UNDERGRADUATE PROJECT

ON
Qualitative Analysis of irrigation
water

UNDER THE SUPERVISION AND GUIDANCE

Of
Dr. Prabhat Kumar Singh Dikshit
Head of the Department
Department of Civil Engineering
IIT BHU(Varanasi)

Submitted by :
Devang Sharma (19064007)
Email ID : devang.sharma.civ19@itbhu.ac.in
INDEX :

• Introduction

• Literature Review

• Quality of irrigation

• Methodology

• Conclusion

• References
INDRODUCTION :
Water is perhaps the most precious natural resource after air. Though the
surface of the earth is mostly consists of water, only a small part of it is usable,
which makes this resource very limited. This precious and limited resource,
therefore, must be used with prudence. As water is required for different
purposes, the suitability of it must be checked before use. Also, sources of water
must be monitored regularly to determine whether they are in sound health or
not. Poor condition of water bodies are not only the indictor of environmental
degradation, it is also a threat to the ecosystem. In industries, improper quality
of water may cause hazards and severe economic loss. Thus, the quality of water
is very important in both environmental and economic aspects. Thus, water
quality analysis is essential for using it in any purpose. After years of research,
water quality analysis is now consists of some standard protocols. There are
guidelines for sampling, preservation and analysis of the samples. Here the
standard chain of action is discussed briefly so that it may be useful to the
analysts and researchers.
Irrigation water plays an important role for crop cultivation. Irrigation waters
from rivers depend on river flow, lithology, land use patterns, and other
anthropogenic activities. In the race to enhance agricultural productivity,
irrigation will become more dependent on poorly characterized and virtually
unmonitored sources of water. Increased use of irrigation water has led to
impaired water and soil quality in many areas. Historically, soil salinization and
reduced crop productivity have been the primary focus of irrigation water
quality. Recently, there is increasing evidence for the occurrence of geogenic
contaminants in water. The concentration and composition of soluble salts in
water determines its quality for irrigation. Four basic criteria for evaluating
water quality for irrigation purposes are described, including water salinity (EC),
sodium hazard (sodium adsorption ratio-SAR), residual sodium carbonates (RSC)
and ion toxicity. Toxicities of boron and chlorides to plants are described. More
specifically the relative tolerance levels of plants to boron is tabulated for easy
understanding. irrigation water urgently needs closer attention to understand
and predict long-term effects on soils and food crops in an increasingly fresh-
water stressed world.
Figure 1. Main sources of irrigation water and different types of contaminants present
in those sources impacting food, soil, and water quality. Note that surface water and
wastewater are subject to similar types of contamination.
LITERATURE REVIEW :
Assessment of irrigation water quality of river Ganga in Haridwar
district by Dhirendra Mohan Joshi , Alok Kumar and Namita Agrawal, Chemistry
Department, HNBG University, Srinagar, Garhwal, India.
This paper is an attempt to analyze the water quality of river Ganga in Haridwar
district for irrigation purpose. Water samples were collected from 5 sampling
stations. The study area has been divided into three seasons: Winter
(November-February), summer (March to June) and rainy (July to October).
Water quality variables were measured in the river over a period of two years
(Nov.2006 to Oct. 2 008). The samples were analyzed for electrical conductivity
(Ec), total dissolved salts (TDS), magnesium content (MC), sodium percent (SP),
sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), residual sodium carbonate (RSC) and
permeability index (PI). Study of all these characteristics indicates that river
water in rainy season is not suitable for irrigation purpose because of high values
of total dissolved salts, Ec and SP.

Classification of irrigation water quality by Hailin Zhang,Oklahoma State

University.
The Oklahoma State University Soil, Water and Forage Analytical Laboratory has
developed chemical procedures for determining water quality. Test results, their
interpretation, and a general recommendation on suitability of the water for
irrigation use are reported.

Analysis of water quality of selected irrigation water sources in

northern Ghana by Davie Kadyampakeni, Richard Appoh, Jennie
Barron.

Small-scale irrigation continues to cushion the food security gap in sub-Saharan

Africa. Irrigation is largely governed by water availability, soil type and crop
water requirements, among other factors. Thus, a study was conducted to
assess the suitability of various water sources for irrigation in northern Ghana.
Specifically, the study sought to assess quality of water sources in the
Savelugu, Kasena-Nankana East, and Nabdam districts for small-scale irrigation
development. The water quality parameters used were: pH, electrical
conductivity (ECw), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), sodium percent (Na%),
soluble sodium percentage (SSP), magnesium adsorption ratio (MAR), Kelley's
ratio (KR), total hardness (TH), chloride (Cl), Escherichia coli, and fecal
coliforms. While we found most of the irrigation water sources, including small
reservoirs, dams, wells , few unsuitable irrigation water sources were also
identified. Overall, the study found that opportunities for scaling small-scale
irrigation exist in all the sites. The knowledge generated from this study will
guide irrigation water use, and agricultural policy for sustainable smallholder
irrigation development in the region.

Quality of Irrigation water :

The concentration and composition of soluble salts in water will determine its
quality for various purposes (human and livestock drinking, irrigation of crops,
etc.). The quality of water is, thus, an important component with regard to
sustainable use of water for irrigated agriculture, especially when salinity
development is expected to be a problem in an irrigated agricultural area.
There are four basic criteria for evaluating water quality for irrigation
purposes:
Total content of soluble salts (salinity hazard)
➢ Relative proportion of sodium (Na+) to calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium
(Mg2+) ions – sodium adsorption ratio (sodium hazard)
➢ Residual sodium carbonates (RSC) – bicarbonate (HCO3−) and carbonate
(CO32−) anions concentration, as it relates to Ca 2+ plus Mg2+ ions.
➢ Excessive concentrations of elements that cause an ionic imbalance in
plants or plant toxicity.

• Salinity Hazard
Excess salt increases the osmotic pressure of the soil solution, a situation that
can result in a physiological drought condition. Thus, even though the soil in the
field appears to have plenty of moisture, the plants will wilt. This occurs because
the plant roots are unable to take up soil-water due to its high osmotic potential.
Thus, water lost from the plant shoot via transpiration cannot be replenished,
and wilting occurs.
The total soluble salts (TSS) content of irrigation water is measured either by
determining its electrical conductivity (EC), reported as micro Siemens per
centimeter (μS cm−1), or by determining the actual salt content in parts per
million (ppm). Below table prescribes the guidelines for water use relativ e to its
salt content.

• Sodium Hazard
The sodium hazard of irrigation water is expressed as the ‘sodium adsorption
ratio (SAR)’. Although sodium contributes directly to the total salinity and may
also be toxic to sensitive crops, such as fruit trees, the main problem with a high
sodium concentration is its effect on the physical properties of soil (soil structure
degradation). It is, thus, recommended to avoid using water with an SAR value
greater than 10 (mmoles l−1)0.5, if the water will be the only source of irrigation
for long periods.
The permissible value of the SAR is a function of salinity. High salinity levels
reduce swelling and aggregate breakdown (dispersion), thus promoting water
penetration. A high proportion of sodium, however, produces the opposite
effect.
 • Carbonates and Bicarbonates Concentration
Waters high in carbonates (CO32−) and bicarbonates (HCO3−) will tend to
precipitate calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and magnesium carbonate (MgCO3),
when the soil solution becomes concentrated through evapotranspiration. This
means that the SAR value will increase, and the relative proportion of sodium
ions will become greater. This situation, in turn, will increase the sodium hazard
of the soil-water to a level greater than indicated by the SAR value.
Fig. Adjusted calcium concentration ([Cax2+]) for irrigation water with various
[HCO3-] / Calcium [Ca2+] ratios and salinity (ECw) levels (Adapted from Ayres
and Westcot, 1985).

• Sodium Toxicity
Sodium toxicity can occur in the form of leaf burn, leaf scorch and dead tissues
running along the outside edges of leaves. In contrast, Cl − toxicity is often seen
at the extreme leaf tip. In tree crops, a sodium concentration (in excess of 0.25–
0.5%) in the leaf tissue is often considered to be a toxic level of sodium. Correct
diagnoses can be made from soil, water and plant tissue analysis.
Three levels of exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) (FAO-UNESCO 1973;
Pearson 1960; Abrol 1982), which correspond to three tolerance levels, are
defined as: sensitive (ESP < 15), semi-tolerant (ESP 15–40) and tolerant (ESP >
40). The crops/plants listed as sensitive include, among others, beans, maize,
peas, orange, peach, mung bean, mash, lentil, gram and cowpea. Semi-tolerant
plants include carrot, clover, lettuce, berseem, oat, onion, radish, rye, sorghum,
spinach, tomato, and tolerant plants include alfalfa, barley, beet, Rhoades grass
and Karnal (Kallar) grass.

• Boron Toxicity
Boron is essential to the normal growth of all plants, but the amount required is
low. If it exceeds a certain level of tolerance depending on the crop, then boron
may cause injury. The range between deficiency and toxicity of boron for many
crops is narrow. In order to sustain an adequate supply of boron to the plant at
least 0.02 ppm of boron in the irrigation water may be required. However, to
avoid toxicity, boron levels in irrigation water should, ideally, be lower than 0.3
ppm. Higher concentrations of boron will likely require that the intended crop
type must first be evaluated with respect to its boron tolerance. Although boron
toxicity is not a problem in most areas, it can be an important irrigation water
quality parameter. Interestingly, plants grown in soils high in lime may tolerate
higher levels of boron than those grown in non-calcareous soils.

Chloride Toxicity
The most common crop toxicity is caused by chlorides in irrigation water. The
chloride (Cl−) anion occurs in all waters; chlorides are soluble and leach readily to
drainage water. Chlorides are necessary for plant growth, though in high
concentrations they can inhibit plant growth, and can be highly toxic to some plant
species. Water must, thus, be analyzed for Cl− concentration when assessing water
quality. Table 5.4 shows Cl− levels in irrigation water and the effects of Cl− on crops.
In sensitive crops, symptoms occur when Cl− levels accumulate in leaves (0.3–1.0%
on a dry weight basis). Ayers and Westcot (1985) reported that Cl− toxicity on plants
appears first at the leaf tips (which is a very common symptom for chloride toxicity),
and progresses from the leaf tip back along the edges as severity of the toxic effect
increases. Excessive necrosis is often accompanied by early leaf drop or even total
plant defoliation.

Chemical Analysis of Irrigation Water

The ultimate in water quality data for appraisal of salinity and sodicity includes
complete analyses for all major cations and anions for both irrigation and drainage
waters. Major cations normally include Na+, K+, Ca2+ and Mg2+. Major anions normally
include CO32−, HCO3−, Cl− and also SO42− (though see discussion below with regard to
sulfate anion measurement).

 EC and Total Salt Concentration

The most important water quality parameter from the standpoint of salinity is the
total concentration of dissolved salts. It is different from ‘total dissolved solids
(TDS)’, a term which carries some ambiguity. The measurement of TDS is much
more tedious than measuring the EC – which is the preferred measure of salinity
(Bresler et al. 1982). A simple meter is used to measure the electrical conductivity
(EC) of both irrigation and drainage waters. Total salt concentration can then be
obtained by using the following relationship for water having EC values between
0.1 and 10 milli Siemens per cm (mS m−1) or dS m−1 (Bresler et al. 1982):

Total cations or anions (meq l−1)=10×EC (mS cm−1or dS m−1)Total cations

or anions (meq l−1)=10×EC (mS cm−1or dS m−1)
 Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR)
The tendency of salt solution to produce excessive exchangeable sodium in a soil
must also be considered. A useful index for predicting this tendency is the
Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR).

 Adjusted SAR
The significance of SARadj is that under field conditions, and in normal conditions
of irrigation management, the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) value in
top soil is very nearly equal to the adjusted SAR, where pHc is calculated as the
pH used in the Langelier Index of the irrigation water. Ayers and Westcot (1985)
presented the term adjusted SAR (SARadj) as:

SARadj=SARIW[1+(8.4−pHc)]SARadj=SARIW[1+(8.4−pHc)]
Fig. Mean sodium adsorption ratio of soil saturated paste extracts (SAR) values
of irrigated and controlled sites. Significant differences between irrigated and
controlled samples at the 0.05 probability level are noted with asterisks.

 Residual Sodium Carbonates (RSC)

There is another approach which is empirical in nature (Eaton 1950). It has been
widely used to predict the additional sodium hazard which is associated with CaCO 3
and MgCO3 precipitation, and involves a calculation of the residual sodium
carbonates (RSC). This approach is based on the equation:

RSC (meq l−1)=(CO2−3+HCO−3)−(Ca2++Mg2+)

METHODOLOGY :
PROCEDURES OF WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS
♦ Selection of Parameters
The parameters of water quality are selected entirely according to the need for
a specific use of that water. Some examples are:
→ Drinking: As per WHO/CPCB Standards
→ Irrigation: pH Conductivity Sodium & Potassium Nutrients Specific
compounds
→ Industries: As per specific requirement
→ Domestic Consumption: As per BIS Standards Water Bodies: As per CPCB
guidelines .

♦ Selection of Methods
The methods of water quality analysis are selected according to the
requirement. The factors playing key role for the selection of methods are:
(i) Volume and number of sample to be analyzed
(ii) Cost of analysis
(iii) Precision required
(iv) Promptness of the analysis as required

♦ Precision and Accuracy of Method Selected as per

Requirement
What precision and accuracy to be maintained against a particular method is
decided according to the objective of the monitoring. The factors influencing
this decision includes:
Budget of Monitoring System
Parameters to be Monitored
Use of the Water

♦ Chain–of–Custody Procedures
Properly designed and executed chain-of-custody forms will ensure sample
integrity from collection to data reporting. This includes the ability to trace
possession and handling of the sample from the time of collection through
analysis and final disposition. This process is referred to as “chain-of-custody”
and is required to demonstrate sample control when the data are to be used for
regulation or litigation. Where litigation is not involved, chain-of-custody
procedures are useful for routine control of samples.

Figure: Steps for Water Quality Analysis

The following procedures summarize the major aspects of chain-of-custody:

(i) Sample Labels: Labels are used to prevent sample misidentification as well as to
identify the collector, if required. In other words, labelling ensures the
responsibility and accountability of the collector.
(ii) Sample Seals: Sample seals are used to detect unauthorized tampering with
samples up to the time of analysis. So, it is essential to seal a sample before leaving
the custody of the collector. Sealing must be done in such a way as one have to
break the seal to access the sample.
(iii) Field Log Book: All the useful information related to a field survey or sampling
should be recorded in a Log Book. At least the following data should be in the log
book:
(a) Purpose of sampling
(b) Location of sampling point
(c) Name and address of field contact
(d) Producer of material being sampled and address, if different from location
(e) Type of sample
(f) Method, date, and time of preservation.

(iv) Sample Analysis Request Sheet: The sample analysis request sheet
accompanies samples to the laboratory. The collector completes the field portion
of such a form that includes most of the pertinent information noted in the log
book. The laboratory portion of such a form is to be completed by laboratory
personnel and includes: name of person receiving the sample, laboratory sample
number, date of sample receipt, condition of each sample (i.e., if it is cold or warm,
whether the container is full or not, color, if more than one phase is present, etc.)
and determinations to be performed.
(v) Sample Delivery to the Laboratory: Sample(s) should be delivered to laboratory
as soon as possible after collection, typically within 2 days. Where shorter sample
holding times are required, special arrangements must be made to insure timely
delivery to the laboratory. Where samples are shipped by a commercial carrier, the
waybill number to be included in the sample custody documentation. Samples
must be accompanied by a complete chain-of-custody record and a sample analysis
request sheet.
(vi) Receipt and Logging of Sample: In the laboratory, the sample custodian
inspects the condition and seal of the sample and reconciles label information and
seal against the chain-of-custody record before the sample is accepted for analysis.
After acceptance, the custodian assigns a laboratory number, logs sample in the
laboratory log book and/or computerized laboratory information management
system, and stores it in a secured storage room or cabinet or refrigerator at the
specified temperature until it is assigned to an analyst.
(vii) Assignment of Sample for Analysis: The laboratory supervisor usually assigns
the sample for analysis. Once the sample is in the laboratory, the supervisor or
analyst is responsible for its care and custody.
(viii) Disposal: Samples are held for the prescribed amount and duration for the
project or until the data have been reviewed and accepted. Samples are disposed
usually after documentation. However, disposal must be in accordance with
approved methods.

Proper Sampling :
Proper sampling is a vital condition for correct measurement of water quality
parameters. Even if advanced techniques and sophisticated tools are used, the
parameters can give an incorrect image of the actual scenario due to improper
sampling. The proper sampling should fulfill the following criteria:
(i) Representative:The data must represent the wastewater or water body being
sampled. So, the following factors must be well planned for proper sampling:
(a) Process of Sampling
(b) Sampling size/volume
(c) Number of Sampling Locations
(d) Number of Samples
(e) Type of Samples
(f) Time Intervals During sampling, these factors must also be taken care of:
♦ Choosing of proper sampling container
♦ Avoiding contamination
♦ Ensure the personal safety of the collector

(ii) Reproducible: The data obtained must be reproducible by others following the
same sampling and analytical protocols.
(iii) Defensible: Documentation must be available to validate the sampling
procedures. The data must have a known degree of accuracy and precision.
(iv) Useful: The data can be used to meet the objectives of the monitoring plan.

Proper Labeling :
Proper labeling prevents sample misidentification and ensures the responsibility
and accountability of the collector. The sample container should be labeled
properly, preferably by attaching an appropriately inscribed tag or label.
Alternatively, the bottle can be labeled directly with a waterproof marker. Barcode
labels are also available nowadays.

Preservation :
Usually a delay occurs between the collection and analysis of a sample. The
characteristics of the sample can be changed during this period. Therefore proper
preservation is required in the way to laboratory after collection, and in the
laboratory upto when analysis starts.
No single method of preservation is entirely satisfactory; the preservative is chosen
with due regard to the determinations to be made. Preservation methods are
limited to pH control, chemical addition, the use of amber and opaque bottles,
refrigeration, filtration, and freezing.

Report:
The ultimate procedure of water analysis is to prepare a proper report against the
submitted requisition. The report must be authenticated before handing over the
authority. All data should be kept in the laboratory log and preferably in laboratory
database. An alternative way to present the overall quality of water is to express it
in the form of Water Quality Index (WQI). WQI is a concise numerical
representation of overall water quality of a water body, which is convenient to
interpret and used widely. WQI expresses the overall quality of water with a single
digit, instead of many digits for all the WQP. Thus, it is readily conceivable for
common people.

CONCLUSION
The nature and extent of irrigated agriculture has changed with respect to water
quantity and quality over the past 30 years. In fact, irrigated acreage in Georgia
has increased tremendously and is expected to surpass 1.65 million irrigated
acres by 2050. With this increase in water use, the availability of water and the
quality of water will continue to be a concern in the coming years. Producers
must take this into consideration when planning and using irrigation systems.
Understanding irrigation water quality is critical to making management
decision for long-term productivity since it can have a significant effect on crop
yield, physical condition of the soil, soil salinity, fertility needs, irrigation system
performance (and longevity), and water application methods. In some cases, the
quality of irrigation water can influence crop productivity more than soil fertility,
plant cultivar, or weed control. Maintaining water quality in an irrigation system
is vital to the system’s effectiveness and can mean the difference between a
below average yield and a bumper crop

REFERENCES :
✓ https://extension.uga.edu/publications/detail.html?number=B1448&titl
e=Irrigation%20Water%20Quality%20for%20Agriculture

✓ Analysis of water quality of selected irrigation water sources in northern

Ghana | Water Supply | IWA Publishing (iwaponline.com)

✓ https://ijabe.org/index.php/ijabe/article/view/4759

✓ (PDF) Irrigation Water Quality (researchgate.net)

✓ California Fertilizer Association. (1995). Western fertilizer handbook (8th

ed.). Danville, IL: Interstate Publishers.

✓ Pearson, G. A. (1960). Tolerance of crops to exchangeable sodium

(Agriculture Information Bulletin No. 216). Washington, DC: U. S.
Department of Agriculture.

✓ Classification of Irrigation Water Quality | Oklahoma State University

(okstate.edu)