct proportionality
between temperature and cutting speed, as the speed increased temperature was also
increased. Heat generated also increases gradually from room temperature as the point
of contact progresses along the workpiece.
Melzi N and Temmar M [22] developed a numerical model and also temperature
distribution model using ANSYS software. Different simulations were carried out to
obtain the region of maximum temperature at various cutting conditions. The results
of the simulation were having good agreement with the results available in the
literature. The developed model which could be used to predict the temperature and
according to which it is possible to choose correct process parameters during
machining of XC48 steel. Shihab SK et al. [11] Studied the effect of coated carbide
inserts on temperature while machining AISI 52,100 alloy steel. The experimental
setup was prepared using a K-type. Effect of cutting parameters was studied using
statistical analysis of variance (ANOVA). ANOVA result showed that all cutting
parameters are having a significant influence on cutting temperature. Regression
model also predicted for cutting temperature, predicted values of this equation are
closer to experimental values.

9 Insert Coating Effects

Srithara A et al. [23] used coated carbide insert in hard turning of AISI D2(66HRC).
Then observed that change in microstructure which increases strength and wear
resistance. Chinchanikar S and Choudhury SK [19] measured temperature During
turning of AISI 4340 Steel. Effect of different cutting parameters and the type of
coating, namely, Physical vapour deposition (PVD) and Chemical Vapour
Deposition (CVD) on tool-workpiece interface temperature was observed using
mathematical models. PVD coated tool produced less interface temperature in
comparison to CVD-coated tool. For both coated and uncoated depth of cut was a
negligible parameter in terms of affecting interface temperature.
Literature Review of Hard Turning and It’s Thermal Aspects 251

Fig. 3 Crater wear and flank wear at tool nose referred from Aslantas K et al. [26]

Chetan et al. [24] used cryogenically treated inserts in turning of Nimonic 90

alloy. The observation was AlTiN coated carbide inserts are having more hardness
than uncoated carbide inserts. Aneiro FM et al. [25] did the experimental procedure
for turning of AISI 4340 (hardened to 48–50 HRC) using coated carbide inserts and
PCBN insert. Then they observed tool life for the coated carbide tested, which was
around 7000 m of cutting length and which was half of PCBN insert life. But PCBN
prices are double to coated carbide insert price. Aslantas K et al. [26] investigated the
wear behavior of coated and non-coated ceramic Al2O3–TiCN mixed inserts while
machining of AISI 52,100 which was hardened. Crater wear is dominant wear type
for both coated and uncoated cutting tools (Fig. 3). In Fig. 3 KB is crater width, KL
is length of crater, bis flank wear length and VB is flank wear width.
Author also studied comparative tool life for inserts of both types then they are
having following observations
According to Fig. 4, it appears that the because of TiN coating the life of the
cutting tool is tripled. Uncoated tools are having low thermal conductivity because
of which tool-chip interface temperature increases. Increased temperature leads to a
bimetallic effect on the upper and lower side of chip and hence chip is formed with
a smaller radius of curl (Fig. 5).

Fig. 4 Comparison of tool life of coated and uncoated ceramic inserts for f = 0.05 mm/rev [26]
252 S. Patil et al.

Fig. 5 Chip flow direction in case of coated and uncoated ceramic inserts [26]

More AS et al. [27] studied Tool wear of CBN–TiN coated carbides inserts and
were compared. It is found that the CBN–TiN coated carbide cutting edge was
having average tool life of 18–20 min and PCBN tools was having average tool life
of 32 min. Though the tool life of PCBN is better than CBN–TiN coated carbide
letter will be a better choice if we consider cost as the main factor. Chinchanikar S
and Choudhury SK [19] based on the previous study extended their work to study
the effect of coating on turning AISI 4340 steel using PVD and CVD coated inserts.
By using the previously developed experimental model to measure the temperature
they regression model for temperature estimation in both cases of the coating. Then
they found that interface temperature was low for PVD coated inserts than CVD
coated inserts. Also, it was observed that cutting speed is having more influence on
temperature than the depth of cut.
Fang Z and Obikawa T [28] Studied turning of Inconel 718 under high-pressure
jet coolant of 13 MPa condition. Made a slot in cooling channels in the insert to
enhance heat transfer from the tool. The CFD code PHOENICS was used to cal-
culate. Thermocouple setup was used to measure the temperature. Because of
channels heat transfer increased which causes less tool wear. Hence life of insert
with channel was found twice than insert having the not channel.
Gill SS et al. [29] used cryogenically treated TiAlN coated tungsten carbide
inserts to understand the wear behavior of insert while turning. The TiAlN coated
tungsten carbide inserts were subjected to cryogenic treatment at two levels
−110 °C (shallow treatment) and −196 °C (deep treatment) of temperature inde-
pendently. The observed that performance of shallow cryogenically treated inserts
was significantly better as compared with deep cryogenically treated and untreated
inserts.
Colak O [30] investigated machining performance of Inconel 718 under
high-pressure cooling conditions(at the tool-chip interface) with TiN coated carbide
tool. They studied for three sets of cutting parameters. Then they observed that tool
flank wear and cutting forces decreases because of high-pressure coolant. Also, they
did ANOVA study which shows that high-pressure cooling increased cutting
tool life.
Literature Review of Hard Turning and It’s Thermal Aspects 253

10 Conclusion

Hard turning is a process which can be used as a pre-grinding process as finishing

operation with low cost. Different insert materials like ceramic, cermet, carbide can
be used for hard turning. Temperature is an important factor in hard turning as heat
involved is more in hard turning. There are many methods of increasing tool life
like CVD or PVD coating, cryogenic treatment. This broad literature review is more
focused on temperature effect on hard turning. Sometimes because of the
high-temperature workpiece can be subjected to white layer formation. The dif-
ferent experimental methods like IR sensor, a K-type thermocouple can be used for
temperature measurement. Also, different analytical methods like RSM, ANOVA,
FEM are used by authors successfully, validating with experimental results. Cutting
speed and depth of cut are two main parameters affecting the tool-chip interface
temperature. In most of the literature coated inserts are having better performance
than uncoated inserts. Tool wear is also more in case of the uncoated insert as
compared to coated insert.

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Photocatalytic Degradation
of Rhodamine-B by Advance Oxidative
Process Using Electrochemically
Synthesized ZnO–V2O5 Nanostructures

Jenice Jean Goveas, Naveen Praveen Mascarenhas

and Richard Adolf Gonsalves

1 Introduction

Water is among the most important resources required to sustain life. Out of the
existing vast hydrosphere on planet earth, only 0.7% is the form of fresh water and
only 0.01% is accessible to living organisms [1]. It is known that 15% of the
world’s total production of dyes are lost into aquatic systems during the process of
dyeing and is released as textile effluents that act as the major source of
non-aesthetic pollution, eutrophication and perturbations to the aquatic ecosystem
[2]. The production and applications of synthetic chemical products have become
rampant during the last century and this poses a serious threat to the environment
especially the water resource. Organic dyes are the major group of contaminants
released into industrial effluents especially from textile industries and most of them
are mutagenic to human health [3]. These chemicals are nonbiodegradable and
hence novel techniques of water treatment must be developed to eliminate or
degrade perilous contaminants present in waste water.
Semiconductor oxide materials such as ZnO, CuO, TiO2, Al2O3, SnO2, ZrO2 and
WO3 are attractive photocatalysts as they are not only environmentally sustainable
but also show high catalytic efficiency for the degradation of environmental pol-
lutants which include pesticides, dyes, detergents and other volatile organic com-
pounds [4]. Among the oxides of vanadium such as V2O5, VO2, V2O3 and VO,
vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) possesses exceptional properties and has wide appli-
cations. It may be used as a catalyst, as material for ceramics, solar cells, chemical
sensors, electrical and optical devices, infra-red detectors and also as cathode

J. J. Goveas (&)
R. A. Gonsalves

Department of Chemistry, St. Aloysius College Autonomous,
Mangalore 575003, India
e-mail: jenicegoveas@gmail.com
N. P. Mascarenhas
Department of Physics, St. Joseph Engineering College, Vamanjoor 575028, India

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 255

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_25
256 J. J. Goveas et al.

material for rechargeable batteries [5]. The catalytic activity is attributed to the easy
reduction and oxidation between the different oxidation states of vanadium oxides.
Zinc oxide having wurtzite hexagonal phase, direct band gap of 3.37 eV and large
exciton binding energy of 60 meV is a promising material for photocatalytic
degradation of water pollutants [6]. There is thus a need for an efficient method for
the bulk synthesis of these semiconductor metal oxide nanoparticles. Although
electrodeposition has been one of the oldest techniques for deposition prevailing
from the time of Alexander Volta (1800), this technique has not received the
attention it requires [7]. This paper discusses a simple hybrid electrochemical
thermal method to generate a large quantity of zinc–vanadium mixed metal oxide
nanoparticles which have been studied for their role as photocatalysts to degrade a
model pollutant Rhodamine B.
A number of methods including physical, chemical and biological techniques
have been developed for the degradation of organic compounds. Among the new
advanced oxidation processes (AOP), heterogeneous photocatalysis stands out as an
emerging destructive technology which brings about complete mineralization of the
organic pollutants [8]. Rhodamine-B (RhB) is a dye, with Mol. Wt with 479.02 g/mol
and the formula C28H31N23Cl belonging to the class of xanthenes. It shows strong
absorption in the visible region (kmax = 540 nm) and is stable at different pH values.
It is quite stable in aqueous solutions and is used in textiles, cosmetics and as an
analytical reagent but can lead to aesthetic pollution in aquatic environments. It
possess high resistance to biological and chemical degradation. It is prohibited in the
use as food colour as it is carcinogenic and can cause mutagenesis and teratogenesis
in rats [9] (Fig. 1).
This model organic dye has been selected for this research due to its structure
(functional groups) and its presence in the environment.
Mechanism of degradation: The degradation reaction of the dye by OH
radical
generated using the synthesized photocatalysts by UV visible light is as follows.

ZnO  V2 O5 ðOH:ÞðadsÞ DðadsÞ þ ZnO  V2 O5  DðadsÞ ! intermediates ðPÞ

! CO2 þ H2 O

Fig. 1 Structure of
Rhodamine-B
Photocatalytic Degradation of Rhodamine-B by Advance … 257

where D is the model organic dye and P is an intermediate product of the reaction.
This process is very efficient due to high surface to volume ratio of the
nanoparticles along with high surface energy and hence can prove to be a new green
Chemistry technology to degrade pollutants.

2 Materials and Methods

All chemicals used in this research are of analytical grade and were used as
received. High purity Zinc metal plates (99.99%), sodium bi-carbonate (AR grade:
99.5%), sodium vanadate (AR grade: 98.5%) were purchased from Sisco Research
laboratories, Mumbai and Rhodamine-B from S.D. Fine Chemicals Ltd, India.
Millipore water (specific resistance, 15 mΩ cm at 25 °C, Millipore Elix 3 water
purification system, France) was used to prepare the electrolyte solution.
Catalyst Synthesis: ZVO nanoparticles were synthesized using a standard
electrochemical technique [10]. Prior to electrolysis, the Zn plates were activated
using dilute HCl followed by washing with Millipore water. The electrolyte was a
400 ml solution taken in a Pyrex vessel containing NaHCO3 to increase the con-
ductance and Sodium Vanadate for deposition. It was introduced into a rectangular
undivided cell where pure Zn plates were used as both cathode and sacrificial
anode. The electrolysis was carried out for about one hour under potentiostatic
conditions; a constant voltage of 12 V was supplied by a DC power supply (model
PS 618 potentiostat/galvanostat 302/2 A) with constant stirring at 500 rpm.
The pH of the electrolyte was recorded before and after electrolysis. A white
precipitate was formed and filtered (by Whattman filter paper No.41) to be isolated
from the solution. The electrolysis was also carried out in the presence of 3 different
surfactants—cetrimide, PEG and SDS. The obtained powder was calcined at dif-
ferent temperatures from 60 °C to a maximum of 650 °C for an hour.

3 Characterization

The Fourier transform infrared spectra (FTIR) of the samples were recorded using
Brucker-Alpha-P spectrometer. The XRD data was collected using mini Flex 600
tabletop powder diffractometer at a scan rate of 1°/min. SEM images were recorded
using Hitachi TM3030 tabletop SEM with a magnification of 10 K.
Photocatalytic degradation of the pollutant was carried out using Shimadzu UV
1800 UV-Visible spectrophotometer. Fluorescence studies were conducted using
Agilent fluorescence spectrometer.
258 J. J. Goveas et al.

4 Results and Discussion

An FTIR spectrum of mixed metal oxide is shown in Fig. 2. A peak at 638 cm−1 is
associated with the characteristic mode of Zn–O bond. IR absorption of V–O
stretching band is observed at 829 cm−1 which indicates the presence of V2O5. The
absence of VO2 can be confirmed by the absence of peaks at 508 and 714 cm−1.
Figure 3 shows the XRD pattern of ZnO–V2O5 which was used to check the
purity, crystallinity of the nanoparticles. A comparison with the standard card
indicates that the diffraction peaks of the product can be indexed to hexagonal
wurtzite structure. The crystallite size is calculated from the most intense peaks
(2h = 27.8°) using Scherrer formula and it was found to be 30 nm. Lattice strain is
0.0088. ZnO nanoparticles also show wurtzite structure with most intense peak
(2h = 36.1°). The diffraction peak observed at 2h values 20°, 30.6°, 42.4° and 48°
indicate the presence of V2O5 nanoparticles in the lattice of ZnO nanocrystalline
lattice. The shift of the most intense peak to a lower 2h value indicates the for-
mation of mixed metal oxides. The diffraction peaks at 2h values 31.1°, 34.3°, 36.2°
indicate the formation of nanocrystalline structures.
Scanning Electron Microscope images (SEM) of mixed metal oxides are shown
in Fig. 4. It clearly shows that the particles are agglomerated to form spongy cave
like structures with well-defined pores. The average size of the particles from SEM
images is found to be 50–80 nm. The particles synthesized in the presence of
surfactants as additives showed better porosity and lower particle size and thus were
more effective as photocatalysts.

Fig. 2 FTIR spectrum of ZVO nanoparticles

Photocatalytic Degradation of Rhodamine-B by Advance … 259

Fig. 3 XRD pattern of ZVO

nanoparticles

5 Photocatalytic Procedure

Rhodamine B is used as model pollutant to evaluate the photodegradation beha-

viour of the electrochemically synthesized of zinc–tin oxide microstructures under
UV light degradation in the presence of H2O2. The photochemical reactor used in
this study was made of a Pyrex glass jacketed quartz tube. A high pressure mercury
vapour lamp (HPML) of 125 W was placed inside the jacketed quartz tube. To
avoid fluctuations in the input light intensity, a supply ballast capacitor were
connected in series with lamp. 50 ml of the solution (Zn2V2O5 +RhB) was taken in
the beaker and continuously stirred to ensure that the suspension of the catalyst was
uniform. During the photocatalytic process the sample was at room temperature and
ambient pressure. H2O2 was added to the sample batch to increase the oxygen
source during the reaction avoiding the decrease of the catalytic activity during the
reaction due to lack of oxygen [11]. Before irradiation, the catalyst was dispersed in
the solution and kept in the dark under stirring for 10 min to reach
adsorption-desorption equilibrium [12]. Irradiation time ranged from 0 to 60 min.
The system was covered so that no other light reached the sample. Every 10 min an
aliquot of 10 ml was taken out from the solution. The sample was filtered at
vacuum to remove the particles of catalyst and the UV and fluorescence spectra
were obtained. A decrease in the intensity of the absorption and fluorescence
spectra was observed along the degradation process. 4 different nanoparticles were
used for dye degradation—those synthesized without surfactants and those syn-
thesized using cetrimide, PEG and SDS as additives. It was observed that the ZVO
nanoparticles synthesized using SDS were most efficient for photodegradation of
Rhodamine-B and gave the best results.
260 J. J. Goveas et al.

Fig. 4 SEM images of ZVO nanoparticles a without additive b using SDS as additive c using
PEG as additive d using Cetrimide as additive

Different intermediates have absorption peaks at different wavelengths than the

original organic compounds and for this reason additional absorption peaks are
observed during the degradation process. Maximum absorption peak also shifted
from 540 to 555 nm after 30 min this proves that various intermediates are formed
during the degradation process (Fig. 5).
The relevance of H2O2 and the photocatalyst for the degradation of
Rhodamine B was determined at the beginning of the research. The photocatalytic
degradation process of RhB was done in the absence of the catalyst and in the
absence of hydrogen peroxide. In both cases no significant reduction in the pol-
lutant concentration was observed during the irradiation process even after 60 min
of irradiation. When the hydrogen peroxide and photocatalyst were added to the
reaction mixture during the photocatalytic process a significant degradation was
observed indicating the relevance of both the photocatalyst and the hydrogen
peroxide for the efficiency of the process. Hydrogen peroxide is the source of OH.
Photocatalytic Degradation of Rhodamine-B by Advance … 261

Fig. 5 Photocatalytic degradation of 1 ppm Rhodamine-B

produced during the catalytic breakdown. It can accept the photogenerated electrons
from the conduction band and forms hydroxy radicals preventing recombination of
charges and thus increasing the efficiency of the photocatalyst [13]. The decom-
position of H2O2 for the formation of radicals during the degradation process is
given by [14]:

H2 O2 þ e ! OH þ OH:
H2 O2 þ O:
2 ! OH þ OH: þ O2

Kinetics of dye degradation: Kinetic studies of the photocatalytic degradation

of the dyes reveal that it follows pseudo first order reaction according to Langmuir
Hinshelwood mechanism r ¼ dt dC ¼ kKC where r is defined as the reaction rate, k
1 þ KC
the reaction rate constant, K the absorption coefficient and C is the concentration of
the reactant. The semilogarithmic plots of concentration against time in minutes
give almost straight lines where the slope represents the value of the reaction rate.
This is confirmed by a plot of ln C/C0 against time which appears as a straight line
as shown in Fig. 6. The degradation leads to the conversion of organic carbon into
harmless gaseous CO2 and that of nitrogen heteroatoms into nitrate and ammonium
ions [15].

6 Summary

AOPs are advantageous as they bring about the complete mineralization of the
pollutants. They are nonselective processes and can be used efficiently in low
concentration of contaminants. Heterogeneous photocatalysis using mixed metal
oxide nanoparticles is one such AOP successfully implemented in this project. The
semiconductor photocatalysts of ZVO generated were chemically inert, stable,
inexpensive, easily synthesized and are therefore perfect photocatalysts for the
262 J. J. Goveas et al.

Fig. 6 Kinetics study

degradation of organic pollutants. The electrochemically synthesized ZVO

nanoparticles are highly efficient in degrading the model pollutant Rhodamine B.
However, both H2O2 and the photocatalyst are needed for efficient degradation.
Fluorescence spectra reveals a clear decrease in fluorescence indicating degradation
pattern. Kinetic studies have confirmed the reaction to be of pseudo first order.

Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the management of St. Aloysius College,
Mangalore for providing laboratory facilities to undertake this project and the laboratory of
Applied Biology, St. Aloysius College for providing SEM imaging facility.

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Facile Synthesis and Characterisation
of Nanocomposite Doped Chitosan—
Polystyrene Polymer Blends

Naveen Praveen Mascarenhas, Jenice Jean Goveas,

Richard Adolf Gonsalves, T. Chandra Shekara Shetty
and Vincent Crasta

1 Introduction

A polymer may be a natural or synthetic macromolecule comprised of repeating

units of smaller molecules called monomers. The process of Polymerization
involves formation of covalent bonds between the individual monomers giving rise
to the polymer. Condensation polymerization occurs by loss of small molecules
from the monomers which joint together. A polymer composite is a composite
material containing polymers, or polymers along with other kinds of materials. The
research dealing with polymer composites have reinforced the growing need of new
materials with novel properties which can be modified for functional applications
in, agriculture, industry, medicine, etc. Many polymers are known to be suitable
matrices in the development of composite structures because of the ease of pro-
duction and processing. They possess good adhesion with reinforcing elements, are
resistant to corrosive environment, and are light weight. This results in the
numerous applications viz in sensor technology, as super capacitors, corrosion
inhibitors and for electromagnetic shielding. Polymers can also be used in and
batteries and actuators [1–6]. An interesting property of polymer composites is the
ability to alter the electrochemical, optical, chemical and mechanical properties of
conducting polymers by changing the monomer or dopant incorporated into the

N. P. Mascarenhas (&)
V. Crasta

Department of Physics, St Joseph Engineering College, Vamanjoor 575028, India
e-mail: naveenmascarenhas@gmail.com
J. J. Goveas
R. A. Gonsalves
Department of Chemistry, St Aloysius College Autonomous, Mangalore 575003, India
T. C. S. Shetty
Department of Post Graduate Studies in Physics, St Aloysius College Autonomous,
Mangalore 575003, India

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 265

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_26
266 N. P. Mascarenhas et al.

polymer. Organic-inorganic composites have attracted great attention in many

applications, such as packing material, circuit board, interlayer dielectrics and
passive protection. With the progress of the electronic industry, embedded capac-
itors exhibited special interest. The characteristics of high dielectric permittivity and
better mechanical strength improve the electrical performance and reduce the size
and cost of the polymer composites [7]. In addition the incorporation of ceramic
fillers having high dielectric constant within a polymer matrix results in a composite
with enhanced properties [8].
The process of blending is thus beneficial and involves mixing of two or more
suitable polymers and copolymers. By blending the polymers [9] their properties
can be enhanced for wide applications. Specific properties of natural polymers can
be significantly improved by blending with synthetic polymers. The goal of syn-
thesizing new polymer blends is not only to modify the properties of its components
drastically, but also to extract the maximum possible performance of the blended
materials.
In the last decade polymer blends have received much attention due to their
ability to exhibit better physicochemical properties, which are largely observed
when the individual components used for blending are compatible. Incorporation of
inorganic fillers such as Transition metal oxides to form Composite Polymer
materials is one of the ways to improve electrical, mechanical and photocatalytic
properties of polymer blends [10].
PS and chitosan are immiscible, because PS is hydrophobic, whereas chitosan is
a hydrophilic polysaccharide. Consequently, their blends suffer a drawback in
thermal and mechanical properties which make them not competitive for many
applications. A number of studies are focused on the improvement of compatibility
between their two phases, either by addition of a cross linking agent like glu-
taraldehyde or by stimulation of a chemical reaction which could result in modi-
fication of their polymer interface.
The unique physical and chemical properties of transition metal oxides have
greatly attracted the interest of researchers worldwide. Transition metal oxide
photocatalysts have been gaining a lot of attention because of their promising
applications in water disinfection, dye degradation and for the complete mineral-
ization of toxic organic compounds which are present as impurities in industrial
effluent water [11]. The electrochemical thermal route has the advantage of being
simple, convenient, and swift facilitating the generation of pure, homogenous and
larger quantities of nanoparticles. Mixed metal oxides have varying applications
due to their acid-base and redox roperties. They play a vital role in organic syn-
thesis. Zinc oxide nano particles are generally known for their unique properties
which find applications in non-linear optics, photocatalysis, solar energy conver-
sion, gas sensors and cosmetics [12]. Ti+4 has a comparable ionic radius with that of
Zn2+. Hence it forms stable MMO of composition ZnO/TiO2. In this paper an
attempt is made to improve the quality of CS–PS polymer blend by incorporating
mixed metal oxide nanomaterials of ZnO–TiO2.
Facile Synthesis and Characterisation of Nanocomposite … 267

2 Materials and Methods

Chitosan from HiMedia laboratories Pvt Ltd, Polystyrene from Sigma Aldrich now
Merck, High purity Zinc metal plates (99.99%), Sodium Bi-Carbonate (AR grade:
99.5%), Potassium Titanium Oxalate (ARgrade: 98.5%) purchased from Sisco
Research laboratories, Mumbai, Millipore water (specific resistance, 15 mΩ cm at
25 °C. Millipore Elix 3 water purification system, France) was used for the
preparation of electrolytic solution.

2.1 Preparation of Polymer Bends

CS being hydrophobic material, it is only soluble in some selected solvents. In this

study, acetic acid was used as solvent. 1% CS solution was prepared using 2 N
acetic acid and was agitated for 2 h using a magnetic stirrer in a 50 ml beaker. In
another beaker 2.5% PS solution was prepared using research grade benzene as
solvent and stirred well using a magnetic stirrer to get homogeneous solution. The
two solutions were mixed in various compositions to make the blends of CS–PS. In
all cases, the total weight of two components in solution was maintained as 1 g. CS
solution was added to the PS solution in steps and the solutions were thoroughly
mixed using a magnetic stirrer for 2–3 h to obtain homogeneous solution. The
synthesized ZnO–TiO2 nanopartcles weighing 0.01 g were introduced to the blend
during the stirring process. The polymer blend solution doped with nanocomposites
was sonicated using UV sonicator for 30 min. The blends were poured into Teflon
coated plates and allowed to evaporate in dry air. After 2 days polymer films peeled
from the plates (Fig. 2b).
The molecular structure of CS and PS are shown in the Fig. 1a, b respectively.

Fig. 1 a and b Molecular structure of CS and PS

268 N. P. Mascarenhas et al.

2.2 Synthesis of ZTiO Nanoparticles

ZTiO nanoparticles were synthesized using a standard electrochemical technique.

Prior to electrolysis, the Zn plates were activated using dilute HCl followed by
washing them with Millipore water. The electrolyte was a 400 ml solution taken in
a Pyrex vessel containing NaHCO3 to increase the conductance and Potassium
Titanium Oxalate for deposition. It was introduced into a rectangular customized
undivided cell where pure Zn plates played the role of both cathode and anode. The
electrolysis was conducted for 60 min under potentiostatic conditions where a
constant voltage of 12 V was supplied by a DC power supply (model PS 618
potentiostat/galvanostat 302/2 A) with continuous stirring at 500 rpm.
The white precipitate thus obtained was filtered (by Whattman filter paper
No. 41) and isolated from the solution. Calcinations of these particles was per-
formed at 600 °C for an hour. The obtained mixed metal oxide
(MMO) nanoparticles were milled for half an hour (Fig. 2a).
The formation of ZnO–TiO2 nanoparticles follows the following path

Zn ! Zn þ 2 þ 2e: ð1Þ

2H þ þ 2e ! H2 : ð2Þ

C4 K2 O9 Ti þ 3H2 O ! 2K þ þ Ti þ 4 þ 4CO2 þ 6OH : ð3Þ

Zn þ 2 þ Ti þ 4 þ 6OH ! ZnTiðOHÞ6 ! ZnTiO3 þ 3H2 O: ð4Þ

Fig. 2 a and b Synthesised ZnO-TiO2 nanoparticles and polymer film

Facile Synthesis and Characterisation of Nanocomposite … 269

3 Result and Discussion

3.1 FT-IR Analysis

The Fourier transform infrared spectrum of CS–PS blend without and with
nanocomposites was recorded using KBr disc technique [13]. The FTIR spectra are
obtained using JASCO FTIR 3006 spectrophotometer. The FTIR spectrum of CS–
PS (20:80) blend with nanocomposites is shown in Fig. 3b. The characteristic
transmission peaks are consistent with the functional groups present in the material.
The assigned values of the absorptions peaks are presented in Table 1.
The shift in vibration frequencies is due to interactions between ZnO–TiO2
nanoparticles with functional groups OH and NH2 of chitosan. The small and broad

Fig. 3 a and b FT-IR of ZnO-TiO2 nano composite and polymer doped with ZnO-TiO2
270 N. P. Mascarenhas et al.

Table 1 Functional group assignment for CS-PS blend doped with ZnO-TiO2
Wave number Mode of Assignments
(cm−1)
3708 –OH stretch
3543 –NH bend
3372
3245
2923 Symmetric CH2 stretching—vibration corresponding to pyranose ring,
aromatic ring
2367 N–H stretch of NH3+
1601 NH-bend
1432 CH2 bend
1037 NH-wagging, C–N stretch peaks shifted due to the presence TiO2
749
689
504

bands at 3708 and 3372 cm−1 are attributed to the stretching vibration of O–H and
N–H primary amines (asymmetric stretch) [14]. This may be due to the immobi-
lization of Zn+2 onto O–H and N–H functional groups. The band at 2923 cm−1 is
exhibited due to asymmetric stretch of C–H group (alkanes). The absorbed fre-
quency at 1601 cm−1is due to N–H bend of secondary amines (symmetric stretch).
The stretch at 1037 cm−1 is due to carboxylic acids (C–O). A small peak at
504 cm−1 was attributed to the stretching vibrations of N–Zn [15].

3.2 Powder Diffraction Study

Data was collected using Miniflex 600 table top powder diffractometer at a scan rate
of 1° per minute for a small portion of the CS–PS blend without and with
nanocomposites. Wavelength of radiation used was 1.5418A°. Powder XRD pattern
for a CS–PS blend in the ratio 20:80 are shown in the Fig. 4a, b respectively. With
the increase in chitosan percentage it was observed that the amorphous nature of the
film increases.
Figure 4 represents the XRD pattern of the blend without and with nanocom-
posites. In Fig. 4b the diffracted peaks appeared at 24.7°, 31.69°, 34.38°, 36.18°,
37.8°, 47.45°, 56.46°, 62.76°, 66.21°, 67.80°, 68.92°. The results demonstrated
both characteristic peaks of the CS–PS blend and ZnO–TiO2 nanoparticles which
confirms the successful blending of the polymer composite [16].
Facile Synthesis and Characterisation of Nanocomposite … 271

Fig. 4 a and b Powder XRD patterns of polymer blend without and with ZnO-TiO2
nanocomposites

3.3 Surface Morphology Studies

In order to study the surface morphology of the CS–PS blended films doped with
nanocomposite, Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) image was taken using a
Hitachi TM3030 table top SEM with a magnification of 2.00 K X The image shows
reinforcement of nanocomposites into CS–PS blend. Figure 5 represents SEM
images of CS–PS blended film without and with nanocomposites.
SEM visual gives the approximate size and shape of nanoparticles. As presented
in Fig. 5, the prepared CS–PS Blend doped with ZnO–TiO2 exhibited globular
morphology. Agglomeration observed in the SEM images is possibly due to the
dispersion of nanoparticles in the powder form. The nanoparticles were successfully
incorporated into the polymer matrix.

Fig. 5 a and b SEM images of polymer blend without and with ZnO-TiO2 nanocomposites
272 N. P. Mascarenhas et al.

Fig. 6 TGA of polymer

blend with ZnO-TiO2
nanocomposites

4 Thermal Analysis

To investigate the thermal stability of 20:80 CS–PS blend doped with nanocom-
posites, Thermo Gravimetric Analysis (TGA) and Differential Scanning
Calorimetry (DSC) was carried out using PerkinElmer TGA/DSC analyzer. Taking
a small part of the blend, the analysis was carried out under the nitrogen atmosphere
at a heating rate of 20 °C/min. The TGA thermogram of CS–PS blend (20:80) is
shown in Fig. 6.
The TG curve of the sample indicates its high stability up to 280 °C. The first
weight loss by 14.539% was observed at 382.86 °C and the second weight loss by
79.65% was observed at 523.85 °C. 97.332% of Total Weight Loss was observed at
00 °C. The blended film shows the glass transition temperature at 94.61 °C.

5 Conclusion

Prepared blends are thermally stable and have good stability. From the SEM images
it is concluded that the films have good surface morphology. The property of
amorphous nature of the films observed from the XRD analysis finds application in
adsorbent for dyes in the treatment of effluent water from textile industries.

Acknowledgements Authors thank the Principal, St Aloysius College (Autonomous), Mangalore

for providing the Laboratory and experimental facilities for the research work carried out.
Facile Synthesis and Characterisation of Nanocomposite … 273

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1674, 020028-1-020028-7
Influence of EDM Control Factors
for Aluminium Hybrid Composites

Kamalkishor Ghisulal Maniyar and Dilip Sahebrao Ingole

1 Introduction

The mechanical and tribological properties of hybrid composites can be highly

enhanced by adding different reinforcements such as silicon carbide, alumina,
graphite etc. Machining of Hybrid composites materials are new challanges in the
field of conventional machining process. It is reduced by employing
Non-conventional machining processes specially Electrical discharge machining
process. Ahamed et al. [1], Gopalkannan et al. [2], Prakash et al. [3], Puhan et al.
[4], Roy et al. [5], found the impact of control factors on the machining charac-
teristics during the machining of Aluminium Composites. George et al. [6] inves-
tigated the parametric combination of control factors for boosting the MRR and
limit the electrode wear. Hourmand et al. [7] used RSM to analyse EDM of
Al-Mg2-Si composite. They have discovered that machining parameters have good
impact on the profile and microstructure of machined surface. Kumar et al. [8],
Pecas et al. [9], Talla et al. [10] showed the better experimental results of powder
added EDM as compared to conventional EDM. Karthikeyan et al. [11] found rise
in weight fraction of SiC gives negative impact on MRR while it gives the positive
impact on TWR and SR. Lin et al. [12], Singh [13] applied Taguchi based grey
relational technique and found the optimal parametric combination of machining
parameters. Liu et al. [14], Sing and Yeh [15] developed a high abrasive EDM
process which assisted to enhance the efficiency and surface finish as compared to
the conventional EDM process. Mohan et al. [16] analyzed the impact of input

K. G. Maniyar (&)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, MGI’s College of Engineering
and Technology, Shegaon, Maharashtra, India
e-mail: kkmaniyar1313@gmail.com
D. S. Ingole
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Prof. Ram Meghe Institute
of Technology and Research, Badnera, Maharashtra, India

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 275

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_27
276 K. G. Maniyar and D. S. Ingole

parameters on machining of Al-SiC composite and also obtained the good output
results compared to stationary electrode. Rajkumar et al. [17] proved the microwave
heat treatment an operative method compared to conventional heat treatment.
Radhika et al. [18], Singh et al. [19] employed Taguchi DOE methodology to
determine optimal parametric combination of control factors. Singh et al. [20]
revealed the MRR found to be higher for larger current and pulse on time setting at
the expenses of tapercity, radial over cut and surface finish. The objective of present
research work is to examine the influence of control factors on machining char-
acteristics of Aluminium hybrid composites.

2 Methodology

2.1 Manufacture of Hybrid Composite

The liquid stir casting method is employed to manufacture three samples of hybrid
composites wt of 70–90% Aluminium alloy reinforced with wt of 5–15% silicon
carbide and wt of 5–15% graphite. The reinforcement materials are heated sepa-
rately in graphite crucible and added into molten state of metal matrix material

Fig. 1 Set up of liquid stir casting method [1]

Influence of EDM Control Factors for Aluminium Hybrid … 277

Table 1 Chemical Al Si Fe Cu Mn Ti Other

composition of AC2B Al
alloy 88.7 6.89 0.46 3.33 0.06 0.32 0.24

(Fig. 1). The mechanical stirrer is used to obtain homogenous mixture. The
chemical composition of Aluminum alloy is as given in Table 1.

2.2 Control Factors and Machining Characteristics

The control factors are considered such as combined equal % volume of silicon
carbide and graphite, current and pulse on time with three levels such as low,
medium and high in each. The control factors and their level is as shown in Table 2.
The machining characteristics are evaluated in terms of material removal rate,
surface roughness and tool wear rate. Material removal rate and tool wear rate are
evaluated by the proportion of weight difference of its material prior and after
machining to machining time. Surface tester is used to measure reading of surface
roughness of hybrid composites. The transverse length of each measurement is set
to 5 mm and the average roughness value is noted.

2.3 Conduction of Experiments

The experimental trails are performed by non conventional machining process

namely EDM process. Electrode is made up of copper which has good mechanical
and electrical properties. It is most suitable tool material used for machining of
hybrid composites. The experiments are conducted by Taguchi technique utilizing
the machining set up. The experimental trials are planned by orthogonal array L27
and weight of the work piece and electrode are taken into account for evaluating the
MRR and TWR respectively. Each experiment is repeated twice for obtaining better
results and average values are considered for examination work.

Table 2 Control factors and their level

Control factors Unit Level 1 (low) Level 2 (medium) Level 3 (high)
combined equal % 5 10 15
% volume of SiC–Gr
Current A 4 8 12
Pulse on time µs 200 400 500
278 K. G. Maniyar and D. S. Ingole

Main Effects Plot (data means) for SN ratios

Comb equal % vol of SiC & Gr(%) Current (Amp)
-4

-5

-6
Mean of SN ratios

-7

5 10 15 4 8 12
Pulse on Time(μs)
-4

-5

-6

-7

200 400 500

Signal-to-noise: Larger is better

Fig. 2 Signal to noise ratio for MRR

Main Effects Plot (data means) for SN ratios

Comb equal % vol of SiC & Gr(%) Current (Amp)
-12.5

-13.0

-13.5

-14.0
Me an of SN ratios

-14.5

5 10 15 4 8 12
Pulse on Time(μs)
-12.5

-13.0
-13.5

-14.0

-14.5

200 400 500

Signal-to-noise: Smaller is better

Fig. 3 Signal to noise ratio for SR

Influence of EDM Control Factors for Aluminium Hybrid … 279

3 Result and Discussion

3.1 SN Ratio for Machining Characteristics

Signal to Noise analysis is applied to determine optimal setting of control factors for
obtaining better results of machining characteristics. According to Fig. 2, the
optimal parametric combination of control factors for higher material removal rate
are combined equal % volume of SiC–Gr 15%, Current 12 A and Pulse on time
500 µs. To acquire lower surface roughness the ideal parametric mix of control
factors are combined equal % volume of SiC–Gr 15%, Current 4 A and Pulse on
time 200 µs is as shown in Fig. 3. The mean S/N proportion diagram for TWR is
displayed in Fig. 4, it is noted the ideal parametric mix of control factors are
combined equal % volume of SiC–Gr 15%, Current 4 A and Pulse on time 500 µs.

Main Effects Plot (data means) for SN ratios

Comb equal % vol of SiC & Gr(%) Current (Amp)
31

30

29
Mean of SN ratios

28

5 10 15 4 8 12
Pulse on Time(μs)
31

30

29

28

200 400 500

Signal-to-noise: Smaller is better

Fig. 4 Signal to noise ratio for TWR

280 K. G. Maniyar and D. S. Ingole

Fig. 5 Correlation between MRR Vs Current

MRR and current 0.7
0.6

MRR (gm/min)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
4 8 12
5% (SiC & Gr) 10% (SiC & Gr)
15% (SiC & Gr)
Current (Amp)

3.2 Effect of Control Factors on Machining Characteristics

According to Figs. 5, 6 and 7 shows that current is directly proportional to the

material removal rate, tool wear rate and surface roughness of hybrid composites.
MRR, TWR and SR are greatly increased when the current increased from 4 to
12 A. From Figs. 8, 9 and 10 it is noted that the pulse on time is inversely pro-
portional to tool wear rate whereas it is directly proportional to material removal
rate and surface roughness of hybrid composites. MRR and SR values are higher for
a higher pulse on time whereas TWR values are lower for a higher pulse on time.
From Figs. 11, 12 and 13 it is observed the sample of hybrid composites
Aluminium Alloy reinforced with 15% wt of silicon carbide and 15% wt of graphite
produces higher metal removal rate, lower surface roughness and tool wear rate as
measured to other samples. When the percentage of graphite is increases from 10 to
15% then it gives better machinability and also it increases metal removal rate. The
tribological properties of the hybrid composite material is also increases when
graphite percentage crosses from 10 to 15% and it helps to obtain the lower the
surface roughness and tool wear rate.

Fig. 6 Correlation between TWR vs Current

0.06
TWR (gm/min)

TWR and current

0.04

0.02

0
4 8 12
5% (SiC & Gr) 10% (SiC & Gr)
15% (SiC & Gr)
Current (Amp)
Influence of EDM Control Factors for Aluminium Hybrid … 281

Fig. 7 Correlation between SR vs Current

6
SR and current
5

SR (μm)
3

0
4 8 12
5% (SiC & Gr) 10% (SiC & Gr)

15% (SiC & Gr)

Current (Amp)

Fig. 8 Correlation between SR vs Pulse on Time

SR and pulse on time 6
SR (μm)

0
200 400 500

5% (SiC & Gr) 10% (SiC & Gr)

15% (SiC & Gr)
Pulse on Time (μs)

Fig. 9 Correlation between MRR vs Pulse on Time

MRR and pulse on time 0.6
MRR (gm/min)

0.4

0.2

0
200 400 500
5% (SiC & Gr) 10% (SiC & Gr)
15% (SiC & Gr)

Pulse on Time (μs)

282 K. G. Maniyar and D. S. Ingole

Fig. 10 Correlation between TWR vs Pulse on Time

TWR and pulse on time 0.06

TWR (gm/min)
0.04

0.02

0
200 400 500
Pulse on Time (μs)

5% (SiC & Gr) 10% (SiC & Gr)

15% (SiC & Gr)

Fig. 11 Correlation between MRR vs Combined equal % Volume of SiC-Gr

MRR and combined equal % 0.8
volume of SiC–Gr MRR (gm/min) 0.6
0.4
0.2
0
5 10 15
Current 4 Amp Current 8 Amp
Current 12 Amp
Combined equal % volume of SiC -Gr

Fig. 12 Correlation between SR vs Combined equal % volume of SiC-Gr

SR and combined equal % 6
volume of SiC–Gr
4
SR(μm)

0
5 10 15
4 8 12
Combined Equal % volume of SiC-Gr(%)

Fig. 13 Correlation between TWR vs combined equal % volume of SiC-Gr

TWR and combined equal % 0.06
TWR (gm/min)

volume of SiC–Gr
0.04

0.02

0
5 10 15
Combined equal % volume of SiC-Gr (%)
Current 4 Amp Current 8 Amp
Current 12 Amp
Influence of EDM Control Factors for Aluminium Hybrid … 283

4 Conclusions

The conclusion can be summarized into following points

1. The sample of hybrid composite Aluminium Alloy reinforced with 15% wt of
silicon carbide and 15% wt of graphite produces higher metal removal rate,
lower surface roughness and tool wear rate as measured to other samples.
2. Maximum material removal rate can be acquired by applying optimal setting of
control factors such as current 12 A, pulse on time 500 µs and combined equal
% volume of SiC and Gr (15%).
3. Minimum surface roughness can be given by employing optimal setting of
control factors such as current 4 A, pulse on time 200 µs and combined equal %
volume of SiC and Gr (15%).
4. Minimum tool wear rate can be obtained by utilizing optimal setting of control
factors such as current 4 A, pulse on time 500 µs and combined equal % vol-
ume of SiC and Gr (15%).
5. It was examined that all three control factors have significant effect on
machining characteristics considered in present study.

Acknowledgements Authors are gratitude to higher authorities, management and staff members
of Dekson Casting Company Ltd. Aurangabad for manufacturing of Hybrid Composites. Authors
are also greatful to faculty members, HOD and higher authorities of Indo German Tool Room,
Aurangabad for experimentation.

References

1. Ahamed AR, Asokan P, Aravindan S (2009) EDM of hybrid Al-SiCp–B4Cp and Al-SiCp–
glassp MMCs. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 44:520–528
2. Gopalkannan S, Senthilvelan T, Ranganathan S (2012) Modeling and optimization of EDM
control factors on Machining of Al 7075-B4C MMC using RSM. Procedia Eng 38:685–690
3. Prakash JU, Moorthy TV, Peter JM (2013) Experimental investigation on machinability of
aluminium alloy (A413)/fly ash/B4C hybrid composites using wire EDM. Procedia Eng
64:1344–1353
4. Puhan D, Mahapatra SS, Sahu J, Das L (2013) A hybrid approach for multi-response
optimization of non-conventional machining on AlSiCp MMC. Measurement 46:3581–3592
5. Roy C, Syed K, Kuppan P (2016) Machinability of Al/10% SiC/2.5% TiB2 metal matrix
composite with powder-mixed electrical discharge machining. Procedia Technol 25:1056–
1063
6. George PM, Raghunath BK, ManochaL M, Warrier AM (2004) EDM machining of carbon–
carbon composite—a Taguchi approach. J Mater Process Technol 145:66–71
7. Hourmand M, Farahany S, Sarhan AD, Noordin MY (2014) Investigating the electrical
discharge machining (EDM) parameters effect on Al-Mg2-Si metal matrix composite
(MMC) for high material removal rate (MRR) and less EWR-RSM approach. Int J Adv
Manuf Technol
8. Kumar H, Davim JP (2011) Role of powder in the machining of Al-10% SiCp metal matrix
composites by powder mixed electric discharge machining. J Compos Mater 45(2):133–151
284 K. G. Maniyar and D. S. Ingole

9. Pecas P, Henriques E (2008) Electrical discharge machining using simple and powder-mixed
dielectric: the effect of the electrode area in the surface roughness and topography. J Mater
Process Technol 200:250–258
10. Talla G, Sahoo D, Gangopadhyay S, Biswas CK (2015) Modelling and multi-objective
optimization of powder mixed electric discharge machining process of aluminum/alumina
metal matrix composite. Eng Sci Technol Int J 18:369–373
11. Karthikeyan R, Lakshmi Narayanan PR, Naagrazaan RS (1997) Mathematical modelling for
electric discharge machining of aluminium-silicon carbide particulate composites. J Mater
Process Technol 87:59–63
12. Lin JL, Lin CL (2002) The use of the orthogonal array with gray relational analysis to
optimize the electrical discharge machining process with multiple performance characteristics.
Int J Mach Tools and Manuf 42:237–244
13. Singh S (2012) Optimization of machining characteristics in electric discharge machining of
6061 Al/Al2O3p/20P composites by grey relational analysis. Int J Adv Manuf Technol
63:1191–1202
14. Liu J, Wu YZ, Yue T (2015) High speed abrasive electrical discharge machining of
particulate reinforced metal matrix composites. Int J Precis Eng Manuf 16(7):1399–1404
15. Singh S, Yeh MF (2010) Optimization of abrasive powder mixed EDM of aluminum matrix
composites with multiple responses using gray relational analysis. J Mater Eng Perform 21
(4):481–491
16. Mohan B, Rajadurai A, Satyanarayana KG (2002) Effect of SiC and rotation of electrode on
electric discharge machining of Al-SiC composite. J Mater Process Technol 124:297–304
17. Rajkumar K, Santosh S, Ibrahim S, Gnanavelbabu A (2014) Effect of electrical discharge
machining parameters on microwave heat treated aluminium-boron carbide-graphite
composites. Procedia Eng 97:1543–1550
18. Radhika N, Sudhamshu AR, Chandran GK (2014) Optimization of electrical discharge
machining parameters of aluminum hybrid composites using Taguchi method. J Eng Sci
Technol 9:502–512
19. Singh S, Maheshwari S, Pandey PC (2007) Optimization of multi performance characteristics
in electric discharge machining of aluminium matrix composites (AMCs) using Taguchi DOE
methodology. Int J Manuf Res 2:140–158
20. Singh PN, Raghukandan K, Rathinasabapathi M, Pai BC (2004) Electric discharge machining
of Al-10% SiCp as-cast metal matrix composites. J Mater Process Technol 155–156:1653–
1657
Thermal Conductivity of Silicon Nitride
Reinforced Al6061 Based Composites

R. Keshavamurthy, N. P. Muthuraju and H. Govindaraju

1 Introduction

Aluminum based alloys are often considered for most of the engineering
applications owing to their excellent ductility, formability, malleability and
mechanical properties. The mechanical, friction and wear characteristics aluminum
composites can be largely improved by secondary manufacturing methods such as
cold working, hot working and severe plastic deformation processing. The end
properties of aluminum composites depend on various parameters such as mor-
phology, size, content and dispersion of these particulates in the matrix and union
of reinforced phase with matrix. In addition to this, processing techniques are very
important in dispersion of these particulates. From the review of literature, it is
higher the quantity of particulate in the alloy, mechanical, friction and wear
characteristics increases. However, this may not same for fracture toughness,
ductility and/or thermal properties where with higher percentage of reinforcement
these properties generally decrease. Unlike very few researchers have proved
increment in thermal conductivity with higher quantity of reinforcements [1–3].

R. Keshavamurthy (&)
H. Govindaraju

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dayananda Sagar
College of Engineering, Bangalore 560078, India
e-mail: Keshavamurthy.r@gmail.com
H. Govindaraju
e-mail: govi_h@rediffmail.com
N. P. Muthuraju
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vidyavardhaka
College of Engineering, Mysore 570002, India
e-mail: Muthuraju.np@gmail.com

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 285

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_28
286 R. Keshavamurthy et al.

Molina et al. [4] have presented the thermal properties of SiC reinforced Al com-
posites where two different sizes of SiC particulates were adopted for fabrication of
composites. The composites were synthesized liquid infiltration route. The con-
ductivity of the composite specimens was measured using steady state technique in
which the temperature gradient between the reference and specimen was measured.
The conductivity of composites with bimodal SiC particles showed a maximum of
250 W/mK can be achieved with the proposed technique. The composites with
smaller size SiC particles showed very low thermal conductivity values when
evaluated with alloy. It was credited to the fact that the occurrence of SiC will lead
to dissolution of silicon into the matrix. Wang et al. [5] have reported the influence
of aging on thermal conductivity of Al6061-SiC composites. The composites with 5
and 3% SiC were heat treated at T6 conditions. The thermal characteristics were
measured using thermal diffusivity instrument which uses laser flash technique. The
results showed that the addition of SiC to Al6061 led to fall in conductivity values.
For all aging time conditions there was significant drop in conductivity of com-
posites when evaluated with alloy. The fall in thermal conductivity was attributed to
electron scattering due to presence of flaws. Most of these defects are point defects,
larger defects like precipitates and presence of dislocations. The existence of
coherent precipitates results in transformation induced strain results in dispersion of
electrons which leads to fall in conductivity of aged composites. Guo et al. [6] have
presented the influence of varying silicon content to Al and its influence on thermal
conductivity of Al/diamond composites. Here pure Al and Al with varying silicon
content was used as matrix while diamond were used as particulate material. The
composites was developed using pressure infiltration technique in which the dia-
mond preforms were infiltrated with liquid aluminium. In order to evaluate the
thermal conductivity a cylindrical shaped composite samples of 10 mm dia and
3 mm thickness was used and subjected to laser flash technique. The thermal
conductivity of composites enhanced with addition of silicon content up to 12.2 wt
%. The thermal conductivity with 7 wt% Si showed value of 489 W/mK which was
increased to 532 W/mK when the silicon content was increased to 12.2 wt%.
However, further increase in silicon content resulted in severe decrease in con-
ductivity. It was seen that for silicon content up to 20 and 40 wt%, the thermal
conductivity dropped to 372 and 314 W/mK respectively. Out of all the composites
with mixed size of diamond particles showed highest thermal conductivity of
558 W/mK when evaluated with single diamond particle composites.
On the other hand, limited information available as regards influence of forging
on thermal conductivity of primarily processed aluminum based metal matrix
composites. In the light of the above, this work reports on effect of forging and
temperature on thermal conductivity of Aluminum based composites reinforced
with silicon Nitride particles.
Thermal Conductivity of Silicon Nitride … 287

2 Experimental Details

2.1 Synthesis of Composite and Forging

Al6061 alloy was used as matrix material. Silicon Nitride powder having particle
size 10–20 microns were procured as particulates. Stir casting technique was
adapted to synthesis composites. Composites were prepared with 2, 4, 6, and 8 wt%
Si3N4 particulates. Si3N4 particulates were metallic coated to enhance its wettability
and interfacial bond with aluminum matrix. Both alloy and composites were hot
forged at a temperature of 500 °C using hydraulic hammer at a constant strain rate.
Both alloy and composites were characterized for its optical micrograph and
thermal conductivity. More details on composite synthesis and forging are acces-
sible in our earlier works [7–9].

2.2 Thermal Conductivity Test

Thermal conductivity of alloy and its composites were measured using parallel
conductance method. The thermal conductivity was measured using an apparatus
based on the parallel heat-flow technique under steady-state. The thermal con-
ductivity of composites under steady state conditions is defined as, K = (Qs/A)/
(DT/DL), where Qs is the amount of heat passing per unit time, A is cross-sectional
area and DT is temperature difference over a distance DL. Specimens of size 50 mm
length and 5 mm diameter were used as test samples in this study (Fig. 1). Thermal
conductivity was calculated using parallel conductance method. More details on test
procedure and test apparatus are reported elsewhere [10, 11]. The schematic rep-
resentation of thermal conductivity facility employed in this study is shown in
Fig. 1. The details of the test facility are given below. The specimen (1) is mounted
inside a copper sample holder assembly. The sample holder includes two copper
10 mm cylindrical blocks (2 & 3). The crucial heat source copper block (2) is a
10 mm diameter solid cylinder on which heater is wound. The bottom heat-sink
block (3) is fixed to the copper plate. The thermocouples [4 Nos] (4) are mounted at
the source, one at the middle of the specimen, one at the sink, and one at the furnace
surface respectively, which are attached to a 4 channel digital temperature indicator.
The heater block is supported by a thin walled tube (5). This is provided with a load
(6) mounted on a stainless steel support frame (7). Spring loading ensures the
proper contact between the sample and the holder assembly. The central sample
holder is mounted inside a furnace (9). Vacuum tight stainless steel chambers
(10) encapsulate the whole arrangement to minimize convective heat exchange. The
thermal contact between heat source block and the sample is made or broken by a
lifting mechanism (11).
288 R. Keshavamurthy et al.

Fig. 1 Constructional details of thermal conductivity test setup

3 Results and Discussions

3.1 Microstructure

Optical Micrographs of Al6061-10 wt% Si3N4 composites are presented in Fig. 2.

It can be seen that dispersion of Si3N4 is uniform in both the processing conditions.
The reinforcements are observed to be present both in and around grain boundaries
of Al6061 matrix. The electroless nickel coating and stirring action helps in dis-
persing the reinforcements uniformly in the Al6061 molten melt and help them in
retaining in the melt. The second important factor is hot forging, which breaks the
bunch of reinforcements if any clusters present in the cast composites. For a given
content of Si3N4 the clustering is hardly visible in forged composite. The large
pressure applied not only breaks the clusters but also helps in enhancing union of
reinforcement with alloy.

3.2 Thermal Conductivity

Figure 3 shows the thermal conductivity of alloy and its composites with the
varying Si3N4 content. It is noticed that the thermal conductivity of composites
Thermal Conductivity of Silicon Nitride … 289

(a) Cast Al6061-10wt%Si3 N4 composite (b) Forged Al6061-10wt%Si3 N4 composite

Fig. 2 Optical micrographs of cast and forged Al6061-10 wt% Si3N4 composite

were lower than that of unreinforced Al6061 alloy in both the processing tech-
niques. Thermal conductivity of aluminum composites is highly dependent on
reinforcing materials, processing techniques, microstructure and bond between the
matrix and reinforcement. In the present case Silicon Nitride reinforcement possess
lower thermal conductivity (30 W/mK). However, under all the conditions studied,
forged system exhibits slightly higher thermal conductivity. The processing con-
dition is a important factor that influences the composites. Though the composites
synthesized possess homogenous dispersion and excellent bond, microstructure
also plays a vital role. The dislocations produced around the reinforcement in the
aluminum matrix due to difference in CTE can root the scattering of electrons and
phonons between Al6061 and Si3N4. It is well known that the about 90% of heat
carried in matrix material is by electrons while in case of reinforcements they
conduct heat by phonons. With increasing Si3N4, the increase in the dislocation
density is possible. So these dislocation causes dispersion of electrons and phonons
on the elastic strain field [12–14]. Figure 4 displays the influence of temperature on
thermal conductivity alloy and its composites. The thermal conductivity was cal-
culated for different temperatures ranging from 50–200 °C. Under all the temper-
atures studied the thermal conductivity values have been decreased in both the
processing techniques. However, forged system demonstrated significantly a
superior thermal conductivity when evaluated with cast alloy and its composites.
The enhanced conductivity of forged composites over cast ones may be attributed to
reduced casting/structural defects, improved dispersion of reinforcement and
improved bond constituents. The thermal conductivity depends on residual com-
ponent which is due to structural defects like grain boundaries, precipitates and
dislocations and along with this the existence of second phase particles in case of
composites. So at high temperatures the jumping probability of electrons over such
structural imperfections is not possible. Further, a large number of phonons cause
dispersion of electrons and due to which the relaxation time between the collusions
is decreased. Thus, with the increase in temperature from 50 to 200 °C, the per-
centage of distribution of phonons increases and small relaxation time leads to
reduction in thermal conductivity values [15].
290 R. Keshavamurthy et al.

Fig. 3 Effect of silicon nitride on thermal conductivity

Fig. 4 Effect of temperature on thermal conductivity

4 Conclusion

Al6061 composite reinforced with silicon nitride was synthesized by liquid met-
allurgy route and successfully hot forged. Optical micrograph shows uniformity in
dispersion of Si3N4 particles. The thermal conductivity of composites decreased
with increase in reinforcements mainly because of lower conductivity of rein-
forcement. However, Thermal conductivity of forged system was higher compared
to cast ones. Thermal conductivity of alloy and their composites decreases with
raise in the temperature.
Thermal Conductivity of Silicon Nitride … 291

References

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mechanical behavior of in-situ fabricated AA6061-TiC in-situ composite. Arch Civil Mech
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Mechanical and thermal properties of AA7075/TiO2/Fly ash hybrid composites obtained by
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reinforced Al alloy matrix composite with dispersed particle size. J Appl Phys 95:722–726
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temperatures. Mater Lett 51:420–424
Grinding of Inconel 718 Using Soap
Water Jet and Liquid Carbon Dioxide

Arnab Kundu, Sirsendu Mahata, Manish Mukhopadhyay,

Ayan Banerjee, Bijoy Mandal and Santanu Das

1 Introduction

Grinding is a material removal process, frequently used to finish or semi-finish Ni

based alloys, among which Inconel 718 is the most widely used. It contributes to
almost 45% of wrought nickel based alloy products and as much as one-fourth cast
nickel based production [1]. Inconel is extensively used in aerospace, petrochem-
ical, medical and nuclear industries due to its enhanced mechanical and chemical
properties viz. oxidation and corrosion resistance, suitability in extreme working
conditions of heat (−423° to 1300 °C) and pressure. It can also be easily fabricated.
Ni-based alloys constitute almost 50% of the total material required for the man-
ufacture of an air-craft engine, and therefore, they are popularly known as aerospace
materials. These alloys also find application in cryogenic storage tanks. These are
high temperature applications where fatigue and creep become critical, that gen-
erally depend on the surface quality of the alloy. Grinding is the only conventional
and economic process to achieve high surface finish, so grinding of Inconel alloys is
a topic of general interest around the world.
However, grinding of this alloy is problematic due to its poor thermal conduc-
tivity, high coefficient of thermal expansion, chemical affinity towards abrasives,
high hardness at elevated temperature. This leads to high temperature generation at
the grinding zone, high wheel wear, and rapid wheel loading. Proper selection of
grinding parameters can reduce these harmful effects to some extent. Choice of
grinding wheel, either conventional, or super-abrasive, is quite important. Super
abrasive grinding wheels exhibit lower grinding forces and longer wheel life, but
they are quite costly. However, conventional abrasive wheels are still preferred for
grinding based industries due to lower abrasive cost and their ease of use [2]. One

A. Kundu
S. Mahata
M. Mukhopadhyay
A. Banerjee
B. Mandal
S. Das (&)

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kalyani Government Engineering College,
Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal 741235, India
e-mail: sdas.me@gmail.com

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 293

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_29
294 A. Kundu et al.

other technique to control grinding temperature is by exploring an efficient cooling

and lubrication technique. Addressing this issue, several researchers used different
techniques to deliver fluid at the grinding zone, such as multi-nozzle cooling [3],
Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL) [4], jet cooling [5], cryogenic cooling [6],
use of solid lubricant [7], use of soap water [8], etc. However, use of grinding fluid
is being discouraged due to a large number of reasons:
i. high procurement and disposal costs (costs associated with lubrication reaches
almost 20–30% in machining difficult-to-machine materials [9],
ii. harmful effects of mists, gases in causing lung disease, allergy and even skin
cancer [10],
iii. increasing bacterial growth on shop floor,
iv. restricted penetration of lubricants at the grinding zone, due to presence of a
stiff layer of air [11], although it can be suppressed by employing compound
nozzle and/or pneumatic barrier setup [12].
In contrast to conventional grinding/cutting fluids, gas based ones in liquid form
are less harmful and quite environment friendly. Two common gases used in
machining and grinding are liquid nitrogen and liquid carbon dioxide. Liquid
nitrogen was first used in 1953 to machine steel. Since then, several researchers
tried this coolant in their works. It was seen that cryogenic cooling by liquid
nitrogen during machining AISI 1040 and AISI 4320 mainly resulted in reduction
of cutting forces and cutting temperature, as tool maintained sharpness for a longer
time [13]. An experimental study to enumerate benefits using liquid nitrogen during
drilling of titanium with coated inserts was done by Ahmed et al. [14]. Reduction in
cutting temperature of up to 9% and lesser tool damage was observed. However, the
workpiece was hardened, with the maximum hardness observed at the highest feed
rate.
In comparison, liquid carbon dioxide is easily available and environmentally
neutral. Cryogenic milling of high strength stainless steel using liquid CO2 was
investigated by Cordes et al. [15]. Compared to dry milling, material removal rate
was higher and tool wear was reduced considerably. Moreover, chip adherence was
visibly suppressed, resulting in better surface quality. Another experimental
investigation was conducted by Jerold et al. [16] to observe influence of cryogenic
cooling when turning AISI stainless steel. It was seen that CO2 gas could reduce
cutting temperature up to 35% and surface roughness up to 52%, when compared to
wet machining. Tool wear was also less. A hybrid machining system consisting of
PAM (Plasma Arc Machining) to preheat Inconel 718 workpiece and application of
liquid nitrogen as the grinding fluid was used by Wang et al. [17]. Remarkable
results of 250% improvement in surface finish and 156% increase in tool life were
achieved. Cutting forces were also reduced by 30–50%.
Soap water has been used in the past to machine certain metals. Teicheret al. [18]
used alkaline soap water to improve grindability of Ti-6Al-4V alloy using brazed
cBN grinding wheel. Lower forces and better chip formation were reported using
soap water. Also, chip redeposition was suppressed, giving rise to smooth
Grinding of Inconel 718 Using Soap Water Jet … 295

workpiece surface. Similar results were obtained by Babic et al. [19] when grinding
AISI steel using soap water mist jet. Significant reductions in grinding temperature
and forces were obtained. Soap water was applied in a drop by drop fashion during
grinding of titanium grade I alloy with an alumina wheel [8]. It was seen that
alkaline soap water is effective in reducing grinding forces, producing favourable
chips and increasing G-ratio. The method used was simple and environmentally
clean.
In this experimental study, surface grinding of Inconel 718 is performed using an
alumina wheel with vitrified bond. Grinding ratio, surface hardness and condition of
wheel loading are observed under each condition to assess grindability of Inconel
718 under given conditions.

2 Experimental Procedure

In the present work, Inconel 718 is used as the workpiece, in the form of rectangular
flats. Alumina wheel with vitrified bond is used as the grinding wheel. Each
experiment under each condition consists of 20 passes, with a depth of cut of 10
micron in the up-grinding direction. The table speed and wheel speed is kept
constant at 14 m/min and 30 m/s respectively. Initially, dry grinding is conducted
followed by grinding under soap water jet application, and finally under a liquid
CO2 assisted soap water application. The experimental details are listed in Table 1.

Table 1 Complete list of experiments and equipment

Surface grinding Make: HMT Praga Division, India, Model: 452 P
machine Main motor power: 1.5 kW, Infeed resolution: 1 µm, maximum spindle
speed: 2800 rpm
Grinding wheel Make: Carborundum Universal Limited, Specification: AA60K5V8
Type: disc-type, dimension: 200 mm  20 mm thick  31.75 mm bore
Workpiece Material: Inconel 718, Hardness: 340 HV, dimension:
120 mm  60 mm  6 mm
Force Make: Sushma Grinding Dynamometer, Bengaluru, India, Model: SA
dynamometer 116, Range: 0.1–100 kg, Resolution: 0.1 kg
Dressing details Make: Solar, India, specification: 0.5 carat single point diamond tip
Dressing depth: 20 µm, dressing speed: 1.8 m/min
Process parameters Infeed: 10 lm, grinding wheel velocity: 30 m/s, table speed: 14 m/min,
mode: up-grinding
Environmental (a) Dry
conditions (b) Wet (jet of soap water solution)
[Nozzle diameter: 1.25 mm (plastic), coolant: soap water,
composition: solution of Clinic Plus shampoo and water, mixing
ratio: 1:20 (by vol.), coolant flow rate: 210 ml/min]
(c) Liquid CO2 assisted soap water jet
[CO2 delivery nozzle diameter: 1.23 mm (stainless steel), fluid flow
rate: 210 ml/min, CO2 exit pressure: 3 kg/cm2]
296 A. Kundu et al.

Fig. 1 Setup for soap water jet application, and liquid CO2 assisted soap water jet application

Soap water jet is delivered into the grinding zone by the fluid delivery
arrangement as shown in Fig. 1. A specially designed nozzle of diameter 1.23 mm
is used to supply soap-water solution (mixture of water and ‘Clinic Plus’ shampoo,
1:20 by vol.). A constant flow rate of 210 ml/min is maintained. The striking
feature of this arrangement is the use of a pump of only 10 W power rating,
ensuring the cost-effectiveness of this indigenous process. The fluid is recycled
using a filter. Figure 2 shows the arrangement for Liquid CO2 assisted soap water
jet application. Liquid CO2, at a temperature of −26° C, was used to cool the
grinding zone, in addition to the jet of soap water.

3 Results and Discussions

Grinding ratio: Grinding ratio, or G-ratio, is the ratio of material removal rate to
wheel removal rate. G-ratio values can be as high as 500, and for difficult-to-grind
materials such as titanium and Inconel, they can be as low as 1. Grinding ratios
1.87
2
GRINDING RATIO

1.48

DRY SOAP WATER LIQUID CO2+ SOAP

WATER

Fig. 2 Grinding ratios under different environmental conditions

Grinding of Inconel 718 Using Soap Water Jet … 297

have been calculated, at the end of each experiment, by measuring the initial and
final wheel diameters and workpiece height. The ratios are presented in Fig. 2.
The lowest grinding ratio in this experiment is seen in case of dry grinding. Due
to intense wheel loading, chips get embedded in inter-grit spaces of the wheel
cutting face, thereby reducing the material removal rate, due to less availability of
sharp cutting edges. Also, wheel grit wear is more, due to absence of any coolant,
thereby resulting in low G-ratio. Highest G-ratio is obtained when grinding Inconel
718 using soap water jet. This is probably due to efficient material removal from the
workpiece, due to penetration of the jet of soap water into the grinding zone that
acts as a good lubricant and decreases grinding forces. Quite possibly,
micro-fracture of alumina grits may have occurred to restore cutting ability of the
grinding wheel, by removing the dull, worn out grits [20]. Such a phenomenon
increases the grinding efficiency, and thus the grinding ratio by 35%, as compared
to the G-ratio obtained in dry grinding. Addition of liquid CO2 to the jet stream of
soap water increases the grinding ratio as compared to that under dry grinding, but
the percentage increase is less (26%). At a low temperature of −26 °C, liquid CO2
may have increased the surface hardness of the alloy.
Surface hardness: Ground surface hardness of Inconel 718 workpieces was
measured after every experiment. Vickers hardness test was conducted with a
square base diamond indenter subjected to a load of 500 gm for a dwell time of
10 s. Vickers hardness is calculated by measuring the lengths of the two diagonals
of an indentation. For each grinding environment, hardness was measured at five
different locations on the ground surface. Hardness differs from grain to grain, as a
result of which variations are shown in the form of error bars projected on the
average hardness values, shown in Fig. 3.
It is seen from Fig. 3 that Inconel 718 is softened at the ground surface, after dry
grinding. Due to very low thermal conductivity of the material, the heat generated
during plastic deformation during grinding cannot dissipate quickly, leading to a
rapid rise in localized temperature. This thermal softening effect, coupled with
recrystallization of the grains in alloy, leads to a decrease in hardness. Lowest
surface hardness is reported in case of grinding with soap water jet, with a decrease
322
313
SURFACE HARDNESS (HV)

265

DRY SOAP WATER LIQUID CO2+ SOAP

WATER

Fig. 3 Variation of average surface hardness of Inconel 718 samples, for different environmental
conditions
298 A. Kundu et al.

of 15%, as compared to that obtained in dry grinding. The primary reason of

hardening in machining is rapid heating and subsequent cooling cycles, whereas
mechanical deformation is secondary [21]. In case of using liquid CO2 assisted soap
water jet, the workpiece and wheel are further cooled, before the actual cut. This
‘pre-cooling’ technique reduces the temperature at the wheel-workpiece contact
region, thus resulting in increased hardness and higher compressive residual
stresses in the material. When actual grinding starts, the ground surface is subjected
to rapid increase and decrease of temperatures, which may have led to higher
quenching rates and subsequently, higher hardness. This is also backed by rela-
tively higher friction coefficient values when under this condition. However,
grinding forces simultaneously increase and thus,a balance needs to be obtained
between forces and surface hardness of the alloy.
Wheel loading: Wheel loading is a phenomenon in which microscopic chips get
embedded in the inter-grit spaces, thus reducing the cutting area and leading to
thermal problems. This increases with the increase in grinding passes. Pictorial
views of loaded wheels, taken after 20 passes using a digital camera of Nikon make,
are shown in Fig. 4
It is evident from Fig. 4a that grinding wheel bears traces of intense wheel
loading, which produces large cutting forces and reduced grinding ratios. This is
due to absence of lubrication and increased ductility of Inconel 718 at higher
grinding temperature. At higher grinding temperature, Inconel reacts with alumina
grits via a complex chemical reaction in which nickel adheres and sticks to the
inter-grit spaces, causing the wheel to get loaded. The wheel loading in the next two
conditions are lower and not much different. Amount of wheel loading is seen to
expectedly reduce with proper lubrication, as seen from Fig. 4b. This is due to
application of the high velocity soap water jet, that may have helped in removing

Fig. 4 Images of the grinding wheel being loaded under a dry grinding, b using soap water jet,
and c using liquid CO2 assisted soap water jet
Grinding of Inconel 718 Using Soap Water Jet … 299

some of the chips from the wheel face, thereby reducing intensity of wheel loading.
Using low temperature liquid CO2 in addition to soap water jet might have helped
in retention of grit sharpness, ensuring low wheel loading, as can be seen from
Fig. 4c.

4 Conclusion

Grinding of Inconel 718 was conducted with an alumina wheel under three con-
ditions: dry, using soap water jet and using liquid CO2 assisted soap water jet.
Using the soap water jet, increase in 35% grinding ratio and 15% surface hardness
increase can be obtained, compared to those under dry conditions. Wheel loading is
also reduced. However, addition of liquid CO2 to the soap water jet stream does not
aid in increasing G-ratio further. Moreover, the sample got hardened and
strengthened along the ground surface that might lead to increased forces and
increased energy consumption. Within this experimental domain, better grindability
of Inconel 718 can be achieved by employing a jet of soap water, indicating its
suitability in industry.

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using different fluid delivery techniques. J Assoc Eng 83(3–4):63–70
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under dry, wet and cryogenic cooling conditions in turning C-60 steel. J Brazilian Soc Mech
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Mechanical Properties
of Al7075-SiC-TiO2 Hybrid
Metal Matrix Composite

G. S. Pradeep Kumar, R. Keshavamurthy, Vijay Tambrallimath,

Riya Biswas and Yogesh Sahebrao Andhale

1 Introduction

Metal matrix composite is gaining a large momentum in attaining light weight and
huge utilization in various engineering applications. Monolithic metals and their
alloys cannot always meet the demands of today’s modern engineering require-
ments. With addition of more than one material it is possible to achieve tailor made
properties and meet the performance requirements for specific application.
Materials are mainly added to change their properties in order to fulfil the
requirements of design [1, 2].
Few researchers have incorporated fly ash in AA7075 to provide a better wear
resistant, strength and hardness composite. Microstructural characteristics of
AA7075 and its composite were compared and analyzed using Optical Microscope
(OM) and SEM.
It has been noticed that the fly ash particles have been dispersed uniformly in the
composite. The composite has been prepared by liquid metallurgy technique. The
hardness has been increased due to good union between flyash and Al7075 alloy
and homogenous dispersion of fly ash [3]. Review on various combinations with
Al7075 being the matrix and various components like SiC, TiO2, TiB2, B4C, fly ash
etc. being the reinforcements have contributed in improved mechanical character-
istics. This paper emphasises on the composite prepared by liquid state processing
techniques like stir casting methods. This process appears to be relatively simple
and cost effective and can be made semi continuous or continuous by stirring [4].

G. S. Pradeep Kumar
Y. S. Andhale

D Y Patil School of Engineering Academy, Ambi, India
R. Keshavamurthy
V. Tambrallimath (&)
R. Biswas
Dayananda Sagar College of Engineering, Bangalore, India
e-mail: vijay.tambrallimath@gmail.com

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 301

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_30
302 G. S. Pradeep Kumar et al.

Reinforced basalt fibres into Al7075 has seen improvements in mechanical

properties of the material. Microstructural evaluation of composite specimens dis-
closes the consistent distribution of basalt fibres and other precipitates in the
Aluminium alloy. The strength value comparisons with various theoretical studies
recommends that the experimentally calculated values are in good agreement with
theoretical studies considering the random dispersion of basalt fibres in the Al
(7075) matrix [5]. Preparation of a cenosphere composite with Al7075. It has
enhanced properties which include strength, toughness, hardness and wear resis-
tance evaluated with alloys. Its applicable in aircraft for the reason that of its lower
weight to strength ratio. It’s been prepared by liquid metallurgy technique [6].
Some researchers have studied influence of TiO2 and fly ash were studied by
synthesizing composite using casting and hot forging techniques. The hybrid
composites exhibited improvement in compressive strength by using two fillers and
further increase in the content of TiO2 particles. The coefficient of thermal
expansion of hybrid composites decreased with increase in the content of TiO2 and
fly ash. On the other hand, thermal conductivity of composites decreases with
hybrid reinforcements when evaluated with Al7075 alloy [7].
While designing the materials, hybrid metal matrix composites generally have
more flexibility of design owing to presence of two or more reinforcements.
Thus, current study was undertaken to aluminium based hybrid metal matrix
composites with low cost reinforcements like SiC and TiO2 by stir casting. SiC and
TiO2 were chosen as hybrid reinforcements owing to their superior mechanical,
Tribological and physical properties. From the extensive review of literature, it is
clear that Silicon Carbide and Titanium dioxide can be considered as efficient
reinforcements with multiple benefits for synthesis of hybrid metal matrix com-
posites. Further, very limited information exist with reference to mechanical
properties with the combination of titanium dioxide and silicon carbide reinforced
Al7075 based metal matrix composites. In the light of the above, this work focuses
on synthesis of Al7075-TiO2-SiC hybrid metal matrix composites by liquid met-
allurgy technique and characterization of its mechanical properties.

2 Experimental Procedure

Composites were synthesized by mixing molten Al7075 alloy, Silicon Carbide and
Titanium Carbide as reinforcements. Stir casting technique was employed to syn-
thesize the hybrid composites with 2 wt% of each Silicon Carbide and Titanium
Carbide particles. Al7075 alloy has been used in automotives, aerospace and marine
industries due to their high strength to density ratio and formability. Table 1 shows
the composition of matrix material used in present study.
The particle size of silicon carbide was in the range of 80–70 lm and the particle
size of titanium dioxide was in the range of 40–50 lm. The percentage of silicon
carbide and titanium dioxide used in the casting process was 2% each. Aluminum
7075 alloy was melted in an electrical resistance furnace. Molten Al7075 alloy was
Table 1 Composition of Al7075
Chemical composition of A16061 alloy
Mechanical Properties of Al7075-SiC-TiO2 …

Element Si Fe Cu Mn Ni Pb Zn Ti Sn Mg Cr A1
Percentage 0.43 0.43 0.24 0.139 <0.05 0.024 0.006 0.022 0.001 0.802 0.184 Balance
303
304 G. S. Pradeep Kumar et al.

stirred at a speed of 300 rpm. Reinforcement particles were then slowly incorpo-
rated into the molten metal while maintaining a constant stirring speed. The
composite melt at a temperature of 750 °C, was then transfered into preheated cast
iron moulds. Developed hybrid composites were characterized for its microstruc-
ture, hardness and tensile strength. The test samples for tensile tests were machined
from the castings as per ASTM A370 standards.

3 Results and Discussions

Figure 1 shows optical micrographs of Al7075-TiO2-SiC hybrid aluminium com-

posites. It is seen from the microphotograph that SiC and TiO2 particles have been
dispersed uniformly throughout the matrix material. The microstructure of com-
posites can strongly influence strength, toughness, ductility of composites. Further,
the developed composite do not show any visible defect in the micrograph indi-
cating good quality of the casting process.

4 Hardness

Figure 2 shows comparison of hardness between as cast Al7075 alloy and

Al7075-2 wt% TiO2-2 wt% SiC hybrid composite. The enhancement in the hard-
ness value is 24% over the unreinforced AA7075 alloy. A simple reason for
increment in the hardness was the presence of hard reinforcing phase in the alu-
minium matrix. In general the presence of hard reinforcing phase present in the
ductile aluminium matrix can significantly improve the hardness of overall

Fig. 1 a Al7075-2 wt% TiO2-2 wt% SiC composite b Al7075-2 wt% TiO2-2 wt% SiC composite
(etched)
Mechanical Properties of Al7075-SiC-TiO2 … 305

Fig. 2 Hardness result of

Al7075 alloy and
Al7075-TiO2-SiC composite

composite [8]. Increase in the hardness of the hybrid composites when compared
with that of AA7075 alloy may be attributed to following reasons [9, 10].
1. Higher hardness of reinforcing phases. Addition of hard reinforcements (SiC
and Titanium dioxide) in the soft ductile matrix contributes to improvement in
the hardness of the composites.
2. Due to large variation in coefficient of thermal expansion between AA7075
alloy and reinforced particles, dislocation increases and acts as barrier for plastic
deformation.
3. Uniform dispersion of particulates, excellent bond between matrix and rein-
forcing particles (SiC and TiO2), and extensive grain refinement has signifi-
cantly improved the hardness of composites.

5 Tensile Test

Figure 3 shows variation of ultimate tensile strength of Al7075 alloy and

Al7075-TiO2-SiC hybrid composites. It is observed that an improvement of 12% in
the tensile strength of the composite is noticed when compared to the alloy Al7075.
The reinforcements, SiC and TiO2 are contributing to ultimate tensile strength of
AA7075 matrix. The strengthening of AA7075 is mainly due to the consistent
dispersion and superior bond of titanium dioxide and Silicon Carbide with the
Aluminium 7075 alloy. The regular dispersion of reinforcements as seen in
microstructure is reflected in the increment in ultimate strength values.
306 G. S. Pradeep Kumar et al.

Fig. 3 Tensile strength of

Al7075 alloy
andAl7075-TiO2-SiC
composite

6 Conclusions

Al7075-2 wt% TiO2-2 wt% SiC hybrid composite has been successfully synthe-
sised by liquid metallurgy technique. Optical microstructure studies clearly reveal
uniform dispersion of particles in matrix material. Hybrid composite demonstrate
considerable enhancement in hardness and ultimate tensile strength when evaluated
with matrix alloy.

References

1. Keshavamurthy R, Pavan M, Abdul Tazamul Haq M, Zinge D, Mohammed Y (2015)

Hardness and tensile behavior of forged Al7075-SiC composite. Int J Appl Eng Res 10
(55):3769–3772
2. Ramesh CS, Keshavamurthy R, Koppad PG, Kashyap KT (2013) Role of particle stimulated
nucleation in recrystallization of hot extruded Al 6061/SiCp composites. Trans Nonferrous
Met Soc China 23(1):53–58
3. Mohanavel V, Suresh Kumar S, Srinivasan RV, Ganesha P, Anand KT (2017) Mechanical
and metallurgical characterization of AA7075-fly ash composites produced by liquid state
method. J Chem Pharm Sci (JCHPS) Special Issue (2):217–220
4. Nimbalkar SR, Vijay M, Satpute M (2015) Aluminium alloy Al7075 reinforcement and Stir
casting–a review. IPASJ Inter J Mech Eng (IIJME) 3(11):038–046. ISSN 2321–6441
5. Karthigeyan R, Ranganath G, Sankaranarayanan S (2012) Mechanical properties and
microstructure studies of aluminium (7075) alloy matrix composite reinforced with short
basalt fibre. Eur J Sci Res 68(4):606–615
6. Chandel V, Bhatia OS, Sethi MS (2015) Fabrication and characterization of Al
7075-cenosphere composite & its comparison with pure Al 7075: a review. Int J Res Stud
Sci, Eng Technol. ISSN: 2349–4751 (Print) & ISSN: 2349–476X (Online)
7. Murthy KVS, Girish DP, Keshavamurthy R, Varol T, Koppad PG (2017) Mechanical and
thermal properties of AA7075/TiO2/fly ash hybrid composites obtained by hot forging. Prog
Nat Sci: Mater Int 27(4):474–481
Mechanical Properties of Al7075-SiC-TiO2 … 307

8. Ramesh CS, Keshavamurthy R, Channabasappa BH, Ahmed A (2009) Microstructure and

mechanical properties of Ni–P coated Si 3 N 4 reinforced Al6061 composites. Mater Sci Eng,
A 502(1):99–106
9. Shivananda Murthy KV, Keshavamurthy R, Girish DP (2017) Mechanical characteristics of
hot forged Al6061-Al2O3 composite. Appl Mech Mater 787:598–601
10. Keshavamurthy R, Sudhan JM, Gowda N, Krishna RA (2016) Effect of thermo-mechanical
processing and heat treatment on the tribological characteristics of Al based MMC’s. IOP
Conf Ser: Mater Sci Eng 149(1):012118
Study on Machinability of Aluminum
Alumina Metal Matrix Composites

M. Sucharitha and B. Ravi Sankar

1 Introduction

The applications of metal matrix composites (MMCs) are being growing daily in
each the aerospace and vehicle industries, due to their progressed properties as
compared to monolithic metals [1–3]. Now a days, among various metal matrix
composites (MMCs) synthesized, aluminum metal matrix composites in well
known and discontinuously reinforced aluminum metal matrix composites, which
include Al- Al2O3/SiCp specially, are emerged because the forerunner for a spread
of fashionable and special packages [2, 3]. This trend has been attributed to their
advanced specific strength and precise stiffness, excessive temperature capability,
lower coefficient of thermal growth, higher wear resistance, stepped forward
dimensional balance, and amenability to standard steel forming techniques [4, 5].
Further, improvement of stir casting path for synthesis has delivered down their
price to an acceptable level in comparison to the ones processed by powder met-
allurgy and spray casting [3]. However, the presence of discontinuous second
segment debris gives superior mechanical and bodily homes however on the other
hand, is significantly have an impact on their “machinability” because the presence
of tough reinforcement particles in different weight ratio makes them extraordi-
narily tough to machine as they result in speedy device put on [6, 7]. Even though
attempts had been made to cast off machining operation, including close to internet
shape forming and stir casting, they may be confined and therefore machining is
still a quit essential a part of component manufacture. In addition, for lots additives,
the production of true surface end is crucial. Research on machinability of mild

M. Sucharitha (&)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bharath University, Chennai, India
e-mail: saisuchi2002@gmail.com
B. Ravi Sankar
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bapatla Engineering College, Bapatla, India

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 309

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_31
310 M. Sucharitha and B. Ravi Sankar

alloy composites bolstered with Al2O3/SiC fibers/debris imply bad machinability

because of abrasive wear of equipment. Furthermore, fine of the machined surface
additionally deteriorates with device wear [8, 9].
Published literature at the machinability of particulate bolstered MMCs indicates
that best CNMG gear offer a beneficial device lifestyles while machining those
materials with CNMG tools, that’s more difficult than alumina and silicon carbide
and it additionally does no longer have a chemical tendency to react with the work
piece material.
The prevailing observe has been carried out to look at the machinability of the
AA6061/Al2O3 metal matrix composites at specific weight fraction of Al2O3 with
the help of CNMG tool.

2 Experimental Setup

The cylindrical Al2O3 reinforced AA6061 MMCs are cut and the required samples
(shown in Fig. 1) are prepared for machining purpose. Machining tests of the
specimen is carried out in a conventional universal lathe machine (Padmini Lathes
Pvt. Ltd.). The cutting tool is fitted in a rigid tool holder. The selected cutting tool
material is CNMG. Chip breaker was not used during the experimental study and
the machining tests are conducted under dry cutting processes (Figs. 2, 3 and 4).
The cutting forces (Ft, Ff and Fr) are measured at different cutting speed and
depth of cut, at constant feed rate by using SYSCON instrument made lathe tool
dynamometer. The selected machining parameters and the details of cutting tool
used for experimentation are shown in Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4.

Fig. 1 Fabricated AMMC

rods
Study on Machinability of Aluminum … 311

Fig. 2 Cutting tools

(CNMG)

Fig. 3 Chip formation

Fig. 4 AMMC rods after

machining

Table 1 Cutting tool details Tool material and grade CNMG

Rake angle (°) 5
Clearance angle (°) 7
Cutting edge angle (°) 80
Nose radius (mm) 4
312 M. Sucharitha and B. Ravi Sankar

Table 2 Experimental values for 2% specimen

Sl. Speed Feed Depth Wattmeter Cutting speed Cutting force
no. (rpm) (mm/ (mm) reading (M/Min) (N/mm2)
rev) Initial Final
1 500 0.04 0.4 0.10 0.12 43.19 1389.21
2 775 0.04 0.4 0.11 0.13 66.95 896.19
3 1200 0.04 0.4 0.14 0.17 103.67 868.13
4 500 0.04 0.8 0.10 0.12 43.19 694.60
5 775 0.04 0.8 0.11 0.13 66.95 448.09
6 1200 0.04 0.8 0.14 0.18 103.67 578.75
7 500 0.04 1.2 0.10 0.13 43.19 694.60
8 775 0.04 1.2 0.11 0.14 66.95 448.09
9 1200 0.04 1.2 0.14 0.19 103.67 482.30

Table 3 Experimental values for 4% specimen

Sl. Speed Feed Depth Wattmeter Cutting speed Cutting force
no. (rpm) (mm/ (mm) reading (M/Min) (N/mm2)
rev) Initial Final
1 500 0.04 0.4 0.10 0.12 43.19 1389.21
2 775 0.04 0.4 0.11 0.14 66.95 1344.29
3 1200 0.04 0.4 0.14 0.19 103.67 1446.90
4 500 0.04 0.8 0.10 0.13 43.19 1041.91
5 775 0.04 0.8 0.11 0.16 66.95 1120.24
6 1200 0.04 0.8 0.14 0.20 103.67 868.14
7 500 0.04 1.2 0.10 0.14 43.19 926.14
8 775 0.04 1.2 0.11 0.16 66.19 746.83
9 1200 0.04 1.2 0.14 0.22 103.67 771.68

Table 4 Experimental values for 6% specimen

Sl. Speed Feed Depth Wattmeter Cutting speed Cutting force
no. (rpm) (mm/ (mm) reading (M/Min) (N/mm2)
rev) Initial Final
1 500 0.04 0.4 0.10 0.13 43.19 2082.81
2 775 0.04 0.4 0.11 0.15 66.95 1792.38
3 1200 0.04 0.4 0.14 0.19 103.67 1446.90
4 500 0.04 0.8 0.10 0.13 43.19 1041.90
5 775 0.04 0.8 0.11 0.16 66.95 1120.24
6 1200 0.04 0.8 0.14 0.20 103.67 868.14
7 500 0.04 1.2 0.10 0.16 43.19 1389.21
8 775 0.04 1.2 0.11 0.17 66.95 896.19
9 1200 0.04 1.2 0.14 0.23 103.67 868.14
Study on Machinability of Aluminum … 313

3 Result and Discussion

3.1 Cutting Forces

In the present investigation, dry turning operations have performed to evaluate the
cutting forces. The cutting force ‘Ft’ (tangential component), feed force ‘Ff’ (thrust
component) and ‘Fr’ the radial component are measured for analyzing the
machinability characteristics of AA6061/Al2O3—MMCs at different weight frac-
tion of Al2O3. The tangential component Ft, acts in the direction of cutting velocity
vector is the main cutting force (Ft), feed force (Ff) and radial force (Fr) at constant
feed rate i.e. 0.04 mm/rev and different intensity of cut i.e. 0.4, 0.8 & 1.2 mm,
during machining of AA6061 reinforced with 2, 4 & 6% of Al2O3 respectively. The
end result shows that the cutting force additives toes, Ft, Ff and Fr were decreases
on increasing the cutting speed of the composites i.e. reinforced with 2, 4 & 6% of
Al2O3. The determine additionally well-known shows that on growing the burden
fraction of Al2O3 inside the matrix alloy the reducing forces are increases at the
equal cutting conditions, as on growing the proportion of Al2O3 in solid MMCs, the
hardness of the composites will increase linearly.
Figure 3 shows the effect of depth of cut on the cutting force (Ft), feed force
(Ff) and radial force (Fr) at constant 0.04 mm/rev feed and different cutting speed.
The experimental results represent that for all the cast composites the cutting force
components Ft, Ff and Fr were increases on increasing the depth of cut. The cutting
force components Ft, Ff and Fr are higher at depth of cut 1.2 mm when compared to
0.4 & 0.8 mm at constant cutting speed and feed rate. This figure also shows that
the cutting force components are increases on increasing weight fraction of Al2O3
in the cast MMCs at the required cutting forces are increased during machining of
cast MMCs at dry condition.

3.2 Chip Formation

The chip formation in the course of machining has observed by using very
excessive plastic deformation at the shear region and owing to the dearth of enough
ductility of the paintings material. The addition of Al2O3 particle reinforcement into
the aluminum alloy matrix has induced a reduction in its ductility and produced a
semi non-stop sort of chip in the course of machining of these MMCs without chip
breaker. It isn’t always only improves the machinability of this composite, but also
complements its applicability in diverse Industries. The size of chips additionally
laid low with the share of reinforcement particles in forged MMCs. it is found that
the sizes of chips are decreases on increasing the load percentage of Al2O3 in cast
mmcs.
The scale of chips produced at some stage in machining of AA6061 metal matrix
composites reinforced with 2 wt% of Al2O3 are longer in comparison to the scale of
314 M. Sucharitha and B. Ravi Sankar

Cutting Force Vs Cutting Speed

At 0.4 mm Depth of Cut
1500
Cuƫng Force
1000 2&
4%
500 6%

0
500 775 1200

Fig. 5 Graph between cutting force cutting speed at 0.4 mm depth of cut

Cutting Force Vs Cutting Speed

At 0.8 mm Depth of Cut
1200
1000
Cuƫng Force

800 2%
600 4%
400 6%
200
0
500 775 1200

Fig. 6 Graph between cutting force cutting speed at 0.8 mm depth of cut

Cutting Force Vs Cutting Speed

At 1.2 mm Depth of Cut
2500
Cuƫng Force

2000
2%
1500
4%
1000
6%
500
0
500 775 1200

Fig. 7 Graph between cutting force cutting speed at 1.2 mm depth of cut

chips produced in case of 4 and 6 wt% bolstered MMCs. As the presence of Al2O3
in solid MMCs will increase the brittleness of the Cloth, so the sizes of chips are
progressively decreases. The consequences bringing out the reality that the forged
MMCs strengthened with 2 wt% of Al2O3 is having true ductility assets in com-
parison to MMCs bolstered with 4 and 6 wt% of Al2O3 (Figs. 5, 6 and 7).
Study on Machinability of Aluminum … 315

4 Conclusions

The experimental study on the machining parameters such as cutting forces of the
cast composites at different weight fraction of reinforcements, during dry machining
of MMCs by using tools concludes the following points:
• Aluminum matrix composites has been successfully fabricated by stir casting
technique with fairly uniform distribution of Al2O3 particles with different
percentages (2, 4, 6%).
• By increasing the cutting speed of the composites i.e., reinforced with increasing
wt. percentage of Al2O3, the cutting force components were decreased.
• The result also reveals that, on increasing the percentage of Al2O3 in the matrix
alloy the cutting forces are increases at the same cutting conditions.
• This paper is stating that by adding Al2O3 to AA6061, the cutting force values
are increased. And the Strength of this metal matrix is directly proportional to
the percentage of Al2O3.
• The sizes of chips are decreases on increasing the weight fraction of Al2O3 in
the matrix metal.

References

1. Dinwoodie J (1987) Automotive applications for MMCs based on short staple alumina fibres,
SAE technical paper series, International Con Exp Detroit, MI, February, p 23–27
2. Chadwich GA, Heath PJ (1990) Machining of metal matrix composites. Met Mater 2–6:73–76
3. Dhadsanadhep C, Luangvaranunt T, Umeda J, Kondoh K (2008) Fabrication of Al/AL2O3
composite by powder metallurgy method from aluminium and rice husk ash. J Met, Mater
Miner 18:99–102
4. Groover MP (2002) Fundamentals of modern manufacturing. Wiley
5. Fata A, Nikuei B (2010) The effect of the tool geometry and cutting conditions on the tool
deflection and cutting forces. World Acad Sci Eng Technol (45):161–165
6. Luangvaranunt T, Dhadsanadhep C, Umeda J, Nisaratanaporn E, Kondoh K (2010)
Aluminium-4 mass% copper/alumina composites produced from aluminium copper and rice
husk ash silica powder by powder forging. Mater Trans 51:756–761
7. Mahboob H, Sajjadi SA, Zebarjad SM (2011) Influence of nanosized Al2O3 weight percentage
on microstructure and mechanical properties of Al-matrix composite. Inst Mater Miner Mining
54:148–152
8. Radhika N, Subramanian S, Venkat Prasat S, Anandavel B (2012) Dry sliding wear behaviour
of aluminium/alumina/graphite hybrid metal matrix composites. Ind Lubr Technol 64:359–366
9. Behera R (2013) Study on machinability of aluminium silicon carbide metal matrix
composites. In: Transactions of 61st Indian foundry congress 2013
Performance Evaluation of Cutting
Parameters for Surface Roughness &
Power Consumption in Turning of 904L
Stainless Steel Using Vegetable Oil
Based Cutting Fluids

Rushikesh P. Waydande and Dayanand A. Ghatge

1 Introduction

In recent years, new extremely corrosion-resistant austenitic stainless steels have

entered the market place. They are commonly used to fabricate chemical and food
processing equipment [1]. 904L stainless steel finds its application in oil refinery
components, pulp and paper processing industries, seawater cooling devices as well
as in gas scrubbing plants.It is also amongst the “difficult to cut” material and the
difficulties such as poor surface finish and high tool wear are common. [2] In order to
overcome these difficulties, castor oil and soyabean oil are used [3]. It is found that
soyabean oil extended the surface finish for machining at taken cutting speed. In this
Paper, this study becomes necessary to understand the theory behind the perfor-
mance of vegetable oils during the machining of 904L stainless steel material [4].

1.1 Cutting Fluids

Cutting fluids are employed in the machining method with the aim to boost the
characteristics of the work piece-tool-chip system. Cutting fluids improve the
potency of machining in terms of increased tool life, improved surface finish,
reduced cutting force [5]. For applications where a metalworking fluid with good
lubricating properties is required, a non-water-miscible fluid could also be
counseled. The use of conventional petroleum-based cutting fluid is doubtless

R. P. Waydande (&)
D. A. Ghatge

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College
of Engineering, Satara, India
e-mail: rushikeshwaydande@gmail.com
D. A. Ghatge
e-mail: dayanand.ghatge@kbpcoes.edu.in

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 317

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_32
318 R. P. Waydande and D. A. Ghatge

dangerous. The effects of Specific cutting fluid on humankind, operating sur-

roundings, the work piece and machine tool as well as usually on living sur-
roundings as an entire are typically expressed by their ecological parameters.
Machine operators are affected by contact with numerous substances at intervals the
cutting fluids. The advantage of cutting fluid is that cools the work surface and tool.
Another purpose of cutting fluids is that it lubricates the interface between the work
surface and tool [6].

2 Experimentation Details

2.1 Selection of Workpiece Material & Tool

It was reported that austenitic stainless steels are difficult to machine. Very few
research work has been observed on 904L grade stainless steel. It has applications
in piping systems, pollution management instrumentation, heat exchanges, and
bleaching systems. This special grade of stainless steel additionally finds its
application wherever robust reducing acids are used [7] (Tables 1 and 2).

Table 1 Typical chemical Carbon (C) 0.015

composition for the 904L
Silicon (Si) 0.254
stainless steel
Manganese (Mn) 1.592
Sulphur (S) 0.012
Phosphor (P) 0.032
Chromium (Cr) 19.856
Nickel (Ni) 24.745
Molybdenum (Mo) 4.152
Copper (Cu) 1.326
Cobalt (Co) 0.023
Titanium (Ti) 0.009
Ferrous (Fe) 47.923

Table 2 Typical mechanical properties of 904L stainless steel

Tensile Strength (MPa) min. 490
Yield Strength 0.2% Proof (MPa) min. 220
Hardness Rockwell 70–90 typical
Brinell 150
Density (kg/m3) 7900
Elastic Modulus (GPa) 190
Thermal Conductivity (W/m.K) 11.5 at 20 °C
Performance Evaluation of Cutting Parameters for Surface … 319

Fig. 1 904 L stainless steel

Table 3 Process parameters Symbol Factors Level 1 Level 2 Level 3

and their levels
Vc Speed (rpm) 1000 1500 1700
F Feed rate (mm/rev) 0.12 0.18 0.24
D Depth of cut (mm) 0.6 1.0 1.5
C, S, D Type of cutting fluid D C S
Where, D Dry condition, C Castor oil, S Soyabean oil

In this study, 30 mm diameter 904L stainless steel rod is used as a work piece
material. CNC Lathe machine is used for experiments. The Maximum RPM of the
lathe machine is 3200 rpm, Photographic view of machine is shown in the Fig. 1.
The experimentation is performed with coated carbide, TNMG 1604087N grade
(Table 3).

2.2 Vegetable-Based Cutting Fluids

The present trend towards new kinds of cutting fluids supported Vegetable Oils in
machining is clearly justified by their higher biodegradability and lower environ-
mental impact. Many years, vegetable oils and fats have been used and maintained
their importance as metalworking lubricants. The use of Vegetable oil in metal
working applications may lighten problems faced by workers, such as Skin cancer
and inhalation of toxic mist in the work environments [1]. The main advantage of
vegetable oil based cutting fluids is low pollution of the environment. The other
advantages are compatibility with additives, low production cost, wide production
possibilities [8] (Table 4).
320 R. P. Waydande and D. A. Ghatge

Table 4 Experimental Work piece material 904L stainless steel

condition
Machining operation Turning
Insert used Coated Carbide tool insert
Insert designation TNMG 1604087N (WIDIA Made)
Environment Dry and wet

Surface Roughness is measured with Instrument MITUTOYO surf test SJ-210.

The work piece is attached to the detector unit of the SJ-210 P which traces the
minute irregularities of the work piece surface. The vertical stylus displacement
throughout the trace is processed and digitally showed on the liquid display of the
SJ-210 P. The surf test has are solution varying from 0.01 to 0.4 lm depending on
the measurement range [7] (Fig. 2).
The experimentation for this work was based on Taguchi’s design of experi-
ments (DOE) and orthogonal array.an outsized range of experiments got to be
administrated once the amount of the Process parameters will increase. In this work,
four cutting Parameters namely cutting speed, depth of cut, feed rate and types of
cutting fluids were considered for experimentation.
For a four factors, three level experiments, Taguchi had specified L27 orthog-
onal array for experimentation. The response obtained from the trials conducted as
per L27 array. Results were recorded and further analyzed (Table 5).

Fig. 2 Photographic view of CNC lathe machine

Performance Evaluation of Cutting Parameters for Surface … 321

Table 5 Experimentation and observations

Sr.No. Speed (rpm) Feed Doc (mm) Fluids/condition Ra (µm) Pc (W)
1 1000 0.12 0.6 Dry 0.711 971.00
2 1000 0.12 0.6 Castor oil 1.207 969.00
3 1000 0.12 0.6 Soyabean oil 0.589 972.00
4 1000 0.18 1 Dry 2.409 1317.00
5 1000 0.18 1 Castor oil 2.612 1319.00
6 1000 0.18 1 Soyabean oil 1.592 1315.00
7 1000 0.24 1.5 Dry 3.689 1453.00
8 1000 0.24 1.5 Castor oil 4.989 1454.00
9 1000 0.24 1.5 Soyabean oil 3.879 1457.00
10 1500 0.12 1 Castor oil 1.211 1386.00
11 1500 0.12 1 Soyabean oil 0.503 1384.00
12 1500 0.12 1 Dry 0.954 1385.00
13 1500 0.18 1.5 Castor oil 3.487 1523.77
14 1500 0.18 1.5 Soyabean oil 1.917 1524.00
15 1500 0.18 1.5 Dry 1.999 1523.22
16 1500 0.24 0.6 Castor oil 4.517 1248.00
17 1500 0.24 0.6 Soyabean oil 2.968 1248.00
18 1500 0.24 0.6 Dry 2.640 1247.00
19 1700 0.12 1.5 Soyabean oil 0.986 1593.00
20 1700 0.12 1.5 Dry 0.790 1592.00
21 1700 0.12 1.5 Castor oil 2.096 1503.20
22 1700 0.18 0.6 Soyabean oil 2.084 1039.00
23 1700 0.18 0.6 Dry 2.337 1041.00
24 1700 0.18 0.6 Castor oil 2.567 1038.00
25 1700 0.24 1 Soyabean oil 3.654 1392.00
26 1700 0.24 1 Dry 2.819 1389.00
27 1700 0.24 1 Castor oil 4.284 1391.00

3 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

The observed values of surface roughness (Ra) were used for determining the
significant factor influencing the machining process. The significant parameter
influencing the surface roughness was found using the ANOVA procedure.
Tables 6 show the ANOVA for Surface Roughness. From the calculations its being
inferred that feed rate has more influence on Surface Roughness. Further its con-
jointly being inferred that cutting fluid has substantial influence on the process
parameters (Fig. 3).
322 R. P. Waydande and D. A. Ghatge

Table 6 ANOVA for Surface Roughness

Sr. No Factor D.O.F Sum of Mean Variance Contribution (%)
squares squares
1 Cutting speed 2 0.1562 0.0781 0.5948 3.684
2 Feed rate 2 33.0581 16.5291 125.888 77.97
3 Depth of cut 2 1.1967 0.5983 4.5567 2.8223
4 Type of fluid 2 5.6213 2.8106 21.4059 13.259
5 Error 18 2.3637 0.1313
6 Total 26 42.3959

Main Effects Plot for Means

Data Means Main Effects Plot for SN ratios
Data Means
speed feed doc
4.0 speed feed doc
0
3.5
-2
Mean of SN ratios
Mean of Means

3.0
-4

2.5
-6

2.0
-8

1.5
-10

1.0
-12
1000 1500 1700 0.12 0.18 0.24 0.6 1.0 1.5 1000 1500 1700 0.12 0.18 0.24 0.6 1.0 1.5
Signal-to-noise: Smaller is better

Fig. 3 Main effect plots for surface roughness

3.1 ANOVA for Surface Roughness

The above Table 6 shows the analysis of variance of surface roughness. It was
found that percentage contribution of feed rate is high in surface roughness compare
to other parameters. Feed rate has 77.97% contribution which is highly for surface
roughness.

3.2 ANOVA for Power Consumption

The above Table 7 shows the analysis of variance of Power Consumption. It was
found that percentage contribution of Depth of cut is high in Power Consumption
compare to other parameters. Depth of cut has 84.28% contribution which is highly
for Power Consumption [8] (Fig. 4).
Performance Evaluation of Cutting Parameters for Surface … 323

Table 7 ANOVA for surface roughness

Sr. No Factor D.O.F Sum of Mean Variance Contribution (%)
squares squares
1 Cutting speed 2 86,952 43,476 17.4182 8.6372
2 Feed rate 2 25,777 12,888 5.1634 2.5605
3 Depth of cut 2 848,464 424,232 169.96 84.2808
4 Type of fluid 2 590 295 0.1181 0.0586
5 Error 18 44,926 2496 – –
6 Total 26 1,006,710

Fig. 4 Residuals plots for power consumption

4 Result & Discussion

4.1 Surface Roughness

The above plot is of main effect plot for surface roughness. From above plot it is
seen that how speed, feed and depth of cut influence on surface roughness. The
main effects plot used to examine variations between level suggests that for one or a
lot of factors. There is a main effect when different levels of a factor affect the
response differently. The signal-to-noise ratio of the quality characteristics is
divided into the Larger the better, nominal the better, and the smaller the better. The
above plot describes the smaller is better value. The smaller the surface roughness,
the better the turning quality will be. In this case, the smaller the better is used to
compute the signal-to-noise ratio of the surface roughness, as shown. L27
orthogonal array was used for the experimentation.
324 R. P. Waydande and D. A. Ghatge

4.2 Power Consumption

The above plot is of main effect plot for Power Consumption. From above plot it is
seen that how speed, feed and depth of cut influence on Power Consumption. The
main effects plot used to examine differences between level means for one or more
factors. There is a main effect when different levels of a factor affect the response
differently. A main effects plot graphs the response mean for every factor level
connected by a line. The above plot describes the smaller is better value. The
smaller the Power Consumption, the better the turning quality will be. In this case,
the smaller the better is used to compute the signal-to-noise ratio of the Power
Consumption, as shown. L27 orthogonal array was used for the experimentation.

5 Conclusion

• Experiment involving coated carbide tool insert and AISI 904L stainless steel
work material under varying machining parameters and with two different
cutting fluids were performed. Cutting fluids were considered as important
parameters in the machining process along with cutting speed, feed rate and
depth of cut.
• The gradual increase of feed rate and depth of cut increases the surface
roughness in machining of 904L Stainless steel by coated carbide insert.
• The result shows that the feed rate is highly controlling parameter, which
influences the surface roughness in machining of 904L steel.
• An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was made and it was found that feed rate has
greater influence i.e. 77.97% contribution on surface roughnessand depth of cut
has greater influence on power consumption (84.28% contribution).
• It is observed that Soyabean oil was a better cutting fluid than the Castor oil in
improving the tool life and reducing the surface roughness.

References

1. Elmunafi MHS, Kurniawan D, Noordin MY (2015) Use of castor oil as cutting fluid in
machining of hardened stainless steel with minimum quantity of lubricant. Procedia CIRP 26
408–411
2. Johnson RDJ, Wins KLD, Raj A, Beatrice BA (2014) Optimization of cutting parameters and
fluid application parameters during turning of OHNS Steel. In: 12th global congress on
manufacturing and management, GCMM 2014
3. Anthony Xavior ZM, Adithan M (2009) Determining the influence of cutting fluids on tool
wear & surface roughness during turning of AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel. J Mater Process
Technol 209:900–909
Performance Evaluation of Cutting Parameters for Surface … 325

4. de Lacalle LNL, Angulo C, Lamikiz A, S´anchez JA (2006) Experimental and numerical

investigation of the effect of spray cutting fluids in high speed milling. J Mater Process Technol
172:11–15
5. Isik Y (2010) An experimental investigation on effect of cutting fluids in turning with coated
carbides tool. J Mech Eng 56(3), 195–201
6. Adegbuyi PAO, Lawal G, Oluseye O, Odunaiya G Analysing the effect of cutting fluids on the
mechanical properties of mild steel in a turning operation. https://doi.org/10.5251/ajsir.2011.2.
1.1.10
7. Avila RF, Abrao AM (2001) The effect of cutting fluids on the machining of hardened AISI
4340 steel. J Mater Process Technol 119:21–26
8. Hamdan A, Fadzil M, Abou-El-Hossein KA, Hamdi M Performance evaluation of different
types of cutting fluid in the machining of AISI 01 hardened steel using pulsed jet MQL system
9. Ozcelika B, Kuram E, Demirbas E, ¸Sik E (2013) Effects of vegetable-based cutting fluids on
the wear in drilling. In: Sadhana, vol 38. Part 4, Indian Academy of Sciences, pp 687–706
Experimental Study on the Effects of Bio
Ethanol Petrol Blends in a Spark
Ignition Engine: Performance Analysis

P. Anu Nair, S. Sarath, Agresh S. Kumar, Akshay Jegy George

and Anoop G. Das

1 Introduction

At present, virtually all the world’s transportation and industries needs are supplied
by the fuel derived from petroleum. Twenty first century with its prosperity will
bring intricate problems to mankind. One such problem is the fast depletion of fossil
fuels and rapid increase in atmospheric pollution. There will be a short fall of
approximately 25% in crude oil supplies relative to demand by the end of last
century. Hence, the sharply increasing crude oil prices and demand throughout the
world triggered off a frantic search for alternative fuels. An alternative fuel is
defined here as one whose production doesn’t depend on natural crude oil from
wells. Fortunately we have some alternate renewable and non-renewable fuels.
Among them Bio ethanol has the best chance of enduring as an alternative fuel.
Bio ethanol can be used in two ways. The first is blending it with gasoline, with
either small or no alteration in the base engine. The second way of using Bio
ethanol in S.I engines is operation on pure Bio ethanol. This requires major
modification to the engine and the fuel system. The merits of Bio ethanol are as
follows. Bio ethanol can be obtained from renewable resources and can be pro-
duced from a wide range of materials such as molasses, a by product of sugar cane
industry, sugar beet, starch containing materials like milo, corn, algae, cassava etc.,
cellulose materials such as bagasse, biomass, wood, agriculture, forest residue and
saw dust.
Bio ethanol contains 35% oxygen in its molecule structure, hence it ensures
complete burning, resulting in a substantial reduction in CO emission. Bio ethanol
use in low level blends with gasoline results in an overall decrease in ground ozone
formation which causes smog. The emissions produced by burning Bio ethanol are

P. Anu Nair (&)
S. Sarath
A. S. Kumar
A. J. George
A. G. Das

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Gurudeva Institute of Science
and Technology, Payyapady, Kottayam 686516, Kerala, India
e-mail: anunair67@gmail.com

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 327

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_33
328 P. Anu Nair et al.

less reactive with sun light than those produced by burning gasoline resulting in a
lower potential for ground level ozone formation.
Alcohols create higher cooling effects on intake charge than gasoline, which
persists throughout the engine cycle resulting in lower NOX emission levels. Bio
ethanol works as an octane enhancer. High octane quality of alcohols enables
higher compression ratios to be used than are possible with gasoline fueled engines
and this improves both fuel economy and power. Alcohols burn faster and allow
more efficient torque development.
Brazil, the number one, produces 16.1 billion liters/year of Bio ethanol, out of
which 60% is used as a fuel. It has promulgated a federal law which make it
compulsory to use 26% of anhydrous alcohol as a mixture with gasoline in all spark
ignition engine powered automobiles. U.S.A is next with 5.75 billion liters and is
emerging as an important user of fuel Bio ethanol for automobile application. In
United States, Bio ethanol made from corn has become an increasingly important
fuel additive over the past decade.
Basically India is an agricultural country. In India alcohol is manufactured from
molasses, a viscous semi solid material left after the crystallization of sugar from
concentrated sugar cane juice, and it produces 1.3 billion liters of alcohol/annum
and our installed capacity is 3.2 billion liters. At present more than 70% of our
petroleum requirement is met through import. Current gasoline consumption in
India is 7–7.5 billion liters/annum. 5% Bio ethanol blending will reduce 300–
325 million liters of petrol consumption.
Abdel Rahman and Osman [1] conducted investigation on varying the com-
pression ratio of S.I engine working under different ethanol-gasoline fuel blends.
They reported that 10% ethanol gasoline fuel blends increased the maximum
pressure over that of pure unleaded gasoline. A higher compression ratio, for fuel
blends above 20% Bio ethanol, improved the indicated thermal efficiency [2].
Palmer [3] from British Petroleum Company ran a wide range of vehicleper-
formance tests on oxygenated fuel blends. It was found that 10% ethanol in gasoline
improves the engine power by 5%. The addition of Bio ethanol to lead free gasoline
resulted in an increase of fuel research octane number by 5 units for each 10%
ethanol addition. It was further reported that the exhaust emission of carbon
monoxide was reduced considerably (by about 30%).
Hamdan and Jubran [4, 5] have studied the effect of ethanol addition on the
performance of gasoline and diesel engines. The performance tests were carried out
using different fuel blends of Bio ethanol and gasoline. The maximum percentage
of ethanol used was 15%. The best performance was achieved when 5% ethanol—
gasoline blend was used, with a thermal efficiency increase of 4 to 21%. However
all their test were carried out under part load condition.
Yacoub and Bata [6, 7] conducted tests on a single cylinder spark ignition engine
with unleaded test gasoline and high purity straight chain alcohols. Alcohols with
carbon number ranging from C1 to C5 were individually blended with unleaded test
gasoline. They found that adding lower alcohols (C1, C2 and C3) to unleaded test
gasoline improved its knock resistance. They found that Bio ethanol—gasoline
blends provides the highest knock resistance improvement among all tested blends,
Experimental Study on the Effects of Bio Ethanol Petrol … 329

and operate at higher efficiency compared with neat gasoline owing to its higher
compression ratio. Similarly most of alcohol—gasoline blends showed reduction in
CO and CO2 emissions.
Cha-Lee Myung and Co authors [8] from Hyundai motor company worked on
the Research and Development of Hyundai Flexible Fuel Vehicles. In their
investigation, one of the suggestions was a V-grooved type spark plug. This spark
plug with the gap size of 1 mm showed good ignitability and excellent anti-wetting
characteristic at cold start. The cold start temperature limit with the V-grooved
spark plus was lowered by nearly 5 °C compared to the conventional spark plug.
A literature released by SAE, titled “Alternative fuels for spark ignition engines”
[9] gave some results about alcohol fueled engines. The lower Calorific Value of
alcohol lower their stoichiometric A/F ratios, requiring more fuel for a given air
volume. This and their much higher latent heats, make the fuel cooling effects on
the intake charge much greater than with gasoline. Charge temperatures at full load
are reduced, resulting in increased volumetric efficiencies and more torque and
power from the engine.

2 Materials and Methods (Preparation of Bio Ethanol

from Rice Water Waste)

2.1 Preparation of Rice Water Starch

Take 250 gm jaggery and mix with 500 ml of water and heat the jaggery solution in
an open vessel for 20 min at 100 °C. Then allow the solution to cool down at room
temperature. Take 50 gm of yeast and dilute in 100 ml of water and mix it with the
jaggery solution. Take 1 litre of cooking rice water waste mix it with the jaggery
solution. Keep air tight tank for 10–15 days. After that remove the excess water
above the starch solution (up to 500 ml).

2.2 Distallation of Rice Water Starch

Distillation unit consist of 1 litre round bottom flask (RB flask) = 2 nos., Adapter,
Waterpump, Condenser, Thermometer Electric heater. Taking the 1 litre mixed rice
water solution in the RB flask. Keep it in the electric heater in perpendicular to
heater. Connect the condenser unit to the RB flask with the help of adapters and
place the thermometer in an oil contained tube for measuring the temperature of the
vapour particles that develop in the flask. Keep the condenser unit to a 20°–30° with
the help of a stand for the smooth flow. Connect the 1 litre RB flask to the
condenser other end for collecting the liquid Bio ethanol.
330 P. Anu Nair et al.

Table 1 Properties of Bio Characteristics Bio ethanol Gasoline

ethanol compared with
gasoline Chemical formula C2H5OH C4–C12
Molecular weight 46.07 100–105
Octane number
Research 108 90–100
Motor 92 81–90
Cetane number 8 Below 15
Calorific value kJ/kg 29773 43729
Heat of vaporization kJ/kg 921.1 350
Boiling point °C 78.3 30–225
Flash point °C 12.8 −43
Auto ignition temperature °C 422.8 257.2
Freezing point °C −114 −43
Stoichiometric A/F 9 14.7
Specific Gravity @ 60 F 0.79 0.72–0.75
Density kg/m3 792 779
Vapour Pressure @ 37.8 °C 15.84 55–103.3

Check the whole setup of distilling unit and make sure that electrical heater is off
and water supply to the condenser unit is connected properly. Take an amount of
mixed rise water solution in a round bottom flask and place it in the electric heater.
Switch on the power supply and gradually increase the temperature range of electric
heater by adjusting the knob of electric heater. Switch on the water pump to supply
water to the condenser unit to condense the Bio ethanol vapour generate in the
round bottom flask. Condensed Bio ethanol is collected in the round bottom flask
placed in the other end of distilling unit. This procedure is continued four hours for
collect the Bio ethanol (Table 1).

3 Experimental Procedure and Data Acquisition

The experiments were carried out on a single cylinder, four stroke petrol engine
named Villiers Enfield engine, model MK-25, manufactured by M/s Greaves Ltd.
The engine was loaded by an alternator. The alternator was connected in series with
a panel board consisting of a number of bulbs. By switching on the bulbs, the
alternator was loaded in steps of 0.4, 0.8, 1.2, 1.6 and 1.8 KW. Different fuel blends
of pure Bio ethanol and pure gasoline were prepared with 0% Bio ethanol up to
45% Bio ethanol in increments of 5%. A fuel tank with a measuring burette enables
the engine fuel consumption to be measured.
Experimental Study on the Effects of Bio Ethanol Petrol … 331

3.1 Test on Engine Without Inlet Air Heating

The layout of the engine is shown in Fig. 1. The engine was made to run at
3000 rpm. The time taken for 10 cc fuel consumption was noted down with the
help of a stopwatch. First sets of readings were taken with the base engine fuelled
by pure gasoline to access its performance. Further different blending ratios were
fuelled to the engine and readings were taken. When the quantity of Bio ethanol in
the blended fuel was increased, the engine was not able to run satisfactorily beyond
certain blending ratio. The latent heat of vaporization for Bio ethanol is nearly two
times higher than gasoline. When the quantity of Bio ethanol is increased in
gasoline blends, vaporization problem may occur in the carburetor.
Ice formation may take place at venturi throat and fuel nozzle when using
alcohol. To avoid this problem, the intake air is to be heated, so that we can achieve
maximum replacement of Bio ethanol in gasoline. Because of the above factors, in
our investigation we found that the engine could run satisfactorily only up to 25%
blending. When the engine was run at 30% blending it experienced starting diffi-
culties and it was not able to take up the load. Hence it was decided to modify the
base engine.

3.2 Test on Engine with Inlet Air Heating

A heat exchanger to heat the inlet air was fabricated and attached to the engine. In
the heat exchanger, the part of the heat available with exhaust gases is used to
preheat the inlet air. The heat exchanger is single pass counter flow type provided

4
3
2 V
9
A

5 7
S S S
S S S

8
6 ALTERNATOR
SI-ENGINE

BED

1. FUEL TANK 4. SILENCER 7. EXHAUST MANIFOLD

2. FLEXIBLE HOSE 5. AIR FILTER 8. COUPLING
3. BURRETTE 6. CARBURETTOR 9. ELECTRICAL LOAD

Fig. 1 Experimental setup without air heating

332 P. Anu Nair et al.

1 5

3 9
2 8 V
11 A

S S S

S S S

10
6
SI-ENGINE ALTERNATOR

BED

1. FUEL TANK 5. AIR FILTER 9. EXHAUST GAS CONTROL VALVE

2. FLEXIBLE HOSE 6. CARBURETTOR 10. COUPLING
3. BURRETTE 7. HEAT EXCHANGER 11. ELECTRICAL LOAD
4. SILENCER 8. EXHAUST MANIFOLD

Fig. 2 Experimental setup with inlet air heating

with the arrangement of measuring inlet air temperature by a thermometer.

A control valve is provided in the path of exhaust gas to regulate the quantity of
exhaust, so that desired inlet air temperature can be achieved. The following Fig. 2
shows the modified setup.
Under normal conditions, the engine inlet temperature was measured as 37 °C.
Hence it was decided to heat the inlet air to 50 and 60 °C. The same procedure was
followed as in the previous case and different readings were taken. With the
readings taken the following graphs are drawn which show the effect of Bio ethanol
addition in gasoline engine.

4 Results & Discussion

Figure 3 shows the comparison of brake thermal efficiency of the conventional

gasoline engine, fuelled with neat gasoline and Bio ethanol blended gasoline
ranging from 5 to 25% at different outputs. The engine attained a maximum effi-
ciency of 13.49% at 25% of Bio ethanol blending, which is higher by 10% over
neat gasoline fuelled engine. Next to 25%, 10% of Bio ethanol blending yielded
13.3% which is also higher by 8.48% when compared with neat gasoline fuelled
Experimental Study on the Effects of Bio Ethanol Petrol … 333

engine. In the conventional engine, other blending proportions gave a slight

reduction in thermal efficiency. Figure 4 shows the improvement in brake thermal
efficiency at 25% blending which seems to the optimum without inlet air heating. In
this blending proportion, we noted that the engine ran smoothly at different loads
and did not have any starting difficulty. High latent heat of vaporization of Bio
ethanol provides increase in volumetric efficiency, which results in increased charge
density. This can result in higher power output and efficiency. The variation of
specific fuel consumption is shown in Fig. 5. With 10% Bio ethanol blended fuel,
the specific fuel consumption was decreased by 4.84% when compared with neat
gasoline engine. The specific fuel consumption values for 25% blended and neat
gasoline engine are very close.

Fig. 3 Variations of brake 16

thermal efficiency at different 14
Brake Thermal
Efficiency (%)
blending ratios without inlet 12
air heating 10
8
E0
6
E10
4 E20
2 E25
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Brake Power (kW)

Fig. 4 Variations of brake 15

Brake Thermal

thermal efficiency at different

Efficiency (%)

blending ratios with inlet air 10

heating
5
E0 E25
0
0 1 2
Brake Power (kW)

Fig. 5 Variations of specific 2.5

fuel consumption (SFC) for
different blending ratios 2 E0
SFC (kg / kW-h)

without inlet air heating E10

E20
1.5 E25

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Brake Power (kW)
334 P. Anu Nair et al.

Fig. 6 Variations of brake 14

Brake Thermal Efficiency

thermal efficiency for different 12
blending ratios with inlet air
heating to 50 °C 10
8

(%)
6
E30
4
E35
2 E40
0
0 1 2
Brake Power (kW)

The engine ran smoothly up to 40% of blending when the inlet air temperature
was raised to 50 °C in the modified setup. In this stage 35% was found to be
optimum as brake thermal efficiency decreased when the blending ratio was
increased to 40% which is shown in Fig. 6. Figure 7 shows that the most

Fig. 7 Variation of specific 4

fuel consumption (SFC) for
different blending ratios at 3.5
50 °C with inlet air heating E30
3
E35
SFC (kg/kW-h)

2.5 E40

1.5

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Brake Power (kW)

Fig. 8 Variations of brake 14

Brake Thermal Efficiency (%)

thermal efficiency for different

12
blending ratios at 60 °C with
inlet air heating 10

6
E30
4
E35
2 E40

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Brake Power (kW)
Experimental Study on the Effects of Bio Ethanol Petrol … 335

Fig. 9 Compartion of brake 14

thermal efficiency with neat

Brake Thermal Efficiency (%)

gasoline fuelled engine and 12
35% blending ratio with 60 °
C air preheating 10

6 E0
E35
4

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Brake Power (kW)

Fig. 10 Variations of 4
specific fuel consumption 3.5
(sfc) for different blending
3
SFC (kg/kW-h)

ratios at 60 °C with inlet air E30

E35
heating 2.5
E40
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Brake Power (kW)

economical fuel consumption is attained in the same 35%. At the final stage, the
temperature was raised to 60 °C and the performance of the engine was analysed. In
this case also, 35% blending proved to be better than other blending proportions as
shown in Fig. 8. But compared with neat gasoline, efficiency of E35 fuel was
reduced by 1% which is shown in the following Fig. 9.
Regarding specific fuel consumption, almost all blending ratios have the closer
value which is represented in Fig. 10. It is generally noticed that as the percentage
of Bio ethanol increases beyond 25, the thermal efficiency decreases with respect to
the base engine. This may due to the fact that as the percentage of Bio ethanol
increases the heating value of fuel decreases, which may in turn result in lower
thermal efficiency.
336 P. Anu Nair et al.

5 Conclusion

Based on the present study, the following conclusions are drawn. In a conventional
engine, gasoline can be replaced by means of Bio ethanol up to 25 vol%. In 25%
Bio ethanol blending, the thermal efficiency of the engine is increased with 10.37%,
than when it runs with pure gasoline alone. By raising the intake air temperature to
60 °C, 40% of Bio ethanol replacement in gasoline can be achieved and the thermal
efficiency of the engine is reduced with 7.59%, when compared with pure gasoline
fuel. At this raised Temperature, 35% of blending gives better performance, even
though it is less compared with pure gasoline by 1.06%, but the efficiency is higher
compared with other blending ratios. From the above data, we can conclude that
when the intake air temperature is increased, the replacement of Bio ethanol in
gasoline is increased.

References

1. Abdel Rahman AA, Osman MM (1997) Experimental investigation on varying the

compression Ratio of S.I. engine working under different Ethanol-Gasoline fuel blends.
J Energy Res 21:31–40
2. Park GY, Kang SH, Lee SW (2016) An experimental study on spray and combustion
characteristics based on fuel temperature of direct injection bio-ethanol-gasoline blending fuel.
J Mech Sci Technol 30:5239
3. Palmer FH (2013) Vehicle performance of gasoline containing oxygenates—International
conference on petroleum based and automotive applications. Institutions of mechanical
engineers conference publications (MEP), London, UK
4. Hamdan MAS and Jubran (1986) The effect of ethanol addition on the performance of diesel
and gasoline engines. Dirasat 10:110–113
5. Saravanan S, Pitchandi K, Suresh G (2015) An experimental study on premixed charge
compression ignition-direct ignition engine fueled with ethanol and gasohol. Alexandria Eng J
54:897–904
6. Yacoab Y, Bata R (1998) The performance and emission characteristics of C1–C5 alcohol—
gasoline blends with matched oxygen content in a single—cylinder spark ignition engine.
J Power Energy 212:363–379
7. Elfasakhany Ashraf (2015) Investigations on the effects of ethanol–methanol–gasoline blends
in a spark-ignition engine: performance and emissions analysis. Eng Sci Techol Int J
18(4):363–379
8. Myung C-L, Lee S-H (1993) Research and development of hyundai flexible fuel vehicles. SAE
paper 930330, pp 279–285
9. Alternative fuels for spark ignition engines. Automot Eng (2006) 91:30–33
An Experimental and Theoretical Study
on the Effect of Microstructure
on the Tensile Behavior of Polylactide
Nano Composites

Anupam Glorious Lobo, B. K. Sarojini, Sabu Thomas, Adeeb Aman,

Mahammad Nawaz and Abdul Mujeeb

1 Introduction

Despite having applications in the packaging industry, 3D printing, biomedical,

industrial applications [1], Polylactide is still not extensively used in electrical
applications [2]. An ample number of researchers have shown interest on
PLA-silica/PLA-clay composites mainly because of enhanced bonding between
PLA-silica/PLA-clay. These studies have usually resulted in improving the
mechanical attributes and biodegradability of PLA [3, 4]. However, not many
works exist on polylactide-nano metal oxide composites [5, 6]. Nano Al2O3 and
nano CuO have been used in other applications considerably enhancing the
mechanical and thermal properties [7–9]. The current study focuses on preparing
polylactide nano composites in the form of thin films using ultra sonication and
solution casting. Nano Al2O3 and nano CuO have been used as dopants in low
concentrations of 1 and 3 mg. The morphological and mechanical properties of
PLA nano composites have been studied in order to extend the uses of PLA in

A. G. Lobo (&)
S. Thomas

School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University,
Kottayam 686560, Kerala, India
e-mail: anupamlobo5@gmail.com
B. K. Sarojini
Department of Industrial Chemistry, Mangalore University,
Mangaluru 574199, Karnataka, India
A. Aman
M. Nawaz
Department of Mechanical Engineering, P.A. College of Engineering,
Mangaluru 574199, Karnataka, India
A. Mujeeb
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sahyadri College of Engineering
and Management, Mangaluru, Karnataka, India

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 337

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_34
338 A. G. Lobo et al.

electrical applications. The finite element analysis has also been conducted to
compare the tensile and electrical behavior of the nanocomposites in the presence of
agglomeration of the nano particles.

2 Characterization Techniques

The SEM analysis was performed on an SEM of Carl Zeiss make, Neon 40
Crossbeam, Germany of resolution up to 1.1 nm.
Tensile properties were tested using ASTM D882-02 on Zwick Roell Z020
Universal Testing Machine having a load cell of 100 N, the preload applied was
0.2 N maintaining a test speed of 12.5 mm/min for all the samples. As per
ASTM D 882-02, the gauge length of the specimen was 50 mm and at least 5
samples of each type were tested.
Density of the nano composites was determined using the simple principle of
rule of mixtures given in Eq. 1.

qc ¼ VfN qN þ ð1  VfN Þqp ð1Þ

where
qc Density of the nanocomposite (kg/m3)
qp Density of the polymer matrix (kg/m3)
qN Density of the nanoparticle (kg/m3)
VfN Weight fraction of the nano particles
The finite element simulation was conducted on ANSYS® Academic Research
Workbench 14.5 using the Transient Structural component system. The thin films
were generated as Surface from Sketches using the Young’s Modulus of the
respective samples. The dimensions of the samples were 50 mm  50 mm  3
µm with step end time 19.75 s, velocity of pull 2.083  10−4 m/s and initial strain

Fig. 1 Simulation setup of tensile properties of PLA thin films

An Experimental and Theoretical Study on the Effect of … 339

Fig. 2 Simulation setup of I-V characteristics showing the sample and the direction of applied
current

of 0.2 was applied using ANSYS® APDL commands. The initial setup of the
simulation is as shown in Fig. 1.
The I-V characteristics were simulated using ANSYS® Academic Research
Workbench 14.5 using the Electric component system. The material was generated
using the Extrude method the resitivity values [10] of the respective nanocomposite
thin films. The values for current were the input and the voltage values were the
obtained output. The simulation setup is shown in Fig. 2.

3 Materials

Polylactide (PLA) was supplied by Shanghai Guangue Bio-Tech Pvt. Ltd.

Shanghai, China. Nano Al2O3 and nano CuO manufactured by Sigma Aldrich was
procured from Durga Labs Mangalore, India.

4 Nanocomposite Preparation

To prepare neat films, 15 ml Chloroform was taken along with 0.375 g of PLA and
sonicated for about 20 min. This solution was poured into a petridish and placed
aside for a day for the film formation. The formed film was then carefully peeled
out.
The doped polymer films were made by dispersing PLA in chloroform as
mentioned above. The required concentration (1 mg/3 mg) nano powder (nano
Al2O3 or nano CuO) was added in minute amounts at various time intervals. The
respective solutions were poured in separate petridishes and kept aside for film
340 A. G. Lobo et al.

formation [6]. The peeled out films were dimensioned as per ASTM standard
D882-02 and their mechanical behaviour was tested.

5 Morphology

Figure 3 shows the SEM image of neat PLA film. Figures 4, 5, 6 and 7 show the
samples imaged at 2 µm and Figs. 8, 9, 10 and 11 show the samples imaged
200 nm to visualize the dispersion of the nano powders in the polymer matrix and
to view the agglomeration of the nano powders in the polymer matrix respectively.
Figures 8, 9, 10 and 11 reveal that the nano powders have agglomerated. Films
doped with 3 mg nano CuO reveal that the nano powders have largely

Fig. 3 Neat PLA film

(100 nm)

Fig. 4 PLA+1 mg nano

Al2O3 (2 µm)
An Experimental and Theoretical Study on the Effect of … 341

Fig. 5 PLA+1 mg CuO

(2 µm)

Fig. 6 PLA+3 mg Al2O3

(2 µm)

Fig. 7 PLA+3 mg CuO

(2 µm)
342 A. G. Lobo et al.

Fig. 8 PLA+1 mg Nano

Al2O3 (200 nm)

Fig. 9 PLA+1 mg CuO

(200 nm)

agglomerated and appear to be stacked up as in Fig. 9. However, spherical

agglomerates are seen in many regions in all doped films. Better distribution of the
nano powders is seen in films doped with 3 mg nano Al2O3.

6 Density

Due to very low doping concentrations, the density of the PLA nano composites did
not change significantly. Table 1 shows the theoretical densities of the nano
composites as calculated from rule of mixtures.
An Experimental and Theoretical Study on the Effect of … 343

Fig. 10 PLA+3 mg Al2O3

(200 nm)

Fig. 11 PLA+3 mg CuO

(200 nm)

Table 1 Density of neat and Sample Density (kg/m3)

doped PLA samples
Neat PLA 1270
PLA+1 mg Al2O3 1272
PLA+3 mg Al2O3 1276
PLA+1 mg CuO 1273
PLA+3 mg CuO 1278

7 Mechanical Properties

From this study it was observed that the mechanical properties of the PLA
nanocomposites increased at low doping concentration and with very small varia-
tion in density of the nanocomposites in comparison to the neat films.
344 A. G. Lobo et al.

Tensile Strength. The Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) and the Tensile Strength
at Break (TSB) follow similar trend for nano Al2O3 and nano CuO doped samples
as shown in Fig. 12. The graph shows improvement of tensile strength for all
doping concentrations in comparison with the neat PLA film despite the occurrence
of agglomeration of nano powders. The tensile strength of PLA doped with nano
Al2O3 and nano CuO is higher than PLA doped with nano titanium dioxide (TiO2)
[11]. It was found that the tensile strength of the samples in this study were
considerably higher than most of the polymers used as electrical wire insulators [2].
From Fig. 13 it is clear that the finite element simuation values agree with the
experimental values.
Young’s Modulus. The variation of Young’s modulus which is shown in
Fig. 14. These values are in comparison with the Young’s Modulus of
PLA-epoxidized palmolien blends [12]. Since the samples doped with 1 mg nano
Al2O3 and are showing highest values for tensile strength and Young’s modulus,
we may predict that the samples doped with 1 mg nano Al2O3 may be tougher and
harder than the other samples in this study. PLA samples doped with nano Al2O3
and nano CuO were found to be considerably less stiff than PLA doped with nano
TiO2 [11].
Percentage Elongation (PE)/ Ductility. The variation of percentage elongation
at break (PEB) and at tensile strength (PETS) is as shown in Fig. 15. The highest
elongation is exhibited by PLA doped with 1 mg of nano CuO and the least is
shown by sample doped with 3 mg of nano CuO. From the FTIR study of poly-
lactide doped with nano Al2O3 and nano CuO it was observed that as the C-O
stretch in the region 1000–1150 cm−1 increased, the percentage elongation of the

Fig. 12 Variation of tensile strength

An Experimental and Theoretical Study on the Effect of … 345

Fig. 13 Comparsion of simulated and experimental values of tensile strength

Fig. 14 Variation of young’s modulus

respective samples decreased [7]. The polymer samples in this study have found to
exhibit better ductility in contrast to the polylactide grade used as electrical insu-
lator [2]. Figure 16 shows the result of the finite element simulation where it is
observed that the values for deformation of the samples show good congruence
with the experimental results for most samples.
346 A. G. Lobo et al.

Fig. 15 Variation of percentage elongation

Fig. 16 Comparsion of simulated and experimental values of deformation

Comparing the variation of the properties of all doped samples with neat
polylactide film, it is seen that the values of tensile strength and Young’s modulus
are the highest for samples doped with 1 mg nano Al2O3 but at the same time are
least for samples doped with 3 mg of the same dopant. Similarly, the values of
ductility are highest of 1 mg doping of nano CuO and is least for samples doped
An Experimental and Theoretical Study on the Effect of … 347

Fig. 17 I-V characteristics

graph obtained from finite
element simulation

with 3 mg nano CuO. The sample doped with 1 mg nano Al2O3 is however having
the best values for tensile strength, Young’s modulus and ductility. Despite being
thermally stable, the sample doped with 1 mg nano Al2O3 has the lowest value for
electrical resistance in comparison with the other samples and hence it can be
proposed to be used as a material for semi conducting polymer applications [10].

8 Electrical Simulation

The I-V characteristics obtained from the finite element simuation is shown in
Fig. 17. Comparing this with the experimental graph [10], the trend in the variation
is slightly comparable. However all the values of current and voltage are not
comparable with the experimental data. The variations in trend for the experimental
and simulated curves of the I-V characteristics were almost comparable but the
corresponding experimental and simulated I-V values were distinct at few points.

9 Conclusions

1. The PLA nano composites showed 16.1% increase in tensile strength, 28.5% in
Young’s modulus, 10.9% in ductility even at low concentration doping of 1 and
3 mg and also with very small variation in density.
2. The values of the mechanical properties improved despite the presence of
agglomeration of nano powders in the polymer matrix.
3. Enhancement of the tensile strength has been seen for all the doped samples in
comparison to the neat samples, 1 mg nano Al2O3 doped sample displaying
highest value of tensile strength and Young’s Modulus and relatively high value
for ductility.
348 A. G. Lobo et al.

4. The polymer sample doped with 1 mg nano Al2O3 proved to be a promising

material for semi-conducting polymer applications.
5. The values obtained by simulating the tensile behaviour of the polymer nano
composite thin films were in close agreement with the experimental values
indicating that ANSYS® can be used to simulate the tensile behavior of polymer
nanocomposite thin films.
6. The simulated I-V characteristics curves showed almost similar trend as that of
the experimental data.

Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Mr. Rajesh, Centre Head, CADD Centre,
Bendoorwell, Mangaluru, Karnataka for providing the facility for simulation on ANSYS®
Workbench.

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properties and electrical properties of polylactide doped with nano aluminium oxide and nano
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Oromiehie A, Hemmati F (2012) Influence of TiO2 nanoparticle filler on the properties of
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Mechanical, thermal and morphological properties of poly(lactic acid)/epoxidized palm olein
blend. Molecules 17(10):11729–11747
Oxidation and Hot Corrosion
Performance of Al2O3-40%TiO2
Coating on Nickel Based Superalloys
at 800 °C

Naveen Kumar, Vivek Kumar and S. B. Mishra

1 Introduction

The heat transfer pipes in coal-fired boilers, such as tubes for super heaters,
economizer, blades in aero-engines and industrial gas turbine are exposed to an
aggressive environment [1–3]. Due to hot corrosion many important structured
engineering systems may fail in high temperature and hence forth main cause of
failure modes of structured components in the high temp section of boilers and gas
turbine. Which is the main failure modes of components in the hot sections of gas
turbines, boilers etc. [4–6]. As per the properties of superalloys, superalloys have
sufficient mechanical strength stability, creep and fatigue resistance [6, 7]. They
find largest application in the turbine industry constituting over 40% of the gas
turbine weight [7–10]. Although superalloys have adequate mechanical strength but
they lack wear, oxidation and hot corrosion resistance [11]. One of the major life
limiting factors of material at high temperature is oxidation [12, 13].
While keeping the aim of obtaining required specific or modified properties of
the material, the layer of material formed naturally or synthetically or arranged
artificially on the surface of an object made of another material and such type of
process is known as coating [14]. Thermal spraying is an effective and low cost
method to apply thick coatings to change surface properties of the component.
Many different types of coatings are using in different aspect of applications widely
in industry like including automotive systems, chemical process equipment, boiler
components, power generation equipment and, aircraft engines, pulp, paper pro-
cessing equipment, bridges, rollers, concrete reinforcement, orthopedics and dental,

N. Kumar (&)
United College of Engineering Research, 211004 Naini Allahabad, India
e-mail: naveenkumar.me06@gmail.com
V. Kumar
S. B. Mishra
Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, Allahabad 211004, India
e-mail: 07.viveksrivastava@gmail.com

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 349

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_35
350 N. Kumar et al.

land based and ship, marine turbine, [15]. As per the desired specification,
Detonation Gun (D-Gun) spray one the best suitable choices to get hard, wear
resistive & dense coating, Gun spray & High velocity oxy fuel (HVOF) is the best
option, among all the commercially available thermal spray [16]. To investigate the
role of Detonation Gun spray coating in enriching the properties of surface of
substrate to counter the problem of oxidation & hot corrosion etc. is the main
objective of the present research work [17]. One of the thermal spray procedure is
the Detonation Gun (D-Gun) spraying, which provides an excellent low porosity,
good adhesive strength and more compressive residual stress of coating surface
[18]. For the sprayed powder, Detonation gun (D-Gun) offers maximum velocity
(800–1200 ms−1) that is unattainable by the plasma and HVOF condition. The
velocity of higher particle during deposition of coating results in desirable char-
acteristics such as low porosity and higher hardness of the coating [19].
In thermal spray industry Al2O3 alloy with TiO2 ceramics are popular due to
easiness of spray along with environment adaptability [20]. In comparison to
individual oxides, Al2O3 and TiO2 have better performance. For lowering porosity
in coating, Al2O3-TiO2 powder contribution helps [21, 22]. The micro hardness of
Al2O3-TiO2 composite coating depends essentially on their composition. It
observed that either increase of TiO2 content decrement of Al2O3 content, the
hardness decrement was observed linearly simultaneously [23].
Using the detonation gun spray process (D-Gun), Al2O3-40TiO2 coating is
deposited on superni-600 and superni-718 superalloys. Specimens test for hot
corrosion test were taken out in the molten salt environment Na2SO4+82%Fe2
(SO4)3 at 800 °C for 50 cycles. Henceforth, the present work has been focused to
study Al2O3-40TiO2 coating on hot corrosion behavior and oxidation of Ni based
superalloys. To study Al2O3-40TiO2 coating and bare superalloys substrates, we
used thermo gravimetric technique. To characterizing the oxidation and hot cor-
rosion product of the coated and bare samples we use SEM.

2 Experimental Procedure

2.1 Development Coatings

2.1.1 Substrate Material, Coating Powders

Superalloys Ni based namely as Supeni 600 and Superni 718 are selected. The
superalloys Superni718 and Superni 600 were purchased through M/S Mishra
Dhatu Nigam Ltd., Hyderabad, India in the rolled sheet form. In table, the com-
positions (chemical) of Superni 718 & Superni 600 stainless steels are shown. Each
specimen measured approximate (20  15  5) mm were cut from the rolled sheet
and polished by using 180, 220, 320, 400, and 600 grade SiC emery papers
(Table 1).
Oxidation and Hot Corrosion Performance … 351

Table 1 Chemical compositions of Superni718 and Superni600 superalloys

Midhani grade Composition (Chemical -wt%)
Materials C Mn Si S P Cu Cr Fe Ti Al Ni
Superni718 0.0047 0.01 0.02 0.002 – 0.010 17.78 19.56 – – Bal
Superni600 0.08 0.03 0.03 >0.005 >0.005 >0.01 20.19 0.10 0.30 0.1 Bal

Table 2 Characteristics of Al2O3-40TiO2 coating powders

Powder Make and Chemical Morphology Particle shape Powder size
commercial composition (wt%)
code
Al2O3- H.C. SiO2 max. 0.1% Fused Regular and 45/22 µm
40TiO2 StarckAmperit Fe2O3 max. 0.3% angular block
Coating 740.001 Na2O max. 0.3%
Al2O3 balance

The samples were blasted using alumina powder (grit 20) prior to coating.
Commercially available Al2O3-40TiO2 powder (H.C.Starck, Amperit 740.001) with
its grit (particle size) 22–45 lm was used coat on the superalloys by D-Gun spray
process. In Table 2, the Characteristics of Al2O3-40TiO2 coating powders are
given.

2.1.2 Detonation-Gun Technique

Detonation gun spray was ready to apply Al2O3-40TiO2 coating on the superalloys
substrates at SVX Powder M Surface Engg. (P.) Ltd, New Delhi (India). In Table 3,
all the process parameters, including the spray distance, were kept constant
throughout coating process. The process parameters are shown in.

2.2 Oxidation Test

The oxidation test is cyclic which is studied & performed in air environment for up
to 50 cycles. In a Kanthol wire tube furnace, each cycle is consisting of 1 h heating
at 800 °C followed by 20 min cooling at room temperature. As the alumina boat is
kept for specimens. Alumina boats were preheated for 8 h at 800 °C so as to
remove manufacturing defect present in it. It is preassumed that the weight of the
alumina boats will remain constant during experiment all cyclic process throughout
the experiment.
352 N. Kumar et al.

Table 3 Parameter used in Parameters Al2O3-40TiO2 coating

detonation gun spray
Nitrogen flow rate (N2) 800 SLPH
Pressure 0.4 MPa
Acetylene flow rate (C2H2) 1920 SLPH
Pressure 0.14 MPa
Oxygen flow rate (O2) 4800 SLPH
Pressure 0.2 MPa
Power 450 VA
Fire rate 1–10 Hz
Spray angle 90°
Spray distance 200 mm
Coating thickness (average) 250 µm

2.3 Hot Corrosion Test

For 50 cycles under cyclic conditions, it is performed the Hot corrosion studies in a
molten salt Na2SO4-82%Fe2 (SO4)3 through experiment. For removal of dirt the
specimen goes for wash in acetone and a salt of Na2SO4-82%Fe2 (SO4)3is thor-
oughly mixed with distilled water and then specimen is heated in an oven at about
250 °C. It is essential requirement for proper adhesion of the salt layer through
heating of the specimen, as the salt of Na2SO4-82%Fe2 (SO4)3is properly mixed
with distilled water and therefore a layer of this salt mixture with the help of a
camel hair brush was applied uniformly on the warm polished specimens. The
amount of salt coating was kept in the range of 4.0–5.0 mg/cm2. Both alumina
boats & salt coated specimen were then kept in the oven at 100 °C for at least 3–4 h
and then they were again weighed before exposing to hot corrosion tests in the
Kanthol wire tube furnace. With the help of Electronic Weight Balance Machine
(with accuracy in 1 mg), both the weight of alumina boats and specimens was
weighed together at end of each cycle during hot carrion process. During the
process the spalled scale was also included during the measurements of weight
change to find out the total rate of corrosion. Through weight change measurements
of the bare and coated specimen, the rate of corrosion was calculated. Using the
SEM for surface, the samples after corrosion tests were analyzed.

3 Result

3.1 Visual Observations for Oxidation

In case of Superni718 superalloy Fig. 1a, the colour of Superni718 was blackish
colour up to 5th and after that gradually converted to dark black colour and in case
of coated Superni718 superalloys Fig. 1b, the colour of Superni718 was blackish
Oxidation and Hot Corrosion Performance … 353

Fig. 1 Surface macrographs for a Superni718 b Coated Superni718 and c Superni600 d Coated
Superni600, oxidation in environment at 800 ° after 50 cycles

colour up to 8th and after that gradually converted to yellowish colour. The visual
observations of the specimens were made of the end of each cycle. The colour of
Superni600 super alloy was light blackish colour up to 10th cycles and after that
gradually converts in dark greenish colour. The colour of coated Superni-600was
light blackish colour up to 12th cycle, after that gradually convert in dark light
yellowish.

3.2 Cyclic Oxidation in Air

Figure 2 shows the weight gain/unit area for the both the alumina boat as well as
coated superalloys under cyclic conditions in the presence of environment. Figure 2
indicates that the weight gain in compare to bare superalloys in environment is
higher than the weight gain of the coated superalloys. Al2O3-40TiO2 Superni 600
coated superalloy has shown a slightly lower weight gain as compared to Al2O3-
40TiO2 Superni 718 coated superalloy.

1.8 Superni718 at 800˚C

weight gain/area (mg/cm2)

1.6 Al O -40TiO Coating on Superni718 at 800˚C (Oxidation)

1.4
Superni600 at 800˚C (Oxidation)
1.2
1 Al O -40TiO Coating on Superni600 at 800˚C
0.8 (Oxidation)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
No of cycles

Fig. 2 Weight gain/area versus number of cycles plot for Al2O3-40TiO2 coated and bare
superalloys at 800 °C for 50 cycles
354 N. Kumar et al.

Fig. 3 Surface macrographs for a Superni718 b Coated Superni718 and c Superni600 d Coated
Superni600 after 50 cycles exposure to molten salt Na2SO4+82%Fe2(SO4)3 environment at 800 °C

3.3 Visual Observations for Hot Corrosion

In case of Superni718 superalloy Fig. 1a, spalling was observed after the com-
pletion of 6th cycle. The colour of Superni718 was blackish colour up to 8th and
after that gradually converted to dark black colour and in case of coated Superni718
superalloys Fig. 1b, the colour of Superni718 was blackish colour up to 10th and
after that gradually converted to yellowish colour. At end of each cycle, the visual
observations of the specimen were made. The colour of Superni600 super alloy was
light blackish colour up to 7th cycles and after that gradually converts in dark
blackish colour. The colour of coated Superni600 was light blackish colour up to
9th cycle, after that gradually convert in dark yellowish (Fig. 3).

3.4 Cyclic Hot Corrosion in Molten Salt

Figure 4 shows the weight gain/unit area for the bare as well as coated superalloys
in the presence of molten salt Na2SO4-82%Fe2(SO4)3 environment under cyclic
conditions Fig. 4 indicate that the weight gain of the coated superalloys are lower as
compared to those of bare superalloys in the molten salt environment. Al2O3-
40TiO2 Superni600 has shown a slightly higher weight gain as compared to Al2O3-
40TiO2 coated Superni718 superalloy.
Figure 5 shows the total weight gain/unit area in both cases of bare as well as
coated superalloys.
Figure 6 shows the relationship between the weight gain square (mg2/cm4)
versus time (number of cycles) plots are plotted to establish the rate law for the hot
corrosion. Graph shows (from observation) that the coating follows a nearly
parabolic rate of flow. The parabolic rate (Fig. 6) constant Kp was calculated by a
linear least square algorithm to a function in the form of (W/A)2 = Kp t, where W/A
is the weight gain per unit surface area (mg/cm2) and ‘t’ indicates the number of
cycles, represents the time of exposure [24].
The parabolic rate constant Kp for both superalloys is given in Table 4.
Oxidation and Hot Corrosion Performance … 355

Weight gain/area (mg/cm2) 1.6 Superni718 at 800˚C (Hot corrosion)

1.4 Al₂O₃-40TiO₂ Coating on Superni718 at 800˚C (Hot corrosion)
1.2 Superni600 at 800˚C (Hot corrosion)
1
Al₂O₃-40TiO₂ Coating on Superni600 at 800˚C
0.8 (Hot corrosion)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
No of cycles

Fig. 4 Weight gain/area versus number of cycles plot for Al2O3-40TiO2 coated and bare
superalloys subjected to Na2SO4-82%Fe2(SO4)3 at 800 °C for 50 cycles

2 Superni718 (Oxidation)
Overall Weight Gain

Detonation Gun Sprayed

1.5 Superni718 (Oxidation)
(mg/cm2)

Superni 718 (Hot Corrosion)

1 Detonation Gun Sprayed
Superni718 (Hot corrosion)
0.5 Superni600 (Oxidation)
Detonation Gun Sprayed
0 Superni600 (Oxidation)
1
Alloys & Coating at 800 0c Superni600 (Hot Corrosion)
Detonation Gun Sprayed
Superni600(Hot corrosion)

Fig. 5 Bar chart showing overall weight gain per unit area for bare and Al2O3-40TiO2 coated
superalloys subjected to Na2SO4-82%Fe2(SO4)3 at 800 °C for 50 cycles

2000
Superni 718 at 800 Oc (Hot
corrosion)
(Weight gain/Area)2

1500
Detonation Gun sprayed
y = 32.317x - 400.85 Al2O3+TiO2 Superni 718 800
y = 29.329x - 391.75 Oc (Hot corrosion)
1000
y = 22.193x - 285.98 Superni718 at 800 Oc
(Oxiadtion)
500
y = 9.3208x - 118.29 Detonation Gun sprayed
Al2O3+40TiO2 Superni718 at
0 800 Oc(Oxidation)
0 10 20 30 40 50
-500
No of cycles

Fig. 6 (Cumulative weight gain/area)2 versus number of cycles for bare and Al2O3-40TiO2 coated
superalloys subjected to Na2SO4-82%Fe2(SO4)3 at 800 °C for 50 cycles
356 N. Kumar et al.

Table 4 The parabolic rate constant Kp for both superalloys

S. No Substrate Kp Values (10−10 g2 cm−4 s−1)
1 Superni718 66.376
2 CoatedSuperni718 39.448
3 Superni600 28.995
4 Coated Superni600 6.724

3.5 SEM Analysis

The SEM micrographs of Al2O3-40TiO3 coatings and uncoated superalloys after

exposure to hot corrosion environment as given in Fig. 7. The microstructure
consists of uneven surface. Almost each particle have deformed significantly. Fig
(a) reveals that the microstructure is non-uniform and some unmelted particles can

Fig. 7 SEM micrographs of a Al2O3-40TiO2 coated Superni 718 b Al2O3-40TiO2 coated Superni
600 c Superni 718 d Superni 600 superalloys subjected to Na2SO4-82%Fe2(SO4)3 at 800 °C for 50
cycles
Oxidation and Hot Corrosion Performance … 357

be seen over the surface, in figure (b) the surface is uniform and some unmelted
particles are present in the surface. The grain boundaries are distinctly seen in both
the figures. Voids can be seen in figure (c) & (d) both.

4 Conclusions

In the present work, hot corrosion behaviour of Detonation Gun Sprayed Al2O3-
40TiO2 coatings on Superni 718 and Superni 600 superalloys in aggressive envi-
ronment of Na2SO4+82%Fe2(SO4)3 at 800 °C has been investigated and the fol-
lowing conclusions are made.
1. By experiment; it is shown some spalling and peeling of scale and mass gain
was relatively more in bare superalloys.
2. The parabolic rate constants of bare superalloys are higher than the Al2O3-
40TiO2 coated superalloys subjected to cyclic hot corrosion in molten salt
environment indicating the protective behaviour of the Detonation Gun (D-Gun)
sprayed Al2O3-40TiO2 coating. The values of parabolic rate constant Kp for
coated Superni 718 were obtained to be 39.448 and for coated Superni 600 were
obtained to be 6.724.
3. The hot corrosion resistance of Al2O3-40TiO2 coating on Superni 718 was
inferior as compared to that of Superni 600 superalloys in the given molten salt
environment.
4. The Detonation Gun Spray process could be used successfully to deposit Al2O3-
40TiO2 coating on different superalloys, the Detonation Gun Sprayed Al2O3-
40TiO2 coating improved the hot corrosion behaviour in aggressive environ-
ment of Na2SO4-82%Fe2(SO4)3 at 800 °C as Compared to bare superalloys.

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Numerical Simulation of Crack
Propagation in Double Torsion Test

Karuppasamy Pandian Marimuthu, Kwangmin Lee and Hyungyil Lee

1 Introduction

In the field of material science research, advanced and reliable testing techniques
are required for material property evaluation of new and existing materials to
improve the performance and reliability of end products. Double torsion (DT) test is
a powerful, versatile, and relatively simple technique for material property evalu-
ation in brittle materials. The basic configuration of DT test comprises a rectangular
plate with a crack or a pre-notch at one end, where symmetric four-point loadings is
applied. Whereas the other end of plate is simply supported at two points. As a
result, the two plate halves are subject to equal torsional deformations due to
symmetric loadings. From the bending moment, the resulting tensile stresses cause
the crack propagation at the (pre-) crack tip.
Outwater and Gerry [1] applied the DT test to study subcritical crack growth
(SCG) in soda-lime glass plates. Afterwards, the double torsion test has attracted
significant interest to further develop the methods to understand the fracture in
brittle materials and to evaluate the fracture toughness of tested materials [2–8]. So
far, the DT testing methodology is applied to characterize the fracture behavior of a
wide range of materials such as highly brittle materials [9], ceramics (e.g. silicon
nitride [10], silicon carbides [11], glasses [12, 13], piezoelectric materials [14] and
fuel cell materials [15]. DT test is also suitable to evaluate the fracture character-
istics of opaque and non-reflective materials in which the crack length measure-
ments might be difficult to perform [8]. In addition, mode I stress intensity factor KI
is independent of crack length, which is one of the salient features of DT test, and
only function of applied load for a range of crack lengths in the tested specimen [4].
However, the DT testing technique is not yet standardized (test procedure and

K. P. Marimuthu
K. Lee
H. Lee (&)

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sogang University,
Seoul 04107, Republic of Korea
e-mail: hylee@sogang.ac.kr

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 359

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_36
360 K. P. Marimuthu et al.

specimen geometry) and therefore the results from this method should be inter-
preted with appropriate assumptions and clarifications [8].
For better use of DT testing technique, several unresolved questions about the
specimen dimensions and assumptions such as the effect of (i) deformation of
un-cracked part in the specimen, (ii) crack length and specimen dimension, (iii) the
exact crack-front shape on stress-intensity factor calculations and (iv) linear
compliance-crack length relationship need to be answered. Several studies
including finite element method [7, 16–18], X-ray computed tomography and
digital volume correlation [19] have been performed, and empirical correction
factors were proposed to tackle the above-mentioned questions; however, these
studies are not fully sufficient to obtain general conclusions. By means of extended
finite element method (XFEM), the common hypothesis about the stress intensity
calculation and crack propagation can be studied in detail. To the authors best
knowledge, there is no numerical studies available in the literature to simulate the
actual crack propagation in DT test.
In this present work, for better understanding of the cracking in DT test, XFEM
is extensively used to simulate the crack propagation in DT fracture test and an
attempt is made to tackle some of the above mentioned unresolved questions such
as crack length independency of stress intensity factor (SIF), and crack propagation.
The shape and direction of propagation crack is observed by assigning the material
properties of silicon carbide (SiC) to the XFE model. The effect of initial crack
parameters and friction on the crack-front shape are also investigated. In addition,
the effect of exact crack-front shape and initial crack length on stress-intensity
factor calculations are explained in detail Finally, this study provides suggestions to
standardize the DT testing technique for fracture toughness evaluation.

2 Analytical Approaches

Based on the linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM), the stress intensity factor
(SIF) KI [= (E′G)1/2] for plane strain [E′ = E/(1 − m2)] and plane stress (E
′ = E) conditions in double torsion test can be expressed as function of the applied
load P as follows [3]:
 1=2
3
KI ¼ PWm for plane strain ð1aÞ
Wt4 ð1  mÞw
 
3ð1 þ mÞ 1=2
KI ¼ PWm for plane stress ð1bÞ
Wt4 w

where E is the Young’s modulus and m is the Poisson’s ratio of the specimen; W,
t and Wm are width, thickness, and moment arm, respectively. Finite beam thickness
correction factor w is experimentally validated in glass ceramic specimens [20]. As
Numerical Simulation of Crack Propagation in Double Torsion Test 361

per Eqs. (1a, 1b), SIF is independent of crack length a; however, this independency
is limited to a range of 0.25 < a/L < 0.75 ratio [4]; L is the length of the specimen.
By substituting a critical load at failure (Pc) in Eqs. (1a, 1b), the fractures toughness
of the tested material can be evaluated from DT fracture tests [9].
Equations (1a, 1b) is analytically expressed based on the major assumptions
involved in the DT testing. They limit the fracture toughness values from DT test
under certain circumstances. Equations (1a, 1b) assumes constant Wm; however, as
the rectangular bar deflects, Wm decreases as a result of changes in the contact
points between the specimen and loading balls. Leevers [21] corrected this decrease
in Wm as Wm| LDC by proving a large deflection correction (LDC) factor. For load
relaxation test, Chevalier et al. [5] proposed a correction to correct the effects from
the deflection of un-cracked portion of the specimen. With the three-dimensional
FE analyses including contact between the crack faces, Ciccotti et al. [18, 22]
provided correction factors to incorporate the experimental variables i.e. crack
dimensions, notch length and specimen geometry. Based on the analytical,
empirical and FE derivations, these corrections aim to force the geometry to be
crack length independent [9]. Becker et al. [9] used FE analyses and digital image
correlation (DIC) to examine the aforementioned assumptions, and concluded that
the SIF is dependent on crack length for considered specimen configurations. For
the geometries studied, the calculated SIF deviates up to 10% when Chevaliers
(overestimates) and Ciccotti (underestimates) corrections are used; these corrections
enable a reproducible fracture toughness [9]. In this study, SIF at the crack-tip is
calculated using XFEM and compared with analytical solutions. Stationary crack
XFE analyses are carried out by introducing initial damages of various length and
shape in the pre-notched specimens.

3 Extended Finite Element Modelling

Three-dimensional finite element (FE) model of double torsion specimen with

length L, width W and thickness t is created by considering pre-notch with length an
in Abaqus/standard [23]. The FE model is then meshed with 81410 continuum
8-node brick elements (C3D8) and 149336 nodes as shown in Fig. 1. Center of the
specimen, where the crack propagation is expected to occur, is refined with finer
elements, and enriched with discontinuous functions for crack propagation analysis
in extended finite element method. Since, Young’s modulus of supporting and
loading balls is usually much higher than that of the material to be tested, spherical
balls with diameter D = 5 mm are modeled with rigid analytical surfaces. Fixed
boundary conditions (BCs) are imposed to the supporting balls whereas the loading
balls are only allowed to move in the z-direction. Symmetry about x-plane (XSYMM)
is applied to the nodes at the back surface, while a single node each (right, left) side
of the specimen is restricted to move in the y-direction.
362 K. P. Marimuthu et al.

Fig. 1 XFE model of XSYMM

double-torsion test specimen

z
y x Uy = 0

Material with linear elastic behavior is assigned to the FE model of the speci-
men; the material properties of silicon carbide are considered in this study. Damage
is assumed to obey bilinear continuum traction-separation law, which is governed
by a damage-initiating stress threshold rc and the fracture energy C. For the crack
propagation analyses in XFEM, the enrichment option is activated. The contact
between the balls and specimen is assumed to have surface-to-surface contact and
the friction coefficient is taken as f = 0.1. All simulations are performed with a
prescribed maximum displacement hmax of loading balls. To observe the effect of
crack front shape on crack propagation, XFE analyses are performed by introducing
initial damages with the shape of straight/curved crack front at the pre-notch front;
the initial damages are included through the INITIAL CONDITIONS option in
Abaqus/standard.

4 Results and Discussion

The crack initiation and propagation in double-torsion test is numerically simulated

in XFEM by considering material properties of SiC (E = 410 GPa, m = 0.164,
rc = 800 MPa, C = 62.5 N/m) [24]. Before the damage initiation, P increases
linearly with h; right after the damage initiation, the linearity of P − h curve dis-
appears at critical load Pc as shown Fig. 2a. The pre-notch length an has significant
effect on Pc. As the crack start to grow, due to increase in compliance, the load
reaches almost plateau without any sudden load drop. In experiments, depends on
the loading rate, sudden load drop can be expected due to full specimen cracking
resulting from crack propagation in high velocity. The effect of friction on the
critical load and the crack propagation is analyzed by assuming frictionless contact
between the contact surfaces of specimen and supporting balls. Comparison of XFE
load-displacement curves between friction (f = 0.1) and frictionless (f = 0) case
shows that the effect of friction on P − h curve is negligible as shown in Fig. 2b.
Similarly, the effect of friction on crack shape and length is also negligible as the
stress distribution near the crack initiation point is not affected by friction defor-
mation around the contact region.
Numerical Simulation of Crack Propagation in Double Torsion Test 363

Fig. 2 Comparison of XFE load-displacement curves from SiC specimens with (a) different an
(=3, 10 mm) and (b) with and without friction between the contact surfaces

top view bottom view

SiC, an = 3 mm

hmax = 0.05 mm, P = 1.19 kN

t = 2 mm

hmax = 0.052 mm, P = 1.17 kN

hmax = 0.06 mm, P = 1.27 kN

hmax = 0.07 mm, P = 1.34 kN

hmax = 0.087 mm, P = 1.46 kN

Fig. 3 Plane view of propagated crack in double-torsion test specimen at various hmax. Formation
of curved crack propagation is evident from XFEM analyses

Since the symmetry of loading confirms the mode I crack opening condition, the
crack propagates along the center line of the specimen (Fig. 3). In XFE analysis,
this is ensured by carefully applying boundary conditions to FE model. Owing to
the different stress state between bottom (loaded in tension) and top (loaded in
compression) surfaces, damage initiates at the bottom surface of the specimen. As
364 K. P. Marimuthu et al.

Fig. 4 Comparison of XFE

load-displacement curves
from silicon carbide
specimens with and without
initial damages

the P increases, the crack advances both x and z-directions; it forms a curved crack
front in DT specimens as shown in Fig. 3. However, due to larger compressive
stress at the top surface, the crack could not reach up to the top surface.
Similarly, XFE analyses are performed by introducing initial damages with a
shape of straight/curved crack front at the pre-notch to analyze the effect of crack
front on crack propagation and critical load. Length of the initial damage ai, in the
bottom surface, is arbitrarily considered as 3 mm in all the cases. Based on the
load-displacement curves illustrated in Fig. 4, the effect of initial damage on the
load-displacement slope before damage initiation is easily explained as initial
damage increases the compliance in the specimen by increasing the length of the
torsional bar a. As a result, the slope of P − h curve decreases. Also, the initial
damage has comparatively sharp crack front than the pre-notch with circular radius;
therefore, presence of initial damage significantly decreases the critical load for
damage initiation and crack propagation as indicated in Fig. 4. This should be
considered, if DT experiments is conducted with pre-test for making initial crack.
In DT experiments, pre-tests are conducted with lower loading rate to reduce the
load required for damage initiation; so that stable crack propagation is possible [13].
The (straight/curved) crack front shape of initial damage has negligible effect on
load-displacement curves before the damage initiation; but it significantly affects
the load-displacement curve during the crack propagation. The crack area in straight
crack is larger than that of curved crack; this makes the difference in the
load-displacement curves. The formation of curved crack front is inevitable in DT
fracture tests whatever the initial condition i.e. initial damage with straight or
curved front as shown Fig. 5. Whereas the shape of initial damage significantly
affects the crack propagation DT fracture test. At specified Pmax, initial damage with
straight crack front enhance the crack propagation when compared with curved
crack front.
For SIF calculation using stationary crack XFE analysis, initial damages of
various length and shape are introduced in the pre-notched specimens. To obtain
path independent contours, enrichment radius (ER) from the crack front is con-
sidered as 0.3 mm; thus sufficient number of elements are considered for SIF
calculation [23]. Numerically calculated SIF at the crack-tip of initial damage
Numerical Simulation of Crack Propagation in Double Torsion Test 365

initial hmax = 0.077 mm, Pmax = 1.20 kN

damage
an = 3 mm
hmax = 0.073 mm, Pmax = 1.20 kN

an = 3 mm
an = 10 mm
hmax = 0.142 mm, Pmax = 1.20 kN

an = 10 mm

hmax = 0.125 mm, Pmax = 1.20 kN

Fig. 5 Effect of initial damages on crack propagation in SiC at specified Pmax

Fig. 6 Variation of SIF with load in DT specimens at a straight and b curved crack front

(bottom surface) is compared with analytical solutions (Fig. 6); material properties
of SiC is assigned to the XFE model. SIF at the crack-tip at the bottom surface
(longest crack) linearly increases with increasing load. Since, the analytical solution
[Eqs. (1a, 1b)] is derived based on the straight crack front assumption, obtained SIF
from the XFE analyses are largely deviates from the analytical solutions as shown
Fig. 6a. SIF is also calculated by varying initial damage length and (curved) shape
in pre-notched specimen (an = 10 mm), and then compared as shown in Fig. 6b. SIF
at the tip of straight crack front is comparatively crack length independent, whereas
SIF at the tip of curved crack front becomes dependent on crack length. The results
confirm that the straight crack front assumption in the analytical solution is no
longer valid. Profile of curved crack front have no significant effect on SIF at the
crack tip. Since, previous XFE analyses showed that the formation of curved crack
front in DT specimen is inevitable (Fig. 3); therefore, analytical solution for SIF
calculation should be revised by considering curved crack front to obtain reliable
fracture toughness from the DT experiments. The same factor should be considered
while standardizing DT testing for fracture toughness evaluation.
366 K. P. Marimuthu et al.

5 Summary

The crack propagation in DT fracture test was simulated using XFEM for better
understanding of fracture characteristics of tested materials. The shape and direction
of propagation crack is observed by assigning the material properties of silicon
carbide (SiC) to the XFE model. The effect of initial crack parameters and friction
on the crack-front shape and crack propagation were also investigated. The for-
mation of curved crack front is inevitable in DT fracture tests whatever the initial
condition. The crack length independency of stress intensity factor was examined
by comparing SIF from analytical solutions with those obtained using stationary
crack XFE analyses. In addition, the effect of exact crack-front shape and initial
crack length on stress-intensity factor calculations were explained. The results
confirmed that the straight crack front assumption in the analytical solution is no
longer valid. Finally, suggestions were provided to standardize the DT testing
technique for fracture toughness evaluation.

Acknowledgements This research was supported by the Basic Science Research Programs
through the Nation Research Foundation of Korea (NRF-2017R1A2B3009706).

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Structural and Dielectric Properties
of Polycrystalline Calcium Copper
Titanate (CCTO)

J. Mohammed, Isah I. Garba, K. U. Yerima, A. Muhammad,

U. F. Zulfatu, Mubarak S. Abubakar, Jyoti Sharma, T. Tchouank
Tekou Carol, Sachin Kumar and A. K. Srivastava

1 Introduction

Calcium copper titanate (CCTO) with its high room temperature dielectric constant
and high thermal stability has attracted the attention of scientists over the past few
years [1–4]. Dielectric constant of CCTO is independent in wide ranges of

J. Mohammed
J. Sharma
T. Tchouank Tekou Carol
A. K. Srivastava (&)

Department of Physics, School of Physical Sciences and Chemical Engineering,
Lovely Professional University, Phagwara 144411, Punjab, India
e-mail: srivastava_phy@yahoo.co.in
J. Mohammed
K. U. Yerima
Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Federal University Dutse, P.M.B. 7156,
Dutse, Jigawa, Nigeria
I. I. Garba
Department of Physics with Electronics, Faculty of Science,
Federal University Birnin Kebbi, P.M.B. 1157, Dutse, Kebbi, Nigeria
A. Muhammad
Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Sule Lamido University,
P.M.B. 048, Kafin Hausa, Jigawa, Nigeria
A. Muhammad
Physics Department, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Eastern Mediterranean University,
G. Magusa, Cyprus
U. F. Zulfatu
Department of Satellite Application and Development,
Nigerian Communications Satellite Ltd, Obasanjo Space Centre,
Umaru Musa Yar’Adua Express Way, Lugbe, Abuja, Nigeria
M. S. Abubakar
Department of Physics, NIMS University, Jaipur 303121, Rajasthan, India
S. Kumar
Department of Chemistry, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar 143005, India

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 369

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_37
370 J. Mohammed et al.

temperature (100–600 K) and frequency (102–106 Hz) while other material with
high dielectric constant such as barium titanate depends on temperature and fre-
quency [5]. High dielectric constant and low dielectric loss at room temperature are
needed for the miniaturization of electronic devices [6]. With such excellent prop-
erties, CCTO is a viable candidate for miniaturised and improved electronic devices.
For better technological application, the dielectric properties of CCTO ceramic have
to be tailored so as to achieve high dielectric constant and low dielectric loss. Li et al.
achieved high dielectric constant (in the frequency range 1–20 kHz) by doping
calcium (Ca) site with magnesium (Mg) i.e. Ca1-xMgxCu3Ti4O12 (x = 0.05) [7].
Wang et al. study the dependence of calcination temperature on the structural and
dielectric properties of undoped CCTO (CaCu3Ti4O12) and obtain high dielectric
constant and low dielectric loss in the temperature range 20–200 °C [8]. In order to
tailor the dielectric properties of CCTO, we have substituted cerium (Ce) at the
calcium (Ca) site and nickel (Ni) at the titanium (Ti) site.
Solid state reaction method has been the traditional method for a long time for
the synthesis of different nanomaterials, but this method suffers from disadvantages
such as high sintering temperature and long reaction time. Sol-gel method on the
other hand, offers low sintering temperature and less reaction time as compared to
solid state reaction method [9, 10]. In this research, we have employed sol-gel
method and synthesized Ca1-xCexCu3Ti4-yNiyO12 (x = 0.0/y = 0.0, x = 0.25/
y = 0.3, x = 0.45/y = 0.5, and x = 0.65/y = 0.7). The prepared samples were
characterised using X-ray diffraction (XRD), High Resolution scanning electron
microscope (HRSEM), and impedance analyser. High dielectric constant is
observed in the sample Ca1-xCexCu3Ti4-yNiyO12 (x = 0.25/y = 0.3) whereas low
dielectric loss is observed in the sample Ca1-xCexCu3Ti4-yNiyO12 (x = 0.45/
y = 0.5).

2 Experimental and Characterization Details

Analytic reagent (AR) grade chemicals with high purity (99–99.5%) are used as raw
material for sol-gel synthesis of polycrystalline calcium copper titanate with
chemical composition Ca1-xCexCu3Ti4-yNiyO12 (x = 0.0/y = 0.0, x = 0.25/y = 0.3,
x = 0.45/y = 0.5, and x = 0.65/y = 0.7). Stoichiometric amount of the raw mate-
rials such as calcium nitrate, cerium nitrate, copper nitrate, nickel nitrate and tita-
nium dioxide were dissolved in 100 ml of double distilled to form an aqueous
solution. Thereafter, citric acid was added to the aqueous solution with cations to
citric acid molar ratio of 1:1. The prepared solution was heated on a hot plate
(magnetic stirrer) at 80–100 °C in order to evaporate water. A light blue gel was
formed which upon further heating at a temperature of 280–300 °C gives a black
precursor material. The precursor material was grounded with mortar and pestle so
as to obtain fine CCTO powder. Pre-sintering of the fine CCTO powder was carried
out at a temperature of 800 °C for 6 h so as to remove organic matter and impu-
rities. Furthermore, the samples were sintered at 900 °C for 6 h. X-ray diffraction
Structural and Dielectric Properties of Polycrystalline … 371

pattern (obtained in the range 20°–80° using Cu–K radiation operating at 40 kV

and 35 mA with step size 0.02°) was used to study the structural properties of the
prepared sample (Bruker AXS D8 advance diffractometer). High resolution scan-
ning electron microscope (HRSEM) (BRUKER) operating at a voltage of 20 kV
was used to study the surface features and elemental analysis. Impedance analyser
(Wayne Kerr 6500B) was used to study the dielectric properties in the frequency
range 1 kHz–5 MHz.

3 Result and Discussion

3.1 XRD Analysis

Figure 1 presents X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of Ca1-xCexCu3Ti4-yNiyO12

(x = 0.0/y = 0.0, x = 0.25/y = 0.3, x = 0.45/y = 0.5, and x = 0.65/y = 0.7) pre-
pared by sol-gel method and calcinated at 900 °C. It has been confirmed from X-ray
diffraction that the prepared sample exhibit crystalline structure of calcium copper
titanate (CaCu3Ti4O12). Traces of secondary phases of calcium titanate (CaTiO3)
and copper oxide (CuO) are observed in the prepared samples. A single perovskite
structure of the material is formed in the absence of Ce–Ni substitution. The lattice
parameters are calculated and presented in Table 1.
From Fig. 1, it can be seen that the intensity of the peaks of the secondary phases
increases with Ce–Ni substitution. The XRD patterns of the prepared samples are
indexed using JCPDS card number 75-2188. The lattice constant (a) is calculated

Fig. 1 XRD spectra of

(d)
Ca1-xCexCu3Ti4-yNiyO12
(a) x = 0.0/y = 0.0,
(b) x = 0.25/y = 0.3,
(c) x = 0.45/y = 0.5,
(d) x = 0.65/y = 0.7
(c)

(b)

(a)
372 J. Mohammed et al.

Table 1 Values of lattice constant (a), volume of unit cell (Vcell ) and crystallite size (D) of
Ca1-xCexCu3Ti4-yNiyO12 (x = 0.0, 0.25, 0.45, 0.65 and y = 0.0, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7)
Composition a [Å] Vcell [Å3] D [nm]
x = 0.0/y = 0.0 7.390 403.583 50.732
x = 0.25/y = 0.3 7.392 403.911 52.654
x = 0.45/y = 0.5 7.393 404.075 54.013
x = 0.65/y = 0.7 7.394 404.239 55.818

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
using the formula a ¼ d h2 þ k2 þ l2 where d is the inter planer spacing and hkl
are the miller indices. It can be observed from Table 1 that the lattice constant
increases with Ce–Ni substitution. The volume of the unit cell is calculated using
Vcell ¼ a3 whereas the value of the crystallite size is calculated using Scherer for-
mula D ¼ b0:89k
cos h, where k = 1.54056 Å (X-ray wavelength), h is the Braggs angle
and b is the full width at half maximum in radian. Similarly, both the volume of unit
cell and crystallite size show increase as concentration of Ce–Ni is increased
(Table 1). This could be attributed to the fact the ionic radius of Ce3+ (1.034 Å) and
Ni2+ (0.690 Å) are larger than those of Ca2+ (0.990 Å) and Ti4+ (0.605 Å)
respectively [11]. The calculated lattice parameters presented in Table 1 are in
agreement with literature [10, 12].

3.2 HRSEM and EDX Analysis

Figure 2 presents the HRSEM micrograph of Ca1-xCexCu3Ti4-yNiyO12 where

x = 0.25/y = 0.3 at (a) at 2 lm (b) at 1 lm (c) 200 nm and (d) 100 nm. Large,
regular and polyhedral grains of sizes between 902.4 nm and 1.562 lm were
observed.
It is clear from the HRSEM micrographs that the prepared sample exhibit
bi-modal distribution of grains, this shows that the prepared sample are agglom-
erated which upon calcination forms larger grains [13]. Energy dispersive X-ray
(EDX) spectra and atomic percentage of Ca1-xCexCu3Ti4-yNiyO12 where x = 0.25/
y = 0.3 is presented in Fig. 3, the spectra show clearly the presence of Ca, Ce, Cu,
Ti, Ni and O which is as per the stoichiometry of the prepared sample.

3.3 Dielectric Constant

Room temperature dielectric constant (e0 ) as a function of frequency (log f) for the
prepared samples Ca1-xCexCu3Ti4-yNiyO12 (x = 0.0/y = 0.0, x = 0.25/y = 0.3,
x = 0.45/y = 0.5, and x = 0.65/y = 0.7) are presented in Fig. 4.
Structural and Dielectric Properties of Polycrystalline … 373

Fig. 2 HRSEM micrograph of Ca1-xCexCu3Ti4-yNiyO12 (x = 0.25/y = 0.3) (a) at 2 m (b) At

1 lm (c) 200 nm (d) 100 nm

Elements Atomic percentage [%]

Ca 4.39
Ce 2.50
Cu 17.88
Ti 19.51
Ni 1.90
O 53.82
Total 100.00

Fig. 3 EDX spectra and atomic percentage of Ca1-xCexCu3Ti4-yNiyO12 (x = 0.25/y = 0.3)

The dielectric constant of the prepared sample first increases with Ce–Ni sub-
stitution and then decreases. The dielectric constant of the prepared samples at
frequency 100 Hz are 4590, 16000, 2130 and 2750 for the corresponding Ce–Ni
substitution x = 0.0/y = 0.0, x = 0.25/y = 0.3, x = 0.45/y = 0.5, and x = 0.65/
y = 0.7. We observed high dielectric constant (of value 16000 at 100 Hz) in the
sample Ca1-xCexCu3Ti4-yNiyO12 (x = 0.25/y = 0.3) which could be attributed to the
374 J. Mohammed et al.

Fig. 4 Dielectric constant of

Ca1-xCexCu3Ti4-yNiyO12
(x = 0.0/y = 0.0, x = 0.25/
y = 0.3, x = 0.45/y = 0.5,
and x = 0.65/y = 0.7) at room
temperature

presence of thin re-oxidized grain boundary regions on the surfaces of grains with
large sizes [14]. This is in agreement with HRSEM micrograph as they show grains
having large sizes. Also, this high dielectric constant could be explained in terms of
barrier layer formation which is due to the differences in conductivity of the grain
and grain boundaries [9]. The decreasing behaviour of the dielectric constant in the
samples with higher Ce–Ni concentration (x = 0.45/y = 0.5 and x = 0.65/y = 0.7)
could be related to the presence of secondary phase (CaTiO3 and CuO) at the grain
boundaries of the prepared samples [7]. At higher frequencies, the dielectric con-
stant for the undoped sample shows frequency independent behaviour. This could
be ascribed to different sizes of the grains [15]. A Debye-type relaxation peak is
observed in the sample Ca1-xCexCu3Ti4-yNiyO12 (x = 0.65/y = 0.7) at higher fre-
quency. This can be explained on the basis of Maxwell-Wagner relaxation between
the grain and grain boundary [11].

3.4 Dielectric Loss

The room temperature dielectric loss (tan d) versus frequency (log f) for the syn-
thesized sample is presented in Fig. 5. The dielectric losses of the samples are
0.330, 1.140, 0.189, 0.227 at 100 Hz for the samples Ca1-xCexCu3Ti4-yNiyO12
(x = 0.0/y = 0.0, x = 0.25/y = 0.3, x = 0.45/y = 0.5, and x = 0.65/y = 0.7)
respectively. At much higher frequency (at 63.9 MHz), the dielectric loss increases
rapidly. This rapid increase in dielectric loss might be due to resonance effect
resulting from stray conductance of the contacts and leads [9]. The sample with the
highest dielectric constant exhibits a relaxation peak at a frequency of 11.7 kHz.
The sample Ca1-xCexCu3Ti4-yNiyO12 (x = 0.65/y = 0.7) exhibits the lowest
dielectric tangent loss (0.189).
Structural and Dielectric Properties of Polycrystalline … 375

Fig. 5 Dielectric loss of

Ca1-xCexCu3Ti4-yNiyO12
(x = 0.0/y = 0.0, x = 0.25/
y = 0.3, x = 0.45/y = 0.5,
and x = 0.65/y = 0.7) at room
temperature

3.5 Impedance Analysis

We carry out impedance studies in order to understand the nature of grain boundary
resistance of the prepared samples. The nature of the grain boundary resistance is
determined by the nature of curve resulting from plotting Z 00 against Z 0 . The
complex impedance plot (Cole-Cole plot) is presented in Fig. 6.
The samples Ca1-xCexCu3Ti4-yNiyO12 (x = 0.45/y = 0.5 and x = 0.65/y = 0.7)
show high grain boundary resistance. These are also the samples with low dielectric
tangent loss and their XRD peak show increasing intensity of secondary phases
(CaTiO3 and CuO). Li et al. reported the sample with high grain boundary resis-
tance usually have low dielectric loss as a result of existence of secondary phases in
the prepared samples [7]. The semi-circle arc at the higher frequency part of the
complex impedance plot represents contribution from the grain while that in the
376 J. Mohammed et al.

Fig. 6 Cole-Cole plot of

Ca1-xCexCu3Ti4-yNiyO12
(x = 0.0/y = 0.0, x = 0.25/
y = 0.3, x = 0.45/y = 0.5,
and x = 0.65/y = 0.7)

lower frequency part represents contributions from grain boundary [9]. Hence, the
dielectric properties of the prepared samples can be ascribed to grain boundary
resistance.

3.6 Ac Conductivity

Figure 7 presents the room temperature variation of AC conductivity with fre-

quency (log f) of the prepared samples. The recorded AC conductivity of the
prepared samples at a frequency of 100 Hz are 1.66  10−8, 1.99  10−7,
4.38  10−9, and 8.33  10−9(Xm)−1 for Ca1-xCexCu3Ti4-yNiyO12 (x = 0.0/
y = 0.0, x = 0.25/y = 0.3, x = 0.45/y = 0.5, and x = 0.65/y = 0.7) respectively.
The variation of the conductivity of the prepared sample with frequency can be
understood using the equation representing total conductivity rtotal ¼ rac þ rdc ,
where is the frequency dependent part of the conductivity and is the frequency
independent part of the conductivity [2]. From Fig. 7, we can see that the con-
ductivity first decreases and then later increases with increase in frequency. Also, it
can be seen that the conductivity shows frequency independent behaviour at low
frequency. This corresponds to DC conductivity (rdc ). At higher frequencies, the
conductivity increases in all the prepared samples showing that the prepared
samples exhibit frequency dependent behaviour. This corresponds to AC conduc-
tivity (rac ) [16]. The transition from DC conductivity (rdc ) at lower frequencies to
AC conductivity (rac ) at higher frequencies started to occur after the DC conduc-
tivity (rdc ) reaches a certain frequency called the cross over frequency.
Structural and Dielectric Properties of Polycrystalline … 377

Fig. 7 AC conductivity of
Ca1-xCexCu3Ti4-yNiyO12
(x = 0.0/y = 0.0, x = 0.25/
y = 0.3, x = 0.45/y = 0.5,
and x = 0.65/y = 0.7) at room
temperature

4 Conclusion

We have successfully synthesized and characterised Ce–Ni substituted calcium

copper titanate using sol-gel method. The XRD patterns of the prepared samples
show trace of CaTiO3 and CuO as secondary phase. The microstructure shows large
grains of sizes ranging from 902.4 nm to 1.562 lm. High dielectric constant and
low dielectric losses was observed in the prepared sample. The sample with Ce–Ni
substitution of x = 0.25/y = 0.3 exhibits the highest dielectric constant. The pre-
pared material has valuable application in electronics devices.

References

1. Barman N, Tripathi S, Ravishankar N, Varma KBR (2016) Centrosymmetric tetragonal

tellurium doped calcium copper titanate and its dielectric tunability. Solid State Commun
241:7–13
2. Khare A, Sundar S, Mandal KD, Mukhopadhyay NK (2016) Effect of sintering duration on
the dielectric properties of 0.9BaTiO3—0.1CaCu3Ti4O12 nanocomposite synthesized by solid
state route. Microelectron Eng 164:1–6
378 J. Mohammed et al.

3. Sharma S, Singh MM, Rai US, Mandal KD (2015) Materials science in semiconductor
processing rationalization of dielectric properties of nano-sized iron doped yttrium copper
titanate using impedance and modulus studies. Mater Sci Semicond Process 31:720–727
4. Singh L, Sin BC, Kim IW, Mandal KD, Chung H, Lee Y (2016) A Novel one-step flame
synthesis method for tungsten-doped CCTO. J Am Ceram Soc 99(1):27–34
5. Chunhong MU, Huaiwu Z, Yingli LIU, Yuanqiang S, Peng LIU (2010) Rare earth doped
CaCu3Ti4O12 electronic ceramics for high frequency applications. J Rare Earths 28(1):43–47
6. Liang P, Yang Z, Chao X (2016) Enhanced intrinsic permittivity and bulk response in Y2/3
Cu3Ti4+xO12 ceramics. Ceram Int 12:1–6
7. Li W, Qiu S, Chen N, Du G (2010) Enhanced dielectric response in Mg-doped CaCu3Ti4O12
ceramics. J Mater Sci Technol 26(8):682–686
8. Wang XW (2016) Calcining temperature dependence on structure and dielectric properties of
CaCu3Ti4O12 ceramics. J Mater Sci: Mater Electron 27(11):12134–12140
9. Mandal KD, Rai AK, Kumar D, Parkash O (2009) Dielectric properties of the
Ca1-xLaxCu3Ti4-xCoxO12 system (x = 0.10, 0.20 and 0.30) synthesized by semi-wet route.
J. Alloys Compd. 478:771–776
10. Kumar A, Mandal KD, Kumar D, Parkash O (2010) Characterization of nickel doped CCTO:
CaCu2.9Ni0.1Ti4O12 and CaCu3Ti3.9Ni0.1O12 synthesized by semi-wet route. J Alloys Compd
491:507–512
11. Dubey AK, Singh P, Singh S, Kumar D, Parkash O (2011) Charge compensation, electrical
and dielectric behavior of lanthanum doped. J Alloys Compd 509(9):3899–3906
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CaCu3Ti4O12 synthesized by sol—gel route. J Alloys Compd 551:456–462
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CaCu3Ti4O12 ceramics. Ceramics Adv Mater 14:1321–1323
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dielectric properties of Zr doped microwave sintered CaCu3Ti4O12 synthesized by sol-gel
route. Adv Mater 2014:1–6
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characterization and electrical properties. Mater Res Bull 43:1800–1807
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synthesis of nano-crystalline Bi2/3Cu3Ti3.90Fe0.10O12 using inexpensive TiO2 raw material
and its dielectric characterization. Powder Technol 280:256–265
Investigation on Mechanical and Wear
Properties of Aluminium Based Metal
Matrix Composite Reinforced with B4C,
Gr and Fly Ash

M. H. Faisal and S. Prabagaran

1 Introduction

Nowadays industrial areas such as defense, aerospace, consumer and automotive

industries seek advantages of transpiring metal matrix composites. Due to attractive
material properties such as simpler fabricability, less density and better engineering
characteristics, aluminium alloys are selected as matrix material. Better wear
resistance, good specific stiffness, and lower coefficient of thermal expansion are
some profits of aluminium metal matrix composites (AMCs) compared to unrein-
forced aluminium alloys. Aluminium matrix composites infused with ceramic
particles have better wear resistance, creep resistance and stiffness compared to
conventional aluminium alloys which makes their usage in the marine, aerospace
and automobile industry [1]. AMCs are the excellent substances in the industrial
world. Because of its superb mechanical characteristics, it is mainly employed in
areas such as marine, automobiles and aerospace etc. [2]. In comparison with fiber
reinforced composites, particle reinforced composites have a lot of advantages. Due
to their enhanced wear resistance and light weight they can be easily fabricated with
less cost and can be used for the automobile parts which are in transmission like
connecting rods, cylinder liners, brake drum, pistons and cylinder block [3].
Comparing to Al–SiC composites, boron carbide reinforced aluminium matrix
composites have better properties like less density, greater hardness and enhanced
tensile strength. CaC2 also has better mechanical properties with low density. Here
CaC2 and B4C are reinforced with 6063 Al alloy. Resulting composites have better
properties such as toughness, shear strength and tensile strength. A Higher

M. H. Faisal (&)
S. Prabagaran

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Karpagam Academy of Higher Education,
Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India
e-mail: faisalmh78@gmail.com
S. Prabagaran
e-mail: s.prabagaran.cbe@gmail.com

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 379

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_38
380 M. H. Faisal and S. Prabagaran

percentage of CaC2 causes an increase in toughness. Reduction of weight without

any damage to the mechanical properties is achieved by the addition of CaC2
particles of composites [4]. AA6061–B4C and AA6061–B4C–Gr composites were
fabricated by employing the stir-casting method. The SEM analysis reveals the
uniform distribution of boron-carbide and graphite particles in the aluminium
matrix. The AA6061–B4C composite had a higher hardness compared to AA6061.
The wear resistance of the AA6061–B4C–Gr hybrid composite and Al–B4C com-
posite increases steadily with the sliding load and velocity [5]. Fly ash is the waste
product of coal which remains after the combustion of coal in the thermal power
plants. It forms into temperature of 920–1200 °C [6]. Over 90 million tones of fly
ash are produced each year in thermal power plants, most of which is land filled [7].
So it easily available with little or no cost as compared to other reinforcements and
also hazardous if remains in the open environment.

2 Materials and Methodology

1. Aluminium 7075: Al7075 capable to withstand high loads and temperature and
it have better wear resistance, good fatigue strength average machinability,
average corrosion resistance. Its main alloy element is Zinc. Due to their high
strength-to-density ratio Al7075 are often used in transport applications,
including marine, automotive and aviation, it is also used in rock climbing
equipment, bicycle components, and hang glider airframes.
2. Fly ash: Fly ash is the waste product of coal which remains after the combustion
of coal in the thermal power plants. Fly ash is one of the most inexpensive
discontinuous, low-cost waste by-products. SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 and occasion-
ally CaO are the main chemical components present in fly ashes.
3. Boron carbide: Boron carbide is a very hard ceramic substance employed in
bulletproof vests, tank armors and in other industrial areas. As per Mohr’s
ranking scale, it maintains 3rd position after CBN and diamond.
4. Graphite: Graphite and Diamond are two different allotropic forms of Carbon.
Depending upon the carbon alignment, characteristics and structure vary. It
exhibits both non metal and metal properties. It is also used in industrial
applications such as thrust bearings, vanes, piston rings and journal bearings.
5. Stir casting: The stir casting apparatus is mainly used for the fabrication of
particulate metal matrix composites. Uniform distribution of reinforcement
particles can be achieved by this method which ensures a homogeneous com-
posite. At first, equipment temperature is fixed at 500 °C and then it is slowly
increased to 900 °C. The Required quantity of alloy ingots is cut down into
rectangular pieces and deposited in the graphite crucible for melting. LM13
alloy is melted at 695 °C. Then the preheated boron carbide and graphite par-
ticles are added to the molten matrix and the uniform stirring is performed for
Investigation on Mechanical and Wear Properties of Aluminium … 381

5 min to achieve the uniform reinforcement particle distribution in the com-

posite. After that the molten metal is poured into the prepared sand moulds and
kept for enough time to solidify. Composite specimens are taken out from the
moulds after solidification. By changing particles same steps are repeated for all
composites [8].
6. Tension test: Tension test is the conventional test used to determine the
mechanical characteristics of a substance. Tensile strength (UTS), elastic
modulus (E), yield strength (ry), reduction in area (RA %) and percent elon-
gation (L %) are the dominant variables that explain the stress-strain curve
procured during the tension test. Using the obtained parameters Poisson’s ratio
(m), Resilience and Toughness can be calculated. A specimen of required
dimensions is prepared and held in the machine jaws. Based on the standards,
specimens are prepared from the work material.
7. Rockwell Hardness Test: Based on ASTM E18:2014 standards, specimens are
produced. At first, a preliminary minor load of 10 kgf is applied on the specimen
surface. As soon as the equilibrium occurs, the indicator is adjusted to a datum
position. Indicating device is used to react to variations in indenter’s penetration
depth by following the motion of the indenter. An extra major load resulting
penetration improvement is applied while the preliminary load is being exerted.
During equilibrium, the major load is detached by conserving minor load. When
the major load is withdrawn, partial spring back occurs. This decreases the
penetration depth. So for determining Rockwell hardness, the increase in pen-
etration depth after the expulsion of the major load is used.
8. Pin-on-disk testing: In these tests, we have the capability to regulate speed,
normal load and other variables such as lubricants, gas type, pressure, tem-
perature etc. With the help of transducers normal and frictional forces are
evaluated. The transducer assesses the deflection of pin holder fixture and
transforms it into force. A profilometer is used to identify volume/mass loss and
to compute the wear rate and friction coefficient. Thus the system performance
can be analyzed.

3 Results and Discussion

1. Micro structural analysis

Microstructures need higher magnification than macrostructures. The conventional
light microscope is the most frequent microscope utilized. Generally, optical
microscopes can be utilized to examine the specimens in reflection and transmission
modes. We are confined to examine the specimen surface using optical microscope
due to the opaque nature of many substances (Figs. 1, 2, 3).
382 M. H. Faisal and S. Prabagaran

Fig. 1 a Mag: 100, b Mag: Al7075 + B4C 7%

500

Fig. 2 a Mag: 100, b Mag: Al7075 + B4C 7% + Gr 3%

500

Fig. 3 a Mag: 100, b Mag: Al7075 + B4C 7% + Fly ash 15%

500
Investigation on Mechanical and Wear Properties of Aluminium … 383

2. Tensile test
Figures 4 and 5 exhibits the tensile test outcomes of the Al7075, Al7075/ B4C,
Al7075/ B4C/ Gr 3% and Al7075/ B4C/ Fly ash composites. It is perceived that by
adding the boron carbide and fly ash particles in the Al7075, both tensile strength
and yield stress are intensified. This is due to the superior surface (interfacial)
bonding formed between the reinforcement and the matrix which results the boron
carbide particles to support the tensile force entrusting with the matrix [9]. 69%
increase in tensile strength was perceived due to the addition of 7% B4C particles to
the Al7075 matrix and the addition of 7% B4C and 15% Fly ash particles to the
Al7075, 116% hike in tensile strength compared to the unreinforced alloy. In the
same way, contingent upon yield stress, 7% of B4C and 15% Fly ash particles
causes an increment in yield stress by 54 and 98% respectively.
3. Rockwell hardness testing
Table 1 represents the hardness test outcomes of the Al7075 alloy, Al7075/B4C,
Al7075/B4C/Gr 3% and Al7075/B4C/Fly ash composites. It is perceived that by
incorporating the B4C and Fly ash particles in the composites, hardness is improved
accompanied by declined atomic dislocation. The presence of hard boron carbide
and Fly ash particles resists plastic deformation in the specimens and the grain
boundary strength improves to a supreme level. Enhancement in reinforcement
surface area and a decline in grain size is the discovered outcomes produced as a
result of infusement of the boron carbide particles to the composites. Because of
these outcomes harnesses of the composite gets improved [10]. 26.6% improvement
in hardness was noticed due to the addition of 7% B4C particles. Similarly, 15% of
Fly ash reinforcement cause 17% intensification in hardness of hybrid composite
than the Al7075+B4C 7% composite.

Fig. 4 Tensile strength of 130

tensile test specimens Series 1
120

110

100

90
127.69
80 99.7 98.24
Series 1
70

60

50 59
40
384 M. H. Faisal and S. Prabagaran

Series 1
110

100

90

80
Series 1
70

60

50

40

Fig. 5 Yield stress of tensile test specimens

Table 1 Rock well hardness test result

SI. No. Sample Id Observed values, Average, HRB
HRB
1 2 3
1 Al 7075 60 60 60 60
2 Al 7075 + B4C 7% 76 75 77 76
3 Al 7075 + B4C 7% + Gr 3% 81 80 79 80
4 Al 7075 + B4C 7% + Fly ash 15% 91 89 89 89

4. Wear testing
Table 2 shows the pin on disc test results of the Al7075/B4C 7%, Al7075/B4C 7%/
Gr 3%, Al7075/B4C7%/ Fly ash 15% and composites. By analyzing, it is perceived
that by incorporating the boron carbide in the composite properties like wear,
coefficient of friction (COF) and frictional force are declined accompanied by

Table 2 Pin on disc test result Track Radius D = 0.05 M (50 mm)
Sl. Material RPM Load Time Sliding Wear COF Frictional
No. (N) duration velocity in force
(Min) (m/s) (lm) (average) N
1 Sample1 500 40 10 2.617 260.79 0.2990 11.96
2 Sample2 500 40 10 2.617 121.1 0.3069 12.27
3 Sample3 500 40 10 2.617 91.7 0.2803 11.21
Investigation on Mechanical and Wear Properties of Aluminium … 385

attainment of excellent tribological properties. 53.6% decline in wear was noticed

for 3% Graphite particles infusion to Al7075/B4C composite and 15% of fly ash
reinforcement results in 65% decline in wear than the Al7075/B4C composite.

4 Conclusion

The present work deals with the different tests performed on Al7075/B4C, Al7075/
B4C/Gr and Al7075/B4C/Fly ash composites in which diverse mechanical prop-
erties like yield stress, tensile strength, wear, hardness, COF and frictional force
were analyzed using tensile, hardness and pin on disc tests. By adding of boron
carbide and Fly ash in the Al7075 aluminium matrix, the hardness of the produced
composites gets raised. In the case of tribological properties like wear, coefficient of
friction and frictional force, a decline was observed with addition of boron carbide
and Fly ash. Also, the presence of 3% Graphite helped to obtain better tribological
as well as self-lubricating characteristics. The Negative influence of graphite on
mechanical characteristics can be enhanced by including boron carbide into it and
thus making a hybrid composite. The outcomes of this research can be properly
employed for refinement of the automotive and structural components so that
components with excellent mechanical characteristics can be developed.

References

1. Surappa MK (2013) Aluminium matrix composites: challenges and opportunities, sadhana,

vol 28, pp 319–334
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Al-based hybrid composite reinforced with tungsten oxide particle and aluminum borate
whisker by squeeze casting. Mater Des 29:2023–2026
3. Raviteja T, Radhika N, Raghu R (2013) Fabrication and Mechanical Properties of Stir Cast
Al-Si12Cu/B4C Composites. Int J Res Eng Technol, pp 343–346
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carbide composites with influence of Calcium carbide particles. Int J Emerg Technol Adv Eng
492–496
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hardness and wear behavior of AA6061–B4C Composite. Materiali in tehnologije/Mat
Technol 48:661–667
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Aluminium Carbon Nanotube
Composites—A Review on Latest
Approaches

A. H. Sajeeb Rahiman and D. S. Robinson Smart

1 Introduction

Aluminium is rising as the most propitious metal in engineering application now a

day. The high stiffness, low density, and energy/sound absorption properties makes
it suitable for many applications [1, 2]. As Al is a very receptive metal it readily
forms aluminium oxide in contact with oxygen. But unlike in corrosion of steel, the
oxide formed chemically bond with Al surface and will be a cover for Al from
further reactions. This phenomenon adds to the corrosion resistant property of
aluminum [3]. But Al has got low mechanical strength and poor wear resistance.
These are limitations for Al to be used as structural material [4]. Hence reinforcing
Al to impart the suitable properties is very important. After Iigima [5] presented
carbon nanotubes in 1991, it draws the consideration of many researchers. The
cylindrical graphite structure of CNTs, with high young’s modulus of 1 TPa and
superior chemical stability makes them an ideal promising reinforcement for Al
matrix [6]. They are the toughest of fibres with stiffness up to 1000 GPa, strength of
100 GPa and thermal conductivity up to 6000 Wm−1 K−1 [7].
Aluminium ball milling involves; (1) The powders getting formed to flakes
(2) the flakes getting cold welded to lamellar structure (3) the cold welded particles
getting into fine particles. In ordinary ball milling both CNT clusters and formation
of Al4C3 in the interface are reasons which badly affect the ductility of CNT/Al
composite [8]. When the time in milling is prolonged the dispersion will improve
but it will damage the Al structure [8–10]. Uniform dispersion with minimum

A. H. Sajeeb Rahiman (&)

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences,
Coimbatore 641114, India
e-mail: sajeebrahman@mgits.ac.in
D. S. Robinson Smart
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences,
Ernakulam 682308, India

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 387

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_39
388 A. H. Sajeeb Rahiman and D. S. Robinson Smart

damage to the CNT framework and establishment of a strong bonded interface

amidst Al and CNT are the major challenges with CNT reinforcement [8]. Al4C3
has got rhombohedra structure whereas Al matrix is of cubic structure. The dif-
ference in the structures cause rise in interfacial strains between Al4C3 and Al,
which influence the interfacial bonding strength [11]. The study details the latest
approaches in the attempt of establishing high performance Al/CNT composites
with latest approaches.

2 Literature Review

The major and the initial step in forming Al/CNT nanocomposite is to diffuse the
reinforcement material with the Al matrix. The most popular method of fabrication
of aluminium composite is the High Energy Ball Milling (HEBM) method. Bia and
Shufeng et al. [12] studied the fractural performance of Al/CNT nanocomposites
with powder metallurgy route. It is recorded that the CNTs retard the growth of
crack by operating like a bridge. The high magnification of crack reveals CNTs
with inner walls of decreased outer diameter indicating fracturing from outer
diameter. The CNTs are also observed to have undergone multiple peeling with a
few fractured stages. According to them the CNT fracture mode accounts for
effectual load transmission with MWCNT and the matrix and among MWCNT
walls in Al/CNT material during tensile failure. The Ultimate Tensile and Yield
Strengths are reported to increase whereas elongation is decreased with CNT
reinforcement. Carvalo and Miranda et al. [13] recorded that the temperature and
frequency are factors which influence the damping behavior of the Al-CNT com-
posites. From 1 to 50 Hz frequency range and from the room temperature to 200 °C
temperature range the damping ability of the nanocomposite is observed to increase.
With high temperature above 200 °C, the damping performance is reported to
decline with increasing frequency. The dynamic young’s modulus is found to
decrease with temperature. Shin and Ko et al. [14] studied Al matrix composite with
multi walled CNT at elevated temperature range obsereved that the yield stress is
enhanced two times and the compressive yield stress is found approximately three
times superior to the unreinforced Al 2024. Shin and Bae et al. [15] studied on
fatigue performance of 2024Al/MWCNT composites. Tensile strength of the
material is reported to increase with CNT content. It is the bridging behavior of
MWCNT that enhances the fatigue strength for the material. As stated by them 4
vol% of MWCNT the composite material is found to overcome 2.5106 cycles at
an applied stress of 600 MPa.
Increased milling time for good dispersion condition by High Energy Ball
Milling (HEBM) results in reduction in the length of CNT. The impact of CNT
length is an important factor in strengthening by CNT reinforcement. Chen and
Shen et al. [16] recorded that the solution coating methods induces high aspect ratio
for CNT whereas HEBM resulted in considerable reduction in length of CNT which
is pronounced in long milling time. It is reported that CNT strengthening in
Aluminium Carbon Nanotube Composites—A Review … 389

aluminium matrix induces considerable enhancement in strength regardless of the

aspect ratio. The studies revealed a transition in strengthening mechanism with
aspect ratios. With aspect ratio over 40, the dominant phenomenon of strengthening
is load transmission mechanisms where as it is Orowan mechanism when the aspect
ratio is below 10. The reinforcing influence of CNT in Al matrix is critically
determined by the interface bonding with them. A strong transition interface is a
determining factor for strong bonding. Chen and Shen et al. [17] studied Al-CNT
composites in different interfacial reaction degrees at sintering temperatures of 700–
900 K. From 700 to 875 K the quantity of Al4C3 is observed to be increasing in the
interface amidst partially reacted CNTs and Al matrix. Accordingly they reported
pronounced improvement in interface strength and load transmission efficiency
when the sintering temperature is increased. With elevated temperature of 900 K,
the strengthening response is reported to decrease with formation of mono crystal
Al4C3 phases with rod shapes. The variations in structures of Al4C3 and Al causes
rise in interfacial strains which influence the interface bonding strength. Instead of
generating a stable phase of Al4C3, a non equilibrium state achieved in the inter-
facial area amidst Al and CNT may improve properties of nanocomposite. The
method of consolidation is an important factor in achieving the required interfacial
phase. Spark plasma Sintering (SPS) which allows rapid cooling rates and precise
holding time at relatively low sintering temperatures is an encouraging method to
achieve the desired interface. Baisong and Min et al. [18] reported an amorphous
layer because of inter diffusion of C and Al in the interface. The faster cooling rates
with short processing time of SPS makes it suitable for achieving the interface
without Al3C4 phase. The yield strength of the composite is reported to enhance
considerably which accounts for the non equilibrium interface formed. They
recorded that the size of the initial Al powder is observed to have great influence on
mechanical behaviour of the material. Housaer and Beclinet et al. [19] studied in
detail on the impact of sintering temperature and consolidation techniques on the
composite interface. For HP at sintering temperature of 580 °C a continuous
amorphous Al2O3 is observed. The Al2O3 layer existing side by side with CNT
serves as a barrier for the straight contact of Al and CNT at the interface. Traces of
Al4C3 are also noted which accounts to the crushing down of some Al2O3 layer
causing diffusion of Al and carbon. At 600 °C, growth of Al4C3 is reported which
shows the diffusion of CNT to Al even below the melting point of Al. With 645 °C
no isolated CNT is noted in the interface, instead several rods of Al4C3 and fine
needle shaped Al2O3 is observed. Al4C3 rods are present whenever Al2O3 layers are
broken from 610 to 645 °C and grow perpendicular to the matrix grain boundaries
into the Al grains. It is recorded that CNT degradation by the generation of Al4C3
can be slowed down by the precise holding time in SPS technique and hence a
promising solution to control the CNT–Al interfaces during sintering. The diffusion
of CNTs is improved by introducing carboxyl or hydroxyl grades on the CNT
surface. Xian and YuGuang et al. [20] studied 2014 Al matrix composite with
untreated carboxyl functionalized carbon nano tubes by combination of sintering
and hot extrusion. It is recorded that the addition of functional class of –COOH by
carboxyl treatment improves the diffusion of CNT in the matrix and adds to the
390 A. H. Sajeeb Rahiman and D. S. Robinson Smart

interfacial bonding with CNT and matrix. The Ultimate Strength of the material has
an increment from 530 to 630 MPa with 0.5 wt% of treated CNT. The total
elongation is reported to slightly decrease compared to the matrix. Xiang and Xie
et al. [21] made use of molecular dynamics simulations (MD) for studying the
reinforcement and deformation mechanics at atomic level of aligned dispersion of
carbon nano tubes in aluminium matrix composite. They reported considerable
enhancement in the elasticity and strength of CNT/Al composite with increased
CNT diameter. Further the improvement in mechanical behavior is higher by
armchair carbon nano tube than those reinforced by zigzag CNT. It is recorded that
CNT bridges the fractural Al sections restricting the propagation of cracks.
The researchers are interested in optimizing the strength and ductility of the
Aluminium-CNT nanocomposites which offers better diffusion of CNT with less
damage in its structure. Run and Zhianqui et al. [22] reported 1.5 wt% CNT/Al
composite by Shift Speed Ball Milling (SSBM). With 9 h LSBM ultra fine grain Al
powders are formed. At 2 h of HSBM cold working of Al flakes started and by 9 h
the particle size found to increase. The strength of SSBM composite is noticed to be
the same and the ductility of the composite increased twice and triple times with
LSBM and HSBM respectively. The SSBM material is reported to have high yield
strength and ultimate tensile strength with total elongation of 12.4%. Kunning and
Xudong et al. [23] recorded that the carbon nano tube reinforcement enhances the
energy dissipation capacity by retarding dislocation movement and grain refine-
ment. The damping characteristics are observed to be promising with 3.0 wt% of
CNT within temperatures of 25–390 °C. As recorded by them the reinforcement
content and porosity determines the loss factor of the nanocomposite. The damping
mechanism owes to the great intrinsic damping of CNTs, improved interfacial area,
number and bond force amidst CNTs and Al matrix. Xundong and Tianchun et al.
[24] reported the hardness and tensile values for the material increased with the wt
% of CNT reinforcement up to 4.5 wt%. Within the temperature order of 100–300 °
C the increment in CNT content resulted in decrease of CTEs of the composite.
This is characterized to the high diffusion of CNT and effective bonding amidst Al
and CNT which results in effective pinning inside the matrix retarding Al grain
growth during heating. As recorded by them the CNT reinforcement thus improves
the thermal stability of Al matrix. The ductility is also affected by the strain
hardening influence of HEBM in case of Al. Ehab and Abbas et al. [25] reported
dual matrix fabrication of Al/CNT composite which improves the ductility main-
taining sufficient strength for the material. CNTs were dispersed in Al powders for
synthesizing the Single matrix (SM) composites whereas pre-processed SM
Al-CNT powders were embedded into a secondary matrix of soft aluminum for
preparing the dual matrix (DM) composites. Uniform dispersion of reinforcement
and firm bond with SM and DM phases are reported with 60 min of mechanical
milling. Tensile strength is observed to be highest for 50% mixing ratio. Studies are
attempted to improve the ductility by raising the sintering temperature as studied by
Chen and Kondoh et al. [26]. They studied a three step fabrication of CNT/Al
composite which includes (1) Planetary ball milling, (2) mechanical solution
coating and (3) consolidation by SPS. The fragments of low angle GBs is observed
Aluminium Carbon Nanotube Composites—A Review … 391

to be increasing significantly with rise in sintering temperature from 800 to 900 K

which is related to the increased bonding amidst matrix grains. The improved
bonding conditions contribute to an enhancement of 18% in yield strength and 14%
in Ultimate Tensile Strength and 82% increase in tensile elongation. Mokdad and
Chen et al. [27] reported that the refining of grains is greatly affected by CNT
reinforcement which contributed to Hall–Petch strengthening or GB strengthening
as a result of interactions of GBs and dislocations. They reported a substantial
increase in flow stress with decreasing temperature and increasing strain rate. The
activation energy in plastic deformation is reported to increase from 274.5 to
322.3 kJ/mol. The compressive yield strength which indicates the high temperature
deformation resistance is enhanced with increasing vol% of CNTs.
New approaches have been continuously introduced to unbundle carbon nanotubes
via mechanical forces or chemical reactions with minimum destruction of CNTs
structure. Rikhtegar and Shabestariet al. [28] investigated semi-wet (SW) and slurry
based (SB) and the yield, compressive and tensile strength of Al is found to be
significantly increased by both methods. According to them the tensile test specimen
exhibits pull out phenomenon for SW products and fracture and bridging of CNTs in
SB samples with fracture analysis. Mansoor and Shahid [29] studied induction
melting to attain better diffusion of CNTs in molten Al. reported substantial refine-
ment of crystallite size with increment in CNT amount. It is recorded that the mis-
matched coefficient of thermal expansion of the matrix and the strengthening material
featured a rise in the lattice strain with increment in CNT content. The rise in lattice
strains causes accumulation in dislocation density which accords to the strengthening
of the composite. The synergetic effect of crystallite size refinement, increased lattice
strain and reinforcement of nano tubes results in increase of yield strength by 77%,
tensile strength by 52%, elongation by 44% and a 45% in hardness. CNT presence
activates more slip systems which accounts to the synchronous increase in strength
and ductility of the material. Another challenge in conventional liquid processing
methods of fabrication is to run over the deformalities during solidification. Zhenglin
and Ming et al. [30] recorded that the nano reinforcement caused pinning effect which
retards the grain growth in the dynamic crystallization process resulting in pro-
nounced grain refinement. The CNT pull out mechanism at submicron scale around
Al2O3 attributes to 70% hike in yield strength of the material. Samuel and Robinson
et al. [31] reported enhancement in corrosion resistance and hardness for AA5083/
CNT with increment in wt% of CNT with stir casting process.

3 Conclusion

New approaches in achieving uniform dispersion of CNT in Al matrix are included

in the study. The study affirms that CNT as reinforcement for Al matrix will
improve the thermal and mechanical properties, fatigue resistance, corrosion
resistance and damping capabilities of the material. The study contributes the
researchers an opportunity to optimize the parameters in refining the grain size and
392 A. H. Sajeeb Rahiman and D. S. Robinson Smart

establishing interfacial bonding to attain high performance composites with com-

petent strength maintaining adequate ductility. Different property analyses have
been stated in detail which makes Al-CNT composite a promising material to find
utilization in many engineering fields.

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Effect of Mechanical and Metallurgical
Analysis of Magnesium and Aluminium
Alloys Using Diffusion Bonding

R. J. Golden Renjith Nimal, M. Sivakumar, S. Arungalai Vendan

and G. Esakkimuthu

1 Introduction

Diffusion bonding is a process of solid state joining in which two metals with neat
surfaces are brought together in an ascending temperature and stress for a predefined
time [1]. In the current study, diffusion bonding of magnesium AZ 80 alloy and
aluminium 7075 alloy was investigated. Aluminium is considered as the most
important metal available in the earth’s crust [2]. This becomes a strong competitor
for steel in various Engineering applications. Due to the excellent mechanical
properties and corrosion resistance, aluminium 7075 alloys are extensively used [3].
Magnesium alloys usually compete with aluminium alloys in structural applications
[4]. For determining the various mechanical and metallurgical properties of these Al
and Mg alloys its thermodynamical properties should be flexible at lower tempera-
tures [5]. The problem when joining both Magnesium and Aluminium, the formation
of good hardness and intermetallic compounds (IMCs) brittleness [6]. Joseph
Fernandus et al. concentrated on the central trouble when joining magnesium
(Mg) and aluminum (Al) lies in the presence of development of oxide movies and
weak intermetallic in the security area. However dissemination holding can be

R. J. Golden Renjith Nimal (&)

Mechanical Department, Bharath University, Chennai 600073, India
e-mail: goldenrenjith@gmail.com
M. Sivakumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sree Sowdambika College
of Engineering, Aruppukottai, Tamil Nadu, India
S. Arungalai Vendan
Industrial Automation and Instrumentation Division,
School of Electrical Engineering, VIT University, Vellore, India
G. Esakkimuthu
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Engineering College,
Kovilpatti, Tamil Nadu, India

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 395

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_40
396 R. J. Golden Renjith Nimal et al.

utilized to join these composites without much trouble. In this examination, an

endeavor was made to create Temperature–Time and Pressure–Time charts for dis-
persion holding of AZ80 magnesium (Mg) and AA6061 aluminum (Al) unique
materials [7]. The holding nature of the joints was checked by microstructure
examination and lap shear tractable testing. In light of the outcomes Temperature–
Time and Pressure–Time outlines were developed [8]. These charts will go about as
reference maps for selecting fitting dispersion holding process parameters to join
AZ80 magnesium combination and AA6061 aluminum composite without trial tests
[9]. The heating rate of 25 °C/min is the maximum elevating temperature with
1473 K-273 = 1200 °C. The highest pressure of 10 tons may be applied through
hydraulic pressure and the vacuum degree −760 mm of Hg [10]. The vacuum system
is composed of diffusion pump [11]. By studying the microstructure and shear
strength of the joints, the effects on Mg/Al diffusion bonded joint was discussed.

2 Experimentation

Aluminium AA7075 alloy plate of 5 mm thickness and Magnesium AZ80 alloy

plate of 10 mm thickness were cut into the required dimensions (45  45 mm) by
power hacksaw and grinding. The highly polished and chemically treated speci-
mens of Mg/Al was arranged in a die made up of 316 L stainless steel and the entire
diffusion bonding die set up shown in Fig. 1 was kept in a vacuum chamber [12].
The constant load or constant diffusion bonding pressure was applied using a servo
controlled hydraulic press. The maximum capacity of the press is 10 Ton. The
chemical composition of the base metals are shown in Table 1.
Water cooling system is essential to maintain the temperature of the vacuum
seals bellows at 473 K. The cooling system has two tanks connected to the heating
chamber. The tepid water (at 325 K) popping out of the heating chamber is pumped
up to the top cooling tank and recirculated to lower tank to keep the inlet

Fig. 1 Configuration of the diffusion bonding die set up

Effect of Mechanical and Metallurgical Analysis … 397

Table 1 Chemical composition of the base metal

Wt. (%)
Elements Magnesium AZ 80 alloy Aluminium 7075 alloy
Mg 90.591 2.1
Al 8.36 90.02
Zn 0.75 5.1
Cu 0.002 1.2
Fe 0.0037 0.5
Si 0.033 0.4
Mn 0.26 0.3
Ni 0.00056 –
Cr – 0.18
Ti – 0.2

Fig. 2 Diffusion bonded specimens

Table 2 Trials conducted with the effect of temperature on Mg /Al alloys

Effect of temperature
Sl. Bonding temperature Bonding pressure Bonding time Remarks
No. (°C) (MPa) (min)
1 350 10 15 Not
bonded
2 375 10 15 Bonded
3 400 10 15 Bonded
4 425 10 15 Bonded
5 450 10 15 Deformed

temperature at 300 K. The cooled water is circulated to the heating furnace through
a 0.25 hp pump. The process parameters of temperature, pressure and time were
varied systematically. To identify the bonding quality, the effect of temperature on
diffusion bonded specimens of magnesium AZ80 alloy and aluminium 7075 alloy
was carried out for different temperatures ranging from 350 to 450 °C while
keeping the bonding pressure at 10 MPa and bonding time at 15 min (Fig. 2;
Table 2).
398 R. J. Golden Renjith Nimal et al.

3 Results and Discussion

3.1 Mechanical Testing

The joints fabricated under this condition to evaluate the bond quality, mechanical
testing like lap shear tensile specimens were prepared. The tensile test results are
given in Table 3, which indicates that the weld strength is slightly above the
ultimate tensile strength in the base material of the specimen (Fig. 3).
The lap shear strength (LSS) with respect for the Mg/Al alloy interfaces for
various temperatures. For the temperature below 375 °C, bonding between the
specimens do not occur due to insufficient temperature. For temperature of 375 °C,
the LSS was found to be around 15 MPa. As the temperature is increased to 400 °C
further the lap shear strength increases to the value of 27 MPa and for the tem-
perature of 425 °C, the LSS was found to decrease to 21 MPa. It can be clearly seen
from the above graph that both the specimens stands apart at lower temperature and
at higher temperature the deformation occurs. From these above trials, it was
concluded that the optimum diffusion temperature is between 375 and 425 °C. The
error in the experimental values assigned was around 5% and this is also indicated
in the below figure with the error bar. The well separated samples at lower tem-
perature inside the figure clearly depicts the un-bonded nature.

Table 3 Results of lap shear test specimens

Effect of temperature
Sl. Bonding Bonding pressure Bonding time Lap shear strength
No. temperature (°C) (MPa) (min) (MPa)
1 350 10 15 –
2 375 10 15 15
3 400 10 15 26
4 425 10 15 21
5 450 10 15 –

Fig. 3 Photographs of lap

shear test specimen a Before
testing and b After testing
Effect of Mechanical and Metallurgical Analysis … 399

3.2 Metallurgical Testing

The interface layer could be visualized from microscopic analysis. Figure 4 rep-
resents the optical microscopic image at various sample temperatures of 375, 400
and 425 °C.
The increase in the hardness may be due to the formation of Mg2Al3 and
Mg17Al12 intermetallic (IMC) compounds during the high degree of holding time
and this IMC formation during solidification can lead to an increased mechanical
properties than the parent alloys of aluminium and magnesium. The Field Emission
Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM) is used to investigate on the surface
morphology of the diffusion bonded specimen (Fig. 5).
The optimized well bonded samples which were heated to 400 °C was used in
the present investigation. The bonding pressure was maintained at 10 MPa with
holding time of 15 min. The well bonded samples were cut into required sizes and
the SEM image is observed to investigate the diffusion mechanism.

Fig. 4 Optical microscope image of Mg/Al alloy at various sample temperatures

400 R. J. Golden Renjith Nimal et al.

Fig. 5 FESEM fractograph

of bonded specimen of Mg/Al
at 100 X

4 Conclusion

Diffusion bonding of Magnesium AZ80 alloy and Aluminium 7075 alloy, exhibit
maximum shear strength for the specimen bonded at 400 °C, 10 MPa and 15 min.
The lap shear strength of the bonded specimens is determined to extend with
increasing temperature till a most worth is reached beyond that it decreases. The
thickness of the inter-metallic layer is narrower at a lower holding temperature and
their widths increase with the rise within the change of integrity temperature
attributable to increase within the inter-diffusion of chemical species. The thickness
of IMC’s is proportional to the temperature and holding time. Once the holding
time is longer than the latent amount, the super saturated solid solution seems to be
unstable. Inter metallic phases nucleated and grew, while AlMg phase was missing.

Acknowledgements We would like to thank Dr. V. Balasubramanian, Professor, Centre for

Materials Joining and Research (CEMAJOR), Department of Manufacturing Engineering,
Annamalai University for his support in performing diffusion bonding experiments and testing the
bonded joints.

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diffusion bonding parameters in AA6061-T6 aluminium and AZ80 magnesium alloy
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Chinnadurai T (2015) Studies on mechanical and metallographical aspects of diffusion
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Operation Sequence Dependent Part
Family Formation for Reconfigurable
Manufacturing System (RMS)

Rutuja Krishnat Shivads and Martand Tamanacharya Telsang

1 Introduction

Today’s manufactures face progressively challenges earlier than because of highly

impulsive market changes and hence there are large fluctuations in product demand.
To be to be competitive, it is mandatory for companies to design manufacturing
systems to produce high quality products at low cost which responding to market
changes in an economical way. RMS should be designed in such that it can be
rapidly and cost effectively reconfigured to the exact capacity to meet a new market
demand. Dedicated manufacturing system (DMS) are beneficial for high volume
and low variety production while, Flexible manufacturing system
(FMS) economical for large diversity of parts and low production volumes. FMSs
are unable to provide robustness of DMS and can have excessive functionality.
FMSs build using of inadequate system software and advancement of user specified
software is very expensive. Due to development in computers optics, a control,
processing i.e. advancement in technologies today’s most capable system becomes
incapable after short life. Koren et al. suggested RMS as solution to tackle changing
market demands. RMS should be designed in such that it can be rapidly and cost
effectively reconfigured to the exact capacity to meet a new market demand.
Researchers at the NSF Engineering research centre for RMS (ERC/RMS) start
addressing system scalability since 1990s, and issued patent that deals with
strategies to change production capacity in RMS [8]. RMS can be defined as:
“Reconfigurable Manufacturing Systems are designed at the outset for rapid change
in structure, also in hardware and software components, in order to quickly adjust

R. K. Shivads (&)
A/P-Umbraj (Surabhi Chauk), Karad, Satara, Maharashtra 415109, India
e-mail: rutujashivads7@gmail.com
M. T. Telsang
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rajarambapu Institute of Technology,
Rajaramnagar, Islampur, Maharashtra 415414, India

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 403

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_41
404 R. K. Shivads and M. T. Telsang

production capacity and functionality within a part family in response to sudden

changes in market or regulatory requirements”.
In this paper part family formation methodology for RMS suggested by Goyal
et al. [2]; is applied for parts manufactured in gear manufacturing company. In this
study part family is formed for 7 parts having some variations in their geometry and
manufacturing processes. Study analyses benefits of using RMS over existing
manufacturing system.

2 Literature Review

Koren et al. recommended RMS as solution for changing manufacturing systems

since 1990s, and handful research have made for implementation of reconfigurable
manufacturing system in practice. Design of RM is one of the very important stage
in development of RMS. Researchers at the NSF Engineering research centre issued
RMT design patent in the year 1999 [8]. Koren et al. commence features and
principles of RMS. They evaluate RMS with conventional manufacturing system
and address method to calculate no. of RMS configurations [4]. They identify need
of method to determine right time to build RMS. Wang et al. introduces scalability
planning scheme for reconfiguring practical manufacturing system and propose GA
for optimization. Mathematical approach to minimize the total no. of machines
required to achieve required production presented and case study that validate
proposed approach presented [5]. History of reconfigurable manufacturing system
is presented by comparing RMS with traditional manufacturing systems.
Challenges in using RMS are also presented and address need of design concepts
and methodologies expansion for RMS [7]. Putnik et al. brings in scalability as state
of art in manufacturing [6]. They propose approach for basic design, operational
aspects and management of scalability in manufacturing with explaining scalability
is key character of Reconfigurable manufacturing system.
Reconfigurable machines designed considering part family of products; hence
grouping products and parts in families plays important role in successive imple-
mentation of RMS. Galan et al. Focus on system level issues to reduce time needed
to manufacture products in right quantity and with the right quality [1]. AHP
methodology used to form unique matrix that consider the similarities in five
products attributes. ALC approach proposed to form product family and
Dendogram used to show product families. Goyal et al. developed operation
sequence dependent BMIM (bypassing moves and idle machines) similarity coef-
ficient for part family creation [2]. Kashkoush and Elmaraghy introduce product
family formation method for reconfigurable assembly system. In similarity coeffi-
cients product assembly sequences, demand and commonality are considered.
Techniques of phylogenetics and biology along with average linkage hierarchical
clustering are used to group the products. Novel consensus tree based method is
applied to find the best aggregation and proposed this system will increase system
Operation Sequence Dependent Part Family Formation … 405

efficiency and productivity. Identifies further work need to be done for estimating
quantitative benefits after application of proposed methodology [3].

3 Part Family Formation for RMS

Reconfigurable machine (RM) is designed considering a part family of products.

RM machines are designed after formation of part family considering manufac-
turing operations need to perform on jobs. Hence, part family formation for RMS
plays vital role in application of RMS. To check implementation feasibility of RMS
in real life example the part family formation methodology is applied to parts in
company. In this study part family has been formed by selecting 7 parts of company
having some variations in their geometry and manufacturing processes. Operation
sequence dependent BMIM (bypassing moves and idle machines) similarity coef-
ficient for part family creation proposed by Goyal et al. [2] is applied for part family
formation. This study analyzes benefits of using RMS over existing manufacturing
system. The part family formation starts with identifying general operation
sequence for parts. In second stage BMIM similarity coefficients are calculated and
in last stage Average linkage clustering (ALC) applied to group parts in family. To
understand the operation sequences of parts drawings of considered parts are firstly
studied. The parts selected for study covers almost all the types of parts that are
manufactured in company. Hence criteria applied for selection of parts is at least
one part should consider for study from each type of parts.

3.1 Operation Sequence

The operation sequence for the selected parts such as Spur gear, Worm shaft, helical
gear etc. are considered. The operation sequences for parts observed in company are
shown in Table 1. The nomenclature used to denote the operation name described
in Table 2.

Table 1 Operation sequence for parts

Part no. Part name General operation sequence
1 Helical gear [D,T,F,t,O,B,C,H,S]
2 Spur gear [D,T,F,t,O,B,C,c,D,R,H,S]
3 Worm (a) [D,T,F,t,O,B,C,M,b]
4 Worm (b) [D,T,F,m,M,D,K]
5 Spur & worm wheel [D,L,O,F,t,OFg,B,c,C,d,R,H,M,S]
6 Worm shaft [d,O,F,k,G,M,D,P]
7 Eccentric pin [f,O,F,E,C]
406 R. K. Shivads and M. T. Telsang

Table 2 Nomenclature
No. Nomenclature Operation No. Nomenclature Operation
1 D Drilling 12 M Thread milling
2 T Turning 13 B Broaching
3 F Facing 14 K Key slotting
4 t Toughing 15 m CNC machining finish
5 O O.D turning 16 L Blanking
6 B Boring 17 g Grooving
7 C Chamfering 18 k Key way
8 H Hobbing 19 G Grinding
9 S Shaving 20 P Tapping
10 C Circlip cutting 21 E Eccentric grinding
11 R Threading 22 f Forging

3.2 Calculation of BMIM

The BMIM similarity coefficient computed using Eq. 1 [2]. Table 3 shows calcu-
lated parameters values of similarity coefficients
   
BMPa BMPb IMa IMb
Sab ¼ þ þ þ ð1Þ
2  jTMa j 2  jTMb j 2  jSCSab j 2  jSCSab j

where,
a, b Operation sequence a and b.
LCSab Longest common subsequence between operation sequences a and b.
SCSab Shortest common supersequence between operation sequences a and b.
NOBLa Number of operations of operation sequence a to be appended before the
to form SCSab.
NOALa Number of operations of operation sequence a to be appended after the to
form SCSab.
NOILa Number of operations of operation sequence a to be appended in between
the to form SCSab.
Table 4 shows BMIM similarity coefficient values for parts 1–7. The Average
linkage clustering (ALC) methodology is used for grouping the products. Tables 5,
6, 7, 8 and 9 respectively shows submatrix-1 part family, Submatrix-2 part family,
Submatrix-3 part family, Submatrix-4 and Final matrix part family obtained after
Appling ALC methodology.
Final matrix shows that Part families formed are such that Part family I-(1, 2, 3
and 5) and Part family II-(4, 7 and 6) i.e. part family I constitutes parts such as
Helical gear, Spur gear, Worm gear (a) and Spur & Worm gear while part family II
constitutes Worm gear (b), Worm shaft and Eccentric pin.
Table 3 BMIM similarity coefficient calculation
ab LCSab LCSab sequence SCSab na Ua nb Ub BMPa BMPb TMa TMb IMa IMb Sab
12 9 [DTFtOBCHS] 12 0 0 0 0 3 0 13 13 3 0 0.77
13 7 [DTFtOBC] 11 0 2 0 2 2 2 12 12 2 2 0.65
14 3 [DTF] 13 0 4 0 0 4 0 14 8 2 6 0.55
15 8 [DFtOBCHS] 17 0 0 0 0 8 1 18 18 8 1 0.49
16 1 [O] 16 1 0 0 4 1 4 11 13 7 8 0.33
17 2 [OC] 12 1 0 0 0 3 1 13 7 3 7 0.4
23 7 [DTFtOBC] 14 0 2 0 0 2 0 15 10 2 5 0.68
24 4 [DTFD] 15 0 1 0 0 3 5 16 13 3 8 0.35
25 10 [DFtOBcDRHS] 18 0 0 0 0 6 2 19 19 6 2 0.57
26 2 [OD] 18 1 1 0 0 6 3 19 12 6 10 0.27
27 2 [OC] 15 1 0 0 0 3 1 16 7 3 8 0.47
34 4 [DTFM] 12 0 0 0 1 1 5 11 13 3 5 0.43
Operation Sequence Dependent Part Family Formation …

35 7 [DFtOBCM] 18 0 1 0 1 9 2 19 19 9 2 0.40
36 2 [OM] 15 1 0 0 1 4 3 14 18 6 7 0.34
37 2 [OC] 12 1 0 0 0 3 1 13 7 3 7 0.4
45 3 [DFD] 20 0 0 0 1 9 4 17 21 13 4 0.22
46 3 [FMD] 12 2 1 2 1 5 4 13 13 5 4 0.28
47 1 [F] 11 2 2 2 0 4 2 12 8 4 3 0.39
56 3 [OFM] 21 1 0 0 1 3 11 20 20 5 13 0.22
57 3 [OFC] 18 1 0 0 0 2 6 19 12 2 13 0.28
67 2 [OF] 11 1 1 2 0 3 1 12 7 3 6 0.39
407
408 R. K. Shivads and M. T. Telsang

Table 4 BMIM similarity Part 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

coefficient values for parts
1 – 0.77 0.65 0.55 0.49 0.33 0.4
2 0.68 0.35 0.57 0.27 0.47
3 0.43 0.40 0.34 0.4
4 0.22 0.28 0.39
5 0.22 0.28
6 0.39

Table 5 Submatrix-1 part Part (1, 2) 3 4 5 6 7

family
(1, 2) 0.67 0.45 0.53 0.3 0.44
3 0.43 0.40 0.34 0.4
4 0.22 0.28 0.39
5 0.22 0.28
6 0.39

Table 6 Submatrix-2 part Part (1, 2, 3) 4 5 6 7

family
(1, 2, 3) 0.29 0.31 0.21 0.28
4 0.22 0.28 0.39
5 0.22 0.28
6 0.39

Table 7 Submatrix-3 part Part (1, 2, 3) (4, 7) 5 6

family
(1, 2, 3) 0.095 0.31 0.21
(4, 7) 0.25 0.34
5 0.22

Table 8 Submatrix-4 part Part (1, 2, 3) (4, 7, 6) 5

family
(1, 2, 3) 0.033 0.31
(4, 7, 6) 0.16

Table 9 Final matrix part Part (1, 2, 3, 5) (4, 7, 6)

family
(1, 2, 3, 5) 0.016

Figure 1 shows Dendogram for calculated data from which selection of part
families can be made. The selection of part families will be decision of organization
and it will depend upon the objectives of organization. Dendogram formed for part
family shows that parts 1 and 2 i.e. helical gear and spur gear respectively are 77%
Operation Sequence Dependent Part Family Formation … 409

Fig. 1 Dendogram part

family

similar considering their operation sequence while grouping both of them with
worm gear (a) gives 67% similarity.
Group of spur, helical, worm gear (a) and spur & worm gives 31% similarity.
Similarly from dendogram it is observed group of worm gear (b), worm shaft and
eccentric pin gives 34% similarity considering their operation sequences. These
families if processed using RMS then benefits in terms of reduction in setup times
on hobbing machines, CNCs will be reduced. Production rate will be increased cost
effectively. The cost related with designing of fixtures, tools etc. for processing
various parts will be reduced. Recognized benefits of using RMS over existing
manufacturing system are presented in following section.

4 Conclusion

RMS is cost efficient solution for problems arising due to changeable manufac-
turing system. Application of RMS is in incubation period i.e. period required to
convey knowledge and technology to industry. Production planning and control
techniques for RMS plays important role in implementation of RMS. To check
implementation feasibility of RMS in real life example the part family formation
methodology is applied to parts in company. Dendogram formed for part family
shows that helical gear and spur gear are 77% similar considering their operation
sequence while grouping both of them with worm gear (a) gives 67% similarity.
Group of spur, helical, worm gear (a) and spur & worm gives 31% similarity.
410 R. K. Shivads and M. T. Telsang

Similarly from dendogram it is observed group of worm gear (b), worm shaft and
eccentric pin gives 34% similarity considering their operation sequences. This
industrial study helps to analyze benefits of using RMS over existing manufacturing
system. These families if processed using RMS then benefits in terms of reduction
in setup times on hobbing machines, CNCs will be reduced. Production rate will be
increased cost effectively. The cost related with designing of fixtures, tools etc. for
processing various parts will be reduced. The industrial study identified there is
need to apply part family formation methodology to all parts in company and
further work need to carry out for designing reconfigurable machines for part
families grouped.

References

1. Galan R, Racero J, Eguia I, Garcia J (2007) A systematic approach for product families
formation in reconfigurable manufacturing systems. Robot Comput-Integr Manuf 23:489–502
2. Goyal K, Jain P, Jain M (2013) A comprehensive approach to operation sequence similarity
based part family formation in the reconfigurable manufacturing system. Int J Prod Res
51:1762–1776
3. Kadhkoush M, Elmaraghy H (2014) Product family formation for reconfigurable assembly
systems. Procedia CIRP 17:302–307
4. Koren Y, Shpitalni M (2010) Design of reconfigurable manufacturing systems. J Manuf Syst
29:130–141
5. Koren Y, Wang W (2012) Scalability planning for reconfigurable manufacturing system.
J Manuf Syst 31:83–91
6. Putnik G, Sluga A, Eimaraghy H, Teti R, Korean Y, Yolio T, Hon B (2013) Scalability in
manufacturing systems design and operation: state-of-art the future developments
roadmap. CIRP Ann 62:751–774
7. Singh A, Kumar P, Singh S (2013) Vision, principles and impact of reconfigurable
manufacturing system. Int J Eng Adv Technol 3:238–240
8. Tillbury D, Kota S (1999) Integrated machine and control design for reconfigurable machine
tools. In: Proceedings of IEEE/ASME, 1999, pp 629–634
Modeling and Analysis of Tool Wear
Based on Cutting Force and Chip-Tool
Interface Temperatures in Turning

L. B. Abhang and M. Hameedullah

1 Introduction

Machining processes are very common in manufacturing technology. These oper-

ations are applied in manufacturing of almost every mechanical element. Because
of their frequent use, these processes have to be efficient and economical. To lower
manufacturing costs, many parameters need to be considered. Tool wear is one of
the most important considerations in metal cutting operations as it affects surface
quality, productivity, cost etc. In the modern era of intense competition, reduction
of machining cost is the key to sustain. For this the, performance of cutting tool
plays a vital role.
A tool life is directly related to the wear behavior of cutting tool. To predict tool
life, it is necessary to identify the actual wear progress under practical conditions [1,
2]. Taking out the tool to the metrology lab and measuring the actual wear of tool is
a difficult task and affects the cutting efficiency. If the tool wear rate prediction
models are available in terms of chip-tool interface temperature or cutting forces,
the machining efficiency can be improved. By changing the tool where the wear rate
reaches a control values.
In turning operations, it is convenient to consider the forces as a three component
system. These are main cutting force component, feed force component and radial
force component. The components of the cutting forces and chip-tool interface
temperatures in metal cutting operations provide a wealth of information on the
metal removal process. Changes in these forces and cutting temperatures indicate
changes in machining parameters and tool geometry, such as cutting speed, feed
rate, depth of cut and condition of tool. Thus the accuracy of machining operations
could be improves through the cutting force and chip-tool interface temperatures.

L. B. Abhang (&)
M. Hameedullah

Mechanical Engineering Department, Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh 202002, India
e-mail: abhanglb@yahoo.co.in

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 411

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_42
412 L. B. Abhang and M. Hameedullah

A rubbing action takes place between tool flank and workpiece which removes
material at the flank side. As the cutting velocity and feed rate increase, the tem-
perature in the chip formation region also rises [3].
Chaudhary and Ramesh [4] have used an optical displacement sensor for online
tool wear monitoring. A feed back control system to provide compensation for the
tool wear and keep the dimensions of the workpiece within the tolerance zone has
also been suggested. Luo et al. [5] have studied relationship between tool flank
wear and operational conditions (cutting) speed, feed rate and depth of cut) in metal
cutting process using carbide inserts. The wear of the cutting inserts is calculated
and recorded using zygo new view 5000 microscope. The experimental results
indicate that cutting speed has a more dramatic effect on tool life than feed rate [5].
Ozel and Karpat [6] developed predictive model of tool wear and surface roughness
in hard turning by CBN tool using neural network and regression method. Trained
neural network models were used in predicting tool flank wear and surface
roughness for other cutting conditions. They concluded that decrease in feed rate
resulted in better surface roughness but slightly faster tool wear.
Ramesh et al. [7] used RSM for minimizing the surface roughness in machining
titanium alloy. The surface roughness model has been developed in terms of cutting
parameters such as cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut. Machining test has
been carried out using CVD coated carbide cutting tools under different machining
conditions using Taguchi’s orthogonal array. The experimental data have been
investigated using analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results indicated that the
feed rate is the main influencing factor on surface roughness. Surface roughness is
increased with increasing feed rate, but decreased with increasing cutting speed and
depth of cut. Felix et al. [8] developed mathematical model for tool wear in turning
operations using multiple regression method. A non-traditional optimization algo-
rithm, genetic algorithm has been employed to find the optimal cutting parameters
such as cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut.
Modeling and optimization are necessary for the control of the hard turning
process to achieve improved product quality, high productivity and low cost.
Empirical models for tool life, surface roughness and cutting force are developed
for turning of AISI302 by Al-Ahmari [9]. Anthony et al. [10] determined the
influence of different cutting fluids on wear and surface roughness in turning of
stainless steel. Noordin et al. [11] studied the application of response surface
methodology in describing the performance of coated carbide tools when turning
AISI 1045 steel. The factors investigated were cutting speed, feed rate and side
cutting edge angle. The response variables were surface roughness and tangential
cutting force. ANOVA revealed that feed rate is the most significant factor
influencing the response variables investigated. Huang et al. [12] observed that
wear pattern depend on the tools used, workpiece material composition, and cutting
conditions. They also concluded that generally, adhesion, abrasion and diffusion are
considered to be main tool wear mechanisms in CBN hard turning. However, the
individual effect of each mechanism depends on the combinations of the work
materials, tools, machining conditions, tool geometry etc. It was found that the
temperature rise during the machining could significantly reduce the strength of the
Modeling and Analysis of Tool Wear Based on Cutting Force … 413

tool and hence the wear resistance of the tool [13]. Palanisamy et al. [14] developed
a regression and ANN mathematical model to predict tool flank wear in terms of
machining parameters such as cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut. Predicted
values of tool flank wear of the mathematical model compared with the experi-
mental values. The Grey-Taguchi method was adopted to optimize the milling
parameters of aluminum alloy with multiple performance characteristics and found
that the flank wear decreased from 0.177 to 0.067 mm [15]. Abhang and
Hameedullah [16] used the grey relational analysis technique and determined the
optimum turning process parameters. Various turning parameters such as cutting
speed, feed rate, depth of cut, tool nose radius and concentration of solid-liquid
lubricants were considered and optimized by the grey relational grades obtained
from the grey relational analysis for multi-performance characteristics (chip-tool
interface temperatures, main cutting force and tool wear).
In the present study article an attempt has been made to perform experimental
testing on turning operations in order to establish a relationship between chip-tool
interface temperature with tool wear rate and three components of cutting forces
with tool wear rate during turning of En-31 steel alloy using tungsten carbide
inserts. The predicted results are compared with the experimental results to find the
nearness of the predictions to the experimental values. Further to take into con-
siderations these wears also use of machining ratio has been proposed as a new
criterion for tool life assessment. Machining ratio is the ratio of volume of material
removed to the volume of tool wear.

2 Experimental Procedure

The experiments were carried out on a HMT, heavy duty lathe machine without any
coolant. The workpiece EN-31 steel was turned for a certain amount of time, while
measuring average chip-tool interface temperature and cutting forces by on line and
then machining was stopped and tool wear was measured by offline. The cutting
tool holder used for turning operation is WIDAX tool holder SCLCR 1212 Fog13
and diamond shape carbide (CNMA 120408). The work piece material used has a
dimension of 400 mm in length and 60 mm in diameter. This material is suitable
for a wide variety of automotive type applications. Experiments were carried out
under different cutting speeds in the ranges of 47–134–226 m/min. Feed rates
employed were 0.06–0.10–0.15 mm/rev and depth of cut and tool nose radius was
0.4 and 0.8 mm respectively. The chip-tool interface temperature is measured using
tool-work thermocouple designed, fabricated and calibrated in the lab by author.
Tool wear rate is measured on a sensitive single pan balance (maximum 300 g and
minimum scale is 0.01 mg). Tool inserts were properly cleaned before weighing so
that dust or any other adhered particles are removed. Online measurements of
cutting forces are carried out using lathe tool dynamometer.
414 L. B. Abhang and M. Hameedullah

3 Experimental Results and Mathematical Modeling

We first present the experimental results and then discuss the use of polynomial
equations to express the relationship between the cutting forces with tool wear rate
and cutting temperature with tool wear rate.

3.1 Relationship Between Cutting Forces and Tool Wear

Rate

From the experimental results, Figs. (1, 2 and 3) show variations of three cutting
force components with tool wear rate for different cutting speed and feed rate with
constant depth of cut and tool nose radius. It can be seen from theses figures that all
cutting forces increase with the increase of total tool wear (flank and crater).
Increasing tool wear results in an increasing area of contact between the tool-tip and
the workpiece. The greater the value of tool wear, the higher the friction of the tool
on the workpiece and high heat generation will occur; this ultimately causes the
higher value of cutting forces. Table 1 shows experimental results for the first set of
experiment, where the inserts begins to fail, all the three cutting forces increase
rapidly. Figures (1, 2 and 3) show experimental results at stages where the tool
insert begins to fail, for the cutting condition (cutting speed, feed rate, depth of cut
and tool nose radius), thrust force and feed force increases slowly i.e. 8 and 17%
and radial force increases (maximum) i.e. 70% during machining of EN-31 steel at
present conditions. Figures (1, 2 and 3) show the relationship between tool wear
and the cutting forces based on the experimental results. From the experimental
results, we found that the radial cutting force was approximately (9–10%) larger
than the feed force when the cutting tool begins to fail. This relationship is agrees
with the results obtained by Noordin et al. [11]. Thrust force is the main force
component responsible for material removal while feed force advances the cutting
tool in the direction of feed. Radial force is the rubbing force. Polynomial mathe-
matical models can be used to express the relationship between tool wear rate and
the cutting forces based on the experimental results. Figure 4 shows the modeling
results for the first set of models. It can be seen that the polynomial curves are very
close to the experimental results.

3.2 Relationship Between Chip-Tool Interface Temperature

and Tool Wear Rate

Experiments were continued until the tool wear became too high for the tool-work
thermocouple technique to measure temperature accurately. Maximum tool wear
was recorded. The results of the tool wear experiments are consistent with the
Modeling and Analysis of Tool Wear Based on Cutting Force … 415

40

Cutting force (Kg)

Thrust force in kg
Feed force in kg
30
Radial force in kg
20
10
0
0.095
Tool wear rate (mg/min)

Fig. 1 Cutting force versus tool wear rate (cutting speed 47 m/min, feed rate 0.06 mm/rev, depth
of cut 0.4 mm and tool nose radius 0.8 mm)

34 Thrust force in kg
Cuƫng force (kg)

31
28 Feed force in kg
25 Radial force in kg
22
19
16
13
10
7
4
1
0.075 0.085 0.095 0.105 0.115
Tool wear rate (mg/min)

Fig. 2 Cutting force versus tool wear rate (cutting speed 134 m/min, feed rate 0.06 mm/rev,
depth of cut 0.4 mm and tool nose radius 0.8 mm)

Thrust force in kg
Cutting force (kg)

Feed force in kg
Radial force in kg

Tool wear rate (mg/min)

Fig. 3 Cutting force versus tool wear rate (cutting speed 226 m/min, feed rate 0.06 mm/rev,
depth of cut 0.4 mm and tool nose radius 0.8 mm)

results obtained by Tugrul et al. and Anthony et al. [6, 10]. Figures (5 and 6) clearly
show that the wear increases with the increase cutting speed and feed rate. It can be
seen from these figures that all chip-tool interface temperature increases with the
increase in tool wear. When tool inserts begins to fail, all the chip-tool interface
temperatures increase sharply. The experimental result shows in Fig. 5 is important
when considering the temperature effects on tool wear, which is temperature
dependent, i.e. when increasing tool, wear (flank and crater) then increases the
chip-tool interface temperature during machining. Polynomial mathematical models
416 L. B. Abhang and M. Hameedullah

Table 1 First set (cutting speed = 47 m/min, feed rate = 0.06 mm/rev, depth of cut = 0.4 mm,
nose radius = 0.8 mm)
Exp. no. Cutting time Tool wear rate Thrust force Feed force Radial
(min) (mg/min) (Kg) (kg) force (kg)
1 10 0.08 19 12 4
2 20 0.083 23 14 6
3 30 0.085 24 16 7
4 40 0.088 26 17 9
5 50 0.089 27 19 10
6 60 0.10 29 20 11
7 70 0.102 33 26 16
8 80 0.104 34 30 31
Cutting force (kg)

Thrust force (modeling)

Feed force ( modeling)
Radial force (modeling)

Tool wear rate (mg/min)

Fig. 4 Cutting force versus tool wear rate (cutting speed 47 m/min, feed rate 0.06 mm/rev, depth
of cut 0.4 mm and tool nose radius 0.8 mm)

also used to express the relationship between tool wear rate and the cutting tem-
perature based on the experimental results. Figure 6 shows the modeling results for
the first set of models. It can be seen that the polynomial curves are very close to the
experimental results. Similar results were obtained for other sets of model.
Therefore a good relationship between the chip-tool interface temperature and tool
wear rate can be established from the experimental results. Since we obtained eight
sets of data for each experiment, all in limited range, polynomials of the fourth
degree were used. The polynomial coefficients were found by MATLAB.
Chip-tool interface
temperature (0c)

300 Cutting speed 47m/min

280
260 Cutting speed 134m/min
240
220
200
180
160
0.08 0.09 0.1 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14
Tool wear rate (mg/min)

Fig. 5 Chip-tool interface temperature versus tool wear rate (cutting speed 47 m/min, feed rate
0.06 mm/rev, depth of cut 0.4 mm and tool nose radius 0.8 mm)
Modeling and Analysis of Tool Wear Based on Cutting Force … 417

Chip-tool interface
temperature (0c)
290 Cutting speed
270 47m/min(modeling)
250
230 Cutting speed 134m/min
210 (modeling)
190 Cutting speed 226m/min
170 (modeling)
150
0.085 0.09 0.095 0.1 0.105 0.11 0.115
Tool wear rate (mg/min)

Fig. 6 Chip-tool interface temperature versus tool wear rate (cutting speed 47 m/min, feed rate
0.10 mm/rev, depth of cut 0.4 mm and tool nose radius 0.8 mm)

3.2.1 Polynomial Models

Thrust force = (X):

1. Cutting speed = 47 m/min, feed rate 0.06 mm/rev.
Tool wear rate = −2.021  10−6 X4 + 0.0001931 X3 − 0.006697 X2 + 0.1012
X − 0.4863
Feed force (X):
Tool wear rate = 1.47  10−6 X4 − 0.0001307 X3 + 0.004155 X2 − 0.05423
X + 0.3282
Radial force (X):
Tool wear rate = 1.534  10−6 X4 − 9.474  10−5 X3 + 0.001828
X2 − 0.0113 X + 0.1021
2. Cutting speed = 134 m/min, feed rate 0.06 mm/rev. Thrust force (X):
Tool wear rate = −1.21  10−6 X4 + 0.0001007 X3 − 0.003044
2
X + 0.003193 X + 0.09383
Feed force (X):
Tool wear rate = −2.047  10−8 X4 − 5.159  10−6 X3 + 0.0002824
X2 − 0.003193 X + 0.09383
Radial force (X):
Tool wear rate = 3.664  10−7 X4 − 1.932  10−5 X3 + 0.0002609
X2 + 0.0002727 X + 0.0818v
3. Cutting speed = 226 m/min, feed rate = 0.06 mm/rev. Thrust force (X):
Tool wear rate = −1.275  10−6 X4 + 0.000124 X3 − 0.00449 X2 + 0.0726
X − 0.3318
Feed force (X):
Tool wear rate = −2.003  10−6 X4 + 0.0001394X3 − 0.003525
X + 0.03941 X − 0.05588
2

Radial force (X):

−2.218  10−6 X4 + 0.0001249 X3 − 0.002332 X2 + 0.01806 X + 0.06185
Chip-tool interface temperature:
Cutting speed = 47 m/min, feed rate = 0.10 mm/rev.
418 L. B. Abhang and M. Hameedullah

Tool wear rate = 4.03  10−10 X4 − 3.19210−7 X3 + 8.696  10−5 −

0.008731 X + 0.2693
Cutting speed = 47 m/min, feed rate = 0.06 mm/rev
Tool wear rate = 4.19  10−9 X4 − 3.88  10−6 X3 + 0.001337 X2 − 0.2024
X + 11.45.

3.2.2 Maximum Machining Ratio

Machining ratio is given by the following equation.

MR ¼ vdft=V ¼ vdft q=w ð1Þ

where, v = cutting speed (m/min), f = feed rate (mm/rev), d = depth of cut (mm),
t = machining time (minute), V = volume of tool wear (cm3), w = weight of tool
wear (mg) and q = density of tool material (15.8 g/cm3) etc. For different
machining conditions the values of machining ratio are shown in Fig. 7. It indicates
that machining ratio first increases rapidly and reaches up to maximum value, then
this value remains constant for some period after which it falls sharply. Machining
ratio is inversely proportional to the tool wear rate. The tool wear rate shows a
decreasing trend with respect to machining time and then it reaches to a certain
value after which it starts increasing rapidly. The maximum machining ratio can be
used as a suitable criterion for tool life. The tool life in case of maximum machining
ratio criterion will be defined as the time when the machining ratio reaches its
maximum value and when it begins to fall sharply. It is a dimensionless quantity
and is based on combined wear of flank, crater, chip notching, primary and sec-
ondary grooving.

Cutting speed
Machining ratio

134m/min
Cutting speed
226m/min
Cutting speed
47m/min

T, (Minute)

Fig. 7 Machining ratio versus cutting time (feed rate 0.06 mm/rev, depth of cut 0.4 mm and nose
radius 0.8 mm)
Modeling and Analysis of Tool Wear Based on Cutting Force … 419

4 Conclusions

(1) All cutting forces increase with increase of tool wear. The rate of cutting force
increase (thrust force increases by approximately 8%, feed force increases by
approximately 17% and the radial force increases by approximately 70%) of
feed force and radial force is higher than the thrust force. The radial force was
also found to be slightly larger than the axial force when tool insert begins to
fail.
(2) The study also presented the analysis of the relationship between tool wear and
temperature by applying the tool work thermocouple technique. The tempera-
ture measured by the tool-work thermocouple method shows that temperature
has a strong effect on tool wear.
(3) There is a maximum value of machining ratio and can be taken as a criterion of
tool failure.

References

1. Kalpakjian S (2005) Manufacturing engineering and technology, Fourth edition, llanos

Institute of Technology, pp 551–557
2. Rao P (2000) Manufacturing technology, metal cutting and machine tools, Tata McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi, pp 37–44
3. Noordin MY, Venkatesh VC, Sharif S (2007) Dry turning of tempered martensitic stainless
steel tool steel using coated cermets and coated carbide tools. J Mater Process Technol
185:83–90
4. Chaudhary SK, Ramesh S (1995) On line tool wear sensing and compensation in turning.
J Mater Process Technol 49:247–254
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cutting. Wear 259:1235–1240
6. Ozel T, Karpat Y (2005) Predictive modeling of surface roughness and tool wear in hard
turning using regression and neural networks. Int J Mach Tools Manuf 45:467–479
7. Ramesh S, Karunamoorthy L, Palnikumar K (2008) Surface roughness analysis in machining
of titanium alloy. Mater Manuf Process 23:174–181
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turning operations. J Mater Process Technol 190:305–311
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wear and surface roughness during turning of AISI304 austenitic stainless steel. J Mater
Process Technol 209:900–909
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the performance of coated carbide tools when turning AISI 1045 steel. J Manuf Process
Technol 145:46–58
12. Huang Y, Chou YK, Liang SY (2007) CBN tool wear in hard turning: a survey on research
progress. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 35:443–453
13. Braghini A, Coelho RT (2001) An investigation of the wear mechanisms of PCBN tools when
end milling hardened steel at low/medium cutting speeds. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 17:244–
257
420 L. B. Abhang and M. Hameedullah

14. Palanisamy P, Rajendran I, Shanmugasundaram S (2008) Prediction of tool wear using

regression and ANN models in end-milling operation. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 37:29–41.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-007-0948-5
15. Tsao CC (2009) Grey-Taguchi method to optimize the milling parameters of aluminum alloy.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol 40:41–48. https://doi.org/10.1007/s0017-007-1314-3
16. Abhang LB, Hameedullah M (2011) Empirical modeling of turning parameters using grey
relational analysis. J Appl Mech Mater 110–116(2011):2596–2603
On the Mechanical and Microstructural
Properties of Novel A356/Kevlar Surface
Composite Fabricated via Friction Stir
Processing

S. Pradeep Devaneyan, D. Peter Pushpanathan and Adhesh Parambath

1 Introduction

Surface metal matrix composites (SMMC) are applied in various field of engineering
where properties in addition to that of the substrate materials are desired. A356-T6
cast aluminum (Al) alloy is a light weight structural material, which is preferred
widely for manufacturing mechanical components especially in automobile indus-
tries where components of complex geometries are used [1]. The usage of this alloy
is limited due to a decline in the mechanical properties induced by casting defects
such as porosity. Hence, it is important to eliminate the casting defects in order to
improve its properties. Surface composites could also be fabricated with ceramic
carbide reinforcements like silicon carbide, carbides of transition metals and oxides
of aluminium using the conventional surface modification techniques such as high
energy laser melt treatment, high energy electron beam irradiation and thermal spray
process which are basically fusion processes. These techniques yield the fusion
related problems, such as interfacial reaction, pin holes, shrinkage cavities or voids
and other casting related defects, and pave the way to need of an efficient technique
which must be based on solid state. FSP is a solid state technique where a rotating
tool consisting of a shoulder and a pin enters the substrate and moves with steady
rotational and traverse speeds in the desired direction. The tool serves two primary
functions of heating and deformation of work-piece material [2]. The heating is
produced mainly by the friction of the rotating shoulder with the work-piece, while
the rotating probe or pin deforms or stirs the locally heated material. The heated

S. Pradeep Devaneyan (&)

School of Mechanical and Building Sciences, Christ College
of Engineering and Technology, Puducherry, India
e-mail: pr.signs@gmail.com
D. Peter Pushpanathan
A. Parambath
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Christ College
of Engineering and Technology, Puducherry, India

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 421

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_43
422 S. Pradeep Devaneyan et al.

material softens and flows around the rotating pin, and then fills the void at the rear
of the tool. The surface composites with various reinforcement particles are fabri-
cated successfully using FSP [3]. Defence components made of A356 alloy require
wear resistance and wear is one of common failure modes for moving metallic
mechanical components. Improved tribological properties are important to overcome
the wear failure of above defence components. FSP also results in grain refinement
and homogenization of a cast microstructure of A356. Metal matrix composites are
found to exhibit superplastic behaviour under special conditions. Microstructural
features that limit the application of as cast A356 Al–Si alloy for high performance
applications are dendrite size, porosity, heterogeneous microstructures, inter-
metallics and coarse eutectic silicon particles. FSP has been used to improve the
ductility of AZ31 magnesium alloys by performing multiples passes and rapid
cooling [4]. The effect of tool rotation speed and tool traverse speed on the surface
characteristics of cast hypereutectic Al-17% Si alloy has been studied. The results
have shown significant grain refinement, homogeneous distribution of Si and
reduction in porosity [5]. The influence of grain refiner (Al–5Ti–B), Mn and Sn
additions on the sliding wear behavior of A356 Aluminum alloys was investigated.
The results indicated a significant reduction in crack formation and improved wear
resistance [6]. The microhardness and wear resistance of A356 alloy were improved
by incorporating boron carbide and MoS2 powders using FSP. SiC particles were
distributed uniformly in AA2014 matrix and the surface hardness was improved.
Surface metal matrix composites fabricated using fusion techniques lead to problems
such as interfacial reactions, pin holes, shrinkage cavities, etc. due to the high
temperature. These problems could be avoided if a solid state processing route such
as FSP is used for fabricating SMMCs. The strength, ductility and machinability of
cast Al–Si alloys used in automobile industry were improved significantly using FSP
due to the dissolution of iron rich intermetallics [7]. FSP carried out on commercial
AA2024 Al alloy at different tool rotation rates produced significant reduction in size
of the constituent particles. Severe plastic deformation (SPD), peak temperature and
constituent particle characteristics due to FSP were found to influence their evolu-
tion. From the literature survey it is understood that the limited application of cast
Al–Si alloys is mainly due to poor mechanical and tribological properties. The main
motive of this study is to modify the surface properties of as cast A356 alloy by
reinforcing with Kevlar using FSP, and investigate its effect on the microstructural
and mechanical properties as well.

2 Experimental Procedure

In this work, a eutectic 7 Si, 0.3 Mg ingot was procured from the local distributor.
The ingot was cast into a plate of size 150 mm  72 mm  10 mm. The chemical
composition of the A356 plate was found to be 0.25% Copper, 0.2–0.4% Mg,
6.5–7.5% Si, 0.25% Ti, 0.35 Mn, 0.35% Zn, 0.6% Fe and the rest Al. The cast plate
On the Mechanical and Microstructural Properties … 423

was then cut into 8 plates of equal dimensions in order to accommodate it in the
fixture used in the modified vertical milling machine. The surfaces of these plates
were machined and smoothened to make it ideal to FSP operation. The plates thus
prepared are shown in Fig. 1.
The FSP tool was fabricated using EN31 tool material with a threaded cylin-
drical tool pin. EN31 tool material was used for fabrication. The tool was hardened
and tempered subsequently. The tool shoulder diameter was 18 mm and the probe
diameter was 6 mm. The tool shoulder was given a concavity of 2° and the tool pin
length was set as 3 mm [8]. The tool used for FSP is shown in Fig. 2.
The Kevlar aramid pulp manufactured by DuPont®, was used as a reinforcement.
Several trial runs were carried out in order to set the upper and lower limit of the
process parameters. The tool rotation speed was set as 1000 and 1400 rpm based on
the trial runs. However the tool traverse speed was kept constant at 21 mm/min to
analyse the effect of tool rotation speed on the properties of the friction stir pro-
cessed surface metal matrix composite. Rectangular grooves of size 2 mm  2 mm
were machined on the plates and Kevlar pulp was carefully filled inside the
grooves. The plates loaded with Kevlar were held in fixture and a pin less tool was
used to compress the fibres further into the groove. Then the pin less tool was
replaced with the threaded cylindrical tool and FSP was performed [9]. Ten
experimental runs were carried out with various tool rotation speed and tool traverse
speed combinations as specified in Table 1. Trial runs were conducted and the
lowest and highest limits of tool rotation speed and tool traverse speed required to
produce defect free surface composites were determined. The tool rotation speed
started from 1000 rpm and incremented in steps of 100 to reach the final value of
1400 rpm. The tool traverse speed was varied between 19 and 21 mm/min.
Tests to assess the tensile strength were carried out on the specimens machined
out perpendicular to the FSP direction as per ASTM E8M04. The specimens were
extracted from the FSPed area for microstructural examination and microhardness
testing. The extracted specimens were polished and etched with Keller’s reagent.

Fig. 1 Plates prepared for

FSP
424 S. Pradeep Devaneyan et al.

Fig. 2 Threaded cylindrical

tool

Table 1 Process parameters used for friction stir processing

Sl. No. Tool Tool rotation Tool traverse
speed (mm/min) speed (rpm)
1 Base metal – –
2 Threaded cylindrical 1400 21
3 Threaded cylindrical 1400 19
4 Threaded cylindrical 1300 21
5 Threaded cylindrical 1300 19
6 Threaded cylindrical 1200 21
7 Threaded cylindrical 1200 19
8 Threaded cylindrical 1100 21
9 Threaded cylindrical 1100 19
10 Threaded cylindrical 1000 21
11 Threaded cylindrical 1000 19

Microstructural examination was carried out using optical microscope (Make:

Meiji, Japan) with image analysis software. The microhardness of the samples were
then tested using Vickers microhardness tester (Make: Shimadzu: Japan, Model:
HMV-2T) employing Vickers indentation at 0.3 kgf load for 15 s [10].

3 Results and Discussion

3.1 Microstructure

The microstructure of the as cast A356 aluminium alloy is characterized by the

presence of a primary a aluminium solid solution and eutectic mixture of silicon
and aluminium. The dendritic arms of the primary phase are clearly seen in the
On the Mechanical and Microstructural Properties … 425

Fig. 3 a Microstructure of the base metal. b Microstructure of the FSPed SMMC

microstructure of the base metal. Fibrous morphology, instead of globular is

noticed. Also, microshrinkage, interdendritic voids and porosities are also observed
in the micrograph of the base metal presented in Fig. 3a.
From Fig. 3b, it could be inferred that the size of the chopped fibers are sig-
nificantly reduced and significant grain refinement also occurred in the stir zone.
The stir zone depth was observed to be around 3 mm which is the depth of the tool
pin. The interface between the aramid fibers and the matrix plays a major role in
deciding the properties of the FSPed surface metal matrix composite.

3.2 Tensile Strength

The photographs of the specimen before and after tensile testing are presented in
Fig. 4a, b.
From the results presented in Fig. 5a, b, it could be inferred that the base metal
specimen was subjected to tensile testing and the ultimate tensile strength was
found to be 199 MPa. The FSPed SMMC specimen processed with a tool rotation
speed of 1400 rpm exhibited the tensile strength of 191 MPa. The specimen pro-
cessed at 1000 rpm exhibited a tensile strength of 182 MPa. The failure of the

Fig. 4 a Tensile specimen before testing. b Tensile specimen after testing

426 S. Pradeep Devaneyan et al.

Fig. 5 a Yield strength versus elongation. b Yield strength versus tensile strength

specimen near the fillet indicates that the FSPed region possesses strength at par
with that of the base metal [11]. The slight reduction in the tensile strength could be
due to the breaking up of the grains due to the inhomogeneous local deformation
caused by the addition of aramid Fibers.
On the Mechanical and Microstructural Properties … 427

Fig. 6 Microhardness at different locations

Fig. 7 Microhardness versus tensile strength

3.3 Microhardness

The microhardness of the FSPed surface composite was tested at four locations on
either side of the nugget zone and in the stir zone itself. From the results plotted in
Figs. 6 and 7, it is understood that the hardness in the stir zone has improved
considerably for the threaded cylindrical pin processed at 1400 rpm as compared to
428 S. Pradeep Devaneyan et al.

the base metal. The hardness of the sample processed at 1000 rpm was 110 which
was higher than the base metal hardness. However it was less than the hardness of
the sample processed at 1400 rpm. The first reason for the increase in microhard-
ness is due to the considerable reduction in grain size due to intense stirring effected
by the threaded cylindrical tool pin. This caused the grain boundary to rupture
forming high angle grain boundaries which hindered the movement of dislocations
and thereby enhancing the hardness [12]. The second reason is the grain boundary
pinning caused by the chopped Kevlar pulp and dispersion hardening which caused
improvement in the hardness of the composite layer [13]. The interaction of dis-
locations and the chopped fibers could also have impeded the movement of dis-
locations and enhanced the hardness.

4 Conclusions

A356/Kevlar Surface metal matrix composites were successfully fabricated without

any defects. Significant grain refinement and homogeneous distribution of Kevlar
aramid chopped fibers were achieved. The tensile strength of the SMMC was found
to be a little lower than the base metal. This could be attributed to the inhomo-
geneous local deformation of the aramid fibers. However, the failure which did not
happen in the processed area indicate that the processed area is as strong as the base
metal. The microhardness of the stir zone area showed significant improvement as
compared to the base metal. This proves that the aramid fibers and grain refinement
effected by FSP has played a major role in enhancing the hardness. It is implied that
the enhancement of hardness would result in significant wear resistance as well.

References

1. Santella ML, Engstrom T, Storjohann D, Pan TY (2005) Effects of friction stir processing on
mechanical properties of the cast aluminum alloys A319 and A356. Scripta Mater 53(2):201–
206
2. Sharma SR, Ma ZY, Mishra RS (2004) Effect of friction stir processing on fatigue behavior of
A356 alloy. Scripta Mater 51(3):237–241
3. Ma ZY, Sharma SR, Mishra RS, Mahoney MW (2003) Effect of friction stir processing on the
microstructure of cast A356 aluminum. Mater Sci Forum 426–432:2891–2896
4. Mishra RS, Ma ZY (2005) Friction stir welding and processing. Mater Sci Eng: R: Rep 50(1–
2):1–78
5. Ma ZY, Mishra RS, Mahoney MW (2004) Superplasticity in cast A356 induced via friction
stir processing. Scripta Mater 50:931–935
6. Ma ZY (2008) Friction stir processing technology: a review. Metall Mater Trans A 39
(3):642–658
7. AlaviNia A, Omidvar H, Nourbakhsh SH (2014) Effects of an overlapping multi-pass friction
stir process and rapidcooling on the mechanical properties and microstructure of AZ31
magnesium alloy. Mater Des 58:298–304
On the Mechanical and Microstructural Properties … 429

8. Saini* N, Dwivedi DK, Jain PK, Singh H (2015) Surface modification of cast Al-17% Si
Alloys using friction stir processing. Procedia Eng 100:1522–1531
9. Qui K, Wang R-C, Peng C-Q, Wang N-G, Cai Z-Y, Zhang C (2015) Effect of individual and
combined additions of Al–5Ti–B, Mn and Sn on sliding wear behavior of A356 alloy. Trans.
Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 25:3886–3892
10. Srinivasu R, Sambasiva Rao A, Madhusudhan Reddy G, Rao S (2015) Friction stir surfacing
of cast A356 aluminium silicon alloy with boron carbide and molybdenum disulphide
powders. Def Technol 11(2):140–146
11. Sudhakar I, Madhusudhan Reddy G, Srinivasa Rao K (2016) Ballistic behavior of boron
carbide reinforced AA7075 aluminium alloy using friction stir processing. An experimental
study and analytical approach. Def Technol 12(1):25–31
12. Gurua PR, Khan F, Panigrahia SK, Janaki Ram GD (2015) Enhancing strength, ductility and
machinability of a Al–Si cast alloy by friction stir processing. J Manuf process 18:67–74
13. Pasebani S, Charit I, Mishra RS (2015) Effect of tool rotation rate on constituent particles in a
friction stir processed 2024 Al alloy. Mater Lett 160:64–67
Production of Biodiesel from High FFA
Non-edible Nahar Oil and Optimization
of Yield

Santosh Kumar Dash and Pradip Lingfa

1 Introduction

Nahar (mesua ferrea lin.) is an underutilized tree abundantly available in northeast

part of India. Abundance of Nahar in northeast part of India and higher oil content
(65–70% of seed kernel) can be seen in earlier literature [1–3]. Bora et al. used
Nahar seed oil for production of Nahar oil methyl ester by single stage transes-
terification and utilized it in diesel engine [2]. Two years later Kushwah et al.
reported, due to high acid value (34 mg KOH/g) and moisture content both single
stage and double stage (acid-base) transesterification failed and suggested up to
15% blend with high speed diesel can be used to run a diesel engine [3]. However
earlier literatures reported for FFA value more than 3%, transesterification reaction
is not possible [4]. For high FFA feedstock pretreatment is necessary [5, 6].
High FFA in seed oil, by chemically reacting with alkaline base catalyst in trans-
esterification process forms soap, which inhibit chemical reaction [7–9]. In light of
the above ambiguous reports in earlier published literature pertinent to biodiesel
production from Nahar oil, present investigation was undertaken to produce bio-
diesel from Nahar seed oil. Heterogeneous catalyst has several benefits over
homogeneous catalyst in terms of cost, elimination of water-wash step; which
account for 10–15% loss of alkyl ester, environmental benign and reusability
characteristics unlike homogeneous catalyst which partially get consumed to pro-
duce gel or soap [4, 10, 11]. Cost is the prime reason of biofuel not being popular in
market. Non-edible feedstock with heterogeneous catalyst combinedly could reduce
the overall production cost of biodiesel. A heterogeneous catalyst CaO is used in
present study for transesterification. Chavan et al. studied biodiesel synthesis from
Jatropha curcas oil using CaO as solid base heterogeneous catalyst derived from

S. K. Dash (&)
P. Lingfa

Department of Mechanical Engineering, North Eastern Regional Institute
of Science and Technology, Itanagar 791109, Arunachal Pradesh, India
e-mail: 90nash@gmail.com

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 431

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_44
432 S. K. Dash and P. Lingfa

waste eggshell. The evaluated properties were of superior quality and falls within
limits given in ASTM standards [12]. Veljkovic et al. obtained 98% yield of bio-
diesel with using 1 wt% CaO catalyst at 60 °C for 2 h with a molar ratio of 1:6
[13]. Demirbas used CaO for methanolysis of sunflower oil in supercritical process
[14].
The objective of the present study is to synthesis biodiesel from Nahar seed oil
using CaO as heterogeneous catalyst, optimizing the process parameters (molar
ratio of oil to alcohol, reaction time, catalyst amount, reaction temperature, speed of
reaction) for both esterification and transesterification for maximum yield of bio-
diesel and evaluating fuel properties for quality checkup as per ASTM
specifications.

2 Materials and Methods

Nahar seed was collected from NERIST college campus, Arunachal Pradesh, India.
The collected seed kernels were dried in the sun light for 3 days at college campus
to reduce moisture content. The dried seed kernels were expelled using a
mechanical expeller in Assam, India. After filtration the raw oil obtained was 67%
of total weight of Nahar seed kernel. The filtered raw oil is used for the present
study. Analytical grade methanol, Calcium oxide (CaO) powder, Anhydrous
sodium sulfate (Na2SO4), Sulphuric acid, Isopropyl alcohol, Phenolphthalein
indicator were purchased from Merck Ltd. Mumbai, Maharashtra.

3 Characterization of Nahar Seed Oil

The raw Nahar oil has been characterized for improving biodiesel production
process and properties of biodiesel. Various physico-chemical properties and fatty
acids content were evaluated. Fatty acid compositions of Nahar oil are listed in
Table 1. The physico-chemical properties are listed in Table 2. The FFA content of
Nahar oil was obtained 16%, with a corresponding acid value of 31.97 mg KOH/g.
From the gas chromatograph (GC), it was observed oleic acid (46%) is the major
fatty acid constituent followed by Linoleic acid 22.099%. Palmitic (16.690%) and
stearic (8.8%) acids shared the saturated portion of fatty acid profile and are
responsible for high cloud and pour point.
Production of Biodiesel from High FFA Non-edible … 433

Table 1 Fatty acid composition (%) of Nahar oil

Sr. No Fatty acid name Formula Composition (%)
1 Myristic acid C14:0 2.3
2 Palmitic acid C16:0 16.690
3 Stearic acid C18:0 8.8
4 Behenic acid C22:0 0.445
5 Tricosanoic acid C23:0 0.199
6 Oleic acid C18:1n9c 45.859
7 Cis-11 Ecosenoic acid C20:1 0.992
8 Linoleic acid C18:2n6c 22.099
9 Alpha-Linolenic acid C20:3n6 0.013
10 Cis-8, 11, 14-Ecosatrienoic acid C18:3n3 0.197
11 Arachidonic acid C20:4n6 0.331
12 Cis-13, 16 Docosadienoic acid C22:2 0.103

Table 2 Properties of Nahar Sr. No Parameter Nahar oil

oil
1 Density (gm/cc) 0.925
2 Viscosity (mm2/s) 49.7
3 Calorific value (MJ/Kg) 37.5
4 Cetane no. 53
5 Flashpoint (°C) 163
6 Fire point (°C) 176
7 Cloud point (°C) 12
8 Pour point (°C) 6.9
10 Iodine value (g/100 g of oil) 82
11 Acid value (mg KOH/g) 31.97
12 Saponification value (mg KOH/g) 191

4 Results and Discussion

4.1 Biodiesel Production

Several attempts were failed to get optimum biodiesel from Nahar oil by alkali
catalyzed transesterification process. This may be due to the presence of high free
fatty acid which hinders the progress of the reaction by forming soap and water.
Hence a two step acid-base transesterification process was developed to reduce the
high free fatty acid of Nahar oil in the 1st stage esterification.
434 S. K. Dash and P. Lingfa

4.2 First Stage Acid Esterification

In this stage of reaction, the FFA present in the oil was converted into fatty acid
methyl ester. Several sets of experiments were conducted to know the optimum
value of methanol quantity, sulphuric acid (H2SO4), reaction time, reaction tem-
perature, mixing speed of reaction mixture. From the Fig. 1, can be observed that at
60 °C reaction temperature with 1:6 molar ratio of oil to methanol by employing
0.7% of H2SO4 the acid value reduced to 23 mg KOH/g in 15 min from the start of
reaction. The conversion slowed down for next 15 min with reduction of 7 mg
KOH/g acid value. With further addition of 0.5% (v/v) H2SO4 the conversion gets
accelerated and reduces to 2.83 mg KOH/g in 75 min. The conversion was faster
for the first 60 min compared to the rest of the reaction time. With further
increasing the amount of sulphuric acid the conversion was negatively affected by
forming a sudden change of color of reaction mixture. This may be attributed to the
fact that, burning of preheated triglyceride at high concentration of sulphuric acid.
Further addition of 0.5% (v/v) sulphuric acid after 30 min from the start of reaction
results better conversion in lesser time than direct addition of 1.2% (v/v) sulphuric
acid in the oil-methanol mixture. In 1 h 45 min the acid value of the oil reduced to
2.83 mg KOH/g from 31.97 mg KOH/g with keeping other parameter at optimum
condition at 60 °C 500 rpm and (0.7 + 0.5) % (v/v) sulphuric acid (H2SO4).
Slightly formed moisture in esterification reaction was removed by passing the
mixture over anhydrous sodium sulfate (Na2SO4). Then the esterified oil was
immediately taken for calcium oxide (CaO) catalyzed transesterification reaction.

Fig. 1 Effect of time on

reduction of acid value during
first stage esterification
Production of Biodiesel from High FFA Non-edible … 435

4.3 Second Stage Alkali Catalyzed Transesterification

Combined effect of molar ratio of oil to alcohol (1:4 to 1:12) and catalyst amount
(0.5–3.00 wt%) were studied. The other reaction parameters were kept constant at
reaction temperature of 60 °C, reaction time of 2 h with speed of reaction 500 rpm.
It can be seen from Fig. 2 for catalyst amount 0.5 to 1.5 wt% with increase in molar
ratio the biodiesel yield increases. For catalyst amount 2 to 3 wt% maximum yield
was observed at molar ratio of 1:8. For 2 wt% of loading of CaO catalyst maximum
yield of 74% observed for both molar ratio of 1:8 and 1:10. Maximum biodiesel
yield (82%) was obtained at 2.5 wt% loading of catalyst with molar ratio of 1:8.
Hence for the transesterification process, the optimum value of molar ratio is 1:8
and loading of catalyst amount is 2.5 wt% of CaO.
Other reaction parameters were optimized to further enhance biodiesel yield.
Reaction temperature was varied from 45 to 70 °C to study the effect of temperature
on yield. From the Fig. 3, it can be seen with increase in temperature from 45 to
60 °C, the yield increases rapidly and then only 2% yield increases for increasing
temperature from 60 to 65 °C. Further increasing temperature (at 70 °C) showed
negative effect on yield of biodiesel. This may be due to the evaporation of
methanol from round bottom flask to condenser, contributing to a net lesser
methanol in the reaction mixture. Maximum yield of 84% observed at 65 °C
reaction temperature. The optimum reaction time was obtained as 2.5 h, which
accounts for maximum 87% biodiesel yield. With increase in mixing speed, the
yield increased and a maximum yield of 88% observed for 600 rpm. Further
increase in stirring speed would not give any higher yield (Figs. 4, 5).

Fig. 2 Effect of molar ratio

and catalyst amount on yield
of biodiesel in second stage
transesterification
436 S. K. Dash and P. Lingfa

Fig. 3 Effect of reaction

temperature on yield of Nahar
biodiesel during second stage
transesterification

Fig. 4 Effect of reaction time

on biodiesel yield during
alkali catalyzed
transesterification

5 Evaluation of Fuel Properties

This work can be compared to the work of Boro et al. [15]. They prepared biodiesel
by using 2% Li and 5% loading of CaO derived from eggshell in transesterification
process. However a total reaction period of 10 h for esterification, catalyst acti-
vation and transesterification may not be considered for production of biodiesel at
an industrial scale due to higher power consumption. Owing to the high cost of
Li2CO3, adding 2% Li would further hit the problem.
Several important fuel properties of Nahar biodiesel are listed in Table 3. Both
the density and viscosity reduced to safer limit after double stage transesterification.
The calorific value was obtained 38.012 MJ/kg for Nahar methyl ester, which is
Production of Biodiesel from High FFA Non-edible … 437

Fig. 5 Effect of stirring

speed on biodiesel yield
during second stage
transesterification process

Table 3 Fuel properties of Nahar biodiesel

Fuel property Test method Limits Biodiesel quality Diesel
Acid value (mg KOH/g) ASTM D664 0.5 max 0.43 –
Density @ 30 °C (gm/cc) ASTM D1448 0.800–0.900 0.882 0.830
Viscosity @ 40 °C (mm2/s) ASTM D445 1.9–6.00 5.9 2.7
Calorific value (MJ/kg) ASTM D6751 34–45 38.012 42
Cetane number ASTM D613 47 min 51 48
Flash point (°C) ASTM D93 130 min 145 64
Fire point (°C) ASTM D93 – 155 71
Cloud point (°C) ASTM D2500 – 7 −4
Pour point (°C) ASTM D2500 – 4 −9
Sulphated ash (mass %) ASTM D874 0.02 max 0.005 –
Free glycerin (mass %) ASTM D6584 0.00–0.02 0.01 –
Total glycerin (mass %) ASTM D6584 0.00–0.24 0.017 –
Methanol content (vol. %) EN14100 0.05 0.05 –
Carbon content (wt%) Elemental analysis 77.19 86.4
Oxygen content (wt%) Elemental analysis 12.02 0
Hydrogen content (wt%) Elemental analysis 10.37 13.1
Nitrogen content (wt%) Elemental analysis 0.03 0.14

comparatively lower than high speed diesel but is in the range of ASTM prescribed
limits. High cetane number (51) would help in burning characteristics of fuel and
reduce delay period when injected into the combustion chamber of diesel engine.
Storing of Nahar biodiesel alone or biodiesel diesel blended form would be safer
than diesel fuel alone due to high flash and fire point characteristics of Nahar
biodiesel. Poor cloud point (7 °C) and pour point (4 °C) characteristic of Nahar
438 S. K. Dash and P. Lingfa

biodiesel may be due to the presence of palmitic and stearic acid. However using
biodiesel in blended form (biodiesel diesel blend) in a country like India, where
high average temperature (more than 20 °C) prevails throughout the year would not
cause any trouble. Other parameters like, presence of free glycerin, sulphated ash,
total glycerin and methanol content were in the limit. From elemental analysis the
carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N) and oxygen (O) compositions were
obtained as 77.19, 10.37, 12.02 and 0.03 wt% respectively. The presence of oxygen
in the biodiesel would result better combustion of fuel in the compression ignition
engine compared to diesel fuel.

6 Conclusion

Abundantly available non-edible high oil content (nearly 70%) underutilized seed
has been investigated to produce biodiesel. Owing to high FFA content, double
stage (acid-base) transesterification process was developed after several attempts
failed with simple alkali catalyzed transesterification process to yield biodiesel.
CaO used as a heterogeneous catalyst easily separated from the biodiesel after end
of the reaction. The usual water washing step was avoided in this study, due to the
use of heterogeneous catalyst which saves time, energy and cost both in direct and
indirect way. The first stage acid esterification reduces FFA to less than 1.5% in
1 h. 45 min with a molar ratio of oil to alcohol 1:6, at 60 °C reaction temperature,
loading of (0.7 + 0.5) % (v/v) acid catalyst (H2SO4) with mixing speed of 500 rpm.
The optimum conditions for alkali catalyzed transesterification reaction are; 65 °C
reaction temperature, 1:8 molar ratio of oil to alcohol, 600 rpm reaction speed,
2.5 wt% of catalyst loading and time of 2.5 h. Maximum 88% biodiesel yield was
obtained from transesterification reaction with using optimum conditions of reac-
tion parameters. Fuel properties of Nahar biodiesel are observed to be comparable
to that of diesel fuel and in the limits prescribed by ASTM specification. Hence it is
quite clear that; biodiesel prepared from Nahar oil can be utilized in diesel engine as
an alternative fuel. Use of biodiesel derived from Nahar oil in conjunction with
other (Gov. of India) identified potential feedstock, (Jatropha and Karanja) would
generate rural employment, reduce dependency on fossil based fuel and curb the
carbon emissions as per the commitment of India towards the ‘National biofuel
policy (Gov. of India)’ and inspiring ‘Paris climate agreement’.

Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to Indian Biodiesel Corporation (IBDC), Baramati,
Maharashtra, for help in testing of prepared samples.
Production of Biodiesel from High FFA Non-edible … 439

References

1. Azam MM, Waris A, Nahar NM (2005) Prospects and potential of fatty acid methyl esters of
some non-traditional seed oils for use as biodiesel in India. Biomass Bioenerg 29:293–302
2. Bora DK, Nath R (2007) Use of nahar oil methyl ester (NOME) in CI engines. J Sci Ind Res
66:256–258
3. Kushwah YS, Mahanta P, Mishra SC (2008) Some Studies on Fuel Characteristics of
MesuaFerrea. Heat Transf Eng 29(4):405–409. https://doi.org/10.1080/01457630701825788
4. Aransiola EF, Ojumu TV, Oyekola OO, Madzimbamuto TF, Ikhu-Omoregbe DIO (2014) A
review of current technology for biodiesel production: state of the art. Biomass Bioenerg
61:276–297
5. Dash SK, Lingfa P (2017) A review on production of biodiesel using catalyzed
transesterification. AIP conference proceedings 1859, p020100, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.
4990253 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4990253)
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analysis of a diesel engine fueled with biodiesel prepared from different sources. J Ind Pollut
Control 33(2):1114–1119
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Plant 45:229–266. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11627-009-9204-z
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acid karanja (Pongamia pinnata) oil. Biomass Bioenerg 32:354–357
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Energy Rev 15:4732–4745
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heterogeneous base catalyzed technology: an efficient production of biodiesel fuels. J Renew
Sustain Energy 7(032701):1–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4919082
12. Chavan SB, Kumbhar RR, Madhu D, Singh B, Sharma YC (2015) Synthesis of biodiesel
from Jatropha Curcas oil using waste eggshell and study of its properties. RSC Adv 5:63596–
63604
13. Veljkovic VB, Stamenkovic OS, Todorovic ZB, Lazic ML, Skala DU (2009) Kinetics of
sunflower oil methanolysis catalyzed by calcium oxide. Fuel 88:1554–1562
14. Demirbas A (2007) Biodiesel from sun flower oil in supercritical methanol with calcium
oxide. Energy Convers Manag 48:937–941
15. Boro J, Konwar LJ, Deka D (2014) Transesterification of non edible feedstock with lithum
incorporated eggshell derived CaO for biodiesel production. Fuel Process Technol 122:72–78
Microstructural Evaluation,
Tribological Behavior and Mechanical
Properties of Cu–Ni Alloy After
Addition of Chromium Under Spinodal
Conditions

Sagar C. Jirapure and Atul B. Borade

1 Introduction

Copper and copper alloys are widely used for engineering applications. Due to wide
range of use Copper needs some heat treatment for strengthening its alloys. To
develop the mechanical properties of Cu based alloys various researches were
carried out. A new developed Spinodal decomposition will enhances the properties
of Cu-based alloys. Cu–Ni–Cr alloys are subject to embrittlement when aged at
temperatures in the range of 300–800 °C. Vintaykin et al. [1] showed relationship
between experimental results and the Cahn-Hilliard theory of spinodal decompo-
sition. The miscibility gap in the Cu–Ni–Cr system was first reported by Meijering
et al., by means of metallographic and X-ray diffraction methods at 930 °C an
isothermal section was determined Fig. 1 [2].
The phase field method [3, 4] is a powerful tool to analyze the phase decom-
position in binary and ternary alloy systems. This will help to study microstructure
evolution and growth kinetics of the decomposed phases in the early stages of
aging. Cahn [5, 6] developed a linear model, which is applicable in three dimen-
sions. It refers to a method in which a supersaturated solid solution decomposes into
solute-rich and solute-poor regions when it is aged at a suitable temperature [7].
It forms the ordered microstructure of alloy which delays the dislocation motion
which is the source of hardening. Aging time will plays an important role for
deciding in remarkable strength of the alloy. Zhang et al. [8] have calculated the
wear performance of Cu-15Ni-8Sn spinodal alloy with hardness whereas
S. Ilangovan et al investigated wear behavior of Cu–Ni–Sn spinodal alloy by
varying the Sn composition [9]. Deyong et al. have informed about the effect of Sn
content on the hardness of Cu–Ni–Sn alloys maintaining Ni fixed at 10 wt% [10].

S. C. Jirapure (&)
A. B. Borade

Mechanical Engineering Department, Jawaharlal Darda Institute
of Engineering and Technology, Yavatmal, MS, India
e-mail: sagarjirapure@rediffmail.com

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 441

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_45
442 S. C. Jirapure and A. B. Borade

Fig. 1 Cu-Ni-Cr ternary

phase diagram at 930 °C.
Atomic concentrations-
A homogeneous b.c.c.;
B homogeneous f.c.c.;
C 2 f.c.c. phases; D b.c.c. and
Cu-Rich f.c.c.; E b.c.c. and
Ni-rich f.c.c.; F b.c.c. and
2 f.c.c. phases [2]

The intention of this research is to investigate the phase decomposition in Cu–

Ni–Cr alloy aged at 6000C. So, in the present work, the effects of Cr on hardness,
wear rate and the coefficient of friction of Cu–Ni–Cr is discussed. Microstructure
and strength of the alloy has been changed via spinodal decomposition [11].

2 Experimental Procedure

(1) The Sample

The required alloy sample elements were procured in the commercial market in
pure form. The sample is a commercial Cu-based alloy of following composition by
weight %:

Cu balance C 0:014%;
Ni 28:9% Ti 0:051%;
Cr 2:84% Si 0:091%;
Mn 0:55% Fe 0:32%;
Zr 0:22%:

(2) Heat Treatment

The alloy was placed in an electric arc furnace with an inert atmosphere; Aragon
was supplied during the heat treatment. The temperature within the hot zone of the
furnace was controlled to an accuracy of ±5%. Homogenization was carried out at
a temperature above the miscibility gap for the Cu–Ni–Cr and cooled in the furnace
itself.
Solution heat treatment involves heating the alloy to a temperature in the single
phase solid solution region and rapidly quenched in water.
Aging heat treatment was carried out after the specimens were subjected to
solution heat treatment. The aged specimens withdrawn from the furnace were
quenched in water.
Microstructural Evaluation, Tribological Behavior … 443

The microscopic examinations were conducted using Carl-Zeiss metallurgical

microscope.
(3) Hardness Testing
To study the hardness of prepared alloys the hardness of the entire alloy specimens
were measured using micro-hardness tester of HMV G21. Numerous readings were
taken at different position for each specimen and a typical value was calculated.
(4) Tribological Testing
The friction and wear tests were performed on entire alloy specimens. Pin-on-Disc
type wear tester was used for tribological testing. Hemispherical pins of 5 mm
radius of curvature were mated against 130 mm diameter and 10 mm thick discs of
the same material. The pin was held stationary and the disc was rotated. All the tests
were carried out at a constant load of 20 N for 800 s each at constant sliding
velocity of 0.8 m/s resulting in total sliding distance of 640 m in each test.

3 Results and Discussion

3.1 Microstructural Evolution

Microstructural evolution, based on Cr concentration, is shown in Fig. 2a–c for the

alloy aged at 600 °C for different times.
Long time ageing will results in Cu-rich and Cu-poor regions. In microscopic
observations, bright regions correspond to the Cu-rich phase and dark regions
correspond to the Cu-poor phase since the copper rich regions preferentially thin in
the electrolyte used. The morphology of the Cr-rich phase is interconnected and
rounded irregular without any preferential alignment in the alloy. Both phases
contain all three alloying elements.

Fig. 2 Simulated microstructural evolution

444 S. C. Jirapure and A. B. Borade

3.2 Coarsening Behavior

In the early stages of ageing, the wavelength was showing a constant value;
however after long time ageing a particle coarsening behavior was obtained.
However, clear periodic structures are observed above 500 °C Fig. 3.

3.3 Hardening Behavior

The plot of Vickers hardness as a function of aging time is shown in Fig. 4 for the
present alloy aged at 600 °C.
From the observations it is cleared that at the early stages of aging there is a
sudden increase in hardness and then hardness increases gradually for delayed
aging. The increase in hardness related with the spinodal decomposition of the
supersaturated solid solution. The decomposed phases are consistent with
nanometre size. Also, the hardness is proportional to the wavelength of modulation

Fig. 3 Clear periodic

structure

Fig. 4 Plot of vickers

hardness versus aging time
Hardness (VHN)

Time t/h
Microstructural Evaluation, Tribological Behavior … 445

composition [12]. Size of the decomposed phases increases with aging time. These
two features causing an increase in hardness. For delayed aging, the decomposed
phases are still coherent and nanometre size and thus there is no decrease in
hardness.

3.4 Tribological Behavior with Cr Content

Chromium contributing the spinodal decomposition. The hardness of the alloys was
greatly influenced by the presence of Cr. The hardness in Cu–Ni–Cr is because of
presence of Cr in Cu–Ni binary system which is effective in increasing the resis-
tance to dislocation motion and increasing the work-hardening rate of the alloy.
The dendritic structure was fully removed by the homogenization and the
solution heat treatments (Fig. 5).
The modulated structure and an ordering reaction take place during the aging
process. The modulated and the ordered structures are very fine.
It is observed from the plot that hardness of Cu–Ni–Cr alloys increases with Cr
content (Fig. 6).

Fig. 5 Homogenized & solution heat treated microstructure

Fig. 6 Variation of hardness 500

with Cr content
400
300
200
100
0
1 2 3 4 5
%Cr by wt
446 S. C. Jirapure and A. B. Borade

WearRate 10 -13 m3/min

Fig. 7 Variation of wear rate 25
with Cr content 20

15

10

0
1 2 3 4 5
% Cr by wt.

It is concluded from the result that the addition of Cr content reduces wear rate
by increasing the hardness (Fig. 7).

4 Conclusions

Following conclusions are made on the basis of the present study.

The growth kinetics of phase decomposition was observed with very slow growth
kinetics during the spinodal decomposition of the supersaturated solid solution.
Added aging caused an increase in raise kinetics due to diffusion-controlled
coarsening of the decomposed phases.
The alloy showed morphological features such as aligned precipitates and absence
of preferential precipitations at microstructural in-homogeneities.
The increase in hardness seems to be associated with the coherency and nanometre
size of the spinodally-decomposed phases in the aged alloy. Cr contributes sig-
nificantly to the hardening.
Coefficient of friction is independent of hardness.
Wear rate decreases linearly with hardness irrespective of Cr content.
Friction and wear may be kept to some lower value to improve mechanical
processes.
Any definite relationship between the mechanical properties and microstructure can
be seen to depend on the compositional fluctuations.
The spinodal decomposition method forms homogeneous microstructure, no
influencing by section thickness and uniform all over the section, over the con-
ventional hardening method.
In the present alloy, only FCC particles are obtained.

Acknowledgements The authors are immensely thanking Heads & associates of Research lab,
Mechanical Engineering Department, Engineering Metallurgy laboratory, JD Institute of
Engineering & Technology to carry out the present work.
Microstructural Evaluation, Tribological Behavior … 447

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2. Meijering JL, Rathenau GH (1955–1956) J lnst Metals 118
3. Baburaj EG, Kulkarni UD (1979) Initial stages of decomposition in Cu-9Ni-6Sn. J Appl
Crystallogr 12(5):476–480
4. Honjo M, Saito Y (2000) ISIJ Int 40:914–919
5. Cahn JW (1961) Acta Metall 9:795–801
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7. Kuwajima T, Saito Y (2003) Intermetallics 11:1279–1285
8. Zhang S et al (2010) Dry sliding wear of Cu-15Ni-8Sn alloy. Tribol Int 43(1–2):64–68
9. Ilangovan S, Sellamuthu R (2016) Effects of tin on hardness, wear rate and coefficient of
friction of cast Cu-Ni-Sn alloys. J Eng Sci Technol 8(1):34–43
10. Deyong L et al (1990) Microstructural and mechanical properties of rapidly solidified
Cu-Ni-Sn alloys’. Mater Sci Eng 124(2):223–231
11. Findik F, Rehman F (1993) A spinodal Cu-Ni-Cr alloy. Trans Eng Sci, 2, WIT Press, 219–
228
12. Kostorz G (1996) Phase transformations in materials. Wiley-VCH, Germany, pp 309–407
13. Archard JF (1953) Contact and rubbing of flat surfaces. J Appl Phys 24(8):981–988
14. Kato M, Schwartz LH (1979) The temperature dependence of yield stress and work hardening
in spinodally decomposed Cu-10Ni-6Sn alloy. Mater Sci Eng 41(1):137–142
15. Chou A, Datta, A. G. (1978) Microstructural behaviour and mechanical hardening in a
Cu-Ni-Cr alloy. J Mater Sci 13:541–552 CrossRef
16. Jantzen CMF, Herman H (1978) Phase diagrams. Materials science and technology.
Academic Press New York, vol 6, pp 127–184
17. Ilangovan S, Sellamuthu R (2016) Measurement of the variation of mechanical properties
with aging temperatures for sand cast Cu-5ni-5sn alloy. J Eng Sci Technol 11(11):31609–
31619 © School of Engineering, Taylor’s University
18. Findik Fehim (2013) Modulated alloys. Periodicals Eng Nat Sci 1(1):47–55
19. Rao PP, Agrawal BK (1991) Comparative-study of spinodal decomposition in symmetrical
and asymmetric Cu-Ni-Cr alloys. J Mater Sci 26:1485–1496
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meta-stable austenitic stainless steel and its influence on wear behaviour. Wear 267:1386–
1392
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modified austenitic stainless steel (alloy D9) was studied in high purity liquid sodium at high
temperature viz. 473 and 823 K respectively. Wear 270:1–4
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components under lubricated rolling wear condition. Wear 259:512–518
24. Yuan CQ et al (2008) Surface roughness evolutions in sliding wear process. Wear 265:341–
348
25. Zum Gahr K (1987) Microstructure and wear of materials. Elsevier, Tribol, pp 174–176
26. Archard JF (1980) Wear theory and mechanisms. In: Peterson MB, Winer WO (eds) Wear
control handbook. ASME, New York, NY, pp 35–80
27. Jirapure SC, Borade AB (2014) A new approach of strengthening- spinodal decomposition.
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28. Jirapure SC, Borade AB (2017) Measurement of mechanical properties and microstructure of
Cu-Ni-Cr spinodal alloy. Int J Adv Eng Manag 2(3):78–81
Development of Fire Resistant Polymeric
Nano Composites Using Plasma
Modified Calcium Silicate

G. Ajeesh, P. Sanjana, M. Raji Sivani, S. Govardhan, A. Sudhin

and Philip Goerge

1 Introduction

Materials have been the basis for human development right from the start of civ-
ilization. Anthropologists have said that the historical epochs were developed by
materials such as the Stone and Iron ages. Composites have gained tremendous
importance because of their properties like high strength to weight ratio, High
thermal and mechanical properties and its resistance to corrosion. Composite was
first developed by man using mud and straw. Mud was used as matrix and straw
was used as reinforcement. Composites are further classified as metal matrix,
ceramic matrix and polymer matrix composites. Polymeric matrix composites are
used for primarily applications pertaining to aerospace, defense, automobile and
structural. Polymer matrix composites are further classified as thermosetting and
thermoplastic composites. To develop a tougher, stronger and thermally stable
composite, the present work is focused on using thermoplastic composites. Very
little research has been performed on thermoplastic composites compared to ther-
mosetting composites. Thermoplastics are expensive and difficult of develop con-
sidering their high thermal properties. In this investigation polypropylene (PP) was
considered because of its ease of manufacturing and its superior thermal and
mechanical properties [1]. Polypropylene is a semi-crystalline engineering ther-
moplastic and is known for its high strength, high thermal and mechanical prop-
erties. PP is used widely in application where high creep resistance is important.
Non reinforced PP has low fire resistant. To improve its strength and thermal
properties, different fillers (such as fibres, clay, silica, graphene and CNT) are

G. Ajeesh (&)
P. Sanjana
M. R. Sivani
S. Govardhan
A. Sudhin

Department of Aerospace Engineering, Amrita School of Engineering,
Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Coimbatore 641112, India
e-mail: g_ajeesh@cb.amrita.edu
P. Goerge
Vijnan Institute of Science and Technology, Elanji, Ernakulam, India

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 449

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_46
450 G. Ajeesh et al.

reinforced. The reinforcement of fillers has been proved to be an effective way to

improving the physical and thermal properties. Nano Calcium silicate has been used
in this investigation as it possesses high thermal stability and hence, enhances the
fire resistant property of composites [2].
Calcium silicate is used for passive fire protection and fireproofing in the form of
tiles or bricks. This material has been extensively used in Europe. Calcium-silicate
retains their properties under moisture and damp environment [3]. In some cases
calcium silicate is being treated so as to enhance its property towards chemical
environments and moisture.

2 Experimental

2.1 Materials

Non reinforced polypropylene of grade H110MA was procured from Repol, India.
Nano-calcium silicate was procured from Sigma Aldrich, India.

2.2 Plasma Modification

Plasma modification is a type of modification technique that modifies the surface of

the components using plasma. Very high voltage is supplied to the gas to ionize the
gas and use it as plasma. The whole process is carried out in vacuum conditions.
Oxygen plasma removes organic contaminants by reacting chemically with highly
reactive oxygen radicals. Oxygen plasma surface treatment promotes surface oxi-
dation and hydroxylation that increases the wetting property of the surface.

2.3 Preparation of PP/(Unmodified/Modified) Nano

Calcium Silicate Composites

Samples of unfilled polymer was developed using an injection molding machine.

The composites were done in two steps. In the first step, the filler was reinforced
into matrix using a twin screw extruder at different ratios. The extruder screw rpm
was maintained at 71 and the die temperature was kept constant at 232 °C. The
outcome was in the form of strands which was then cut to smaller pieces using a
shear cutter and then fed into the injection molding machine. Weight ratio of 0.5, 1,
1.5, 2 and 5 were being used for this study. The compounded samples were then
injection molded to achieve the required shape. The mold temperature was set as
250 °C.
Development of Fire Resistant Polymeric Nano … 451

3 Characterization

3.1 FTIR Spectroscopy

The effect of modification in the nano filler was observed using a Nicolet iS10
machine manufactured by Thermo Scientific, USA.

3.2 Tensile Test

Tensile test was done using a Universal Testing Machine. The machine used was
Zwick/Roell Z010. The gauge length of the specimen was 50 mm and the
cross-head speed was 5 mm/min according to ASTM D-638.

3.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy

SEM is performed to study the effect of modification on the dispersion of the nano
fillers in the composites.

3.4 Limiting Oxygen Index

LOI test, is a very widely used method for determining the relative flammability of
polymeric materials. ASTM D-2863 standard was followed. Oxygen content was
increased in steps of 1%. The test was done for 0.5, 1, 2 and 5% mass ratios for
composites containing the unmodified and modified filler.

3.5 Horizontal Flammability

Flammability is the ability of a substance to burn or ignite, causing fire or com-

bustion. The horizontal flammability test method is intended for use in determining
the resistance of materials to flame and the test standard followed was ISO 3795.
The flame height was 38 mm and it was applied for 15 s.
452 G. Ajeesh et al.

4 Results and Discussion

4.1 FTIR Spectroscopy

It is observed that on comparing the FTIR spectrum of the unmodified and plasma
modified nano calcium silicate as shown in Figs. 1 and 2, there is an increase of
18% of the transmittance value of the hydroxyl group (O–H) and aromatic group
(C=C). This is attributed to the effect of plasma modification on the surface of
calcium silicate. Research in the past has revealed that on modification of nano

Fig. 1 FTIR spectra of unmodified calcium silicate

Fig. 2 FTIR spectra of plasma modified calcium silicate

Development of Fire Resistant Polymeric Nano … 453

fillers, a tremendous enhancement in the dispersion and interfacial adhesion

between matrix and reinforcement is observed [4, 5]. It was also observed that on
modification, there is a covalent linking of matrix with the reinforcement.

4.2 Tensile Tests

It is observed from Fig. 3, that there is a marginal increase in the tensile strength of
composites on reinforcing higher ratio of calcium silicate. It is also observed that
there is a marginal increase in the tensile strength of plasma modified filler based
compared to non-modified composites. This may be attributed to the high surface
area of the nano filler have [6].

4.3 SEM

SEM was carried out to study the dispersion of nano filler in the composites.
Figure 4 shows the micrographs of non-reinforced composites and Fig. 5 shows the
figure of plasma modified calcium silicate composites.
Based on these findings it is evident that plasma modified nano filler shows
better dispersion.

4.4 LOI

It can be observed from Fig. 6 that the LOI value increases with increasing mass
ratio of the composites containing the unmodified filler. A significant change is also

50
UNTREATED TREATED
45
TENSILE STRESS(MPa)

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 5
MASS RATIO

Fig. 3 Tensile strength of composites

454 G. Ajeesh et al.

Fig. 4 SEM micrographs of

non-reinforced polymer

Fig. 5 SEM micrographs of

plasma modified calcium
silicate composites

noted for composites with plasma modified nano filler. This is attributed to the
uniform dispersion.
This gives a clear indication that plasma modification plays a major role in
enhancing the fire resistance of composites.

4.5 Horizontal Flammability

It can be observed from Fig. 7 that the burn rate value decreases with increasing
mass ratio of the composites containing fillers. Significant enhancement is observed
in case of plasma modified nano particles. The burn rate has significantly reduced
for plasma modified composites compared to non-modified composites.
Development of Fire Resistant Polymeric Nano … 455

40
UNTREATED TREATED
35

30
LOI VALUES(%)

25

20

15

10

0
0 1 1.5 2 5
MASS RATIOS(%)

Fig. 6 LOI values for polymeric composite samples

1.8
UNTREATED TREATED
BURN RATE(metres/second)

1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 1.5 2 5
MASS RATIO(%)

Fig. 7 Burn rate values for polymeric composite samples

5 Conclusion

The study revealed the following conclusions:

• The mechanical properties of the composite containing fillers increased with
increasing mass ratio.
• The oxygen plasma modification done on the filler increased its surface energy.
Hence there was proper bonding between the filler and the polymer. Therefore
the composites containing modified calcium silicate gives marginally better
results with regard to tensile and dispersion properties.
456 G. Ajeesh et al.

• LOI and flammability test clearly indicate that there is a significant improvement
in the fire resistant property of composites when reinforced with plasma mod-
ified calcium silicate.
• Based on these investigation, it can be concluded that plasma modified calcium
silicate is most suitable for fire resistant application.

References

1. Gabr M, Okumura W, Ueda H, Kuriyama W, Uzawa K, Kimpara I (2015) Mechanical and

thermal properties of carbon fiber/polypropylene composite filled with nano-clay. Compos B
Eng 69:94–100
2. George P, Bhowmik S, Abraham M, Sriram PK, Pitchan MK, Ajeesh G (2016)
High-performance fire-resistant polymeric nanocomposite for aerospace applications. Proc
Inst Mech Eng Part L J Mater Des Appl 1464420716660874
3. Ariyanayagam AD, Mahendran M (2017) Fire tests of non-load bearing light gauge steel frame
walls lined with calcium silicate boards and gypsum plasterboards. Thin Walled Struct 115:86–
99
4. Ajeesh G, Bhowmik S, Sivakumar V, Varshney L, Kumar V, Abraham M (2017) Influence of
surface activated carbon nano fiber on thermo-mechanical properties of high performance
polymeric nano composites. J Compos Mater 51(8):1057–1072
5. Ajeesh G, Bhowmik S, Venugopal S, Varshney L, Baluch A, Park Y, Gilsang S, Kim CG
(2016) Influence of chemically and plasma-functionalized carbon nanotubes on
high-performance polymeric nanocomposites. High Perform Polym 28(5):570–580
6. Ajeesh G, Bhowmik S, Sivakumar V, Varshney L (2017) Influence of surface activated carbon
nano fibres on mechanical properties of poly ether ketone (PEK). In IOP conference series:
materials science and engineering, vol 204, no 1, p 012010. IOP Publishing
Welding Metallurgy of Corrosion
Resistant 21st Century Ni-Based
Superalloy 686

B. Arulmurugan, M. Sathishkumar, K. Gokulkumar,

K. Mageshkumar, P. Subramani, M. Venkateshkannan,
Manikandan and Arivazhagan

1 Introduction

Alloy 686 is a single-phase, solid solution strengthened, austenitic,

nickel-chromium-molybdenum-tungsten (Ni-Cr-Mo-W) based superalloy. The
presence of chromium (Cr) and molybdenum (Mo) provides the good resistance to
oxidizing and reducing environment. The alloy 686 is superior corrosion resistance
alloy commercially viable now [1]. It has been emerged in the year 1992, from
conventionally employed alloy C-22 and C-276 as a contextual. The alloy 686 is
derived from the alloys C-22 and C-276. It endows with exceptional resistance to
oxidizing, reducing and mixed acid environments comprising those containing
halides [2]. This alloy is extensively used in the chemical processing, marine and
petrochemical, oil and gas, pulp and paper & air pollution control (FGD) industries.
The presence of carbon (C) content is restricted to 0.01% which facilitates in
diminishing grain boundary precipitation in the heat-effected zone (HAZ) of welded
areas to uphold the corrosion resistance [3].
The imperative attribute about this alloy is that it posses’ high PREN value than,
other alloys in the Ni-Cr-Mo ternary system, which determines that indicates the
material’s resistance to localized corrosion. It is capable of being suitable for the
applications correspond to corrosive atmospheres of greater than 100,000 ppm of
chloride along with oxidizing species like ferric and cupric chloride in very low pH
(=1) conditions as well as an extensive diversity of concentrations of sulfuric acid.
Crevice corrosion resistance of a Ni-based alloy is being examined by the maxi-
mum measured depth of attack at increasing test temperatures. Alloy 686 shows

B. Arulmurugan
M. Sathishkumar
K. Gokulkumar
K. Mageshkumar
P. Subramani

M. Venkateshkannan
Manikandan (&)
Arivazhagan
School of Mechanical Engineering, VIT, Vellore 632 014, India
e-mail: mano.manikandan@gmail.com

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 457

K. Antony and J. P. Davim (eds.), Advanced Manufacturing and Materials Science,
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_47
458 B. Arulmurugan et al.

very low depth of attack and minimum sites of attack when compared with its
reference materials (C-22 and C-276) in a solution saturated sodium chloride and
sulfur dioxide at 80 °C test results [4].
Alloy 686 was generally supplied in the solution annealed condition. Solution
annealing is an imperative heat treatment practice which is used to melt any pre-
cipitates available in the material and alter the material at the solution annealing
temperature into a soft single phase structure. Welding of this alloy plays a major
role in many industrial applications as mentioned above. In general, arc welding
methods like gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) and gas metal arc welding
(GMAW) are commonly used in the industrial practice. These welding techniques
are most economical as compared to other welding techniques. In general, selection
of filler wire is a most important weldment design. Two types of filler wire have
been employed (i) base metal filler wire and (ii) over alloyed filler wire. Base metal
filler wire is commonly used for the fabrication process, and overmatching filler
wire is suitable for highly aggressive environments [5]. The chemical composition
of alloy 686 and filler wire ERNiCrMo-10 are listed in Table 1 [1, 6].
The performance of Ni-Cr-Mo based superalloy adversely affected under some
circumstances. The experience of different workers is documented in the literature.
Cieslak et al. [7] investigated the welding metallurgy of Ni-Cr-Mo based super
alloys C-4, C-22, and C-276. The authors accounted among these three alloys C-4
had minimum hot cracking susceptibility than other two alloys because of minimum
segregation. The formation of secondary intermetallic, brittle and topologically
close-packed (TCP) phases were being observed in alloy C-22 & C-276 at the end
of solidification. The morphology of secondary phases being noticed in C-22
belonged to r, P & l phases. Perricone and DuPont [8] investigated the effect of
alloying element in welding metallurgy of alloy C-22. The Mo levels escalating
from 12 to 24% diminish the solute-depleted dendrite core, which causes hot
cracking susceptibility, but the authors acknowledged this lay down the path to the
formation of P and µ phases in the weld microstructure. Gallagher and Lippold [9]
investigated the effect of changes in compositional range and formation of sec-
ondary phases using Schil simulation analysis, and they concluded that there is a
positive exponential relationship between combined Mo+W level and secondary
phase formation.

Table 1 Chemical composition of Inconel 686 base metal & filler wire ERNiCrMo-10
Base/filler Chemical Composition (% Wt.)
metal Ni Mo Cr W Mn Fe S Co Others
Inconel 686 Bal 15.83 19.88 3.215 0.312 0.858 0. 17 – 0.008 (P), 0.076
(Si), 0.005(Ti)
0.01(C)
ERNiCrMo-10 Bal 13.5 21.5 3 0.02 3.1 0.002 1.8 0.005 (P), 0.015
(S), 0.04
(Si) 0.01(C)
Welding Metallurgy of Corrosion Resistant … 459

Cieslak et al. [7] reported that at the terminal stage of solidification of alloy
C-276 weldments were augmented with TCP phases and the constituents were
relating to P & l phases. Akhtar et al. [10] reported that there is a diminution in
impact energy of C-276 due to the formation of Mo-rich l phase precipitates after
aging at 850 °C. Raghavan et al. [11] investigated theformation of three phases
when the alloy is aged in the temperature range of 650–900 °C. They acknowl-
edged that two phases TCP in nature (l & P) and the third phase is associated with
molybdenum-rich M6C carbide. So both the alloys C-22 and C-276 were having the
problem of formation of TCP phase at the terminal stage solidification which leads
to hot cracking in the welded region. Since the alloy 686 chemical composition is
intimately matched (slight modification in Cr & Mo content) with C-22 & C-276 a
similar kind of effect can be anticipated. Silva et al. [12] analyzed the
microstructure characteristics of dissimilar weld overlays of Ni-based alloy 686
with Stainless Steel. The authors exposed that, in alloy 686, weldments were
enriched with three TCP phases like r, P & µ phases after carrying out SEM, TEM,
EDAX and XRD analysis. A Mo-rich precipitate of the P-phase type is a major one.
In general, the TCP phases in Ni-based superalloys produce a detrimental result on
mechanical properties and in corrosion characteristics [13].

2 Problem Statement and Critical Review of the Work

Done

It is imperative to stifle the microsegregation of alloying elements in the fusion zone

of alloy 686 during welding. Otherwise, it will deteriorate corrosion resistance,
tensile ductility, impact toughness and rupture strength, through hot cracking and
that leads to premature failure during decisive application. The clue to diminish is
that it is the too faster rate of cooling during solidification. Several techniques have
been employed to control the microsegregation. Many researchers recommended
that Pulsed current gas Tungsten arc welding (PCGTAW) is a potential and eco-
nomical approach to bring down the microsegregation in the arc welding technique
[14–16].
EDS analysis results of major elemental values employed in this study are shown
in Table 2 (in wt%). The investigation has been commenced in alloy 686 with
autogenous mode, i.e., without filler wire. In that particular, GTAW, shows sig-
nificant segregation of Mo in the welded zone. The interdendritic region is having a
higher amount of Mo content, impoverished with Ni compared to the dendritic core
which is clearly observed from Table 2. In case of autogenous PCGTAW, this kind
of segregation was not observed.
Subsequently, the welding was done with matching filler wire ERNiCrMo-10.
Even at this juncture also the same results have been accomplished and are shown
in Table 2. GTAW with filler wire ERNiCrMo-10 is perceived that the interden-
dritic region is enriched with Mo and impoverished in Ni and W compared to
460 B. Arulmurugan et al.

Table 2 Weld center EDS analysis results of weldments

Types of welding Zone in weight %
Ni Mo Cr W
GTAW-Autogenous Weld Centre Dendritic Core 63.29 15.05 18.89 2.76
Weld Center Interdendritic Zone 34.31 39.9 19.47 6.01
PCGTAW-Autogenous Weld Centre Dendritic Core 65.69 12.49 18.52 3.24
Weld Center Interdendritic Zone 56.28 20.13 19.65 3.91
GTAW-ERNiCrMo-10 Weld Centre Dendritic Core 65.38 11.44 20.21 2.97
Weld Center Interdendritic Zone 35.38 39.02 17.17 7.65
PCGTAW-ERNiCrMo-10 Weld Centre Dendritic Core 65.56 12.72 18.07 3.63
Weld Center Interdendritic Zone 42.42 32.32 19.88 5.31

Fig. 1 SEM image of weld center Microstructure of a GTAW Autogenous b PCGTAW

Autogenous

dendritic core. In contrast with GTAW, in PCGTAW the alloying elemental values
and their disparity in the interdendritic region and dendritic core are very less.
From EDS analysis, it is apparent that the occurrence of secondary phases r, P & µ
were deleterious to a large extent by switch over from GTAW to PCGTAW. At that
same time, weld joint produced with GTAW, both with autogenous and filler wire,
the weld interface were also identified with Mo enriched secondary TCP phases.
But in PCGTAW interfaces did not show any elemental segregation. Figure 1a, b
being evidence that higher magnification scanning electron microscope weld zone
photographs of alloy 686 fictitious by autogenous welding using GTAW and
PCGTAW. Figure 2a, b represents SEM images of GTAW and PCGTAW pro-
duced by filler wire ERNiCrMo-10.
The fusion zone microstructure of GTAW comprises of cellular structure and
columnar dendrites in the weld interface regions. In contrast with GTAW, fusion
zone microstructure of PCGTAW was decorated with fine equiaxed dendrites, and
the interface consists of columnar dendrites. The refinement in the microstructure of
Welding Metallurgy of Corrosion Resistant … 461

Fig. 2 SEM image of weld center Microstructure of a GTAW-ERNiCrMo-10

b PCGTAW-ERNiCrMo-10

Fig. 3 a&b Tensile & impact test results of weldments produced with autogenous & with filler
wire ERNiCrMo-10

PCGTAW is due to combined effect of lower heat input, enhanced fluid flow,
higher instantaneous cooling rate during solidification and reduced thermal gradi-
ents. These parameters lower the diffusion of alloying elements and not giving any
time for intensification and precipitation of secondary phases. At that same time,
PCGTAW is also considerably contributing towards the mechanical properties of
weld joints. The fine and equiaxed dendrites are largely accountable for the prop-
erties improvement. Figure 3a, b indicates the values of weldments tensile strength
and impact toughness values respectively.
The exceptional corrosion resistance of alloy 686 in the marine application has
been highlighted in the Introduction. Table 3 shows the corrosion rate of alloy 686
weldments fabricated by GTA and PCGTA welding. The potentiodynamic polar-
ization test as per standard ASTM D1141-2013 [17] and ASTM G59-97 [18] shows
the weldment produced with PCGTAW autogenous shows highest corrosion
resistance because of small and finer grains observed in the microstructure.
462 B. Arulmurugan et al.

Table 3 Corrosion rates of Weldment type Corrosion rate [mils/year]

weldments tested in synthetic
sea water environment Base Metal 0.01
GTAW-Autogeneous 0.5
PCGTAW-Autogeneous 0.06
GTAW-ERNiCrMo-10 0.16
PCGTAW-ERNiCrMo-10 0.11

3 Conclusions

1. The level of microsegregation and the occurrence of secondary constituent’s r,

P & µ are tremendously diminished in the welded zones of PCGTAW when
compared to GTAW. So the hot cracking susceptibility of Alloy 686 plunges to
a large extent because of current pulsation.
2. Mechanical properties of PCGTAW also improved significantly. The combi-
nation of high tensile strength and enhanced impact toughness are the outcome
of PCGTAW. The refined grain structure with reduced severity of microseg-
regation is believed to be responsible for superior mechanical properties of
PCGTAW weld joint.
3. Welded joints fictitious with PCGTAW recommend more corrosion resistance
than GTAW, because of finer equiaxed grains. This has been effectively proved
by the potentiodynamic technique which synthesis the sea water environment.

References

1. Special Metals Corporation (2004) Inconel alloy 686 technical data sheet [Internet]. http://
216.71.103.52/documents/Inconel%20alloy%20686,%20a%20new%20alloy.pdf
2. Experience in effective application of metallic materials for construction of FGD systems
[Internet].http://www.pccforgedproducts.com/web/user_content/files/wyman/Metallic%
20Materials%20for%20Construction%20of%20FGD%20Systems.pdf
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corrosion problems in wet limestone FGD air pollution control systems [Internet]. http://
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%20Air%20Pollution%20Control%20Systems.pdf
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20Corrosion%20Problems.pdf Special Alloys and Overmatching Welding Products
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6. Internet http://www.pinnaclealloys.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Pinnacle-Alloys-
ERNiCrMo-10-622.pdf, filler wire ERNiCrMo-10technical data sheet
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17. Website (2013) https://www.astm.org/Standards/D1141.htm, ASTM D1141–98
18. Website (2014) https://www.astm.org/Standards/G59.htm ASTM G59-97