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UPDATED TO 2022 SYLLABUS

CAIE A2 LEVEL
COMPUTER
SCIENCE (9618)
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE SYLLABUS
CAIE A2 LEVEL COMPUTER SCIENCE (9618)

requirement is for an identifier to be named with a

defined type. They have to be explicitly defined
1. Data representation before an identifier can be created-unlike built-in
data types which include string, integer, real…
==Enumerated Data type:== a list of possible
1.1. User-defined data types
data values. The values defined here have an
When object-oriented programming is not being used, a implied order of values to allow comparisons to
programmer may choose not to use any user-defined be made. Therefore value2 is greater than
data types. However, for a large program, their use will value1(they're not string values and can't be
make a program less error-prone and more quoted). This allows for comparisons to be
understandable. It also has less restriction and allows for made. It is also countable thus finite values.
inevitable user definition. The use of built in data types
TYPE

are the same for any program. However, there can't be a

<Datatype> = (<value1>,<value2>,<value3
built-in record type because each different problem will
ENDTYPE

need an individual definition of a record.

1. Composite data types:

DECLARE <identifier> : <datatype>

Composite user-defined data types have a definition with

a reference to at least one other type. ==Pointer Data type:== used to reframe a
==Record Data type:== a data type that contains a memory location. it may be used to construct
fixed number of components that can be of different dynamically varying data structures. The
types. it allows the programmer to collect together pointer definition has to relate to the type of
values with different data types when these form a the variable that is being pointed to(doesn’t
coherent whole. it could be used for the hold a value but a reference/address to data).
implementation of a data structure where one or
more of the variables defined are pointer variables. TYPE

<Datatype> = ^<type name>

TYPE
ENDTYPE

<main identifier>

DECLARE <subidentifier1> : <built in data type>

DECLARE <identifier> : <datatype>

DECLARE <subidentifier2> : <built in data type>

ENDTYPE
<assignment value> ← <identifier>^

<main identifier>.<sub identifier(x)> ← <value>

Special use of a pointer variable is to access
the value stored at the address pointed to. The
==Set Data type:== allows a program to create sets pointer variable is said to be dereferenced.
and to apply the mathematical operations defined in
set theory. Operations like:
1.2. File organization and access
• Union

Contents, in a file of any type, is stored using a defined binary

code that allows the file to be used in the way intended. But,
• Difference

for storing data to be used by a computer program, there are

• Intersection
only 2 defined file types, a text file or a binary file.

A text file contains data stored according to a defined

• Include an element in the set

character code defined by ASCII or Unicode. A text file can

be created using a text editor.
• Exclude an element from the set

A binary file is a file designed for storing data to be used

by a computer program(0's and 1's). It stores data in its
• Check whether an element is in a set

internal representation(an integer value might be stored

==Objects and Classes:== in object-oriented in 2 bytes in 2's complement representation to represent
programming, a program defines the classes to be a negative number) and this file is created using a specific
used-they're all user-defined data types. Then for program. Its organization is based on records (a collection
each class, the objects must be defined. of fields containing data values). file → records → fields →
2. Non-Composite data types: values
Non-composite user-defined data types don’t
involve a reference to another type. When a Methods of file organization
programmer uses a simple built-in type the only

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==Serial files:== contains records that have no defined different key, the next position in the file is used. this is
order. A text file may be a serial file where the file has why a search will involve direct access possibly
repeating lines which are defined by an end of line followed by a limited serial search. That's why it's
character(s). There's no end of record character. A record considered partly sequential and partly serial.
in a serial file must have a defined format to allow data to File access:
be input and output correctly. To access a specific record, The value in the key field is submitted to the hashing
it has to go through every record until found. algorithm which then provides the same value for the
File access:
Successively read record by record until the position in the file that was provided when the algorithm
data required is found thus very slow.
Uses: was used at the time of data input. It goes to that hashed
Batch processing position and through another short linear search because
Backing up data on magnetic tape of collisions in the hashed positions. Fastest access.
Banks record transactions involving customer To edit/delete data:
accounts every time there is a transaction Only create a new file if the current file is full. A deleted
==Sequential files:== has records that are ordered and is record can have a flag set so that in a subsequent reading
suited for long term storage of data and thus is process the record is skipped over. This allows it to be
considered an alternative to a database. A key field is overwritten.
required for a sequential file to be ordered for which the Uses:
values are unique and sequential. This way it can be easily Most suited for when a program needs a file in which
accessed. A sequential database file is more efficient than individual data items might be read, updated or deleted.
a text file due to data integrity, privacy and less data
redundancy. A change in one file would update any other Factors that determine the file
files affected. Primary keys from the DBMS(database
management system) need to be unique but not ordered organization to use:
unlike the key field from the sequential files which need to
be ordered and unique. A particular record is found by How often do transactions take place, how often does one
sequentially reading the value of the key field until the need to add data?
required value is found. How often does it need to be accessed, edited, or deleted?
File access:
Successively read the value In the key field until the 1.3. Real numbers and normalized
required key is found.
To edit/delete data:
floating-point representation
Create a new version of the file. Data is copied from the
Real number: A number that contains a fractional part.
old file to the new file until the record is reached which
Floating-point representation: The approximate
needs editing or deleting. For deleting, reading and
representation of
a real number using binary digits.
copying of the old file continue from the next record. If a
record has been edited, the new version is written to the Format: Number = ±Mantissa × BaseExponent
new file and the remaining records are copied to the new Mantissa: The non-zero part of the number.
file. Exponent: The power to which the base is raised to in
==Direct access/random access files:== access isn't order
to accurately represent the number.
defined by a sequential reading of the file(random). It's Base: The number of values the number systems allows a
well suited for larger files as it takes longer to access digit to
take. 2 in the case of floating-point representation.
sequentially. Data in direct access files are stored in an
The floating point representation stores a value for the
identifiable record which could be found by involving initial
mantissa and a value for the exponent.
direct access to a nearby record followed by a limited
A defined number of bits are used for what is called the
serial search. The choice of the position chosen must be
significant/mantissa, +-M. Remaining bits are for the
calculated using data in the record so the same
exponent, E. The radix, R is not stored in the representation
calculation can be carried out when subsequently there's
as it has an implied value of 2(representing 0 and 1's).
If a
a search for the data. One method is the hashing
real number was stored using 8 bits: four bits for the
algorithm which takes the key field as an input and
mantissa and four bits for the exponent with each using two
outputs a value for the position of the record relative to
complement representation. The exponent is stored as a
the start of the file. To access, the key is hashed to a
signed integer. The mantissa has to be stored as a fixed point
specific location. This algorithm also takes into account
real value.
The binary point can be in the beginning after the
the potential maximum length of the file which is the
first bit(immediately after the sign bit) or before the last bit.
number of records the file will store.
The former produces smaller spacing between the values
eg: If the key field is numeric, divide by a suitable large
that can be represented and is more preferred. It also has a
number and use the remainder to find a position. But
greater range than the fixed representation.
we won't have unique positions. If a hash position is
calculated that duplicates one already calculated by a

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however, the split between the two parts will have been
determined by the floating point processor.
If there were a choice, it's convenient to note that
increasing the number of bits for the mantissa would give
better precision but would leave fewer bits for the
exponent thus reducing the range of possible values and
vice versa.
For maximum precision, it is necessary to
normalize a floating point number.
Optimum precision will only be made once full use is
made of the bits in the mantissa therefore using the
largest possible magnitude for the value represented by
the mantissa.
Also, the two most significant bits must be different. 0 1
for positives and 10 for negatives.
-they both equal 2 but the most precise is the second one
with the, higher bits in the mantissa.
\
0.125 * 2^4 = 2 0 001 0100
0.5 * 2^2 = 2 0 100 0010

-For negatives.

0.25 * 2^4 = -4 1 110 0100

1.0 * 2^2 = -4 1 000 0010
\

When the number is represented with the highest magnitude

for the mantissa, the two most significant bits are different
Converting a denary value expressed as a real number into a
thus that a number is in a normalized representation. How a
floating point binary representation: Most fractional parts do
number could be normalized: for a positive number, the bits
not convert to a precise representation as binary fractional
in the mantissa are shifted left until the most significant bits
parts represent a half, a quarter, an eighth…(even). Other
are 0 followed by 1. For each shift left the value of the
than .5 no other values unless the ones above can be
exponent is reduced by 1. The same process of shifting is
converted accurately. So you convert by multiplying by two
used for a negative number until the most significant bits are
and recording the whole number part.
1 followed by 0. In this case, no attention is paid to the fact
For example: 8.63, 0.63 * 2 = 1.26 therefore .1 -> 0.26 * 2 =
that bits are falling off the most significant end of the
0.52 and .10 -> 0.52 * 2 = 1.04 and .101 and you keep going
mantissa. Thus normalization is shifting bits to the left until
until the required amount of bits are achieved.
the 2 most significant bits are different.
The method for converting a positive value is:
Problems with using floating point numbers:
1. Convert the whole number part
2. Add the sign bit 0 1. The conversion of real denary values to binary mostly
3. Convert the fractional part. You start by combining the two needs a degree of approximation followed by the
parts which gives the exponent value of zero. Shift the binary restriction of the number of bits used to store the
points by shifting the decimal to the beginning giving a higher mantissa. These rounding errors can become
exponent value. Depending on the number of bits, add extra significant after multiple calculations. The only way of
0's at the end of the mantissa and beginning of the exponent. preventing a serious problem is to increase the
4. Adjust the position of the binary point and change the precision by using more bits for the mantissa.
exponent accordingly to achieve a normalized form. Programming languages therefore offer options to
Therefore: 8.75 -> 1000 -> 01000 -> .11 -> 010000.11 -> work in double/quadruple precision.
0.100011(mantissa) -> 0100011000 0100(10 for M, and 4 for 2. The highest value represented is 112 thus a limited
E). range. This produces an overflow condition. If there is
a result value smaller than one that can be stored,
For negatives, use 2's complement.
there would be an underflow error condition. This very
When implementing the floating point representation, a
small number can be turned into zero but there are
decision has to be made regarding the total number of
several risks like multiplication or division of this value.
bits to be used and how many for the mantissa and
exponent. eg: One use of floating point numbers are in extended
Usually, the choice for the total number of bits will be mathematical procedures involving repeated calculations like
provided as an option when the program is written,

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weather forecasting which uses the mathematical model of has a port number which identifies the application layer
the atmosphere. protocol at the sending and receiving end system
(however the TCP isn't concerned with the receiving end
system). If the packet is one of a sequence, a sequence
2. Communication and number is included to ensure eventual correct
reassembly of the user data. The TCP is connection
Internet technologies oriented, initially just one packet of a sequence is sent to
the network layer. Once the connection has been
2.1. Protocols established, TCP sends the other packets and receives
response packets containing acknowledgements. This
Protocols are essential for successful transmission of data allows missing packets to be identified and resent.
over a network. Each protocol defines a set of rules that must TCP/IP Suite: A common protocol used to send data over a
be agreed between sender and receiver. At the simplest network.
level, a protocol could define that a positive voltage Protocols are split into separate layers, which are
represents a bit with value 1. At the other extreme, a protocol arranged as
a stack.
could define the format of the first 40 bytes in a packet.
The They service each other thus maintaining the flow of
complexity of networking requires a very large number of the data.
protocols, a protocol suite is a collection of related protocols. Layer: A division of the TCP/IP suite.
TCP/IP is the dominant protocol suite for internet usage. Stack: A collection of elements/protocols/layers.

Protocol: A set of rules governing communication

between
computers.
Ensures the computers that communicate understand
each other.
MAC address: A unique number assigned to each device’s
networking hardware across the world.
IP address: A unique number assigned to each
node/networking
device in a network.
Port number: A software-generated number that specifies
an
application or a process communication endpoint
attached to an IP
address.
IP: Internet Protocol – The function of the network layer,
and the IP, is to ensure correct routing over the internet. Layer Purpose
To do so, it takes the packet received from the transport Application Encodes the data being sent
layer and adds a further header containing the IP Adds IP addresses stating where the
Network/Internet
addresses of both the sender and receiver. To find the IP data is from and where it is going
address of the receiver, the DNS system can be used to Adds MAC address information to
find the address corresponding to the URL supplied in the specify which hardware device the
user data. The IP packet(datagram) is sent to the data link Link message came from and which
layer and therefore to a different protocol suite. The data hardware device the message is going
link layer assembles datagrams into frames. to
Transmission now begins. Once the IP packet has been
Enables the successful transmission of
sent to the data link layer, IP has no further duty. IP is a Physical
data between devices
connectionless service so if it receives a packet which
contains an acknowledgement of a previously sent packet,
When a message is sent from one host to another:
it will simply pass the packet on to TCP with no awareness
Sender side: Application Layer
of the content.
Encodes the data in an appropriate format.
TCP: Transfer Control Protocol. If an application is running
Sender side: Transport Layer
on an end system where a message is to be sent to a
The data to be sent is broken down into smaller
different end system the application will be controlled by
chunks known as
packets
an application layer protocol. The protocol will transmit
Sender side: Network Layer
the user data to the transport layer, the TCP operating in
IP addresses (sender and receiver) and a
the transport layer now has to take responsibility for
checksum are added to
the header
ensuring the safe delivery of the message to the receiver.
Sender side: Link Layer
To do this it creates sufficient packets to hold all of the
Formats the packets into a frame. These protocols
data. Each packet consists of a header plus the user data.
attach a third
header and a footer to “frame” the
TCP needs to ensure safe delivery and that any response
packet. The frame header
includes a field that
is directed back to the application protocol. The header

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checks for errors as the frame travels

over the
network media.
Sender side: Physical Layer
Receives the frames and converts the IP addresses
into the
hardware addresses appropriate to the
network media. The
physical network layer then
sends the frame out over the network
media.
Server/ Service Provider
Re-Routes the packets according to the IP address
Receiver side: Physical Layer
Receives the packet in its frame form. It computes
OTHER PROTOCOLS:
the checksum
of the packet, and then sends the
Acronym Protocol Purpose
frame to the data link layer.
Receiver side: Link Layer Handles transmission of
Hyper Text Transfer
Verifies that the checksum for the frame is correct HTTP data to and from a
Protocol
and strips
off the frame header and checksum. website
Finally, the data link
protocol sends the frame to Handles transmission of
FTP File Transfer Protocol
the Internet layer. files across a network
Receiver side: Network Layer Handles the receiving of
Reads information in the header to identify the POP3 Post Office Protocol 3
emails
transmission and
determine if it is a fragment. If Simple Mail Transfer Handles the sending of
the transmission was
fragmented, IP reassembles SMTP
Protocol emails
the fragments into the original
datagram. It then
strips off the IP header and passes it on to
SMTP is a push protocol. POP3 is a pull protocol, the recent
transport layer protocols.
alternative to POP3 is IMAP(internet message access
Receiver side: Transport Layer
protocol) and it offers facilities of POP3 and more. This
Reads the header to determine which application
approach has been largely superseded by the use of web
layer protocol
must receive the data. Then TCP o
based mail. A browser is used to access the email application,
strips off its related header
and sends the
so HTTP is now the protocol used(direct and automatic emails
message or stream up to the receiving application.
from a website). However SMTP remains in use for transfer
Receiver side: Application Layer
between the mail servers.
Receives the message and performs the operation
requested by the
sender
Bit Torrent protocol: A protocol that allows fast sharing of Peer to Peer File Sharing
files via peer-to-peer networks.
Torrent file: A file that contains details regarding the P2P file sharing generates a lot of network traffic in internet
tracker usage. It is an architecture that has no structure and no
Tracker: A server that keeps track of the peers controlling mechanism. Peers act as both client and servers
Peers: A user who is at the time downloading the and each peer is just one end system. The BitTorrent protocol
same file as
the is the most used protocol because it allows fast sharing of
Swarm: A network of peers that are sharing the files. There are three basic problems to solve if end systems
torrent –
simultaneously downloading and uploading are to be confident in using BitTorrent:
the file.
1. How does a peer find others that have the wanted
Seeding: The act of uploading a part of the file or the
content? The answer by BitTorrent here is to get every
file
itself as a whole after/while downloading
content provider to provide a content description -
Leeching: The act of simply downloading a part of the
torrent, which is a file that contains the name of the
file or
the file itself on a whole and not seeding it
tracker(a server that leads peers to the content) and a
during or after
the download.
list of the chunks that make up the content. The
Seeders: Users who are currently seeding the file.
torrent file is at least 3 orders of magnitude smaller
Leechers/Free-raiders: Peers who are currently
than the content to so can be transferred quickly. The
leeching the
file.
tracker is a server that maintains a list of all the other
peers/the swarm actively downloading and uploading
the content.
2. How do peers replicate content to provide high speed
downloads for everyone? This answer involves peers
simultaneously downloading and uploading chunks but
peers have to exchange lists of chunks and aim to

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download rare chunks for preference. Each time a 6. Client sends an encrypted message to the server
rare chunk is downloaded it automatically becomes using the server’s public key.
less rare. 7. The server can use its private key to decrypt the
3. How do peers encourage other peers to provide message and get data needed for generating
content rather just using the protocol to download for symmetric key .
themselves? This answer requires dealing with the 8. Both server and client compute symmetric key (to be
free riders/leachers who only download. The solution used for encrypting messages) // session key
is for a peer to initially randomly try other peers but established.
then to continue to upload to those peers that provide 9. The client sends back a digitally signed
regular downloads. If a peer is not downloading or acknowledgement to start an encrypted session.
downloading slowly, it will eventually be 10. The server sends back a digitally signed
isolated/choked. acknowledgement to start an encrypted session.

Eg for online banking.

2.2. Circuit switching, packet switching
and routers 2.3. Local Area Networks (LAN)
Circuit switching: A method of data transfer in which the Bus topology: A network topology in which each
message is sent over a dedicated communication workstation is
connected to a main cable (backbone)
channel. through which the network is
established.
Eg: - Landline Phone The Backbone acts as the common medium, any
Packet switching: A method of data transfer in which the signals sent or
received go through the backbone in
intended message is broken down into parts and is sent order to reach the
recipient.
over
whichever route is optimum in order to reach its
destination.
Each packet travels through several other networks –
“switching”
between them in order to reach its
destination.
Eg: - Internet
Router: A device that connects two or more computer
networks.
Directs the incoming packets to their receiver
according to the
data traffic in the network.

Transport Layer Security (TLS) Star topology: A network topology in which each
workstation is
connected to a central node/connection
TLS(transport layer security) protocol: Purpose of TLS is to point through which the
network is established.
provide for secure communication over a network, maintain The central node (hub) re-directs and directs the
data integrity and add an additional layer of security. TLS packets
according to the data traffic and their
provides improved security over SSL(secure sockets layer). recipient.
TLS is composed of two layers: record protocol and Wireless networks: A computer network that uses
handshake protocol. TLS protects this information by using wireless data
connections between its network
encryption. It also allows for authentication of servers and components.
clients. A handshake process has to take place before any Bluetooth: A type of short-range wireless communication
exchange of data using the TLS protocol. The handshake that
uses
process establishes details about how the exchange of data Wi-Fi OR IEEE 802.11x.– A type of wireless communication
will occur. Digital certificates and keys are used. The that
allows the users to communicate within a particular
handshake process starts with:
area/ access
internet.
1. The client sending some communication data to the
Component Purpose in a LAN
server.
Allows different networks to
2. The client asking the server to identify itself. Switch
connect
3. The server sending its digital certificate including the
public key. Directs the incoming packets
Router
4. The client validates (the server’s) TLS Certificate. into
5. The client sends its digital certificate (to the server if
requested).

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Component Purpose in a LAN Hardware Connection Device

Provides a medium for the
storage, sharing of usage of An end system on an ethernet LAN needs a network
Servers
files and applications for its interface card(NIC). Each NIC has a unique physical
users address, MAC address. The end system itself has no
Consists of the electronic identification on the network. If the NIC is removed and
Network Interface Cards circuitry required to inserted into a different end system, it takes the address
(NICs) communicate with other with it.
networks/devices. The simplest device used for the center of the star
topology LAN is the hub which ensures that any incoming
Ethernet: an array of networking technologies and communication is broadcast to all connected end
systems used
in local area networks (LAN), where systems. However, the use of a hub is not restricted to
computers are connected within a
primary physical space. supporting an isolated network, it can have a hierarchical
CSMA/CD: configuration with one hub connected to other hubs,
Standard ethernet was implemented on a LAN configured which support individual LANs. A hub can also have a built
as a bus or a star topology with a hub as the central in broadband modem which allows all of the end user
device where the transmission was broadcast in a systems on the LAN to have an internet connection when
connectionless service.
Because of the broadcast this modem is connected to a telephone line.
transmission, there was a need for the access to the A switch can function as a hub but it's more intelligent and
shared medium by end systems to be controlled. If there can keep track of the addresses of connected devices, this
wasn’t any control, two messages sent at the same time allows a switch to send an incoming transmission to a
would collide and each message would be corrupted. The specific end system as a unicast. This reduces the amount
method adopted was CSMA/CD(carrier sense multiple of network traffic compared to the hubs.
access with collision detection). If a frame was being A router is the most intelligent of the connecting devices.
transmitted there was a voltage level on the ethernet It can function as a switch and make decisions about
cable which could be detected by an end system. If this which device it will transmit a received transmission to.
was the case, the protocol defined at a time that the end The main use of routers is in the backbone fabric of the
system had to wait before it tried again. However because internet. Nearer to the end systems, a router may
two end systems could have waited then both decided to function as a gateway, as a network address translation
transmit at the same time collisions could still happen box or be combined with a firewall.
thus there was also a need to incorporate a means for an
end system to detect a collision and to discontinue WIreless networks
transmission if a collision occurred. Before transmitting a
The dominant technology is no longer using cables now, it's
device checks if the channel is busy. If it is busy the device
wireless. The following are discussed in order of increasing
waits, if channel free data is sent. When transmission
scale of operation.
begins the device listens for other devices also beginning
transmission. If there is a collision, transmission is Bluetooth: this has been standardized as IEEE802.15.
aborted/ transmitting a jam signal. Both devices wait a Communication is by short range radio transmission in a
(different) random time, then try again.
The modern confined area. A Bluetooth LAN is an ad hoc network thus
implementation of ethernet is switched. The star no defined infrastructure and network connections are
configuration has a switch as the central device which created spontaneously. eg Wireless keyboard
controls transmission to specific end systems. Each end Wi-Fi: aka WLAN and is a wireless ethernet known as
system is connected to the switch by a full duplex link so IEEE802.11. This is a wireless LAN protocol which uses
no collision is possible along the link and therefore radio frequency transmission. Mostly a Wi-Fi LAN is
CSMA/CD is no longer needed as collisions are centered on a wireless access point in an infrastructure
impossible.
Ethernet is the most likely protocol to be network and not an ad hoc network. The wireless access
operating in the data link layer when the IP in the network point communicates wirelessly with any end systems that
layer sends a datagram to the data link layer. When the have connected to the device. It also has a wired
data link layer uses ethernet, the protocol defines 2 sub connection to the internet. •WiMAX(worldwide
layers. The upper one is the logical link layer which interoperability for microwave access): an IEEE802.16 is a
handles flow control, error control and part of the framing protocol for a MAN or WAN. It's designed for use by
process. The lower is the media access control(MAC) PSTNs to provide broadband access to the internet
sublayer which completes the framing process and without having to lay underground cables. Local
defines the access method. The MAC layer transmits the subscribers connect to the antenna of a local base station
frames that contain the physical address for the sender using a microwave signal.
and receiver and is the reason they are called the MAC Cellular networks: used in mobile/cell phones. Each cell
addresses. has at its center a base station. The system works

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because each cell has a defined frequency for A Output

transmission which is different from the frequencies used 0 1
in adjacent cells. The technology available in cell phones
1 0
has vastly progressed:

1. 1G was designed for voice communication using

analogue technology
2. 2G went digital
3. 3G introduced multimedia and serious internet
connection capability
4. 4G introduced smartphones with high bandwidth
broadband connectivity.
NAND Gate: A.B   =  X
**Wireless access points: • Allowing devices to connect to the
LAN via radio communication instead of using a cable • Easy A B Output
to move a device to as different location.
0 0 1
0 1 1
3. Hardware 1 0 1
1 1 0
3.1. Logic gates & circuit design
Logic gates: A component of a logical circuit that can perform
a
Boolean operation (logical function).

AND Gate: A.B  =  X

A B X
0 0 0 NOR Gate: A + B=X​

0 1 0
A B Output
1 0 0
0 0 1
1 1 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

OR Gate: A + B=X

A B Output
0 0 0
XOR Gate: A.B + A.B = X
0 1 1
1 0 1 A B Output
1 1 1 0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

NOT Gate: A  =  X

A Output

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Logic circuits: A circuit that performs logical operations on

symbols.
Sequential circuit: a circuit whose output depends on the
input
values and the previous output values. Eg: - Flip- ii. Complete the truth table for this logic circuit:
flops (Section
3.3.4)
Combinational circuit: a circuit whose output is dependent
only
on the input values
Half-Adder: A logic circuit that adds two bits together
and
outputs their sum.
b) A student decides to write an equation for X to represent
the
full behaviour of each logic circuit.
i. Write the Boolean expression that will complete the
required equation for X for each circuit:

Input Output Circuit 1: X =

A B S C Circuit 2: X =
ii. Write the De Morgan’s Law which is shown by your
0 0 0 0
answers to
part (a) and part (b)(i).
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 c) Write the Boolean algebraic expression corresponding to
1 1 0 1 the
following logic circuit:

3.2. Boolean algebra

d) Using De Morgan’s laws and Boolean algebra, simplify
Double Complement: A =A your answer to
part (c).
Identity Law
1.A  =  A Show all your working.
0 + A  =  A
Solution:
Null Law
Part a):
0.A  = 0
1 + A  =  1 i. Assume that the letter “C” equates to the first
Idempotent Law function/logic gate.
A.A  =  A A+B = C
A+A= A
Inverse Law A B C
A.A = 0 0 0 0
A + A  =  1 0 1 1
Commutative Law 1 0 1
A.B  =  B.A 1 1 1
A + B  =  B + A
Associative 0 = 0
$$
(A.B).C   =  A.(B.C ) De Morgan's law: the inverse of a Boolean product becomes
(A + B) + C   =  A + (B + C ) the sum of the inverses of the individual values in the product.
Distributive Law The inverse of a Boolean sum is the product of the individual
A + B.C   =  (A + B).(A + C ) inverses.
A. (B + C ) = A.B + A.C
Not (A and B) is the same as Not A or Not B.
Adsorption
Not (A or B) is the same as Not A and Not B.
A. (A + B ) = A
A + A.B = A RISC processors give the opportunity of providing efficient
De Morgan’s Law pipelining. Pipelining is instruction level parallelism. Its
(A.B )  =  A  +  B underlying principle is that the fetch decode execute cycle
(A + B ) = A.B can be separated into a number of stages. One of the
possibilities include:
{S15-P33} Question: 5
a) i. Complete the truth table for this logic circuit: 1. Instruction fetch (IF)
2. Instruction decode (ID)

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3. Operand fetch (OF) Column labelling follows Gray coding sequence

4. Instruction execute (IE) Select groups of ‘1’ bits in even quantities (2, 4, 6 etc),
5. Result write back (WB) if
not possible then consider a single input as a group
Note: Karnaugh Maps wrap around columns
PIPELINING FOR FIVE STAGE INSTRUCTION HANDLING Within each group only the values that remain
constant are
retained

{S17-P31} Question: 3
Consider the following logic circuit, which contains a
redundant logic
gate.

(a) Write the Boolean algebraic expression corresponding to

this
logic circuit. (3 Marks)
(b) Complete the truth table for this logic circuit. (2 Marks)
A B C Working Space X
0 0 0
For pipelining to be implemented, the construction of the 0
0
1

processor must have five independent units with each 0

1
0

handling one of the five stages identified. This explains the 0 1 1

need for a RISC processor to have many register sets. Each
1 0 0
processor unit must have access to its own set of registers.
The representation 1.1, 1.2 and so on are used to define the 1 0 1
instruction and the stage of the instruction. Initially only the 1
1
0

first stage of the first instruction has entered the pipeline. At 1

1
1

clock cycle 6 the first instruction has left the pipeline, the last
stage of instruction 2 is being handled and instruction 6 has 3.4. Flip-flops
just entered.
Once under way, the pipeline is handling 5
stages of 5 individual instructions. At each clock cycle the SR flip-flop: SR(Set-Reset) flip-flop or “Latch”
complete processing of one instruction has finished. Without Used as a storage device for 1 bit in the RAM, since it’s
the pipelining the processing time would've been 5 times values
can be altered
longer. Issue: When the both the input signals are 1 (invalid
One disadvantage is interrupt handling. There will be 5 state)
the flip-flop sets the value of Q and Q’ to 0.
instructions in the pipeline when an interrupt occurs.
Input signals Initial state Final state
1. Erase the pipeline contents for the latest 4 instructions
to have entered. Then the normal interrupt handling S R Q Q’ Q Q’
routine can be applied to the remaining instruction. 0 0 1 0 1 0
2. Construct the individual units in the processor with 1 0 1 0 1 0
individual program counter registers. This allows 0 1 1 0 0 1
current data to be stored for all of the instructions in
0 0 0 1 0 1
the pipeline while the interrupt Is handled.
1 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0 1
3.3. Karnaugh Maps
Karnaugh maps: a method of obtaining a Boolean algebra J K Clock Q
expression from a truth table involving the 0 0 ↑ Q unchanged
Benefits of using Karnaugh Maps: 1 0 ↑ 1
Minimises the number of Boolean expressions. 0 1 ↑ 0
Minimises the number of Logic Gates used, thus
1 1 ↑ Q toggles
providing a more
efficient circuit.
Methodology
Try to look for trends in the output, thus predict the Flip-flops are used to build:
Data storage elements
presence
of a term in the final expression
Draw out a Karnaugh Map by filling in the truth table Digital circuits
values
into the table

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Each processor executes a different individual

3.5. RISC processors
instruction.
RISC: Reduced Instruction Set Computers. Massively parallel computers
Computers that contain vast amounts of processing
CISC: Complex Instruction Set Computers.
power.
RISC CISC Has a bus structure to support multiple processors
and a network
infrastructure to support multiple ‘Host’
Fewer instructions More instructions
computers.
Simpler instructions Complicated instructions Commonly used to solve highly complex mathematical
Small number of instruction problems.
Many instruction formats
formats
Single-cycle instructions
whenever possible
Multi-cycle instructions 4. System software
Fixed-length instructions Variable-length instructions
Only load and store 4.1. Purposes of an operating system
May types of instructions to
instructions to address
address memory (OS)
memory
Fewer addressing modes More addressing modes Optimizes use of computer resources
Multiple register sets Fewer registers Implements process scheduling to ensure efficient
Microprogrammed control CPU use
Hard-wired control unit Manages main memory usage
unit
Optimizes I/O
Pipelining easier Pipelining much difficult
Dictates whether I/O passes through CPU or not
Hides the complexities of the hardware
Pipelining: Instruction level parallelism
UI allows users to interact with application programs
Used extensively in RISC processor based systems to
Automatically provides drivers for new devices
reduce the
time taken to run processes
Provides file system
Multiple registers are employed
Organizes physical storage of files on disk
Interrupt handling in CISC and RISC Processors:
Provides programming environment, removing the
As soon the interrupt is detected the current
need for
knowledge of processor functions
processes are
paused and moved into registers
Provides system calls/APIs
The ISR (Interrupt Service Routine) is loaded on to the
Portability
pipeline
and is executed.
Multitasking:
When the interrupt has been serviced, the paused
More than one program can be stored in memory, but
processes are
resumed by bringing them back from
only one can
have CPU access at any given time
the registers to the pipeline
Rest of the programs remain ready
Process:
3.6. Parallel processing A program being executed which has an associated
Process Control
Block (PCB) in memory
SISD PCB: a complex data structure containing all data
Single Instruction Single Data stream relevant to the execution of a process
Found in the early computers Process states
Contains single processor thus no pipelining Ready: New process arrived at the memory and
SIMD the PCB is
created
Single Instruction Multiple Data stream. Running: Has CPU access
Found in array processors Blocked: Cannot progress until some event has
Contains multiple processors, which have their own occurred
memory. Scheduling ensure that the computer system is able to
MISD serve all
requests and obtain a certain quality of service.
Multiple Instruction Single Data stream Interrupt:
Used to sort large quantities of data. Causes OS kernel to invoke ISR
Contains multiple processors which process the same The kernel may have to decide on priority
data Register values stored in PCB
MIMD Reasons
Multiple Instruction Multiple Data. Errors
Found in modern personal computers. Waiting for I/O
Scheduler halts process

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Low-level scheduling: Allocation specific processor

4.3. Virtual machine
components
to complete specific tasks.
Low-level scheduling algorithms Virtual machine:
Preemptive: Will stop the process that would have
Process interacts with software interface provided by
otherwise have
continued to execute normally.
the OS.
This provides exact copy of hardware.
First-come-first-served
OS kernel handles interaction with actual host
Non-preemptive hardware
FIFO(First In First Out) queue
Round-robin Pros Cons
Allocates time slice to each process
Allows more than one OS to Performance drop from
Preemptive
run on a system native OS
Can be FIFO queue
Allows multiple copies of the Time and effort needed for
Does not prioritize
Priority-based
same OS implementation is high
Most complex
Priorities re-evaluated on queue change Examples and usage:
Priority calc. Requires computation
Used by companies wishing to use the legacy software on
Criteria for priority time
newer hardware and server consolidation companies
Estimated time of execution
Virtualizing machines allows developers to test
Estimated remaining time of execution
applications on a multitude of systems without having to
Is the CPU/IO bound?
make expensive hardware purchases.
Length of time spent in waiting queue

Paging: 4.4. Translation software

Process split into pages, memory split into frames
All pages loaded into memory at once Lexical analysis: The process of converting a sequence of
characters to a sequence of tokens.
Virtual memory: Tokens: Strings with an assigned meaning
No need for all pages to be in memory Syntax analysis: The process of double-checking the code
CPU address space thus larger than physical space for
grammar mistakes (syntax errors).
Addresses resolved by memory management unit Code generation: The process by which an intermediate
Benefits code is
generated after syntax analysis.
Not all of the program has to be in memory at Optimization: A process in which the code is edited to
once make
improvements in efficiency.
Large programs can be run with or without large
physical
memory
Process
All pages on disk initially
One/more loaded into memory when process
‘ready’
Pages replaced from disk when needed
Can be done with FIFO queue or usage-
statistics based
algorithm
Disk thrashing: Perpetual loading/unloading of pages due
to a
page from disk immediately requiring the page it
replaced**.**

4.2. OS STRUCTURE For interpreters:

Analysis and code generation run for each code line
An OS has to be structured in order to provide a platform for
as above
resource management and the provision of facilities for
Each line executed as soon as intermediate code
users. The logical structure provides 2 modes of operation:
generated
BNF: Backus Naur Form
1. The user mode is the one available for the user or an
application program. Can be used as a basis for an algorithm
2. Privileged/kernel mode has the sole access to parts of Can be defined recursively
the memory and to certain system functions that the
Notation Meaning
user mode cant access.
::= Defined by

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Notation Meaning 3. The product of the encryption is ciphertext, which is

| OR transmitted to the recipient.
4. When the transmission is received it is decrypted
<x> Meta variable
using a decryption algorithm and a key to produce the
original plaintext.
RPN: Reverse Polish Notation
Used for representing algebraic expressions Security concerns relating to a transmission:
Operator placed after operands
Example: Confidentiality: only the intended recipient should be able
to decrypt the ciphertext.
X + Y -> X Y + Authenticity: the receiver must be certain who sent the
ciphertext.
Integrity: the ciphertext must not be modified during
5. Security transmission.
Non repudiation: neither sender nor receiver should be
5.1. Asymmetric keys and encryption able to deny involvement in the transmission.
Availability: nothing should happen to prevent the receiver
methods from receiving the transmission.

Plain text: data before encryption. At the sending end the sender has a key which is used to
Cipher text: the result of applying an encryption algorithm encrypt some plaintext and the ciphertext produced is
to
data. transmitted to the receiver. Now, the receiver needs to get
Encryption: the making of cipher text from plain text. the key needed for decryption.
Encryption can be used:
When transmitting data over a network. 1. If symmetric key encryption is used, there needs to be
As a routine procedure when storing data within a a secure method for the sender and receiver to be
computing system. provided with the secret key.
Public key: encryption key which is not secret. 2. Using asymmetric key encryption, the process starts
Private key: encryption key which is a secret. with the receiver. The receiver must be in possession
Symmetric key encryption: when there is just one key of two keys. One is a public key which is not secret.
which is used to encrypt and then to decrypt. The secret The other is a private key which is secret and known
key is shared by the sender and the receiver of a only to the receiver. The receiver can send the public
message. key to a sender, who uses the public key for encryption
Asymmetric encryption: when two different keys are used, and sends the ciphertext to the receiver. The receiver
one for encryption and a different one for decryption. Only is the only person who can decrypt the message
one of these is a secret. because the private and public keys are a matched
Sending a private message: pair. The public key can be provided to any number of
different people allowing the receiver to receive a
private message from any of them.

5.2. Digital signatures and digital

certificates
Using asymmetric encryption, the decryption works if the
keys are used the other way round. An individual can
Sending verified message to public:
encrypt a message with a private key and send this to
many recipients who have the corresponding public key
and can therefore decrypt the message. This is not for
confidential messages but can be used to verify who the
sender was. Only the sender has the private key and the
public keys only work with that one specific private key.
Therefore, used this way, the message has a digital
Enccryption and Decryption: signature identifying the sender. However the digital
signature is associated with an encryption of the whole
1. The process starts with original data, plaintext, message.
whatever form it takes. Cryptographic one way hash function creates from the
2. This is encrypted by an encryption algorithm which message a number, uniquely defined for the particular
makes use of a key. message, a digest. The private key is used as a signature

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for this digest. This speeds up the process of confirming 5. The CA uses encryption with the CA's private key to
the sender's identity. add a digital signature to this document.
It is assumed that the message is transmitted as plaintext 6. The digital certificate is given to A.
together with the digital signature as a separate file. The 7. A posts the digital certificate on a website.
same public hash key function is used that was used by
the sender so the same digest is produced if the message ![PROCESSES INVOLVED IN OBTAINING A DIGITAL
has been transmitted without alteration. The decryption of CERTIFICATEThe individual places the digital certificate on
the digital signature produces an identical digest if the that person's website but you can post it on a website
message was genuinely sent by the original owner of the designed specifically for keeping digital certificate data.
public key that the receiver has used. This allows the Alternatively, a digital certificate might be used solely for
receiver to be confident that the message is both authenticating emails. Once a signed digital certificate has
authentic and unaltered. However someone might forge a been posted on a website, any other person wishing to use
public key and pretend to be someone else. Therefore, A's public key downloads the signed digital certificate from
there is a need for a more rigorous means of ensuring the website and uses the CA's public key to extract A's public
authentication. This can be provided by a Certification key from the digital certificate. For this overall process to
Authority (CA) provided as part of a Public Key work there is a need for standards to be defined.
Infrastructure (PKI).
5.3. Encryption protocols
SSL and TLS encryption protocols are used in client-server
applications.
SSL(Secure Socket Layer) and TLS(Transport Layer
Security) are two closely related protocols providing
security in using the Internet. TLS is a slightly modified
version of SSL. The main use of SSL is in the client server
application. The interface between an application and TCP
uses a port number. In the absence of a security protocol,
TCP services an application using the port number. The
combination of an IP address and a port number is the
socket. When the SSL protocol is implemented it functions
as an additional layer between TCP in the transport layer
and the application layer. When the SSL protocol is in
place, the application protocol HTTP becomes HTTPS.
Provides:
Encryption
Compression of data
Integrity checking
Connection process:

If a would-be receiver who has a public-private key pair

wishes to be able to receive secure messages from other
individuals, the public key must be made available in a way
that ensures authentication. The would-be receiver would
need to obtain the digital certificate to allow safe public key
delivery:

1. An individual(A) who is a would-be receiver and has a Used in online shopping and banking websites.
public-private key pair contacts a local CA.
2. The CA confirms the identity of A. 5.4. Malware
3. A's public key is given to the CA.
4. The CA creates a public-key certificate(a digital Virus: tries to replicate inside other executable programs.
certificate) and writes A's key into this document.

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Worm: runs independently and propagates to other

network hosts.
Spyware: collects info & transmits to another system.
Phishing: email from seemingly legit source requesting
confidential info.
Pharming: setting up a bogus website that appears to be
legit.

Malware Vulnerabilities exploited

Executable files used to run or install
Virus
software.
Worm Shared networks
Spyware Background processes
Users mindset on considering emails from
Phishing
random addresses to be trustworthy
Users mindset of relying on the websites user
Pharming
interface than URL for its validity.
Regression
Malware Methods of restriction
Install and use an Anti-Virus software that Predict the value of a dependent variable based upon another
Virus
runs daily scans. explanatory variable.
Setup a firewall to protect yourself from Linear Regression
Worm Used where there is a straight line correlation between
external networks.
variables.
Install and use real time Anti-Spyware
Spyware
protection.
Phishing Always check the senders email address.
Pharming Always double check the website name.

6. Artificial Intelligence
6.1. Intro
Artificial Intelligence is the ability for computers perform
tasks that usually only a human would be able to do, such
as decision making, speech recognition, etc.
Machine learning is a subset of artificial intelligence
where computers learn to perform tasks without explicitly
being programmed how to. E.g. Email Spam filters. With
machine learning computers are fed historical training Non
data and this data is used to produce a model from which Linear Regression
predictions about previous unseen data can be made. Used where there is a correlation but it is not linear
Deep learning is a subset of ML where computers learn to
solve problems using neural networks similar to how the
human brain functions. E.g. Image Classification.

6.2. Classification, Regression,

Clustering & Reinforcement
Classification

Split the data into two or more predefined groups. Example:

spam email filtering where emails are split into either spam
or not spam.
Clustering

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Split the data into smaller groups or clusters based on certain

6.4. A* Algorithm
features. The programmer might specify a target number of
groups or let the algorithm decide. One of the biggest problems with Dijkstra’s algorithm is
that it is that it has the potential to be inefficient when
searching for the shortest path, because it just looks for
the next shortest leg.
A* is an informed search algorithm, or a best-first search,
meaning that it is formulated in terms of weighted graphs:
starting from a specific starting node of a graph, it aims to
find a path to the given goal node having the smallest cost
(least distance travelled, shortest time, etc.). It does this
by maintaining a tree of paths originating at the start
node and extending those paths one edge at a time until
its termination criterion is satisfied.
At each iteration of its main loop, A* needs to determine
which of its paths to extend. It does so based on the cost
of the path and an estimate of the cost required to extend
the path all the way to the goal.

6.5. Deep Learning & Neural Networks

Reinforcement Learning
Reinforcement learning is a reward based system where an Artificial Neural Networks are computational models and
agent are not given specific instructions but are rewarded for inspire by the human brain. Many of the recent
how well they perform. Often this learning follows a advancements have been made in the field of Artificial
Darwinian model where multiple agents attempt the task Intelligence, including Voice Recognition, Image Recognition,
(each with different slightly randomly parameters) and those Robotics using Artificial Neural Networks.
that perform the best form the base settings for their child
(slightly mutated versions). 6.6. Supervised Learning

6.3. Dijkstra’s Algorithm This is where you feed the machine learning algorithm
labelled training data. The labels contain the expected
Dijkstra's algorithm is an algorithm for finding the shortest outcome for that data. The machine used the labels and
paths between nodes in a graph, which may represent, for training data to train the model.
example, road networks. Labelled data is  split into training and test data
\n
Limitations

A lack of heuristics
Dijkstra’s algorithm has no notion of the overall shortest
direction to the end goal, so it will actually spend a lot of
time searching in completely the wrong direction if the
routes in the wrong direction are shorter than the route in
the correct direction. It will find the shortest route in the
end but it will waste a lot of time.
In small networks this isn’t a problem but when you have
massive networks (like road networks or the internet) Training data used to train the model
then it will result in massive inefficiencies. \n
Negative Weighted Costs
On physical networks with physical distances you can’t
have negative weights, but one some networks where you
are calculating costs you might have negative costs for a
particular leg. Dijkstra’s cant handle these negative costs.
Directed networks
Dijkstra’s algorithm doesn’t always work best when there
are directed networks (such as motorways that only run in
one direction.

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Trained model is ready to test \n The trained model can then be deployed \n

Un supervised Learning

Model is Machine learning algorithm is trained on unlabelled data and

then tested using the test data.. \n is left to cluster data itself. Certain hyper-parameters may be
set (such as how many clusters to form) but the process is
generally unstructured.

Useful for categorising many different objects

Identifying hidden trends or patterns
Anomaly detection(e.g. fraudulent transactions, spotting
skin cancer, crime detection)

7. Computational thinking
and problem-solving
7.1. Big O Notation
The tested model is then ready to deploy \n
What is Big O Notation?

Big O notation is used used as a tool to describe the growth

rate of a function in terms of the number of instructions that
need to be processed (time complexity) or the amount of
memory required (space complexity).
This allows different algorithms to be compared in terms of
their efficiency.
Note: Two algorithms can have the same Big O notation but in
practice have wildly different execution times in practice. This
is because the Big O describes the growth rate of complexity,
not the actual complexity itself.

Time Complexity
Time complexity refers to the growth in the number of
instructions executed (and therefore the time taken) as
the length of the array to be searched increases.
Space Complexity
Space complexity refers to the growth in the size of
memory space that is required as the length of the array
is increased.
Algorithm Performance
There are a number of factors that affect the
performance of search / sorting algorithms. Some
algorithms perform well with high entropy (randomness)
data, other algorithms work better when the data is
partially sorted in some manner. This means that no one

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algorithm works best in every situation and the nature of list, and inserts it there. It repeats until no input elements
the data being sorted needs to considered. remain.

7.2. Search Algorithms Bubble Sort

Lighter bubbles rise to the top, Heavier ones sink to the

Merge Sort bottom.
Divide and Conquer Paradigm

Divide the problem into smaller sub-problems

Divide the list into sub-lists each of length 1
Conquer (solve) each sub-problem and combine the
results
Repeatedly merge sub-lists to produce new sorted
sub-lists until there is only one sorted list

7.3. Recursion
Recursion is a function which it call itself
Solve a large problem by solving a sub-problems
Sub-problems are the same kind as the original problem
and they can be solved with the same algorithm Simpler
to solve: sub-problems are so simple that they can be
solved without further reductions (base case)
It needs at least one base case to stop recursive calls
otherwise the program will crash.

Insertion Sort

At each iteration, insertion sort removes one element from

the input data, finds the location it belongs within the sorted

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