Chapter 7

Mechanics of Machines 2
Topic 7: The Balancing of Rotating and

Reciprocating Machinery
In this Topic you will explore and apply a range of analytical and graphical methods for
determining unbalance in rotating and reciprocating machinery. This will provide a basis
for particular strategies and approaches to balancing the rotating masses (such as gears,
pulleys, wheels with an offset centre of mass) and reciprocating masses (such as pistons
in internal combustion engines). You should note that in internal combustion engines
(piston engines), both systems are present, the crankshaft being a system of rotating
masses and the pistons being one of reciprocation.
As discussed in previous Topics, dynamic forces and in particular the resulting shaking
forces and couples in rotating and reciprocating machine systems can cause unbalance
that may have detrimental effects in the operation and structural integrity of the system
and its components. For this reason we need to be able to analyse the dynamic forces and
determine the resulting unbalance in such systems in order to develop the most
appropriate and feasible balancing approach.
Please note that balancing of rotating and reciprocating masses is considerably different
to balancing of linkages mechanisms covered in previous Topics. Also, balancing of a
system with rotating masses (such as static and dynamic balancing of a rotating shaft
with gears and/or pulleys) is quite different to balancing of a system with reciprocating
masses (such as the internal combustion (IC) engine cylinder system incorporating the
slider-crank mechanism).
In previous Topics you have been introduced to a range of methods for determining and
analysing dynamic forces, torques and moments in mechanisms and machines
(especially for rotating torsional systems). Shaking forces, moments and their balancing
have also been discussed. You will now apply these concepts in the case of the IC engine
as well. Please note that you will not be required to address the thermodynamic aspects
of the IC engine beyond defining the combustion chamber pressure and forces that rea
necessary to drive the device.
We will focus here on the kinematics and dynamics of engine mechanisms in relation to
the dynamic behaviour of the engine. The basic mechanism of the IC engine is the slider-
crank mechanism, which is used to represent a typical single cylinder. Multi-cylinder
engines are designed in a wide variety of arrangements including in-line and V engines
by combining multiple slider-crank linkages on a common crankshaft. This Topic will
introduce you to the dynamics of in-line and V engines using as a basis the theoretical
concepts derived for the slider-crank mechanism of a typical single cylinder.
The principal loads on the engine slider-crank mechanism include gas forces due to the
gas pressure from the exploding fuel-air mixture impinging on the top surface of the
piston, and inertia forces of the accelerated reciprocating parts such as the piston and the
connecting rod. The shaking of an IC engine is due primarily to the inertia forces of the
reciprocating masses. As the masses rotating with the crankshaft are normally balanced,
you will explore primarily the methods of balancing reciprocating masses in IC engines.
School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering 146

October 2013 Version 6
Summation of the primary and secondary inertia forces in all single cylinders yields the
resultant force or shaking force of a multi-cylinder engine. Shaking moment and its
primary and secondary components are also obtained in terms of the resultant of inertia
forces and its line of action in the axial plane between the main bearings.
Therefore, in your work you will need to consider shaking forces and shaking moments
as both of these shaking modes represent the unbalance in IC engines. Please note that
with a sufficient number of cylinders properly arranged an engine can be inherently
balanced. The concept described above applies to both in-line and V engines because a V
engine will have a similar inertia balance to that of the in-line engines as it is essentially
constructed from two in-line engines driven by a common crankshaft.
This Topic will enable you to complete dynamic force analysis and balancing of a wide
range of reciprocating machines including small engines with one, two or three cylinders
(such as those used in outboard motors, mowers, garden machinery, air compressors and
piston pumps) and larger engines with four, six, eight and twelve cylinders used
typically in automotive applications.
Learning Outcomes
Upon successful completion of this Topic, you will be able to:
 statically balance rotating machines analytically, graphically and
experimentally
 dynamically balance rotating machines analytically, graphically and
experimentally
 determine the effect of unbalance on the whirling speed amplitude of a
rotating shaft
 describe machines, techniques and standards for practical balancing of
rotating machines
 model and analyse dynamic forces in single-cylinder and multi-cylinder
reciprocating engines
 derive analytical expressions for the shaking forces and moments and
determine the unbalance in in-line engines
 derive analytical expressions for the shaking forces and moments and
determine the unbalance in V engines
 balance forces and moments in in-line and V engines for a wide range of
applications.

Background Skills and Knowledge

Before you start this Topic you should be familiar with the dynamics of mechanisms, as
well as rotating and reciprocating machinery. You will find the relevant background
information in previous Topics as well as in the recommended references. In particular,
you should familiarise yourself with the dynamic force analysis of linkage mechanisms
and in systems with rotating masses. Also, ensure that you understand the SOURCES of
dynamic forces in IC engines and the associated thermodynamic processes.
7.1: Balancing of Rotating Masses

Shaking forces and moments in machines are caused by inertia forces of rotating and/or
reciprocating masses. Because of rotation, the shaking force as the characteristics of
forced vibration at an angular frequency . The degree to which this forced vibration
will be damaging depends upon the frequency of the forced vibration and the natural
frequency of the elastic machine elements through which force is transmitted such as the
shaft or supports.
The shaking force and therefore vibrations may be minimised by balancing the inertia
forces in such a way that little or no force is transmitted to the machine supports in one
or two planes so that their respective shaking forces are zero or near zero.
A rotating member in a machine or mechanism can be balanced either statically or
dynamically. Complete balancing requires dynamic balancing. The amount and location
of any imbalance can be measured quite accurately and compensated for by adding or
removing material in the correct locations.
Static balance (single-plane balance)

The sum of the forces acting on the moving system must be zero. Static balance means in
fact that teh masses which are generating the inertia forces are in, or nearly in, the same
plane. Static balance is a balance of forces due to the action of gravity.
F  0
Dynamic balance (two-plane balance)

For dynamic balancing two criteria must be met (sum of the forces and sum of the
moments must be zero). Dynamic balance is balance due to the action of inertia forces:
F  0 M  0
Any rotating object or assembly which is relatively long in teh axial direction compared
to the non-axial directions requires dynamic balancing for complete balance.

m1  m2
R1  R2
Systems such as crankshafts, camshafts, and rollers need dynamic balancing. This is
done by adding or removing the right amounts of mass at the proper angular locations in
two correction planes separated by some distance along the shaft. This will create the
necessary counter forces to statically balance the system and also provide a counter
couple to cancel the unbalanced moment.
The degree to which a rotor is to be dynamically balanced depends upon the speed at
which the rotor is to operate (the unbalanced force increases as the square of the speed).

Balance of rotors
A rigid rotor consisting of a system of three masses rotating in a common transverse

plane about axis 0-0. A fourth mass is is to be added to the system so that the sum of
inertia forces (shaking forces) is zero, and balance is achieved.
For constant , the inertia force for any given mass M is:
F  Mr 2
For balance, the vector sum taken either graphically or analytically, of the inertia forces
of the system is zero.
W 2 2
 
F   Mr 2
   g  g
r   Wr   0
 
so the requirements for static balance is:
 Wr   0

The following figure gives an example:
analytical solution:
 Wr    Wr 
2 2
R x y
Wry 
 R  arctan  
 Wrx 

graphical solution:
R is the
vector sum
of Wr, and
in fact
gives the
necessary
parameters
for the
balancing
(static)
Wr is for each mass a vector in the same direction and sense as the inertia force.
For the product of the unbalance (Wr)e, any arbitrary value of We or re may be selected.
R 2
Without the balancing mass, the resultant force in the rotating system is , which
g
causes a bending of the shaft and exerts forces on the bearings supporting the shaft.
With the balancing mass added, the shaft bending and bearing loads are reduced to a
minimum. Any number of masses rotating in a common radial plane may be balanced
with a single mass.
b. But when all forces are in different radial planes, in axial plane, then we have
to carry out dynamic balancing; that is, we have to balance the inertia forces,
and moments of inertia forces.

same axial plane

1.
R   Wr 
We re   R
aR 
 Wra 
 Wr 
where:
a is the moment arm of any given inertia force
Standard convention for signs:
+ -
+ -
2.
W  2
  Fa     r 2 a    Wra   0
g  g
c. Because an unbalanced couple exists, to meet the requirements of moment

balance, two additional masses are needed to provide a balancing couple. If
the two masses are equal, they are already statically balanced.

two equal masses

balancing couple is introduced
d. The most general case of distribution of rotating masses in a rigid rotor

is that in which the masses lie in various transverse and axial planes.
For such a case, balance of inertia forces, and balance of moments of
inertia forces must be satisfied for complete balance. The resultant R of
the unbalanced masses is obtained either from a vector polygon
(graphically) or analytically (from equilibrium equations).

A and B are reference planes.

Wa, Wb, Wara, Wbrb, (Wra)b, (Wrb)a are found from polygons and
calculations.
Although it would appear that a single balancing mass would satisfy  Wr   0 , a
consideration of moment balance shows that a minimum of two balancing masses is
required. For that purpose we will arbitrarily choose two correction planes: A-A and
B-B.
For moment balance the VECTOR sum of the moments of the forces must be zero:
 Wra   0

We can use any two polygons to solve the complete problem:
1. balance of forces (see (b) in the figure above):

Wra 
Wr  b
 b
ab
(When we determine Wra b we can often find Wr b and thus draw in the
diagram.)
2. balance of moments (see (c) in the figure above):

The vector polygon of moments is taken about the transverse plane A-A. The
moment vectors are shown in the same direction and sense as the inertia
forces.
Closing vector Wra b is the required moment vector for balance.
The direction shows the axial plane in which Mb is to be located. Ma is placed

in A-A.
3. Moments about plane B-B are taken in order to determine Wrb a due to Ma in
A-A (see (d) in the figure above). Note that (Wrb)2 is the opposite side of B-B,
so negative.
The problem may be solved using any two of the three vector polygons, and
for the general case, any number of masses may be balanced by a minimum of
two masses placed at any two arbitrarily selected transverse planes such as
A-A and B-B.
For this same shaft with weights, an analytical solution may be derived thus:

(1) Wr   Wr   Wr   R

1 2 3
M , M , M , r , r , r , ,
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2
,  3 are given 
 R  arctan  
 Wry 
 Wr    Wr  ,
2 2
R 
  Wrx 
x y
(2) Wra   Wra   Wra   0

2 3 b
Wra  Wr 
Wra  gives Wr  
b b
b
, Wb  b
ab rb
(3) Wr  a
 R  Wr b  0
Wr  a
is along the y axis (90 ), and the y component of
R and Wr b are known.
Wr 
Wr  a
 Wa  a
ra
Activity 7A: Balancing of rotating masses
Read:
 Rao, S. S. (1995), Mechanical Vibrations, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, pp.
523 – 582
 Norton, pp. 609 - 728
Extra Reading:
 Mabie, H. H. and Reinholtz, C. F. (1987), Mechanisms and Dynamics of
Machinery, John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 336 – 370, 503 – 533
Solve Problems:
 Rao, 9-1, 9-6, 9-9, 9-12
 Norton, 13-7, 13-9
Study Worked Examples:
 Examples 1 - 8 that follow this Activity Box

Activity 7B: Elementary Theory and Examples
Read:
Click on this link and read the following text:
Hannah and Stephens (1989), Mechanics of Machines, Elementary Theory and Examples, Edward
Arnold, pp 168 - 177
 E-Reserve Links Coming
Example 7:
The rotor with the steel gears shown below was dynamically balanced in a balancing
machine by the addition of clay masses shown on the periphery of the gears.
However, the balancing is to be achieved by drilling holes in the webs of the gears at
the diameters shown. Determine the size and location of the holes for dynamic
balancing. Convert all your working into SI units.

W1  1.0 ounce clay mass

W2  0.5 ounce clay mass
let   1 rad / sec
W 
F1  M 1 A1   1   r1 2 
 g 
1.0
  6 12  0.01554 ounces
386
W 
F2  M 2 A2   2   r2 2 
 g 
0.5
  4 12  0.00518 ounces
386
Drilled holes:
 W1'  ' 2  W1' 
F1  M A    r1   
'
1
'
1
'
  3 12  0.00777W1' ounces
 g   386 
W '   W' 
F2'  M 2' A2'   2  r2' 2   2   2.5  12  0.00648W2' ounces
 g   386 
F1'  F1  0.00777W1'  0.01554 and W1'  2.0 ounces
F2'  F2  0.00648W2'  0.00518 and W2'  0.7994 ounces
 steel  0.285 lb / inch3  4.56 ounces / inch3
let d1 and d 2 be the hole diameters and t web thickness
  d 2t  4W1 4  2.0
W1   1   steel  d12   and d1  0.7473 inch
 4   t steel  1 4.56
 use a three-quarter inch hole opposite the clay
4W2 4  0.7994
d 22   and d 2  0.4724 inch
 t steel  1 4.56
 use a 15/32 inch hole opposite the clay
Example 8:
For the rigid rotor shown below with two masses, determine the weights WA and WB in
planes A-A and B-B respectively, which put the rotor in dynamic balance for a rotor
speed of 500 rpm. Determine also the angualr positions of the balancing weights.

W1  45 N
W2  90 N
r1  150 mm
r2  100 mm
rA  150 mm
rB  150 mm
We need to find WA , WB ,  A ,  B .
n  500 rpm
2 n 2  500
   rad / sec
60 60
F1  M 1r1 2  W1r1  6750
F2  M 2 r2 2  W2 r2  9000
W r Wr  a Wra b Wrb
1 45 150 6750 90 150 1.0125  106 250 1.6875  106

2 90 100 9000 0 300 2.7  106 100 900000
a 32 150 4800 20.56 0 400

b 48 150 7200 61.63 400 0

Wr  2X
 Wr  AX  Wr  BX  0 
Wr 1Y
 Wr  AY  Wr  BY  0 
R   Wr   W    W 
2 2
rX rY

  arctan  
 W 

rY
  W  rX
Wra   Wra   Wra 

1 2 b
 0  Wra  B 
Wra 
Wr   B
 B
aB
Wr 
WB  B

rB
R  Wr 1  Wr 2
Wr X
 W1r1 X  W2 r2 X  45 150 cos 90  90 100 cos 0  9000
Wr Y
 W1r1Y  W2 r2Y  45  150sin 90  90  100sin 0  6750
R  90002  67502  11250 Nmm
 R  arctan  
 WrY   6750 
  arctan    36.87
  WrX   9000 
Wra  B
 2.88 106
2.88 106
Wr B   7200 Nmm
400
7200
WB   48 N
150

Wra   Wra   Wra   0

1 2 b
W r a  W r   a  b  sin   0
1 1 1 B B 1 1 B
W r a  W r   a  b  cos   0
2 2 2 B B 1 1 B
1.0125  10  WB  150  400sin  B  0

6
2.7 106  WB  150  400 cos B  0

1.0125  106
WB sin  B    16.875
60000
2.7 106
WB cos B    45
60000
16.875 
 WB  48  B  arctan    20.56  180  200.56
 45 
Wr  A
 Wr  B  R  0
WA rA cos A  WB rB cos B  R cos R  0
WA rA sin  A  WB rB sin  B  R sin  R  0
WA rA cos A   R cos R  WB rB cos B
WA rA sin  A   R sin  R  WB rB sin  B
 R cos  R  WB rB cos  B
WA cos A 
rA
 R sin  R  WB rB sin  B
WA sin  A 
rA
11250 cos 36.87  48 150 cos 20.53
WA cos A   15.063
150
11250sin 36.87  48 150sin 20.53
WA sin  A   28.127
150
 WA  32 N ,  A  61.83  180  241.83

7.2: Balancing of Reciprocating Masses

In order to determine the unbalance of reciprocating masses in IC engines, you need to
understand the dynamic forces generated in each of the engine cylinders during
operation, throughout the combustion cycle.
source: Norton
Note that we will explore here both in-line and V engines and the approaches to
determining unbalanced inertial forces and couples (shaking forces and shaking couples)
in such systems.


source: Norton

Dynamic inertia forces in the single-cylinder, slider-crank mechanism
Single-cylinder four-stroke cycle IC engine (Otto)

typical slider-crank mechanism of the single cylinder engine
It takes four full strokes of the piston to complete one Otto cycle. A piston stroke is
defined as its travel from TDC to BDC or the reverse. Thus there are two strokes per 360
crank revolution and it takes 720 of crank-shaft rotation to complete one four-stroke
cycle. (This engine requires at least two valves per cylinder, one for intake and one for
exhaust.) The next figure illustrates the gas pressure curve for one cycle.

1. Intake stroke
The intake stroke starts with the piston at TDC. A mixture of fuel and air is
drawn into the cylinder from the induction system (the fuel injector or
carburettor) as the piston descends to BDC, increasing the volume of the
cylinder and creating a slight negative pressure
2. Compression stroke
All valves are closed and the gas is compressed as the piston travels from BDC
to TDC. Slightly before TDC, a spark is ignited to explode the compressed gas.
3. Expansion stroke (or power stroke)
The pressure from the explosion builds very quickly and pushes the piston
down from TDC to BDC.
4. Exhaust stroke
The exhaust valve is opened and the piston travels from BDC to TDC pushing
the spent gases out of the cylinder into the exhaust manifold. The cycle is then
ready to repeat with another intake stroke.
The valves are opened and closed at the correct times in the cycle by a camshaft which
is driven in synchronism with the crankshaft by gears, chain or toothed belt drive.

The IC engine mechanism with approximate kinetically equivalent point masses

replacing the connecting rod
It is usual practice to a new

mass MCW to the
counterweight of the crank so
that an inertia force FCW is
induced to balance the inertia
force FA3 of the connecting
rod mass. By
counterweighting in this
manner, the masses rotating
with the crank (cranksahft
mass plus MAB) are balanced
to put the mass centre of the
combination at 02 so that no
force from this combination
acts on the main bearings.
Of particular interest in engines is the shaft torque

variation in the engine cycle corresponding to the 720
crank cycle.
It is usual and necessary to fix a flywheel to the
crankshaft, which will reduce crank speed variations to
negligibly small values
Dynamic loading of theconnecting rod is represented by
the inertia force vectors FB3 and FA3 (where FB3 = MB3AB,
FA3 = MA3AA).
TS is the resisting torque of the load (torque in the free body mechanism). T is the torque
delivered to the flywheel and to the vehicle or load which the engine is driving
Derivation of the approximate equation for piston acceleration for a single-cylinder

slider-crank mechanism

Displacement of the slider and its corresponding velocity and acceleration:

x  R  L  R cos  L cos   R 1  cos   L 1  cos  
 R cos  L cos   x  R  L 
cos 
x  R 1  cos   L  L 1   RL  sin 2 
2
 L sin   R sin   sin    RL sin   , sin 2   cos 2   1

 
  sin 2   1  cos 2   sin   1  cos 2  and 
 
 cos   1  sin 2  
 

Approximate using a binomial series:

B 2 1 B 4 1 3  B 6 1 3  5  B 8
1  B 
1
2 2
 1     ......
2 2 4 2 4 6 2 4 68
where B  R
L
 1   RL  sin 2   1  12  RL  sin 2 
2 2
R2
 x  R 1  cos  t   sin 2  t    t ,   constant 
2L
 
V
dx
 R sin  
R
sin 2   sin 2
 1
2 1  cos 2  
dt  2L 
d 2x  R    R 
A  R 2 cos  cos 2   F  MA  MR 2  cos  cos 2  
    
2
dt L L
T  Ts (but opposite sense)
Ts  F12 d or Ts  F14 L
F12 is the main bearing force (parallel to the connecting rod axis because of the method of
counterweighting the crankshaft).
FB  P   F04  FB 3 
The piston acceleration may be given as a function of :

 R 
AB  R 2  cos  cos 2 
 L 
AB  R 
  cos   cos 2 
R 2
 L 
The frame of the engine (engine block) is considered to be the fixed member.

In automotive installations, the engine block is supported on flexible mountings in order

that a minimum of the unbalanced resultant force of the engine is transmitted to the
engine supports.
F41 = reactive force of the piston

on the cylinder wall
F21 = force of the crankshaft on
the main bearings fixed to the
engine block
P = gas pressure force acting
on the head of the block
F41, F21, P are known from the analysis of the slider-crank mechanism.
R1, R2 = reactive forces of the engine supports and are the unknowns to be
determined.
F41, F21, F14, F12 are the internal forces.
FCW and FA3 are equal and opposite.
Gas forces P are considered equal and opposite, so:
R1 and R2 are effected by:
1. inertial forces F04 and FB3
2. shaft torque Ts.
R  F04  FB 3 R  R1  R2 F
F
A S
B
1
3
P
F
0 R
F 4
2
1
S = R, the resultant of inertial forces is called the shaking force. The reciprocating masses
at the unit pin centre cause vertical vibration or vertical shaking of the engine (). No
resultant horizontal force acts on the engine so there is no vibrational excitation in that
direction.

However, because of the shaft torque Ts, a couple acting on the engine, which is mounted
on flexible supports, excites an angular excitation (oscillation) of the engine as the shaft
torque changes in magnitude and sense during the engine cycle.
Thus Ts is a shaking couple, which is also transmitted to the engine supports and makes R2
greater than R1.
T
s
So, the shaking of a piston engine is due primarily to the

inertia forces of the reciprocating masses located at the wrist pin.
The masses rotating with the crankshaft are normally balanced, and they do not transmit
a shaking force to the engine block.
Shaking force: S = F
Shaking couple: F41L = Ts

Analytical Determination of Unbalance in In-line Engines

Determination of unbalance, or shaking forces, in multi-cylinder engines is carried using
appropriate analytical methods which lead to simple algebraic expressions. These give
magnitude and sense of unbalance as a function of the crank angle of the first cylinder 1.
In automotive engines, the first cylinder is at the front end, and 1 is measured
clockwise in the direction of rotation, when viewed from the front end.
For in-line engines in which the cylinders are in line on the same side of the crankshaft,
the reciprocating mass M and the R/L ratio is the same for each cylinder.
Three cylinder engine: (Note: the principle is the same for any number of cylinders)
The inertia force F of any given cylinder at  is:
 R  R2 2
F  MR  cos  cos 2   MR cos  M
2 2
 cos 2
 L  primary force Fp L
(first harmonic) secondary force Fs
(second harmonic)
 F  Fp  Fs

The summation of the inertia forces of a multi-cylinder engine is the resultant force, or
shaking force S, which represents the unbalance:
S   F   Fp   F s
The equation of unbalance of primary forces is developed as (   1   ):
 F   MR cos  MR  cos    

p
2 2
1
 MR   cos  cos     sin   sin   

2
1 1
  F MR  cos    cos     sin     sin   

p
2
1 1
(1 and sin1 are constant for all terms of the sum.)
For unbalance of secondary forces:

R2 2
 Fs M L
  cos 21    cos 2    sin 21    sin 2 
For balance, or zero shaking force, these summations must all be zero:
 cos   0
 cos 2  0
 sin   0
 sin 2  0
Because the resultant force does not lie symmetrically between the bearings we have
another mode of shaking of multi-cylinder engines.
If we take the moments in terms of a primary moment Cp and a secondary moment Cs,
with respect to a reference plane at the first cylinder:
C p   Fp a  MR 2  a cos
 MR 2 cos1   a cos    sin 1   a sin   
MR 2 2
Cs  cos 21   a cos 2   sin 21   a sin 2  
L 
C  C p  Cs (resultant moment)
C
aR 
S
(If, in any practical case, the shaking force S is zero - that there is a balance of inertia
forces - it does not mean that the resultant C is also zero.)

Activity 7C: Balancing of reciprocating masses
Study Worked Examples:

 Examples 9, 10 and 11 that follow this Activity Box
You can obtain feedback from your tutor and/or course coordinator.
Example 9:
Determine the equations of unbalance of reciprocating masses for a two-cylinder
engine in which the cranks are at 90. Determine equations for S and aR in terms of
1. Determine S and aR for 1 = 30, MR2 = 8900 N, R/L = ¼, a = 100 mm.
1  0 (at 1 for 1)
2  270

 F  MR cos  cos   sin   sin  

p
2
1 1
 cos   1  0  1
 sin   0  1  1
 F  MR cos  sin  
p
2
1 1
MR  2 2
 F  L cos 2  cos 2  sin 2  sin 2 

s 1 1
 cos 2  1  1  0
 sin 2  0  0  0
F 0 s
C  MR cos   a cos   sin   a sin  

p
2
1 1
 a cos  0 1  a  0  0
 a sin 2 0  0  a  1  a
C p  MR 2 a sin 1
MR 2 2
Cs  cos 21  a cos 2  sin 21  a sin 2 
L 
 a cos 2  0 1  a  1  a
 a sin 2  0  0  a  0  0
aMR 2 2
Cs  cos 21
L
S  MR 2  cos 1  sin 1 

 R 
C  aMR 2  sin 1  cos 21 
 L 
 R 
a  sin 1  cos 21 
aR    
C L
S  1
cos   sin  1
R 1
For 1  30 and MR 2  8900 N ,  and a  100 mm
L 4
S  8900   cos 30  sin 30   12158 N
C  8900 100   sin 30  14 cos 60   333750 Nmm  333.75 Nm
C 333750
aR    27.5 mm, to the right of cylinder 1
S 12158
(aR = discharge of the line of action of the shaking force S.)

Example 107:
Determine the unbalance S of the reciprocating masses of the
conventional four-cylinder engine shown below, in which the cranks
are at 180. Determine also the unbalance of teh axial shaking couple.
1  0 , 2  180 , 3  180 , 4  0
 cos   1  1  1  1  0
 sin   0  0  0  0  0
 cos 2  1  1  1  1  4
 sin 2  0  0  0  0  0
Clearly, primary forces are balanced and secondary ones are not.
7 adapted from Mabie and Reinholtz

F p
 MR 2  cos1  0    sin 1  0    0
MR 2 2
 Fs  L 
 cos 21  4    sin 21  0  
4MR 2 2
 sF 
L
cos 21
S   Fp   Fs
4MR 2 2 MR 2
S cos 21   2  cos 21
2
L L
This shaking force of the conventional four-cylinder engine as
function of 1 is:
It is a simple harmonic curve whose circular frequency 2 is twice the

speed of the crankshaft.
 a cos   0 1  4   1  8   1  12 1  0

 a sin   0  0  4  0  8  0  12  0  0
 a cos 2  0 1  4 1  8 1  12 1  24
 a sin 2  0  0  4  0  8  0  12  0  0
You can see from this that the secondary moment Cs exists about the
reference plane and that the primary moments are zero:
MR 2 2
C  C p  Cs  24 cos 21
L
and the line of action of S:
C 24  MR  L  cos 21
2 2
aR   6
S 4  MR 2 2 L  cos 21

Example 11:
Determine the equations of unbalance of reciprocating masses for a
two-cylinder engine in which the cranks are at ninety degrees.
Determine the equations for S and aR in terms of 1. Determine S and
aR for 1 = 30, MR2 = 8900 N, R/L = ¼, a = 100 mm.
1  0 (at 1 for 1)
2  270
 F  MR cos  cos   sin   sin  

p
2
1 1
 cos   1  0  1
 sin   0  1  1
 F  MR cos  sin  
p
2
1 1
MR 2 2
 F  L cos 2  cos 2  sin 2  sin 2 

s 1 1
 cos 2  1  1  0
 sin 2  0  0  0
F 0 s
C p  MR 2 a sin 1
MR 2 2
L 
 a cos 2  0 1  a  1  a
 a sin 2  0  0  a  0  0
aMR 2 2
Cs  cos 21
L
S  MR 2  cos 1  sin 1 

 R 
C  aMR 2  sin 1  cos 21 
 L 
 R 
a  sin 1  cos 21 
aR    
C L
S  cos1  sin 1 
R 1
For 1  30 and MR 2  8900 N ,  , a  100 mm :
L 4
S  8900  cos 30  sin 30   12158 N
 1 
C  8900 100  sin 30  cos 60   333750 Nmm
 4 
C 333750
aR    27.5 mm to the right of cylinder 1.
S 12158
Analytical Determination of Unbalance in V Engines
The V engine consists of two in-line engines in which the crankshaft is

common to both engines:
V-6 and V-8 engines are common in the automotive industry where 

is either 60 or 90. Small engines and compressors are often V-2 or V-
4.
Each bank of the V-8 engine (in this example) may be analysed
separately for balance or unbalance. Any unbalanced force or couple
of a given bank is in the axial plane in which the cylinders reciprocate.
The resultant unbalance of the complete engine is determined from
the vector sum of the unbalance of the two banks.
The following summations apply to either bank since the fixed angles
 are the same for both banks.
1  0 , 2  90 , 3  270 , 4  180
 cos   0  sin   0
 cos 2  0  sin 2  0
 a cos   3a  a sin   a
 a cos 2  0  a sin 2  0
(Primary and secondary forces are balanced so there is no resultant

shaking force.) A resultant due to primary forces exists which is
manifested as an axial shaking couple.
For the left bank:
CL  MR 2  3a cos1  a sin 1 
1
is measured from TDC of the left bank 
For the right bank:

CR  MR 2  3a cos 1  90   a sin 1  90  
 MR 2  3a sin 1  a cos1 
  1
 90 from crank angle of the first cylinder for the right bank 

The resultant couple is:
C  CL2  CR2
which, when we substitute all the values gives:

C  10MR 2 a
When you examine this equation you should be able to see that the
resultant unbalanced couple of the V-8 engine is independent of 1
and  and therefore constant in magnitude for all angular positions of
the crankshaft. The axial plane in which the resultant couple C lies is
given by the angle :
CR
tan  
CL
The angle that C makes with the first crank, , is:
CR  CL tan 1
tan  
CL  CR tan 1
(For V-8 tan   31 ,    198.43 )
By knowing the position and magnitude of the resultant unbalanced
couple, we may completely balance the engine by introducing a
balancing couple Ce, the equilibrant of C, in the form of two
counterweights such that:
Ce  Fe  l   10MR 2 a

For a V-6 engine we have8:
Right bank Left bank

cylinders 1, 3, 5 cylinders 2, 4, 6
no.1 is reference cylinder no.2 is reference cylinder
1  0 2  0
3  240 4  240
5  120 6  120
Shaking force:
8 from Mabie and Reinholtz

F p
 MR 2 cos1  cos   sin 1  sin  
MR 2 2
 Fs  L 
cos 21  cos 2  sin 21  sin 2 
 cos  0  cos  0
 sin  0  sin  0
 cos2  0  cos2  0
 sin 2  0  sin 2  0
Therefore, the primary and secondary shaking forces are balanced for both banks.
Shaking couples:
C p  MR 2 cos1  a cos   sin 1  a sin  
MR 2 2
L 
 a cos  1.5a  a cos  1.5a

 a sin  0.866a  a sin  0.866a
 a cos2  1.5a  a cos2  1.5a
 a sin 2  0.866a  a sin 2  0.866a
So we have:
C p  MR 2 a  1.5cos1  0.866sin 1  C p  MR 2 a 1.5sin 1  0.866 cos1 
MR 2 2 a MR 2 2 a
Cs   1.5cos 21  0.866sin 21  Cs  1.5cos 21  0.866sin 21 
L
L
where  2  1  90
The primary and secondary shaking forces are balanced for each bank, however the
primary and secondary couples are badly out of balance for both banks, and there
is no way of easily correcting this as was done for the V-8 engine. (The V-6 was
developed in 1962 by Bosch.)

Activity 7C: V Engines
Study Worked Example:

 Example 12 that follows this Activity Box
Example 129:
For the two-cylinder 90 V-engine, derive the following equations of
unbalance as a function of 1; resultant primary force Fp, resultant
secondary force Fs, resultant shaking force S, direction of shaking
force, and the distance aR from the plane of the first cylinder to the
line of action of S. Using the equations, determine S and aR for 1 =
60; MR2 = 1, R/L = ¼, a = 100 mm.
Cylinder #1:
9 from Mabie and Reinholtz

1  0
Fp1  MR 2 cos1  cos   sin 1  sin  
 cos   cos   cos   cos 0

1 2
 1 since cos 2  0
 sin   sin   sin 0  0
1
 Fp1  MR cos 12
MR 2 2
Fs1  cos 21  cos 2  sin 21  sin 2 
L 
 cos 2 1
 sin 2  0
MR 2 2
 Fs1  cos 21
L
1
 2R 2

2
R
S  MR 1  2
cos 21  sin 1  cos 1   2   cos 2 21 
 L L 
and:
 cos 1  R cos 21  S
tan s   L  1
sin 1  R cos 21  S2
 L 
aR cannot be evaluated because S and C do not lie in the same plane. For 1 =
60, S = 3.69 N.
Cylinder #2:

2  0 ,  2  90  1 (from  2    1 )
Fp 2  MR cos 2  MR 2 cos  90  1    MR 2 sin 1
2
MR 2 2 MR 2 2 MR 2 2
Fs 2  cos 2 2  cos 2  90  1    cos 21
L L L
F  MR cos 1     MR 2 sin 1 

2 2
p
 Fp21  Fp22  2
 MR 2
 MR 2 2   MR 2 2
2 2

 s
F  F  F 

2
 L
s1
2
cos
s2
2 1

  L
cos 21 

 MR 2 2 
 2 cos 21 
 L 
Angle for primary force:
Fp 2  MR 2 sin 1
tan  p     tan 1
Fp1 MR 2 cos1
Angle for secondary force:

 MR 2 2 cos 21 L
tan s   1   s  45
MR 2 2 cos 21 L
S1  Fp1  Fs1
S2  Fp 2  Fs 2
S  S12  S 22
Activity 7D: Laboratory Prac 2
Laboratory
 complete the laboratory as specified in Part B

Summary and Outcome Checklist
This Topic enabled you to complete the dynamic force analysis and balancing of a wide
range of reciprocating machines including small engines with one, two or three cylinders
(such as those used in outboard motors, mowers, garden machinery, air compressors and
piston pumps) and larger engines with four, six, eight and twelve cylinders used
typically in automotive applications.
Tick the box for each statement with which you agree:
 I can statically balance rotating machines analytically, graphically and
experimentally.
 I can dynamically balance rotating machines analytically, graphically and
experimentally.
 I can determine the effect of unbalance on the whirling speed amplitude of a
rotating shaft.
 I can describe machines, techniques and standards for practical balancing of
rotating machines.
 I can model and analyse dynamic forces in single-cylinder and multi-cylinder
reciprocating engines.
 I can derive analytical expressions for the shaking forces and moments and
determine the unbalance in in-line engines.
 I can derive analytical expressions for the shaking forces and moments and
determine the unbalance in V engines.
 I can balance forces and moments in in-line and V engines for a wide range of
applications.
Assessment
This Topic will be assessed as part of the Major Assessment task: Laboratory Prac 2.
This aims to ensure understanding of key concepts prior to undertaking the end of the
semester examination.


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Mechanics of Machines 2

Topic 7: The Balancing of Rotating and

School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering 146

School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering 147

Background Skills and Knowledge

7.1: Balancing of Rotating Masses

Static balance (single-plane balance)

Dynamic balance (two-plane balance)

School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering 148

School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering 149

A rigid rotor consisting of a system of three masses rotating in a common transverse

School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering 150

The following figure gives an example:

School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering 151

School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering 152

same axial plane

School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering 153

c. Because an unbalanced couple exists, to meet the requirements of moment

School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering 154

two equal masses

d. The most general case of distribution of rotating masses in a rigid rotor

School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering 155

A and B are reference planes.

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We can use any two polygons to solve the complete problem:

1. balance of forces (see (b) in the figure above):

2. balance of moments (see (c) in the figure above):

The direction shows the axial plane in which Mb is to be located. Ma is placed

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(1) Wr   Wr   Wr   R

(2) Wra   Wra   Wra   0

Activity 7A: Balancing of rotating masses

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Activity 7B: Elementary Theory and Examples

Click on this link and read the following text:

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W1  1.0 ounce clay mass

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1 45 150 6750 90 150 1.0125  106 250 1.6875  106

a 32 150 4800 20.56 0 400

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Wra   Wra   Wra 

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Wra   Wra   Wra   0

1.0125  10  WB  150  400sin  B  0

2.7 106  WB  150  400 cos B  0

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7.2: Balancing of Reciprocating Masses

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Dynamic inertia forces in the single-cylinder, slider-crank mechanism

Single-cylinder four-stroke cycle IC engine (Otto)

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The IC engine mechanism with approximate kinetically equivalent point masses

It is usual practice to a new

Of particular interest in engines is the shaft torque

Derivation of the approximate equation for piston acceleration for a single-cylinder