BGYCT-137

STRATIGRAPHY AND
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Sciences
PALAEONTOLOGY

Stratigraphy Volume 1
 BGYCT-137
STRATIGRAPHY AND
PALAEONTOLOGY
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Sciences

Volume

1
STRATIGRAPHY
BLOCK 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF STRATIGRAPHY 8

BLOCK 2
STRATIGRAPHY OF INDIA 79

1
Course Design Committee
Prof. Vijayshri Prof. M. A. Malik (Retd.) Prof. K. R. Hari
Former Director Department of Geology School of Studies in Geology &
School of Sciences University of Jammu Water Resources Management
IGNOU, New Delhi Jammu, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University
Prof. V. K. Verma (Retd.) Prof. D. C. Srivastava Raipur, Chhattisgarh
Department of Geology Department of Earth Science Prof. S.J. Sangode
University of Delhi, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Department of Geology
Delhi Roorkee, Uttarkhand Savitribai Phule Pune University
Late Prof. Pramendra Dev Prof. L. S. Chamyal Pune, Maharashtra
School of Studies in Earth Sciences Department of Geology Dr. K. Anbarasu
Vikram University M.S.University of Baroda Department of Geology
Ujjain, MP Vadodara, Gujarat National College
Prof. P. Madhusudhana Reddy Prof. H. B. Srivastava Tiruchirapalli, Tamilnadu
Department of Geology Centre of Advanced Study in Geology Faculty of Geology Discipline
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University Banaras Hindu University School of Sciences, IGNOU
Hyderabad Varanasi, UP
Prof. Meenal Mishra
Late Prof. G. Vallinayagam Prof. Arun Kumar
Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh
Department of Geology Department of Earth Sciences
Kurukshetra University Manipur University Dr. M. Prashanth
Kurukshetra, Haryana Imphal, Manipur Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Prof. J. P. Shrivastava (Retd.) Prof. (Mrs.) Madhumita Das Dr. Omkar Verma
Centre of Advanced Study in Geology Department of Geology
University of Delhi, Delhi Utkal University
Bhubaneshwar, Odisha

Volume Preparation Team

Course Contributors
Prof. S.K. Shah (Retd.) (Units 1 & 2) Dr. Omkar Verma (Units 3, 5 & 7) Prof. Meenal Mishra (Unit 4)
Department of Geology School of Sciences School of Sciences
University of Jammu, Jammu IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Sreepat Jain (Unit 6) Dr. Varun Parmar (Unit 8)
Department of Applied Geology Department of Geology
Adama Science and Technology University University of Jammu, Jammu
Adama, Ethiopia
Content Editor Language Editor
Prof. G.V.R. Prasad (Block 1) Prof. M. A. Malik (Retd.) (Block 2) Dr. Kishor Kumar
Department of Geology Department of Geology Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology
University of Delhi, Delhi University of Jammu, Dehra Dun
Jammu
Transformation: Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Course Coordinators: Dr. Omkar Verma and Dr. Kakoli Gogoi

Production
Mr. Rajiv Girdhar Mr. Sunil Kumar Mr. Hemant Kumar
A.R. (P), MPDD, IGNOU A.R. (P), SOS, IGNOU S.O. (P), MPDD, IGNOU
Acknowledgement: Ms. Savita Sharma for preparation of some of the figures.
December, 2020© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2020
ISBN:
Disclaimer: Any material adapted from web-based resources or any other sources in this block are being used only for
educational purposes only and not for commercial purposes and their copyrights rest with the original authors.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without
permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the University’s office
at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the official website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in. Printed and published on
behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by the Registrar, MPDD, IGNOU. Printed by:

2
BGYCT-137: STRATIGRAPHY AND PALAEONTOLOGY
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
Unit 1 Principles of Stratigraphy

Unit 2 Stratigraphic Classification

Unit 3 Physiography of India

Block 2 Stratigraphy of India

Unit 4 Precambrian of India

Unit 5 Palaeozoic of India

Unit 6 Mesozoic of India

Unit 7 Gondwana Supergroup and Deccan Traps

Unit 8 Cenozoic of Himalaya

Block 3 Introduction to Palaeontology

Unit 9 Fossils and Fossilisation

Unit 10 Microfossils

Unit 11 Evolution of Horse

Unit 12 Plant Fossils and Gondwana Flora

Block 4 Invertebrate Palaeontology

Unit 13 Brachiopods and Corals

Unit 14 Molluscs – Bivalves and Gastropods

Unit 15 Molluscs – Cephalopods

Unit 16 Trilobites and Echinoderms

3
List of audio/video materials related to this course
1. Evolution of Himalaya
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gVGZKqrjVZY
2. Himalaya – an overview
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vK5Cglisa1Y
3. Fossils in Himalaya
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sLUqzsz1E80
4. Application of Palaeontology
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YbDXz8dZDWY
5. Science of Palaeontology (Fossils and Fossilization)
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XEN6q5CCJCU
6. Deccan Volcanism and Mass Extinction at K/T Boundary
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cxifXuAnSPE
7. Age and duration of Deccan Volcanism
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rodlNJOA-r8
8. Deccan volcanism: an inside story
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1a3glcg0oGs

Development of audio/video programmes is a continuous process. For recent materials

pertaining to the course you may visit YouTube page of the School of Sciences, IGNOU.
Alternatively, you can visit eGyankosh website at
http://egyankosh.ac.in/handle/123456789/36575

4
 BGYCT-137: STRATIGRAPHY AND PALAEONTOLOGY
The scientific study of strata and prehistoric life is stratigraphy and palaeontology. Both these
branches are considered to be the oldest and fundamental branches of geology that document the
historical, geological and biological events of the Earth. Stratigraphy, primarily, concerns with the
systematic arrangement of layered (stratified) rocks and is based on the law of superposition. This
law states that in a normal rock sequence, the youngest layer occurs at the top and the oldest layer
lies at the bottom of the sequence. Prior to 1960, the lithostratigraphy and biostratigraphy were the
two techniques available for studying the stratigraphy. However, after the beginning of 1960,
stratigraphy witnessed dramatic changes and several modern techniques emerged for its study.
Currently, geologists are using lithostratigraphy and biostratigraphy in conjunction with modern
techniques like magnetic, event, sequence, chemical and facies stratigraphy in order to better
understand the history of life and Earth.
Palaeontology, the study of fossils, aids the stratigraphy. It is a geological clock, which helps to
document origin and evolution of life on the Earth. Fossils are found mostly in sedimentary rocks.
Therefore, palaeontology also helps to determine the times in Earth history when and where the beds
containing the fossils were deposited. It provides a record of past life, where it is inferred that with the
passage of time, many old life forms were replaced by newer and more complex forms. Life was not
uniform throughout the geological history. Hence, each era or period of geological past is marked by
the dominance of a particular organic group like invertebrates, vertebrates or plants. Presently, each
type of life form is living in a particular type of environment likes terrestrial, freshwater or marine. In
order to understand various aspects of strata and fossils, it is assumed that the scientific laws,
geological processes and forces operating today were also operating in the past. This simple principle
referred as the Principle of uniformitarianism, which states that present is the key to the past. It is a
fundamental base for the study of stratigraphy and palaeontology.
This course provides a broad introduction to stratigraphy and palaeontology by means of two distinct
volumes. Each volume comprises of two blocks. Volume 1 contains first two blocks which deal with
the fundamentals of stratigraphy and stratigraphy of India. Volume 2 comprises the last two blocks
that deal with various aspects of palaeontology.
Block 1 deal with the fundamentals of stratigraphy. In this block, you will learn about principles of
stratigraphy, stratigraphic classification and correlation, and significance of stratigraphy. This block
also gives a glimpse about the physiography and stratigraphy of India.
Block 2 deals with stratigraphy of India. The block will acquaint you with the main stratigraphic
supergroups or groups of India belonging to different geologic time such as Precambrian, Palaeozoic,
Mesozoic and Cenozoic, and occur in various parts of the country.
Block 3provides insights into basic principles of palaeontology. In this block, you will learn about
fossils, their types, modes of preservation and significances. It will, also educate you about the
evolutionary histories of horses.You would also learn the plant fossils, their modes of preservation,
classification and major groups of Gondwana plant fossils.
Block 4 describes major groups of invertebrate fossils. You will learn general introduction, taxonomy,
morphology and geological history of corals, brachiopods, molluscs, trilobites and echinoderms in this
block.

5
Expected Learning Outcomes
After studying this course, you should be able to:
 define stratigraphy and palaeontology;
 describe basic principles of stratigraphy and palaeontology;
 discuss various stratigraphic classifications and their units;
 outline the physiographic divisions and stratigraphic units of India;
 discuss the fossils and major groups of fossils;
 describe the morphology, systematics and geological history of major groups of
invertebrate fossils;
 explain the evolutionary histories of horses; and
 discuss major groups of plant fossils.
We hope that you would enjoy reading the self-learning material.

6
 VOLUME 1: STRATIGRAPHY
Stratigraphy is a branch of Geology, which deals with the study of rock layers (strata), their sequence
and relationship with each other. Stratigraphy provides simple principles used to interpret geologic
events; hence, it is also known as Historical Geology. Stratigraphy of India refers to the
understanding of the sequential arrangement of its rock record from Archaean to Holocene. Rock
record constitutes all type of rocks including igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic, occur in an area
or in a country.
Palaeontology, the study of fossils, aids the stratigraphy. It may be defined as the science which
deals with the fossilized remains of plants and animals of past geological ages preserved in the
sedimentary rocks constituting of earth’s crust. Strictly speaking it includes palaeozoology and
palaeobotany, but the term is not infrequently used as a synonym of the former. The plants and
animals are represented as fossils in the sedimentary rock-beds at definite times during the geologic
past and hence have importance and chronological significance.
Volume 1 comprises of 2 blocks. In this volume you will learn about principles of stratigraphy,
stratigraphic classification and correlation, and significance of stratigraphy and about the
physiography and stratigraphy of India. The volume will also acquaint you with the main stratigraphic
supergroups or groups of India belonging to different geologic time such as Precambrian, Palaeozoic,
Mesozoic and Cenozoic, which occur in various parts of the country.
The first two blocks deal with the fundamentals of stratigraphy and stratigraphy of India.
Block 1- Fundamentals of Stratigraphy: The block comprises of three units. In this block, you will
learn about principles of stratigraphy, stratigraphic classification and correlation, and significance of
stratigraphy. This block also gives a glimpse about the physiography and stratigraphy of India.
Block 2 - Stratigraphy of India: The block comprises of five units. The block will acquaint you with the
main stratigraphic supergroups or groups of India belonging to different geologic time such as
Precambrian, Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic, and occur in various parts of the country.
Expected Learning Outcomes
After studying this volume, you should be able to:
 describe basic principles and importance of stratigraphy;
 discuss standard geological time scale;
 discuss the physiographic divisions and stratigraphic units of India.
 describe the stratigraphy and economic importance of the major Precambrian Supergroups of
Peninsular India;
 explain the stratigraphic classification and economic importance of the Gondwana Supergroup
and the Deccan Traps.
Wishing you success in this endeavour!!

7
 BGYCT-137
STRATIGRAPHY AND
Indira Gandhi National Open University PALAEONTOLOGY
School of Sciences

Block

FUNDAMENTALS OF STRATIGRAPHY
UNIT 1
Principles of Stratigraphy 13
UNIT 2
Stratigraphic Classification 35
UNIT 3
Physiography of India 51

Glossary 71

8
 Course Design Committee
Prof. Vijayshri Prof. M. A. Malik (Retd.) Prof. K. R. Hari
Former Director Department of Geology School of Studies in Geology &
School of Sciences University of Jammu Water Resources Management
IGNOU, New Delhi Jammu, J & K Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University
Prof. V. K. Verma (Retd.) Prof. D. C. Srivastava Raipur, Chhattisgarh
Department of Geology Department of Earth Science Prof. S.J. Sangode
University of Delhi, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Department of Geology
Delhi Roorkee, Uttarkhand Savitribai Phule Pune University
Late Prof. Pramendra Dev Prof. L. S. Chamyal Pune, Maharashtra
School of Studies in Earth Sciences Department of Geology Dr. K. Anbarasu
Vikram University M.S.University of Baroda Department of Geology
Ujjain, MP Vadodara, Gujarat National College
Prof. P. Madhusudhana Reddy Prof. H. B. Srivastava Tiruchirapalli, Tamilnadu
Department of Geology Centre of Advanced Study in Geology Faculty of Geology Discipline
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University Banaras Hindu University School of Sciences, IGNOU
Hyderabad Varanasi, UP
Prof. Meenal Mishra
Late Prof. G. Vallinayagam Prof. Arun Kumar
Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh
Department of Geology Department of Earth Sciences
Kurukshetra University Manipur University Dr. M. Prashanth
Kurukshetra, Haryana Imphal, Manipur Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Prof. J. P. Shrivastava (Retd.) Prof. (Mrs.) Madhumita Das Dr. Omkar Verma
Centre of Advanced Study in Geology Department of Geology
University of Delhi, Delhi Utkal University
Bhubaneshwar, Odisha

Block Preparation Team

Course Contributors
Prof. S. K. Shah (Retd.) (Units 1 & 2) Dr. Omkar Verma (Unit 3)
Department of Geology School of Sciences
University of Jammu IGNOU, New Delhi
Jammu
Language Editor
Content Editor Dr. Kishor Kumar
Prof. G.V.R. Prasad Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology
Department of Geology Dehra Dun
University of Delhi, Delhi

Transformation: Dr. Kakoli Gogoi

Course Coordinators: Dr. Omkar Verma and Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Production
Mr. Rajiv Girdhar Mr. Sunil Kumar Mr. Hemant Kumar
A.R. (P), MPDD, IGNOU A.R. (P), SOS, IGNOU S.O. (P), MPDD, IGNOU
Acknowledgement: Ms. Savita Sharma for preparation of some of the figures.
December, 2020© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2020
ISBN:
Disclaimer: Any material adapted from web-based resources or any other sources in this block are being used only for
educational purposes only and not for commercial purposes and their copyrights rest with the original authors.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without
permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the University’s office
at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the official website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in. Printed and published on
behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by the Registrar, MPDD, IGNOU. Printed by:

9
 BLOCK 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF STRATIGRAPHY
The science of sediments and strata is stratigraphy. Stratigraphy is, perhaps, the earliest branch of
geology and is fundamental to all geological studies. It dates back to the time, when human beings
started to observe and record the nature of Earth’s natural processes. The main aim of stratigraphy
involves the subdivision of sequences of rock strata into mappable units for determining their time
relationships and correlating units of the sequence within rock strata or elsewhere. Therefore, all
aspects of stratigraphic studies start from the rocks themselves. In fact, it provides invaluable tools,
which allows reconstruction of the sequence of events of Earth’s history and the evolution of life on
Earth.
This is the first block of the course. It will give you a basic understanding of the stratigraphic principles
and classification as well as an outline of stratigraphy of India. In this block, several diagrams and
illustrations have been included to stimulate your interest.
This block deals with fundamentals of stratigraphy. In this block, you will be introduced to the basic
principles and classification of stratigraphy. It comprises three units in all.
Unit 1 deals with the basic principles of stratigraphy. In this unit, you will learn about principles of
stratigraphy, stratigraphic contacts, unconformities and importance of stratigraphy. You will also learn
the standard geological time scale and collection of data for stratigraphic studies.
Unit 2 deals with the stratigraphic classification. You will learn lithostratigraphic, biostratigraphic and
chronostratigraphic classifications in this unit. In addition, you will also learn various methods of
stratigraphic correlation and its significance in stratigraphy.
Unit 3 deals with the physiography and stratigraphy of India. For the understanding of stratigraphy of
India, knowledge of physiography of India is essential. In this unit, you will learn the physiographic
divisions of India. It will also give a brief overview of stratigraphic units of India.
Expected Learning Outcomes
After studying this block, you should be able to:
 define stratigraphy;
 describe basic principles and importance of stratigraphy;
 discuss standard geological time scale;
 elaborate the litho-, bio- and chronostratigraphic classifications; and
 recognise the physiographic divisions and stratigraphic units of India.
In order to evaluate your learning while reading the self-learning material of this block, we have
provided self-assessment exercises under the caption “Self Assessment Questions (SAQ)” at a few
places and at the end “Terminal Questions” in all units of the block, which invariably end with answers
to the questions, set in these exercises. You should attempt the exercises yourself and not be
tempted to look up the answers given under the caption “Answers” beforehand. It should be noted
that the check your progress is provided as study tools to help you keep on the right track as you read
the units. You have been provided with the links of audio video materials related to this course. They
are blended with the self-learning material. You are instructed to watch/listen these audio video
programmes and answer the questions given after “terminal question”.
We advise that as you read the units, jot down important points in the space provided in the margins
of each page. In fact, broad margins in the booklet are provided for you to write your notes on. Make
10
your notes as you work through the materials. This will help you prepare for the term end examination
(TEE) and also in assimilating the content.
Your feedback pertaining to this block will help us undertake maintenance and timely revision of the
block. Send your feedback to us to the address given below or e-mail to omkarverma@ignou.ac.in or
kakoligogoi@ignou.ac.in:
The Course Coordinator BGYCT-137
Discipline of Geology
School of Sciences
IGNOU, Maidan Garhi
New Delhi – 110068 (India)
We hope that you would enjoy reading the self-learning material.
Wishing you success and all the best in this endeavour!!

11
12
 UNIT 1

PRINCIPLES OF STRATIGRAPHY

Structure_______________________________________________
1.1 Introduction 1.5 How to Collect Stratigraphic Data?
Expected Learning Outcomes Equipment Needed
1.2 Stratigraphy Recording the Attitude of the Beds
Concept and Definition Choosing a Traverse
Historical Development Measuring Thickness
1.3 Basic Principles of Stratigraphy Recording Lithological Characters
Order of Superposition Recording and Collecting Fossil data
Original Horizontality Preparing a Stratigraphic Column
Lateral Continuity Stratigraphic Correlation
Cross-Cutting Relationships 1.6 Importance of Stratigraphy
Inclusions 1.7 Geological Time Scale
Unconformities 1.8 Activity
Fossil Succession 1.9 Summary
Uniformitarianism and Catastrophism 1.10 Terminal Questions
1.4 Stratigraphic Contacts and Unconformities 1.11 Further/Suggested Readings
Stratigraphic Contacts and their Identification 1.12 Answers
Unconformities and their Identification

1.1 INTRODUCTION
You already know that the Earth’s surface is composed of rocks and soil. Most of these rocks were
formed by a slow process of deposition of sediments carried by rivers and streams into oceans
and other water bodies such as rivers, lakes, etc. This process has been going on for millions of
years. In due course of time, the soft sediment got consolidated into stratified (layered) hard rocks.
These rock bodies constitute the sedimentary rocks. The sedimentary rocks comprise bulk of the
rock cover of the Earth. In course of time, some of these rocks might get subjected to high
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
………………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…........
pressure and temperature when they sink down below the Earth’s surface and
change in composition and structure. Metamorphic rocks may be intruded or
extruded by the igneous rocks formed from molten rock matter called magma.
Stratigraphy constitutes the study of stratified rocks in terms of their geometric
relations, compositions, origins and age relationships. Thus, it helps us to
interpret the Earth’s history. It is essential to understand the basic principles of
stratigraphy so that you can interpret the history of how the rocks were formed
and what was the kind of sediment and the type of the basin where deposition
took place. Once you get familiar with the basic principles, you would be able
to trace the historical evolution of Earth’s surface in time.
In this unit, we will introduce you to the concepts, historical development and
basic principles of stratigraphy. We will also discuss the stratigraphic contacts
and unconformities, techniques for collection of stratigraphic data and
importance of stratigraphy. Once you know the principles you would know how
to study the rocks and how to collect them to obtain information on their
formation history.

Expected Learning Outcomes_________________

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 define stratigraphy;
 describe the concepts and historical development of stratigraphy;
 discuss its basic principles;
 identify stratigraphic contacts and unconformities;
 elaborate the breaks in stratigraphic record;
 list the methods of stratigraphic data collection;
 state the significance of geological time scale; and
 explain the importance of stratigraphy.

1.2 STRATIGRAPHY
In simple words, Stratigraphy is the study of stratified rocks, which are
deposited layer by layer. Its study includes classification, interpretation and
correlation of stratified rocks in space and time that help us interpret the
geologic history of Earth. The term Stratigraphy was given by French geologist
d’Orbigny in 1849. The word stratigraphy is a combination of the Latin word
Stratum and the Greek word Graphia, which refersto the description of all
rock bodies forming the Earth’s crust and their organisation into distinctive,
useful and mappable units. Let us discuss the basic concept, definition and
historical development of stratigraphy.
1.2.1 Concept and Definition
Stratigraphy is a branch of Geology, which deals with the study of rock layers
(strata), their sequence and relationship with each other. Stratigraphy provides
simple principles used to interpret geologic events; hence, it is also known as
historical geology.

14
Unit 1 Principles of Stratigraphy
.…………………………………………………………………………………...………….….............….….....…
Stratigraphic studies deal primarily with sedimentary rocks, but it may also
include layered igneous rocks like lava flows. It also involves the relationship
of intrusive igneous rocks with respect to the sediments.
The stratified rocks always display a record of the past geological events.
Stratigraphy involves the studies directed towards the interpretation of these
events. For this purpose, the sediments and sedimentary rocks are studied to
know the nature of the sedimentary environment. The study also involves the
examination of fossils in the rocks that have a direct bearing on the time of
deposition.
Determining the nature and type of rocks or what is called lithology
constitutes one of the important aspects of stratigraphic studies. This aspect is
called lithostratigraphy. The other important aspect involves the study of
fossils present in the rock sequence that is known as biostratigraphy. From
biostratigraphic studies, it becomes possible to build a time sequence based
on stratigraphic events that is called chronostratigraphy.
1.2.2 Historical Development
Stratigraphy reached the modern level of development through a series of
discoveries and observations made from time to time. The foundation was laid
by Nicholas Steno (Fig. 1.1a), who is regarded as the father of stratigraphy. It
was Steno who proposed the law of superposition and introduced the
principles of original horizontality and lateral continuity in 1669 thereby laying
down the basis of stratigraphy as a science. He was followed by James Hutton
(1726-1797, Fig. 1.1b), who propounded the theory of uniformitarianism which
remained the basic principle of stratigraphic studies and influenced the
subsequent works like those of John Playfair, William Smith and Charles Lyell.

Fig. 1.1: Renowned stratigraphers: a) Nicolas Steno – founder of modern

stratigraphy (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas); and b) James
Hutton. (Source: www.martinfrost.ws/html files/gazette/james_hutton)

While JohnPlayfair (1748-1819, Fig. 1.2a) popularised the Hutton’s principle of

uniformitarianism, it was William Smith (1769-1839, Fig. 1.2b) who first
proposed the concept of layering in sedimentary rocks. He introduced the term
“strata” (singular “stratum”) to denote these layers thus giving a name to the
science of stratigraphy that is derived from this term. Smith also published the
first geological map of Great Britain. Almost simultaneously the concept of
15
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
………………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…........
layering in sedimentary rocks and the significance of different fossils for dating
strata were elaborated in France by Alexandre Brongniart (1770-1847, Fig.
1.2c). It was Charles Lyell (1797-1875, Fig. 1.2d), who published the book
Principles of Geology wherein he elaborated on uniformitarianism and defined
the significance of stratigraphic sequence.

Fig. 1.2: Renowned stratigraphers: a) John Playfair (Source: http://www.electric

scotland.com/history/nation/playfair.htm); b) William Smith (Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Smith); c) Alexandre Brongniart
(source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alexandre_ Brongniart.jpg); and d)
Charles Lyell. (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org /wiki/File:Sir_Charles_Lyell-
Bt-jpg)

In recent years, stratigraphy has evolved considerably with dating of rocks

through radiometric and magneto-stratigraphic techniques. Use of chemical
indicators and isotopes has also revolutionised the methods and applications
in stratigraphic studies. For purposes of uniformity of approach, an
International Sub commission on Stratigraphic Classification has been
established by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS), which
lays down the applications and principles from time to time depending on the
new findings and discoveries.

1.3 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF STRATIGRAPHY

Stratigraphy is based on a set of principles that govern the processes of
sedimentation. The sedimentation is a result of accumulation of rock material
carried by agencies like water, wind and glaciers and deposited in a basin.
The mechanism of sedimentation and accumulation of other stratified rocks
like lava flows determines the principles of stratigraphic studies. There are
eight basic principles or laws of stratigraphy, which are listed below:
 Order of superposition
 Original horizontality
 Lateral continuity
 Cross-cutting relationships
 Inclusions
 Unconformities
 Fossil succession
 Uniformitarianism and catastrophism
16
Unit 1 Principles of Stratigraphy
.…………………………………………………………………………………...………….….............….….....…
Let us discuss each principle in brief in the same order as given above.
1.3.1 Order of Superposition
It is obvious that when sediments get deposited in a basin they go down to the
bottom layer by layer. The bottom-most layer is thus the first to deposit. This
process continues throughout the course of deposition as more and more
sediments are deposited in the subsequent layers. Thus, in a sedimentary
sequence the beds or layers at the bottom are deposited first and hence, are
the oldest. The beds overlying them are younger. Accordingly, in a
sedimentary sequence it is possible to determine which are the older beds and
which beds are younger (Fig. 1.3). Therefore, a sedimentary sequence
denotes relative time of deposition as the beds lie one upon the other. The
principle is that in a sedimentary sequence, the beds are younger and younger
as we go up from bottom to top. This principle is known as the order of
superposition that constitutes one of the basic principles of stratigraphy.

17
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
………………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…........

Fig.1.3: Schematic presentation of order of superposition: a) Showing the model

for deposition of three beds at time 1, 2, and 3; and (b-c) Showing their
actual position in space with the oldest bed at the bottom and the
youngest at the top. (Source: http://www.appstate.edu/~marshallst/GLY1101
/lectures/12-Geologic_Time.pdf for a)

1.3.2 Original Horizontality

The sedimentary rocks occur in all dispositions, but they are rarely horizontal
and most of the time they may be tilted or dipping at various angles or may
even be folded. It is obvious that they could not have been deposited in that
condition. Sediments in a basin are always deposited in a horizontal manner
irrespective of the shape of basin. The tilting and folding are structural
changes that take place after the rocks are deposited and consolidated (Fig.
1.4). So, for a study of the rocks you have to visualise their nature not in their
present disposition, but assuming that they were deposited originally in a
horizontal fashion. This is the principle of original horizontality.

Fig. 1.4: Schematic views of original horizontality: a) Rock sequence with

horizontal beds showing the principle of original horizontality, and b)
Same rock sequence with inclined beds after folding or tilting.

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Unit 1 Principles of Stratigraphy
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1.3.3 Lateral Continuity
In a basin, sediments are spread in all directions during the course of
deposition, but, when traced they show a lateral continuity. When we study
sediments, we often find that in a valley the deposits cannot be seen. But they
are exposed again across the valley as shown in Figure 1.5. This is because
the subsequent erosion along the valley has removed these sediments. But,
originally, they were deposited in continuity, which extends up to the limit of
the basin, if sufficient amount of sediment is available.

Fig.1.5: Lateral continuity among the beds: a) Original laterally continuous

deposition of a rock sequence; and b) Same rock sequence showing a
disturbed lateral continuity after the erosion of beds along the valley V.

1.3.4 Cross-Cutting Relationships

The basic principle of cross-cutting relationship is that when something cross
cuts a sedimentary sequence, it is always younger than that sequence. In
other words, all cross-cutting features are produced after the sediment is
deposited. The cross-cutting feature may be a structural feature like a fault or
an igneous intrusion like a dyke (Fig.1.6). It could also be a feature of erosion
like a valley or a break in deposition as shown in Figure 1.5b. All these
changes are brought about after the deposition has taken place.

Fig. 1.6: Cross-cutting relationships: a) original sedimentary sequence; and b)

same rock sequence showing the formation of cross-cutting features
like dyke and fault after the deposition of the beds.
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1.3.5 Inclusions
Sedimentary rocks are often made up of clasts or fragments of older rocks that
are carried by river water or any other medium and deposited in a basin. After
deposition, these clasts get consolidated into a rock. These clasts range in
size from very fine silts to fragments of gravel and can be termed as inclusions
in a sedimentary rock (Fig. 1.7a). In lava flows, there can also be some
inclusions and they are known as xenoliths (Fig. 1.7b). The principle of
inclusions is that they are all older than the rock in which they are deposited.
This is obvious because they are derived from denudation of pre-existing
rocks.

Fig. 1.7: Inclusions in rock beds: a) Limestone inclusions in siltstone bed; and
b) Sandstone inclusions in basalt lava flow and basaltic xenoliths in
andesite lava flow. (Source: http://www.appstate.edu/~marshallst/
GLY1101/lectures/12-Geologic_Time.pdf)

1.3.6 Unconformities
When sediments are deposited continuously, they constitute a sedimentary
sequence. Very often it happens that there is a break in sedimentation, which
is called an unconformity (Fig. 1.8). The break in sedimentation can be due
to the non-availability of sediment or to the filling up of the basin. Alternatively,
the basin may be uplifted and hence no sedimentation can take place. The
break may last for a brief period or may be long. In the former case, it may be
difficult to locate an unconformity, but in long breaks, the unconformity can be
located by evidences of erosion or change in the angle of inclination of beds.

Fig. 1.8: Unconformity in sedimentary rock sequence.

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Unit 1 Principles of Stratigraphy
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1.3.7 Fossil Succession
Most sedimentary rocks bear fossils that are the remains of organisms of the
past. But the type and species of organisms keep changing from time to time.
As a result, the fossils are not the same in different strata. Therefore, on the
basis of the type of fossils in a bed, it is possible to differentiate between the
beds at different levels (Fig. 1.9). Fossils help in classifying the sequence of
rocks and in establishing a succession in time of deposition.

Fig. 1.9: Use of fossils in a rock sequence: Bed 1 is characterised by the

presence of ammonoids; Bed 2 by ammonoids and brachiopods; Bed 3
by brachiopods and trilobites; and Bed 4 by trilobites and gastropods.

1.3.8 Uniformitarianism and Catastrophism

The principle of uniformitarianism is that the processes as operating on the

Earth at present like sedimentation, erosion, etc. were the same in the past as
well. These processes, over a prolonged period of time, were responsible for
the changes that have taken place on the Earth. The guiding maxim for
understanding the historical evolution of Earth under this principle as proposed
by James Hutton is that “study of the present is the key to the past”.
Uniformitarianism is a slow process and brings about changes after a
prolonged period of time. However, it has been noticed that major changes on
Earth have taken place suddenly through some catastrophic events. So,
Earth’s history consists of long periods of gradual and uniform changes
(uniformitarianism) followed by occasional short period of a catastrophic event
(catastrophism). So, while both uniformitarianism and catastrophism are the
operating processes in Earth’s history the major changes are all a result of
catastrophism.
Learners, you have learnt the concept, historical development and basic
principles of Stratigraphy. Before discussing about the stratigraphic contacts
and unconformities and their identification, spend few minutes to perform an
exercise to check your progress.

21
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
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SAQ1
a) Stratigraphy is the study of …………………….
(a) Stratified rocks (b) Igneous rocks(c) Mineral deposits (d) Plutonic rocks
b) List the main principles of stratigraphy.
c) Present is the key to the past is known as ……………………….
(a) Order of superposition (b) Uniformitarianism (c) Unconformity (d) Fossil

1.4 STRATIGRAPHIC CONTACTS AND

UNCONFORMITIES
The stratified rocks comprise beds of different rock types. When these beds
overlie one another, in a sequence, the junction between the two constitutes a
stratigraphic contact. The contact is generally vertical, but it can also be lateral
when one rock type abuts against another, horizontally. These are normal
types of depositional contacts, but there can be others that are intrusive or
structural in nature.
1.4.1 Stratigraphic Contacts and their Identification
A stratigraphic contact is the boundary between the two rock units. In
stratigraphy, a number of contacts are recognised and important ones are
discussed below.
i. Vertical Depositional Contacts: When beds are deposited one above the
other, the junction between them is known as a vertical stratigraphic
contact. It can be conformable or unconformable. Conformable contacts
indicate unbroken deposition where there are no perceptible breaks and
the sequence is uninterrupted. As has been discussed in Section 1.3.2
above, the original deposition is always horizontal. But it is rare to find
strata in a horizontal condition as they often get tilted subsequently due to
structural deformation. A conformable sequence may be tilted or folded but
the contacts remain uninterrupted.
Vertical contacts may be abrupt or gradational. In abrupt contacts two
different kinds of rocks, say sandstone and limestone are in contact, one
overlying the other, along a fixed line (Fig.1.10a). While there is no break
the rock changes suddenly. The gradational contacts show a gradual
change upwards from one type of rock to another. For example, an
underlying sandstone may slowly become calcareous with addition of
calcium carbonate content and with increasing amount of calcium
carbonate may eventually become a limestone. This change is not along a
particular line but extended for a considerable thickness of the rock (Fig.
1.10b).
ii. Lateral Depositional Contacts: Laterally, the strata may extend in all
directions up to the basin extremity. However, the thickness of individual
strata may increase or decrease as we follow the beds laterally. A
particular bed may even taper off and be replaced by another bed with a
different lithology. The lateral contacts are seldom abrupt and are generally
gradational (Fig.1.11).
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Unit 1 Principles of Stratigraphy
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Fig.1.10: Stratigraphic contacts: a) Abrupt; and b) Gradational.

Fig. 1.11: Limestone passing laterally into sandstone showing a lateral

depositional contact.

iii. Intrusive Contacts: Sedimentary rocks may be intruded by igneous rocks

in the form of sills, dykes or batholiths. A sill is an intrusion that is parallel
to the bedding plane and thereby concordant with the sequence of the
strata. It is disposed like one of the beds of the sedimentary sequence
(Fig. 1.12). A dyke cuts across the sedimentary sequence and is
discordant with the bedding (Fig. 1.12).

Fig. 1.12: Intrusive contacts; the discordant dyke intruding across four
sedimentary beds and a concordant sill intruding along the siltstone
bed.

iv. Fault Contacts: A sedimentary sequence may be faulted as a result of

structural deformation after the deposition and consolidation of the rock. A
fault disturbs the sequence of the strata along a plane that cuts across the
bedding. As a result, rocks of different kinds and ages come in contact with
23
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
………………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…........
each other along a discordant plane that may be cutting across the
bedding as shown in Figure 1.13.

Fig. 1.13: Fault contact. Note that fault is younger than shale, limestone and
sandstone but older than basalt. Half arrow symbols indicate upward
and downward movement of beds.

1.4.2 Unconformities and their Identification

A break in a stratigraphic record takes place when sediment is not being
deposited or when some previously deposited sediment has been removed by
erosion. Such a break in stratigraphic record is called a hiatus. The indication
of a hiatus in stratigraphic record is called an unconformity. In other words,
an unconformity is indicative of either a break in sedimentation or a period of
erosion separating the two strata. These periods can be long or short. The
unconformities are of various types and generally can be easily identified.
Following are some of the common types of unconformities:
i. Angular Unconformity: Angular unconformity is one of the most easily
identifiable unconformities. In an angular unconformity, the two sets of
strata are at an angle and not parallel to each other. Generally, the lower
set of strata is tilted whereas the overlying set may be horizontal or tilted at
a different angle. An angular unconformity is produced as a result of
deformation of the older rocks during a period of uplift and non-deposition
(Fig. 1.14a) and at a later stage, a younger set of sedimentary beds get
deposited over the tilted older beds. These unconformities are easy to
recognise in field because of the angular relationship of the two sets of
strata.

Fig. 1.14: Types of unconformity: a) Angular unconformity; and b)

Nonconformity. Note the orientation of the beds.

ii. Nonconformity: Nonconformity is another easily identifiable unconformity.

In nonconformity, an igneous or a metamorphic rock is overlain by a
sedimentary rock or vice versa as shown in Fig. 1.14b. The line of contact
24
Unit 1 Principles of Stratigraphy
.…………………………………………………………………………………...………….….............….….....…
is always an erosional surface and may represent a long hiatus. Since the
two sets of rocks are totally different the nonconformity can be easily
recognised.
iii. Disconformity: A disconformity is marked by an erosional surface but
there is no angular difference between the underlying and overlying beds
(Fig. 1.15). The erosion may be indicated by the presence of a pebble or
boulder bed or the development of a layer of old soil called palaeosol.
Disconformities are harder to recognise because there are seldom any
clear indications of a break in deposition. They can be recognised either
by the presence of pebble beds or palaeosols or by comparing the
underlying and overlying beds in respect to the rock type or fossil content.

Fig. 1.15: Disconformity: marked by wavy line along which erosion has taken
place.

iv. Paraconformity: In paraconformity, the bedding planes in lower as well

as the upper set of rocks are parallel and there is no apparent break or
evidence of erosion that could indicate a period of non-deposition. This
type of unconformity is very difficult to recognise since it marks a period of
non-deposition that has not left any evidences. The only way of
recognising such an unconformity is by the fossil content in the two strata
that may indicate the time span of non-deposition.
Learners, you have learnt about the stratigraphic contacts and unconformities
and their identification. Before discussing about how to collect stratigraphic
data, spend few minutes to perform an exercise to check your progress.

SAQ 2
a) What is the difference between an angular unconformity and a
disconformity?
b) What is the difference between a sill and a dyke?
c) What is the difference between uniformitarianism and catastrophism?

1.5 HOW TO COLLECT STRATIGRAPHIC DATA?

For understanding the history and nature of a rock formation, it is necessary to
collect stratigraphic data in a systematic manner so as to know how the rocks
were deposited and what changes took place after their deposition. It would
also be possible to know about the nature of basin in which deposition took
place. Let us discuss the equipment and techniques required for collection of
data.
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Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
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1.5.1 Equipment Needed
For collection of stratigraphic data in the field, some simple equipment is
necessary. These includes a field diary, a measuring tape, a hammer with a
set of chisels, a brunton compass (or a clinometer compass), a set of pencils,
a haversack, a hand lens, etc. It is preferable to carry a topographical map of
the area, if available.
1.5.2 Recording the Attitude of the Beds
From the topographical map or a base map of the area we choose a point to
start the study and data collection. At this point it is necessary to record the
attitude or dip and strike of the beds. If the beds are horizontal, we need to
look for a ravine, gorge or a valley. Because in a flat terrain, the sequence of
beds cannot be seen as the same bedding surface and will extend throughout
the area. However, if the beds are inclined and dipping, the study and data
collection can be made even in a flat terrain. In a dipping terrain, it is
necessary to record the direction and amount of the true dip. This can be
done by a brunton compass or a clinometer compass. The highest value of the
dip is always in the direction of the true dip.
1.5.3 Choosing a Traverse
It is necessary to choose a traverse for the study of the sequence. A traverse
is a direction along which one can move and systematically collect the data. It
is preferable to choose the traverse along or across the true dip. Only where it
may not be possible due to some obstructions, a traverse along or across
apparent dip may be taken. But in no case the traverse should be along strike
of the beds because in that case we will be following the same bed.
While moving along the true dip we have to remember that older beds dip
towards the younger beds. In this situation we are following the beds in a
natural stratigraphic order from older to younger beds. If our traverse is across
the dip then we are following the sequence from younger to older beds and the
recording has to be made accordingly.
1.5.4 Measuring Thickness
The next important step is to measure the thickness of individual beds. If the
beds are horizontal and the study is being undertaken in a ravine. The
thickness of each bed can be measured directly by placing the measuring tape
at right angle to the bedding plane that will give the true thickness of each bed.
The same technique can be applied for dipping strata in a gorge. However, in
dipping strata in a flat or sloping terrain the outcrop width of each bed is only
the apparent thickness and not the true thickness. From this apparent
thickness the true thickness can be calculated by applying the sine formula.
For example, if the terrain is flat the true thickness can be calculated by
multiplying the apparent thickness with sine of the angle of the dip (Figs. 1.16
and 1.17).
True Thickness: True thickness is the perpendicular distance between the
lower and upper bedding plane of a rock formation.
Apparent Thickness: Apparent thickness is the thickness at an oblique angle
to the bedding plane. In flat terrain the dipping strata display only the apparent
thickness.

26
Unit 1 Principles of Stratigraphy
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Fig. 1.16: Relation between true thickness and apparent thickness. True
thickness (in this case) = Apparent thickness × Sin Ø, where Ø is the
angle of dip.

Fig. 1.17: Relation between true thickness and apparent thickness as illustrated
above in three-dimensional framework.

1.5.5 Recording Lithological Characters

The lithological characters of each measured unit have to be systematically
recorded in the field diary. These include the nature of the rock type
(limestone, sandstone, shale or conglomerate, etc.), the nature of bedding
(thin bedded, thick bedded), the sedimentary structures (cross-bedding,
ripple marks, etc.) and any other features like colour and grain size.
1.5.6 Recording and Collecting Fossil Data
While studying the individual rock units it is necessary to look for the fossils
that may be present in the rocks. The larger fossils can be seen with a naked
eye or with the use of a hand lens. All the different types of fossils have to be
carefully extracted with the hammer and chisel. However, the rocks may not
show fossils on surface but may still contain microfossils. For that purpose, the
rock samples need to be carried to the laboratory to extract and study them. It
is important to properly label these samples so that it is exactly known as to
from which bed a particular rock sample has been collected.
1.5.7 Preparing a Stratigraphic Column
The purpose of study and collection of data along a traverse is to prepare a
stratigraphic column. A stratigraphic column depicts the interpreted sequence
as it would have been deposited originally. It is always made to the scale
based on the thickness of the individual beds. There is a code of hachuring to
denote the different rock types. For example, the limestone is denoted by
brickwork, sandstone by dots and siltstone by horizontal broken lines and dots
as shown in Figure 1.18.
27
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
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Fig. 1.18: A sample stratigraphic column with a scale (5 metres) indicating the
thickness of each rock type.

1.5.8 Stratigraphic Correlation

Stratigraphic correlation is the comparison of the rock types of different
traverses and equating them with one another in respect of their characters. A
number of traverses are undertaken in an area from which the stratigraphic
data has to be collected. For each of these traverses a stratigraphic column is
prepared. When many columns are prepared, the next important function is to
correlate them as shown in Figure 1.19. This is done by identifying the
individual units by their lithology or fossil content or both. The thickness of
each unit in different stratigraphic columns may vary and that will give the total
picture of the stratigraphic setting of the basin.

Fig. 1.19: Stratigraphic correlation; stratigraphic columns of sites A and B are

correlated. It is inferred that shale bed is absent at site B and nature of
contact between limestone and sandstone shows the presence of an
unconformity which is a disconformity (marked by a wavy line).

1.6 IMPORTANCE OF STRATIGRAPHY

Stratigraphy is the basic branch of Geology that depicts the Earth’s history
through time from its consolidation to present day. It gives the distribution of
land and sea at different periods of time. It also provides the data on the
evolution of organisms and their diversification in space and time throughout
the Earth’s history. While stratigraphic studies focus primarily on sedimentary
rocks, they also deal with layered igneous rocks like lava flows, metamorphic

28
Unit 1 Principles of Stratigraphy
.…………………………………………………………………………………...………….….............….….....…
rocks and intrusive igneous rocks. Stratigraphic studies allow the classification
of rocks into mappable units with a time control. This forms the basis of all
other studies to know the Earth’s history and evolution. On the economic front,
it is the cornerstone in location of oil and gas and is a basic science for
Petroleum Geology. Because oil and natural gas almost always occur in
stratified sedimentary rocks, the process of locating petroleum reservoir traps
has been facilitated significantly by the use of stratigraphic concepts and data.
In addition to providing data on the evolution of life through space and time,
stratigraphy also finds application in Archaeology where the law of
superposition helps in location of different stages of human cultural evolution.
With the help of stratigraphy, we can know about the distribution of land and
sea and other geographical information at different points of time. Together
with the help of fossils, stratigraphy provides data on past climate and
environment.

1.7 GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

You have already read that the vertical sequence in stratigraphy is indicative
of time. This is because the older beds are overlain by the younger beds. In
stratigraphy, the vertical sequence reflects the passage of time. On the basis
of fossils, the geological time has been classified into units, which are then
grouped together into larger units. The process is similar to our daily
classification of time into seconds, minutes, hours and days.

Fig.1.20: Geological time scale, Gyr–billion years ago and Myr–million years ago.
29
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
………………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…........
The only difference is that we do not use the absolute time in thousands or
millions of years, but we use relative time on the basis of changes in fossil
content. A geologic time scale has accordingly been prepared in which the
smallest time unit is an age. A number of ages grouped together constitute an
epoch, while several epochs constitute a period. Likewise, many periods
together constitute an era. Eon is the largest unit comprising many eras. Thus,
in descending order Eon, Era, Period, Epoch and Age are the divisions used
for geological classification of time (Fig. 1.20).
Learners, you have learnt how to collect stratigraphic data, importance of
stratigraphy and also learnt about geological time scale. Now, spend few
minutes to perform an exercise to check your progress.

SAQ 3
a) What kind of field observations should be made while collecting the
stratigraphic data?
b) Define stratigraphic correlation.
c) List the periods of Palaeozoic era.

1.8 ACTIVITY
1. Draw diagrams of abrupt and gradational types of contacts.
2. A sedimentary sequence consisting of five beds is given below (Fig. 1.21).
Label the oldest and youngest beds of the sequence.

Fig. 1.21: Sedimentary sequence of five beds.

3. Arrange the following eons and eras in ascending order:
(i) Phanerozoic eon, Archaean eon and Proterozoic eon.
(ii) Mesozoic era, Palaeozoic era and Cenozoic era.

1.9 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have introduced you to the basic principles of stratigraphy. Let
us now summarise what you have learned in this unit;
 Stratigraphy is a branch of Geology which deals with the sequence of rocks
in relation to the time of their deposition.
 It focuses primarily on stratified rocks that include sedimentary rocks and
lava flows. It also includes study of metamorphic and other igneous rocks in
relation to the time of their formation.
30
Unit 1 Principles of Stratigraphy
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 The principles on which the stratigraphic studies are based include order of
superposition, original horizontality, lateral continuity, cross-cutting
relationships, inclusions, unconformities, fossil succession,
uniformitarianism and catastrophism.
 Stratified rocks that are continuous vertically as well as laterally have
normal contacts. However, there may be breaks in deposition that
constitute an unconformable contact. Likewise, the contact may be faulted
or an igneous rock may produce an intrusive contact.
 The breaks in deposition or unconformities can be of various types like
angular unconformity, non-conformity, disconformity, paraconformity or
diastem.
 Stratigraphic studies can be undertaken with simple equipment by taking
traverses, recording attitudes, measuring sections, collecting fossils and
preparing a stratigraphic column.
 Stratigraphy helps in unravelling the history of the Earth and organisms
through time and helps in location and exploration of minerals, notably fossil
fuels.
 Time in stratigraphy is divided into eons, eras, periods epochs and ages
based on important events notably in the evolution of organisms as seen
from the fossil record. Thus, a standard scale is prepared that is being
periodically modified. We can also determine the absolute age of some
rocks by radiometric methods.

1.10 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What is stratigraphy? Discuss the concept and historical development of
stratigraphy.
2. Describe the various principles of stratigraphy.
3. Describe stratigraphic contacts and unconformities with the help of labelled
diagrams.
4. Discuss the methods and techniques of stratigraphic data collection.
5. Write a note on importance of stratigraphy.
6. What is geological time scale?

1.11 FURTHER/ SUGGESTED READINGS

 Boggs, S. (2012) Principles of Sedimentology and Stratigraphy, Prentic
Hall, New Jersey.
 Christiansen, E. H. (2014) Dynamic Earth, Jones & Bartlett Publishers,
Burlington.
 Mukherjee, P. K. (1997) A text book of Geology, The World Press Pvt. Ltd.,
Calcutta.
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Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
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1.12 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1. i) Stratified rocks.
ii) The main principles of stratigraphy are order of superposition, original
horizontality, lateral continuity, cross-cutting relationships, inclusions,
unconformities, fossil succession, uniformitarianism and catastrophism.
iii) Uniformitarianism.
2.a) In angular unconformity the two sets of beds are at an angle and not
parallel whereas in disconformity the two sets of beds are parallel to
one another.
b) A sill is concordant to the bedding plane meaning thereby that it is
parallel to the sedimentary beds whereas a dyke is discordant and cuts
across the beds.
c) Uniformitarianism is a slow process of change that takes place through
a prolonged period of time. Catastrophism is an abrupt change brought
about through some major catastrophic event.
3. a) The main field observations that need to be recorded in the field diary
while collecting the stratigraphic data are attitude, thickness,
lithological characters and fossils contents of beds. The nature of
traverse taken should be recorded with a sketch of map of the study
area.
b) Stratigraphic correlation is the comparison of rocks in different
traverses relating them to each other in respect to similarity of
characters.
c) The periods of Palaeozoic era are Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian,
Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian.
Terminal Questions
1. Refer to section 1.2.
2. Refer to section 1.3
3. Refer to section 1.4.
4. Refer to section 1.5.
5. Refer to section 1.6.
6. Refer to section 1.7

32
 UNIT 2

STRATIGRAPHIC CLASSIFICATION

Structure______________________________________________
2.1 Introduction 2.4 Activity
Expected Learning Outcomes 2.5 Summary
2.2 Principles and Types of Stratigraphic 2.6 Terminal Questions
Classification
2.7 Reference
Lithostratigraphy
2.8 Further/Suggested Readings
Biostratigraphy
2.9 Answers
Chronostratigraphy

2.3 Stratigraphic Correlation

Definition and Introduction

Methods

Need for Correlation

2.1 INTRODUCTION
You are by now familiar with the general principles of stratigraphy and how stratigraphic studies are
undertaken. It was also discussed in Unit 1 that what you have to observe in the rocks and some
information was also given on how to collect and present the stratigraphic data that form the base of
stratigraphic classification. In this unit, you will be introduced how rock sequences are classified so
that you arrive at conclusions about their mode and time of deposition. For the study of any rock
sequence, it is necessary to classify it so that it can be studied in parts with respect to its thickness
and time of deposition that it indicates. The factors that need to be considered for stratigraphic
classification are the rock type, its physical and chemical characters, nature of bedding and fossils it
contains. From all these, the type of the basin and the time of deposition can be interpreted.
In this unit, we will discuss three basic classifications of stratigraphy, namely, lithostratigraphy,
biostratigraphy and chronostratigraphy. You will also learn about the various units of classification
and how we name these different units. It is important to note that for classifying the rock
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…......
sequences, you should be able to identify the rock types. The most common
types of sedimentary rocks are sandstone, limestone, shale and conglomerate.
In addition, you should also be able to identify the breaks or unconformities in
the rock sequence. The fossils present in the sequence also need to be
identified. In addition, we will also discuss the methods and importance of
stratigraphic correlation in this unit.

Expected Learning Outcomes__________________

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 define stratigraphic classification;
 describe lithostratigraphy, biostratigraphy and chronostratigraphy;
 discuss basic units of different types of stratigraphic classification;
 differentiate different types of stratigraphic classification;
 elaborate the concept and principles of stratigraphic correlation; and
 explain methods and importance of stratigraphic correlation.

2.2 PRINCIPLES AND TYPES OF

STRATIGRAPHIC CLASSIFICATION
Stratigraphy involves the definition and description of rock successions from a
historical point of view. It includes determination of the sequence of rocks
locally and relating the same to the regional or global framework of the
geological time scale. You may have become familiar with the geological time
scale while studying the section 1.7 of Unit 1. You may also be familiar with the
fundamental unit of stratigraphy namely the stratum (plural strata) that has
given name to this branch of Earth science. To remind you the stratum denotes
a layer of rock and such layers in a sequence are referred to as strata. Each
stratum indicates deposition of sediment at a particular point of time. Therefore,
stratigraphy has a time significance and the rock sequence constituting the
strata indicates the time of deposition.
It is necessary to classify the strata into various divisions to determine the
nature and time of deposition and to relate it to the geologic time scale.
Therefore, stratigraphic classification includes all rocks of the Earth’s crust.
Each classification is based on certain stratigraphic units, in which each unit
represents a single property or a set of rock properties. Since rocks have many
distinctive and measurable properties, therefore, rocks may be classified
according to any property. It is important to note that the stratigraphic position
on change of any property does not necessarily coincide with that for any other
property. As a result, the stratigraphic units based on one property generally do
not match with those units which are based on a different property. Normally, it
is not possible to show the distribution of all properties in the rocks by using a
single set of stratigraphic units. Hence, different sets of stratigraphic units are
required in order to classify the rock sequence. Thus, there are three main
types of stratigraphic classification namely:
 Lithostratigraphic;
 Biostratigraphic; and
 Chronostratigraphic classifications.
36
Unit 2 Stratigraphic Classification
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….….....…
These are based on lithology, fossil content and time of deposition,
respectively. In a broad sense, all these classifications are closely related to
each other because each classification represents a different property of the
same rock sequence. The main aim of all stratigraphic classifications is to
enhance our knowledge and understanding of rock sequences of the Earth and
their history.
It is important to know that for either of these classifications, it is necessary to
follow the prescribed rules and regulations as specified in the Code of
Stratigraphic Nomenclature. When we follow all these rules and classify the
sequence it becomes a formal classification. If we do not strictly follow the code
then it is only an informal classification. For each unit of classification in
lithostratigraphy and chronostratigraphy, we need to identify a type area and
the sequence in the type area, which is known as stratotype. The type area is
a geographic area or region where the stratotype of a stratigraphic unit is first
identified. Let us discuss each classification one by one.
 Code of Stratigraphic Nomenclature was developed by the International
Subcommission on Stratigraphic Classification (ISSC) of the International
Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) created by International Union of
Geological Sciences (IUGS). It has since been accepted by most countries
of the world, including India. All stratigraphic classifications follow this code
to evolve a uniform and formal division of rock sequences.
 Stratotype is regarded as a typical of a stratigraphic unit that it defines. It is
a particular section that shows all the characteristics of the stratigraphic unit.
Identification of stratotypes is mandatory for all lithostratigraphic units and
desirable for chronostratigraphic units but are not used for biostratigraphy.
Let us discuss the three main types of stratigraphic classification in the
following subsections.

2.2.1 Lithostratigraphy
In simple words, lithostratigraphy (litho means rock type and stratum+ graphia
means description of all rock bodies) may be defined as an element of
stratigraphy that deals with the description, definition and naming of the rocks of
the Earth based on their lithology and their stratigraphic relations. Hence, the
lithostratigraphic classification is primarily based on the rock types (i.e. lithologic
properties) present in a rock sequence. That is why it is also called rock-
stratigraphic classification. Lithostratigraphic classification, basically, is the
organisation of rock sequences into different units on the basis of their
lithological properties and their stratigraphic relations to other rocks. It is more
accurate stratigraphic classification and is fundamental to all branches of
stratigraphy. In addition, lithostratigraphic units are basic units of geological
mapping. In this classification, the sequence is divided on the basis of lithology
whereby each rock type or a group of rock types constitutes a unit. These units
are further divided or grouped together as follows:
 Lithostratigraphic Units
The basic hierarchy of lithostratigraphic units is given in Table 2.1.

37
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…......
Table 2.1: Lithostratigraphic units.
Supergroup – a combination of several associated groups
Group – a combination of two or more formations
Formation – basic unit of lithostratigraphy
Member – named lithologic subdivision of a formation
Bed – named distinctive layer in a member or
formation
The arrangement of units in lithostratigraphic classification in descending order
of thickness is Supergroup, Group, Formation, Member and/or Beds. However,
the primary and mandatory unit of this classification is only the Formation.
 Formation: In lithostratigraphy, we start the classification from formation.
Formation is the basic formal unit of this classification. A Formation is a
homogeneous set of strata consisting of a distinct rock type or a set of rock
types. It is laterally continuous and of a sufficient thickness so that it
becomes a mappable unit. In Unit 1 you have already been introduced to
mappable unit. Let us recapitulate, a mappable unit of rock sequence
constitutes a rock type or a set of rock types that is sufficiently thick and
continuous so that it can be recorded in a map to a scale. The homogeneity
may be by way of lithological or other distinctive characters like colour or
weathering characteristics or a combination of these. Talchir Formation of
Damuda Group, Gondwana Supergroup is an example of Formation.
 Member: Each Formation may be further classified into Members. Hence,
member constitutes a formal unit of lithostratigraphy next in rank below a
formation. It possesses certain lithologic properties which distinguishes it
from adjacent parts of formation. Several members may be present within a
formation and each member is characterised by distinctive lithology. It is not
always necessary to divide the formation into members. Depending on the
purpose, some formations may be divided into members while others are not
divided into members or its certain parts may be designated as members.
 Bed: It is the smallest formal unit of lithostratigraphy. In sedimentary
sequences, there are certain distinctive layers such as key beds, marker
beds, etc. of stratigraphic importance. These beds deserve their proper
names and hence, they are considered as formal lithostratigraphic units. For
example, the Boulder bed of the Talchir Formation is a classic example of
bed.
 Group: A group is a combination of two or more formations, in which each
Formation has common significant and diagnostic lithological properties.
Damuda Group consisting of four formations (Karharbari, Barakar, Barren
measures and Raniganj), belongs to the Gondwana Supergroup is an
example of a Group.
 Supergroup: It is a combination of several associated groups or associated
groups and formations, in which significant lithological properties are
common. The Gondwana Supergroup is an example of a Supergroup.
The lithostratigraphic units are named on the basis of locality or geographical
features such as a river or a mountain peak where a type section is exposed.
38
Unit 2 Stratigraphic Classification
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….….....…
For example, Raniganj Formation named after the town Raniganj (Bardhaman
District, West Bengal), where this formation is exposed, constitutes its type
section. A type section and stratotype, as mentioned above, are necessary to
be identified for a formation as per the Code of Stratigraphic Nomenclature. A
stratotype should include the full complement of the formation. The locality or
geographical feature that gives name to the formation is suffixed by unit name.
For example, we can say Raniganj Formation for a rock formation consisting of
a set of rock types for which Raniganj area in West Bengal is the type area.
When the formation consists of a distinct rock type, we may also use the rock
name as a suffix instead of the Formation like Muth Quartzite and Rohtas
Limestone. For other lithostratigraphic units like Supergroup, Group and
Member also the same procedure is used. The first letter of all formal
stratigraphic units is capitalised.
Learners, you have learnt the principles and types of stratigraphic classification.
In the above section we have discussed about lithostratigraphic classification.
Before discussing about biostratigraphic and chronostratigraphic classifications,
spend few minutes to perform an exercise to check your progress.

SAQ 1
a) Complete the following sentences:
i. The factors that need to be considered for stratigraphic classification
are…………………………………………………………………….
ii. For each unit of classification, we need to identify a type area and the
sequence in the type area is known as………………………….
iii. A formation is a homogeneous set of strata consisting of a distinct rock
type or a set of rock types that is laterally continuous and of a sufficient
thickness so that it becomes…………….
b) Arrange the different units of lithostratigraphic classification in descending
order of thickness.

2.2.2 Biostratigraphy

Biostratigraphy (bio means life and stratum+ graphia means description of all
rock bodies) may be defined as an element of stratigraphy that deals with the
distribution of fossils in a rock sequence and organisation of strata into
distinctive units based on the fossils present in it. Biostratigraphic classification
is the systematic subdivision and organization of a rock sequence into named
units on the basis of fossils contained in the rocks. The basic principle of
biostratigraphy is that the evolutionary changes in organisms are non-reversible
and, therefore, the fossils present during a time span are characteristic only of
that particular time interval and cannot repeat or replicate at any other time.
Accordingly, based on the presence of characteristic fossils, the strata are
divided into different biostratigraphic zones or biozones. It is important to
note that biozones constitute the primary units of biostratigraphic classification.
 Biostratigraphic Units or Biozones
39
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…......
Biozones are of various types depending on the nature and distribution of
fossils contained therein. However, there are four most commonly used
biozones (Table 2.2).
Table 2.2: Biostratigraphic units.
1. Range zone (also called Acrozone)
2. Interval zone
3. Assemblage zone (also called Cenozone)
4. Abundance zone (also called Acme zone)

Let us discuss each biozone in brief in the same order as given above.
1. Range Zone: A range zone is based on the total range of a fossil form that
is, the span between its first appearance and final disappearance. In a
sequence, when a particular fossil appears for the first time, that level marks
the beginning of this zone. The zone ends at the level of its last presence
(Fig. 2.1). For fixing a range zone, only those fossils can be utilised which
have a short time range and as far as possible wide geographical
distribution. Such fossils are known as index fossils. On the basis of total
ranges of such fossils, the biozones are fixed. There are two types of range
zone namely – partial range zone and concurrent-range zone.

Fig. 2.1: Types of biostratigraphic zones; interval zone marked by the first
appearance of taxon A and B, range zone defined by first and last
appearance of taxon B, partial range zone is that part of the stratigraphic
range of taxon D which starts from the end of taxon C and beginning of
taxon E and concurrent-range zone defined by overlap of taxa F, G and
H. Taxon is singular and taxa is plural.

A partial range zone is made within a stratigraphical range of a taxon or

form in which part of its stratigraphic range lying above the range of another

40
Unit 2 Stratigraphic Classification
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….….....…
taxon and part of its range lying below the range of another taxon (Fig. 2.1).
Concurrent-range zone includes abody of rock sequence corresponding to
the overlapping stratigraphic range of two or more specified fossil taxa as
shown in Figure 2.1.
2. Interval Zone: It contains a body of rock sequence corresponding to the
interval between any two specified biological events (Fig. 2.1). For example,
an interval between two extinction events and an interval between two
origination events or an interval between an origination event and an
extinction event.
3. Assemblage Zone: An assemblage zone is defined as a biozone
characterised by the association of many fossil forms (usually three or
more) as shown in Fig.2.2. Only on the basis of the combined association of
these forms the zone can be identified and not on the presence of any
single form as in the case of range zone. It is necessary for all the identified
forms to be present in the strata in order to qualify for the recognition of an
assemblage zone.
4. Abundance Zone: An abundance zone is defined as a body of strata that
contains a maximum population of one or more species of fossils (Fig. 2.2).
In other words, these species were at their acme or climax during that
period. Abundance zones are used only for local classification and do not
have widespread application. This type of classification is commonly used in
oil industry for classifying local stratigraphic sections in an oil field.

Fig. 2.2: Types of biostratigraphic zones; assemblage zone defined by presence

of taxa A to G and abundance zone marked by the extraordinary
population of taxon H.

It is interesting to note that sometimes in a fossiliferous sequence we have a

bunch of strata that do not contain any fossils. The term Barren Zone is used
for that unfossiliferous part of the sequence.
41
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…......
Note that for biostratigraphic classification, there are usually no stratotypes, but
reference localities can be named. A range zone or abundance zone is
named on the generic or trivial name of the index or acme species,
respectively. In the case of an assemblage zone, the name can be based on
the two of the assemblage forms. The examples can be Ophiceras Zone for a
range zone, Spiriferella raja Zone for an abundance zone and Tonkinella-
Bailliella Zone for an assemblage zone. The zones may be further divided into
subzones or further into Zonules, the latter being the smallest biostratigraphic
sub-division.
2.2.3 Chronostratigraphy
You have read that lithostratigraphy and biostratigraphy are based on the
content of the strata namely lithology and fossils, respectively. The
chronostratigraphy (chrono means time and stratum+ graphia means
description of all rock bodies) is defined as an element of stratigraphy that deals
with the relative time relations and age of rock bodies. It may be noted that
chronostratigraphy is an abstract concept and is based on relative time as
interpreted from biostratigraphy to a large extent. The time is not something that
can be seen within the rocks, but it has to be determined from the fossil content
as indicated by the biostratigraphic classification. The main aim of the
chronostratigraphy is to organise the rock sequence on a global scale into
chronostratigraphic units, so that all local, regional as well as global events can
be related to a single standard geological scale. Thus, chronostratigraphy is
mainly concerned with the age of rock sequence and their time relations.
Hence, chronostratigraphic classification is considered as the organisation of
rocks into units on the basis of their age or time of origin.
 Chronostratigraphic Units
A chronostratigraphic unit may be defined as a body of rocks that includes all
rocks formed during a specific interval of geologic time and it also includes
those rocks formed during that time span (Murphy and Salvador, 1999). In
chronostratigraphy, the time encompassed by a biozone is termed as a
biochron and on the basis of biochrons, the various chronostratigraphic units
can be identified. Chronostratigraphic units are the fundamental working units
of the geological time scale. The hierarchy of chronostratigraphic units is given
in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3: Chronostratigraphicunits.
Eonothem
Erathem
System
Series
Stage
On the basis of a biochron, we determine and identify stage that constitutes the
lowest unit of chronostratigraphy. The other units in ascending order are series,
system, erathem and eonothem. These are all identified on the basis of fossil
content and are of a relative nature. The order of superposition determines the
sequence of the sediments and characteristic fossils of different beds that
determine their relative ages.
42
Unit 2 Stratigraphic Classification
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….….....…
In section 1.7 of Unit 1, you have already learnt how the geological time scale
was prepared on the basis of time. You have also learnt that the time is relative
time and is not measured in absolute years. Therefore, for the better
understanding of chronostratigraphy, a proper knowledge of geochronology is
essential. Geochronology is a branch of geology that deals with the dating of
rock formations and geological events in years by using radioactive dating
methods. Thus, geochronologic units are the subdivisions of geologic time.
These are abstract units and only defined after the chronostratigraphic units.
The hierarchy of geochronologic units is given in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4: Geochronologic units.
Eon
Era
Period
Epoch
Age

You have already studied in Unit1, the age in absolute years as determined by
radiometric methods may be assigned to these units but that is not the basis of
the classification.
It should be noted that the basic aim of chronostratigraphic and geochronologic
classifications is to arrange systematically rock strata of Earth into named units
(chronostratigraphic units) and corresponding to intervals of geologic time
(geochronologic units). Such arrangement facilitates time correlation and age
determination of rock strata and further, serves as a reference system for
recording events of geologic history. In this arrangement, each
chronostratigraphic unit has its corresponding geochronologic unit as shown in
Table 2.5.
Table 2.5: Hierarchy of chronostratigraphic and corresponding
geochronologic units.

Chronostratigraphic Example Geochronologic Example

(time-rock) units (time) units
Eonothem Phanerozoic Eon Phanerozoic
Earthem Mesozoic Era Mesozoic
System Triassic Period Triassic
Series Upper Triassic Epoch Late Triassic
Stage Norian Age Norian

Now, let us discuss the chronostratigraphic units and their corresponding

geochronologic equivalents in brief.
 Stage: It is a basic and lowest ranking unit of chronostratigraphy. It includes
all rocks formed during a particular age. Stage can be recognised worldwide.
It represents a subdivision of a series. Its corresponding geochronologic
equivalent is age.
 Series: It is a chronostratigraphic unit ranking above a stage and below a
system. An epoch is its geochronologic equivalent unit.
43
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…......
 System: It is a major rank chronostratigraphic unit. It lies above the series
and below erathem, e.g. Triassic System. Period is its geochronologic
equivalent unit, e.g. Triassic Period. Here the relation between these two
units such as Triassic System and Triassic Period is that the rocks of the
Triassic System were all deposited during the Triassic Period.
 Erathem: It consists of a group of systems. For example, Mesozoic erathem
consists of Jurassic System, Triassic System and Cretaceous System. The
geochronologic equivalent of erathem is an era. The Mesozoic era which
consists of Jurassic Period, Triassic Period and Cretaceous Period, is an
example of era.
 Eonothem: It consists of a group of erathem. It is higher in rank than an
erathem. Its geochronologic equivalent is an eon. It may be noted that there
are three eonothems namely Archean, Proterozoic and Phanerozoic.
 The time-rock and time divisions in the geological time scale are denoted by
the same terms but the suffix indicates if it is a time-rock unit or a time unit.
For example, Cambrian System denotes a time-rock division while Cambrian
Period denotes time division during which those rocks were deposited.
It may be noted that age in absolute years or what is known as
geochronology, when determined by various methods includes radioactive
dating or magneto-stratigraphy. It is superimposed on the time units but their
variation does not change the scale since it is not based on absolute years.
Learners, you have learnt about biostratigraphic and chronostratigraphic
classifications. Before discussing about stratigraphic correlation, spend few
minutes to perform an exercise to check your progress.

SAQ 2
a) Fill in the blanks:
(i) On the presence of characteristic fossils, the strata are divided into
…………… that constitute the primary units of biostratigraphic
classification.
(ii) The span between the first appearance of a fossil form and its final
disappearance is known as…………………
(iii) A biozone is characterised by the combined association of more than
one fossil form is known as …………………..
(iv) The time-rock equivalent of the time unit Epoch is…………………
(v) The time encompassed by a biozone is called a…………………………

2.3 STRATIGRAPHIC CORRELATION

You have learnt in Section 1.5 of Unit 1, how to collect the stratigraphic data
and how to construct stratigraphic columns. Once you have constructed
stratigraphic columns of different sites of a wide area, then next step will be to
correlate these columns. As you know the principle of lateral continuity states
that rock beds can be traced across a wide area. Therefore, stratigraphic

44
Unit 2 Stratigraphic Classification
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….….....…
correlation i.e. connecting similar rock beds is a best means to reconstruct the
geological history of an area. Let us discuss stratigraphic correlation in detail.
2.3.1 Definition and Introduction
Correlation is a procedure to indicate correspondence between geographically
separated geologic units of rocks. The correspondence can be in the character
and stratigraphic position of the rocks. It can be of various types like
correspondence in lithology, fossil content and time of deposition. Thus,
correlation is dependent on what kind of equivalence can be established
according to the character of the rocks to be equated. The scope of correlation
is different in different sequences and the interpretation depends on the type of
correlation undertaken.
When we are looking for correspondence in lithology or lithological correlation
we make use of key beds. Key beds are the marker beds with a characteristic
lithology that may extend for considerable distances and may help in marking a
stratigraphic position. Likewise an unconformity may also be used as a marker
horizon like a key bed and can be of importance in lithological correlation.
Biostratigraphic correlation or correlation by fossil content may be made by
index fossils or a fossil assemblage as indicated in section 2.2.2 above.
2.3.2 Methods
Rock sequences can be correlated in many ways, but there are three simple
and important methods, viz., lithostratigraphic, biostratigraphic and temporal
correlation. Let us discuss each method of correlation in detail.
i. Lithostratigraphic Correlation: The methods to be applied for correlation
depend on what type of correlation is needed or possible in various
stratigraphic sequences. The easiest correlation is the lithostratigraphic
correlation whereby similar rock units or key beds are used to determine the
correspondence between two separated sequences.

Fig. 2.3: Lithostratigraphic correlation of three sites namely A, B and C. Dotted

lines indicate correlation. Note that shale bed is absent at sites A and B,
but it is present at site C. Unconformity above the conglomerate bed is
marked by the wavy line. The distance between site A, B and C is 10
kms.
45
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…......
In lithostratigraphic correlation, it is the usual practice to classify one
sequence on the basis of lithology into formations and even members if
possible, and to identify the key beds or marker beds and unconformities, if
any. Then these marker horizons are located in the other sequences and
accordingly, the correspondence between the first sequence and the
second sequence is established. The correspondence may not be
necessarily identical because lithological units are known to thicken or thin
out or sometimes even vanish as we follow them laterally. But a general
correlation is possible while registering the lateral changes.
While lithological correlation is relatively easy, it has to be understood that
this correlation is only of a local nature and may not be applicable or useful
for long distances. The lithological similarity can be only if the deposition
has taken place in a single basin. If the basins of deposition are different
then the lithological similarity may not be there nor can the same key beds
exist in different basins.

Fig. 2.4: Biostratigraphic correlation between two sites, namely, A and B. Here
the beds are correlated on the basis of similar fossils. Dotted lines
indicate correlation. For example in this figure, biozone 1 is
characterised by the occurrence of trilobites and biozone 2 by
ammonoids. Note that top of both sites has different fossils content
hence they cannot be correlated and wavy line in site B indicates a
depositional break (unconformity).

ii. Biostratigraphic Correlation: Biostratigraphic correlation is based on the

fossil content of the rocks. It is more precise and accurate correlation that
can be applied for long distances or even widely separated sequences that
may have been deposited in different basins. In biostratigraphic correlation,
index fossils or an assemblage of fossils is used. In the case of
lithostratigraphy, in practice we choose a sequence and classify it on the
basis of fossil content. You have already learnt how we classify a sequence
on the basis of fossil content in Section 2.2.2 above. To remind you again
we divide the sequence into biozones that may be either range zones,
assemblage zones or abundance zones. Once such a classification is made
46
Unit 2 Stratigraphic Classification
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….….....…
we identify these zones in other sequences that may be widely separated.
In this regard, the range zones based on index fossils are usually the best
tools for biostratigraphic correlation. Index fossils may be useful within a
region or may also be applicable for long distance correlation or
intercontinental correlation.
Biostratigraphic correlation is also directly related to chronostratigraphic or
time correlation because as biochrons are based on biozones as they
indicate the relative time. However, one precaution is necessary in this
correlation. The similarity of fossils or homotaxis in two widely separated
localities does not necessarily indicate same time of deposition or
contemporaneity. This is because the organisms that may have evolved at
one place may take a long time to reach another locality and there may be
some time lag of dispersal. However, since we are only dealing with relative
time and not absolute time, the homotaxis need not indicate
contemporaneity as the sequence will remain the same.
iii.Temporal Correlation: Sometimes when fossil content may be scanty and
lithological similarity may not be there we choose only a key bed that may
be based on some kind of a time similarity like an unconformity or some
fossil horizon. From that bed upwards and downwards we build a
stratigraphic column based on superposition and correlate it with the
corresponding known units from an established stratigraphic sequence. This
is based on the principle that overlying beds are younger and underlying
beds are older and they should correspond with the beds of the known
sequence.This is the temporal correlation and it may not be very accurate
since it is only an approximation.
2.3.3 Need for Correlation
The concept of correlation is fundamental to stratigraphy because without
correlation there can be no synthesis of geographically separated rock units.
Moreover, without correlation we will have innumerable rock sections from
different parts of the globe without any relationship or linkage to one another.
The scope of correlation is twofold. The main purpose of correlation is to
determine the equivalence in the time of deposition so that we can establish a
standard time sequence of rocks across the globe. It is only through correlation
that we have been able to establish a geological time scale and we are able to
place the different rock units across the globe at their proper stratigraphic
positions. It is through correlation that we obtain a neat gradation of rock
sequences from old to young. The distribution of fossil types around the globe
has to make sense in terms of the history of the continents and a coherent
pattern usually emerges through correlation. The other scope of correlation may
not be related to time but may deal with geometrical relationships of rocks. In
other words, this correlation is primarily based on lithology and how rock units
change vertically and laterally and the relation between the two. While such a
correlation has only a local value, it has significant application in oil industry
where local correlation is of considerable importance.
Learners, you have learnt about stratigraphic correlation in the above section.
Now, spend few minutes to perform an exercise to check your progress.

47
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…......

SAQ 3
a) What is correlation?
b) What are the main methods of correlation?
c) Fossil similarity is indicative of (a) homotaxis (b) contemporaneity.
d) Lithostratigraphic correlation is (a) intercontinental (b) regional (c) local.
e) The main purpose of correlation is to determine_______________.

2.4 ACTIVITY
1. Write down the lithostratigraphic divisions in descending order from the
largest unit to the smallest unit.
2. List the various biozones and indicate the two most preferred biozones that
help in regional correlation.
3. In the two stratigraphic columns given in Figure 2.5 below, connect the litho-
units to indicate the lithostratigraphic correlation.

Fig. 2.5: Lithostratigraphic columns of two sites, site A and site B.

2.5 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the principles and methods of stratigraphic
classification and correlation. Let us now summarise what we have learnt:
 The factors that need to be considered for stratigraphic classification are the
rock type (lithology), its physical and chemical characters, nature of bedding
and fossil content.
 The stratigraphic classification can be of various types depending on the
nature of lithology, fossils present in the rocks and the time of deposition as
interpreted from fossils.
 There are three main types of classification, namely, lithostratigraphic,
biostratigraphic and chronostratigraphic classifications.
48
Unit 2 Stratigraphic Classification
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….….....…
 The basic unit of lithostratigraphic classification is a Formation which is a
homogeneous set of strata consisting of a distinct rock type or a set of rock
types that is laterally continuous and of a sufficient thickness so that it
becomes a mappable unit. Formations can be further classified into
Members. Formations can also be combined into Groups and Groups into
Supergroups.
 The basic unit of biostratigraphy is a Biozone. There are four primary types
of biozones namely, Range zone, Interval zone, Assemblage zone and
Abundance zone.
 Chronostratigraphic classification is an abstract classification based on
relative time as interpreted from biostratigraphy. The basic
chronostratigraphic unit is a Biochron that is based on a biozone. On the
basis of chronostratigraphy the sequences can be divided into time-rock
divisions and time (geochronologic) divisions. The main chronostratigrapic
(time-rock) units are Eonothem, Erathem, System, Series and Stage. The
main geochronologic (time) units are Eon, Era, Period, Epoch and Age.
 Correlation is a procedure to indicate correspondence between
geographically separated units of rocks. It can be undertaken by lithology or
fossil content. Lithological correlation is local while correlation by fossils can
be regional or intercontinental. It is through correlation that a coherent
pattern emerges in stratigraphy throughout the globe.

2.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What are the main types of stratigraphic classification?
2. What are the essential requirements for defining a Formation?
3. What is a stratotype? In which classification is it mandatory?
4. What are the main types of biozones?
5. What are index fossils? What are their applications?
6. What is the relation between biostratigraphic and chronostratigraphic units?
7. List the main time units and their equivalent time-rock units.
8. What is the purpose of stratigraphic correlation?

2.7 REFERENCES
 Murphy, M.A. and Salvador, A. (1999) International Stratigraphic Guide – An
abridged version. Episodes, Vol. 22, No. 4, pp. 255-271.

2.8 FURTHER/ SUGGESTED READINGS

 Boggs, S. (2012) Principles of Sedimentology and Stratigraphy, Pearson
Education, Inc., New Jersey, USA.
 Schoch, R.M. (1989) Stratigraphy, Principles and Methods, Van Nostrand
Reinhold, New York.
 http://www.stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-stratigraphicguide.

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2.9 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1. a) i) The rock type, its physical and chemical characters, nature of bedding
and Fossil content
ii) Stratotype.
iii) Amappable unit.
b) Supergroup, Group, Formation, Member.
2. a) (i) Biozones.(ii) Range Zone.(iii) Assemblage Zone.(iv) Series. (v)
Biochron.
3. a) Correlation is a procedure to indicate correspondence between
geographically separated geologic units of rocks.
b) Main methods of correlation are Lithostratigraphic and Biostratigraphic
correlation.
c) Homotaxis.
d) Local.
e) The main purpose of correlation is to determine the equivalence in the
time of deposition so that we can establish a standard time sequence of
rocks across the globe.
Terminal Questions
1. Refer to section 2.2.
2. Refer to sub-section 2.2.1.
3. Refer to section 2.2.
4. Refer to sub-section 2.2.2.
5. Refer to sub-section 2.2.2.
6. Refer to sub-section 2.2.3.
7. Refer to sub-section 2.2.3.
8. Refer to sub-section 2.3.3.

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 UNIT 3

PHYSIOGRAPHY OF INDIA

Structure______________________________________________
3.1 Introduction 3.4 Activity
Expected Learning Outcomes 3.5 Summary
3.2 Physical and Structural Divisions 3.6 Terminal Questions
Himalayan Mountain System 3.7 References
Indo-Gangetic Plains 3.8 Further/Suggested Readings
Peninsular Plateau 3.9 Answers
Indian Desert
Coastal Regions
3.3 Stratigraphy of India
Precambrian Stratigraphy
Palaeozoic Stratigraphy
Mesozoic Stratigraphy
Cenozoic Stratigraphy

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In previous Units 1 to 2, you have learnt about the general principles of stratigraphy and the
stratigraphic classifications. You have also learnt that stratigraphic principles and classifications are
primarily used to establish the regional stratigraphy of any area or country that helps to know the
geological history of that particular region. The work on the Indian rock sequences, which has been
carried out by various workers resulted in the establishment of regional stratigraphy of India. It
includes the rock sequences ranging from Precambrian to Recent occurring in all parts of country.
For the study of different stratigraphic units of India, references are usually made according to the
physical and structural divisions of India such as the Peninsular region, Himalaya and Indo-
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
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Gangetic plains. Therefore, it is necessary to introduce you to the physical and
structural setting of India so that you would be able to understand where the
different kinds of stratigraphic units occur.
In this unit, we will introduce you to the fundamental physical and structural
divisions of India. We will also discuss the regional stratigraphy of India that has
been developed as a result of stratigraphic studies undertaken on the rock
sequences of this country by various geologists from time to time.

Expected Learning Outcomes________________________

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 discuss the physical and structural setting of India;
 describe major stratigraphic units of India;
 find coeval rocks of Archaean and Proterozoic ages in Peninsular as well
as Himalayan regions; and
 explain the distribution of marine Phanerozoic rocks in Himalaya and
coastal regions.

3.2 PHYSICAL AND STRUCTURAL DIVISIONS

India is a vast country; its three sides are bounded by the seawaters and the
young Himalayan mountains system separates it from Asia on its fourth
(northern) side. As a result, it becomes an independent entity, which is broadly
known as the Indian subcontinent. India shows a huge diversity in physical and
structural features as its land comprises various natural features like snow-clad
folded mountains in the north, plateaus in the south and plains in between
them. It may be noted that all these features have evolved over a very long
geological time. For example, the Himalayan mountain system started to
develop around 50 - 35 million years (Myr) before present, when the Indian
plate started subducting beneath the Asia. Therefore, it is pertinent to consider
that the distribution of the rocks of various ages reflect the geographic setting of
different regions.
Physically, India can be divided into three broad divisions (Fig. 3.1) as listed
below:
 Himalayan mountain system;
 Indo-Gangetic plains; and
 Peninsular plateau.
These three divisions are well marked, geologically very significant as they
correspond to the three main structural or tectonic divisions of India. These
divisions from south to north constitute the peninsular India, Indo-Gangetic
plains and Himalayan mountain system. The last two are popularly referred to
as extra-Peninsular region. India exposes rocks of many ages ranging from
Archaean to Cenozoic in all these divisions. However, the stratigraphy of these
regions is quite different. For example, the peninsular plateau comprises mostly
older rocks of Precambrian (Archaean and Proterozoic) age, whereas the
Himalayan region bears mostly younger rocks (Phanerozoic) that are

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structurally deformed. However, a large part of the Indo-Gangetic plains is
covered by Recent (Holocene) alluvium.
India is characterised by a great diversity in its physical features and
physiographically, divided into following divisions (Fig. 3.1):
 Himalayan mountain system;
 Indo-Gangetic plains;
 Peninsular plateau;
 Indian desert; and
 Coastal regions.

Fig. 3.1: Map showing physiographic divisions of India.

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3.2.1 Himalayan Mountain System
The Himalayan range is one of the longest systems of mountain chains in the
world. It extends for over 2500 km from Pamir in the west to Mishmi Hills in the
east (Fig. 3.1). It bears some of the loftiest mountain peaks, including the
world’s highest peak, namely the Mount Everest (height 8848 m). It is an
arcuate range with convexity to the south and its width ranges from 150 to 400
km. There are two major knee-bends in the range, one to the west around
Nanga Parbat and the other to the east at Namcha Barwa and these are
commonly referred to as syntaxial bends. The northern margin of the
Himalaya is marked by a lineament known as Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone
(Fig. 3.2). While the bulk of the Himalayan range is in India, it also extends into
Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan and Tibet. Himalaya comprise a chain of parallel
mountain ranges.
Topographically, Himalaya can be linearly divided into five parallel ranges from
north to south, which are separated by deep valleys and plateaus (Fig. 3.2).
These ranges are described below:
(i) Trans Himalaya: It consists of southern region of Asian plate and
northernmost part of the India plate. It is located north of the Tethys
Himalaya and mainly developed in the northern Ladakh (Jammu and
Kashmir) and the northernmost Pakistan. Its height ranges from 3000 to
6000 m and consists of Kohistan, Shyok, Karakoram regions. The Trans
Himalaya is also known as the Tibet Himalaya because its major portion
occurs in Tibet.
(ii) Tethys Himalaya: It is the northernmost region extending partly into
Tibetan plateau. It is given the popular geological name “Tethys domain” or
“Tethyan Himalayan Zone” for want of any other suitable topographic
nomenclature. It consists of a plateau region over 3000 m in height sloping
gently northwards. Stratigraphically, it is composed of sedimentary rocks of
almost all ages. The contact of the Tethyan and Greater Himalaya is termed
as Tethyan Thrust.
(iii) Greater Himalaya: It lies to the south of the Tethys Himalaya and is the
highest part of Himalaya. The Greater Himalaya is also given the Sanskrit
name Himadri. It bears some of the highest mountain peaks (ranging from
6000 to 8000 m) including the Mount Everest. This part is almost
perpetually snow covered and constitutes the watershed for all Himalayan
rivers, except Indus, Sutlej and Brahmaputra which cut across this region.
The Zanskar, Ladakh and Karakoram are the main mountain ranges.
Greater Himalaya is made up mainly of deformed (crystalline) metamorphic
rocks. The Main Central Thrust demarcates the boundary between the
Greater and Lesser Himalaya.
(iv) Lesser Himalaya: It lies to the south of the Greater Himalaya. Its height
ranges from 1000 to 2500 m. The PirPanjal, Dhauladhar, Nag Tibba and
Mahabharat are common high ranges of the Lesser Himalaya. The terrain is
characterised by a complex structure consisting of superimposed thrust
sheets and composed mainly of Precambrian metamorphic rocks. However,
sedimentary and igneous rocks of other ages are also present. The Main
Boundary Thrust demarcates the boundary between the Lesser and Outer
Himalaya.
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(v) Outer Himalaya: The southern-most part of the Himalaya is called Outer
Himalaya or Sub-Himalaya. It comprises low hills less than 1000 m in
height that merge finally with the Indo-Gangetic plains. Siwalik is one of the
predominant ranges of this part of the Himalaya. It is composed mainly of
sedimentary rocks of Cenozoic age. The boundary between the Outer
Himalaya and Indo-Gangetic plains is marked by the Himalayan Frontal
Fault.
From west to east, the different sectors of the Himalaya are named as Kashmir
Himalaya, Himachal Himalaya, Kumaon-Garhwal Himalaya, Nepal Himalaya,
Bhutan Himalaya, Assam and Arunachal Himalaya.

Fig. 3.2: Map showing major ranges of Himalaya. (Source: simplified after Kumar,
1988)

3.2.2 Indo-Gangetic Plains

The major part of northern and eastern India lies to the south of the Himalayan
arc and comprises the Indo-Gangetic plains (Fig. 3.1). The plain comprises the
sediments that are brought down and deposited by the three Himalayan river
systems, namely, the Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra along with their
tributaries during the Recent (Holocene) times. The plains cover the states of
Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Jharkhand, Bihar, West Bengal,
Assam and parts of Rajasthan. They extend from east to west through which
the rivers of the Indus and Ganga (also known as Ganges) systems flow. The
rivers of Indus system flow towards the southwest into the Arabian Sea, while
the rivers of Ganga system flow towards the south east into the Bay of Bengal.
These two river systems are separated by the Aravalli mountain chain, which
cuts across the plain in a north northeast – south southwest direction. The
Aravalli mountain chain extends from Gujarat through Rajasthan up to Delhi.
The highest point is in the Mount Abu called Gurushikhar, which is 1722 m
high. However, the main range comprises low hills that project out from the
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desert sand. Aravalli mountain chain acts as a water divide between the Indus
and Ganga river systems.
The Indo-Gangetic plains are a flat country comprising mainly the alluvial
sediments, which are not more than 2000 m deep. It is the most fertile region of
the country. It is bounded to the south by the Vindhyan mountain chain and to
the southeast by the Satpura mountains, which separate it from the peninsular
part of India.
3.2.3 Peninsular Plateau
The Peninsular plateau is more or less a triangular area enclosed within the low
mountain ranges (Fig. 3.1). To the north, it is bounded by the Vindhyan Hills
and to the northeast by the Satpura chain. The Vindhyan Hills comprise low
mountains and plateaus that extend from Gujarat in the west to Bihar in the
east. The average elevation is between 500and 600 m though some peaks are
as high as 900 m. The Satpura range is a short chain, but higher than the
Vindhyan chain, with some of its peaks are higher than 1000 m, for example
Pachmarhi around 1335 m.
The Western Ghats (also known as Sahyadri chain in early Indian literature)
and Eastern Ghats are the major mountain ranges in peninsular region of India.
 Western Ghats: These are a continuous chain of hills extending from South
Gujarat to Kerala (Fig. 3.1). They constitute low hills of an average height of
less than 1000 m though the highest peak called Anaimudi is 2693 m high.
The height of the Western Ghats increases from north to south. Western
Ghats constitute the watershed for most peninsular rivers, notably, the
Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery, which flow in the easterly direction into the
Bay of Bengal.
 Eastern Ghats: These comprise a chain of detached hills extending from
Odisha to Tamil Nadu (Fig. 3.1). They constitute low hills with a maximum
elevation of about 1500 m at Mahendragiri in Odisha. Eastern Ghats are also
known as Poorvadri. They join the Western Ghats at the Nilgiri Hills.
Structurally, the Peninsular Plateau forms the India shield. A shield is, basically,
a large tectonically stable area made up of crystalline igneous and metamorphic
rocks of Precambrian age. The Indian shield, consisting of extensive exposures
of Precambrian rocks, is a mosaic of five Archaean blocks. These blocks are
largely made up of granite (igneous) as well as gneisses and migmatites
(metamorphic) rocks. It is important to note that these Archaean blocks had
achieved tectonic stability for a long geological time and remained unaffected
by mountain building movements since the close of Precambrian. Hence these
blocks are known as cratons and constitute the continental crust. The main
cratons of the Indian Shield are the Dharwar, Bastar, Singhbhum, Bundelkhand
and Aravalli, located in southern, central, eastern, northern and western
peninsular India, respectively (Fig. 3.3). The east-west trending Son-Narmada-
Tapti (SONATA) lineament separates the Aravalli craton from the Bastar and
Singhbhum cratons (Fig. 3.3). The Aravalli craton lies north of SONATA
lineament whereas the Bastar, Singhbhum and Dharwar cratons lie to its south.
All these cratons are of Archaean age.

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Unit 3 Physiography of India
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 Dharwar Craton is located in Karnataka and parts of Andhra Pradesh and
Tamil Nadu. It comprises granite-gneiss-greenstone that has suffered
orogeny at different points of time, e.g., at 3400, 3000 and 2600-2800 Myr
ago.
 Bastar Craton is located in central India in the state of Chhattisgarh. It
consists primarily of gneisses and secondarily of basic and ultrabasic rocks.
It shows orogenic dates of 3500, 3000 and 2500-2600 Myr ago.
 Singhbhum Craton lies in the state of Jharkhand and comprises granites
and gneisses associated with banded iron ore. It shows orogenic dates of
3500 and 3000-3300 Myr ago. It is also associated with basic lava flows.
 Bundelkhand Craton is the northernmost craton of the Indian Shield. It is
located in Madhya Pradesh and parts of Uttar Pradesh. It is partly concealed
under the Indo-Gangetic alluvium. It comprises mainly granitic rocks with
subordinate gneisses. The orogenic dates range between 3500 and 2500
Myr ago.
 Aravalli Craton is separated from the Bundelkhand craton by the Vindhyan
basin. It has suffered several phases of orogeny, which have a wide range of
dates from 3300 Myr ago to as low as 1700 Myr ago, the last one placing this
phase of orogeny (i.e., Delhi orogeny) in Proterozoic.
Interestingly, these Archaean cratons are separated from one another by the
mobile or fold belts that were developed during Proterozoic times (Fig. 3.3). The
boundaries of the mobile or fold belts are demarcated by shear or fault zones. A
shear zone is a planar rock area that is under higher strain than the adjoining
rocks. It ranges from a few cms to several kilometers in width. It behaves like a
fault system except that the fault plane cannot be seen anywhere. Shear zones
constitute important discontinuities in the rock groups. The mobile belts consist
of metamorphosed Proterozoic rocks, in which gneiss, amphibolites and
migmatites are dominant rock types. The main mobile belts are the Eastern
Ghat Mobile Belt, Pandyan Mobile Belt, Satpura Mobile Belt, Aravalli Mobile
Belt and Chhotanagpur-Singhbhum Mobile Belt.
(i) The Eastern Ghat Mobile Belt borders the Dharwar and Bastar cratons to
the east and the Singhbhum craton to the south. The Mahanadi rift
separates the Singhbhum craton from the Bastar craton. Godavari rift
separates the Bastar craton from the Dharwar craton. The Chitradurga
Shear Zone separates the West Dharwar craton from East Dharwar craton.
(ii) The Pandyan Mobile Belt lies to the south of the Dharwar craton and the
Eastern Ghat Mobile Belt. A system of shear zones consisting of the Moyar
Bhavani Shear Zone and Palghat Cauvery Shear Zones separate the
southern boundary of the Dharwar craton from the Pandyan Mobile Belt.
The Moyar Bhavani Shear Zone is located in the south of the Dharwar
craton and the Palghat Cauvery Shear Zone is found in the north of the
Pandyan Mobile Belt. The Pandyan Mobile Belt is also termed as Southern
Granulite Terrain.
(iii) The Satpura Mobile Belt lies to the north of the Bastar and Singhbhum
cratons separating them from the Bundhelkhand craton.

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(iv) The Aravalli Mobile Belt lies to the west of the Bundhelkhand craton and
separates it from the Aravalli craton.
(v) The Chhotanagpur-Singhbhum Mobile Belt forms the northern boundary
of the Singhbhum craton. The Chhotanagpur Granite-Gneiss Complex is
located to north of the Chhotanagpur-Singhbhum Mobile Belt.

Fig. 3.3: Map of peninsular India showing major cratons and mobile belts.
(Source: simplified after Vaidyanadhan and Ramakrishnan, 2008; Sharma,
2009)

3.2.4 Indian Desert

Next to the Indo-Gangetic plains, the Thar Desert occupies a substantial area
on the north-western margin of peninsular India. It lies to the west of the Aravalli
mountain chain (Fig. 3.1). It is believed that during the Mesozoic era, it was
under the sea. But the onset of Pleistocene epoch (2.6 Myr to 11,700 years
ago) marked a major climatic change from humid to arid condition. This
continued for quite some time with occasional wetter periods. This was one of
the reasons for the desertification of this region. The desert sand occupies a
substantial area of western Rajasthan. The sand dunes of aeolian (wind) origin
constitute the main topography of the region. The desert region also extends
into parts of Pakistan. Below the desert sand there are sedimentary rocks of
Mesozoic and Cenozoic age.
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3.2.5 Coastal Regions
India has a long coastline of over 5700 km. The coastal regions constitute
mostly the areas beyond the Western and Eastern Ghats. In addition, they also
include Saurashtra coast of Gujarat and Bengal coastline. They can be divided
into two coastal regions. They are:
1. Western Coastal Region: It lies along the Arabian Sea and extends from
the Rann of Kachchh in the north to Kanyakumari in the south (Fig. 3.1). The
Rann of Kachchh is a depressed area that gets submerged under sea during
the high tide. It becomes an estuary during the monsoon period, but remains
exposed in winter months.
2. Eastern Coastal Region: It lies along the Bay of Bengal and extends from
Ganga delta in the north to Kanyakumari in the south (Fig. 3.1). This
coastline is broader than the western coastline. It is a region of low-lying
area, where sediments derived from the Ghats are deposited. Accordingly, it
bears some depositional landforms of varying thicknesses like deltas of the
Mahanadi, Krishna and Cauvery rivers.
The eastern coast is somewhat different from the western coastal region
because all the rivers from the Western Ghats flow to the east into the Bay of
Bengal. As a result, the eastern coastal region comprises mainly deltas and
other depositional landforms. There are also a few lagoons in between the
deltaic regions. While sometimes erosional landforms can be seen, they are
usually few and mostly restricted to Andhra Pradesh coastline.
It may be noted that the coastal regions of eastern Odisha and Bengal are full
of lagoons and lakes in addition to a major deltaic region of the Gangetic river
system. There are no erosional landforms. Moreover, the Sunderbans estuary
is located in this region that gets submerged like the Rann of Kachchh during
the monsoon season.
Learners, you have learnt the physical and structural divisions of India. Before
discussing about the stratigraphy of India, spend few minutes to perform an
exercise to check your progress.

SAQ 1
a) Name the five linear divisions of the Himalaya.
b) There are two major knee-bends in the Himalayan range, one to the west
around Nanga Parbat and the other to the east at Namche Barwa and these
are referred to as -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
c) The Indus and Ganga river systems are separated by -----------------------------
d) Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery flow from ---------------------------------------------
e) Name two estuaries of the Indian coastal region.

3.3 STRATIGRAPHY OF INDIA

The stratigraphic record of India is extensive, covering the entire span of the
geological time scale, ranging from Precambrian to Recent (Holocene). Among
the five physiographic divisions of India, the three, namely, peninsular plateau,
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extra-peninsular (Himalaya) region and Indo-Gangetic plains cover most of the
areas of the country and hence, the stratigraphic successions. It is convenient
to divide the stratigraphy of India into four different parts that correspond to the
four basic divisions of the geological time scale as given below:
 Precambrian stratigraphy;
 Palaeozoic stratigraphy;
 Mesozoic stratigraphy; and
 Cenozoic stratigraphy.
3.3.1 Precambrian Stratigraphy
Precambrian is a general term (i.e., informal name in a stratigraphic sense)
used to denote all rocks older than Cambrian period. It is a long time covering
more than 90% of the total life span of the Earth, starting from 4.6 billion years
(Gyr) ago and ending at 542 Myr ago. It consists of three eons: Hadean,
Archaean and Proterozoic. There is no rock record of Hadean and the rocks
of Archaean and Proterozoic are mostly of metamorphic type. As a result, they
are either devoid of fossils or yield very little organic matter. Therefore, it is not
generally possible to classify Precambrian time on the basis of biostratigraphic
principles as in the case of Phanerozoic rocks. The boundaries between eons
and period are marked on the basis of radiometric dates which do not indicate
the time of deposition but the time of crystallisation which is usually the time of
orogenic cycle. Let us discuss the Precambrian rocks of Peninsular India and
the Himalayas:
1. Precambrian Rocks of Peninsular India
The Precambrian rocks are found mostly in the peninsular part of India, which is
also known as the Indian Shield. The Indian shield is made up of cratons and
mobile belts of Archaean and Proterozoic age, respectively (Fig. 3.3).
 Archaean Rocks: The Archaean rocks of peninsular India represent oldest
rock deposits and comprise igneous and metamorphic terrains/cratons.
These cratons are the Dharwar, Bastar, Singhbhum, Bundelkhand and
Aravalli. The granite, tonalite, trondhjemite, greenstone and gneisses are
main rock types in these cratons. Out of which, the Dharwar craton is
discussed in detail in Unit 4 of Block 2 of this course.
 Proterozoic Sedimentary Basins: Proterozoic sedimentary basins of
peninsular India comprise the intracratonic basins. These basins were
formed by rifting or splitting of Archaean cratons due to the development of
Proterozoic Mobile Belts among them. These basins are flat,
unmetamorphosed and comprise about 20% of the Indian shield. The
sediments of Proterozoic rocks were derived from the surrounding older
Archaean gneisses and granites. They were mainly deposited in shallow
marine conditions, but sometimes in fluvial conditions as well. There are
many Proterozoic basins spread all over the peninsular India, but four largest
basins are the Vindhyan, Cuddapah, Chhattisgarh and Aravalli known as
Vindhyan Supergroup, Cuddapah Supergroup, Chhattisgarh Supergroup and
Delhi Supergroup, respectively (Fig. 3.4). The Chhattisgarh Supergroup lies
in the Bastar craton. It is bordered by Satpura Mobile Belt to the north. It is
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Unit 3 Physiography of India
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about 2500 m thick and composed mainly of conglomerate, sandstone and
limestone. The other three supergroups, the Vindhyan, Cuddapah and Delhi,
are discussed in detail in Unit 4 of Block 2 of this course.

Fig. 3.4: Map showing major Proterozoic basins of peninsular India.

2. Precambrian Rocks of the Himalaya
Precambrian rocks of the Himalaya can be divided into two parts representing
doubtful Archaean and older Proterozoic rocks that are metamorphosed. They
comprise gneisses and granites and other high-grade metamorphic rocks. They
are given different names depending on the locality where they are best
exposed. For example, the crystalline rocks of Kashmir and adjoining areas are
named as Salkhala Formation and the same rocks in Himachal Pradesh and
Uttarakhand are known as Vaikrita Formation (also called Central
Crystallines).They indicate a possible age of 2000 to 1800 Myr (Palaeo-
Proterozoic). They are exposed in the Greater Himalayan region.
The Meso-Proterozoic rocks are exposed inthe Lesser Himalaya and they
consist of sedimentary or meta-sedimentary rocks. The stratigraphic resolution
of these rocks is beset with problems since superposition is generally disturbed
due to structural complications. The important groups in this area are the
Jammu Limestone, Shali Limestone, Simla Group and Jaunsar Group. The
Neo-Proterozoic rocks in the Lesser Himalaya are known by the Krol and Blaini
groups.
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3.3.2 Palaeozoic Stratigraphy
Marine Palaeozoic rocks are restricted to the Himalayan region except a few
minor marine excursions of Cambrian/Permain age occurring in peninsular
India. These marine Palaeozoic outcrops are present in Umaria and Jabalpur
areas of Madhya Pradesh and Bikaner-Nagaur area of Rajasthan. The
Palaeozoic marine rocks are exposed in Kashmir and Zanskar in Jammu and
Kashmir, Spiti in Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Arunachal Pradesh. In
Peninsular India, freshwater sediments of Upper Palaeozoic age constitute the
Gondwana Supergroup. Let us discuss the Palaeozoic rocks of Kashmir, Spiti
and Gondwana rocks of Peninsular India.
1. Palaeozoic Rocks of Kashmir
Palaeozoic succession in Kashmir (Jammu and Kashmir) consists of well-
developed marine fossiliferous rocks ranging from Cambrian to Permian.
However, there are some breaks in the succession. These breaks constitute
disconformities covering Upper Cambrian-Lower Ordovician, Devonian and
Upper Carboniferous. In addition, the succession also bears volcanic rocks in
Permian known as Panjal Trap.
Palaeozoic succession in Kashmir is best exposed in north-western part of
Kashmir in the Lolab valley, notably Handwara and Kupwara regions, Liddar
valley of Anantnag District and PirPanjal Range north of Banihal. The
succession, comprise shales, limestones, sandstones, siltstones and quartzites
with rich assemblages of invertebrates notably, trilobites, brachiopods, corals,
mollusks, bryozoans, conodonts, etc. The uppermost Palaeozoic rocks also
yield the Gondwana plant fossils.
2. PalaeozoicRocks of Spiti
The Spiti valley (Himachal Pradesh) contains a complete, best developed,
folded, marine fossiliferous succession of Palaeozoic age. It is important to note
that Palaeozoic rocks of Spiti are more or less similar to those of Kashmir
except for the absence of Permian volcanic rocks. The unconformities are the
same as in Kashmir which include Upper Cambrian-Lower Ordovician,
Devonian and Upper Carboniferous. A detailed account on the stratigraphy of
Palaeozoic succession of Spiti and Kashmir is presented in Unit 5 of Block 2 of
this course.
3. Gondwana Rocks of Peninsular India
You have read that there are no marine Palaeozoic sediments in peninsular
India except the presence of a few sediments of Cambrian/Permianage in
Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. However, freshwater sediments got deposited
from Upper Palaeozoic (Carboniferous-Permian) onwards and these continued
into Mesozoic in the Pranhita-Godavari, Mahanadi, Damodar and Narmada-
Son-Tapti rift valleys. These rift valleys were developed in response of breaking
of Gondwanan landmasses during Upper Palaeozoic. Sediments deposited in
these rift valleys are collectively known as Gondwana Supergroup. At this
time (i.e., Late Palaeozoic), the continents of Africa, South America, Australia,
Antarctica and subcontinent India were joined together called Gondwana
Supercontinent. This supercontinent was surrounding the South Pole in
Carboniferous-Permian times covering with glaciers. As it started moving away
from the pole, the glaciers started melting. As a result, the succession of the

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Unit 3 Physiography of India
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Gondwana Supergroup, started with glacial deposits and known as Talchir
Formation.

Fig. 3.5: Map showing peninsular and the Himalayan Gondwanan basins of India.
(Source: simplified after Naqvi, 2005)
The Gondwana Supergroup is widely distributed in the peninsular as well as
extra-peninsular regions of India (Fig.3.5). It is dominantly composed of
sandstones and shales with rich coal seams as well as fossil remains of plants
and animals. The Gondwana Supergroup is divided into the Lower Gondwana
Sequence (Upper Palaeozoic) and the Upper Gondwana Sequence (Mesozoic).
The Lower Gondwana Sequence commences with a glacial deposit as you
have read above. As the temperature rapidly increased, there was a
widespread expansion of plants during the greater part of Permian. As a result,
thick deposits of coal were deposited during this time. Of the total production of
Indian coal about 95% comes from the Lower Gondwana Sequence. The rocks
of this sequence have a domination of shales and are best preserved in
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal and northern parts of Andhra Pradesh.
The stratigraphy of the Gondwana Supergroup is discussed in detail in Unit 7 of
Block 2 of this course.
Learners, before discussing about the Mesozoic stratigraphy of India, spend
few minutes to perform an exercise to check your progress.

SAQ 2
a) Name the important cratons of the Indian peninsula.
b) Name the Neo-Proterozoic groups of rocks of the Lesser Himalaya.
c) What is the name and age of volcanic rocks in Palaeozoic of Kashmir?

63
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3.3.3 Mesozoic Stratigraphy
You already know that freshwater Gondwana rocks extend into Mesozoic and
constitute an important element in the peninsular India. Apart from these, the
rocks deposited in marine conditions also occur in the peninsular India. They
constitute the coastal facies of rocks that were deposited as a result of marine
incursions or transgressions along the western and eastern coasts of the
peninsula. These marine incursions took place at different intervals of Jurassic
and Cretaceous, depositing marine rocks in Kachchh in Gujarat, and Jaisalmer
and Barmer in Rajasthan. These rocks were also deposited along the west
coast and in the Cauvery basin in Tamil Nadu along the east coast. In addition,
one incursion during Cretaceous extended almost to the central part of India
along the Narmada region. In the Himalayan region, the marine Permian rocks
pass upwards with a minor break into Triassic followed by Jurassic and
Cretaceous rocks. Let us discuss the Mesozoic rocks of peninsular India and
Himalaya.
1. Mesozoic Rocks of Peninsular India
The highly fossiliferous sediments of Jurassic and Cretaceous age are
deposited in the pericratonic basins located in the western and eastern coasts
as well as central part of the peninsular India. The volcanic rocks of Cretaceous
age occur in the central and eastern peninsular India. These basins are:
 Kachchh Basin: It consists of Mesozoic succession, which comprises rocks
ranging in age from Lower Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous. These rocks are
situated between the Great Rann of Kachchh in the north and the Kathiawar
(Saurashtra) peninsula in the south Gujarat. In Kachchh, the hillocks
projecting out in the Rann are composed of these rocks (Fig. 3.6). The
succession is divided into four formations, namely, Pachcham, Chari,
Katrol, and Umia. The Pachcham, Chari and Karol formations are of
Jurassic age and Umiais of Lower Cretaceous. These rocks are highly
fossiliferous and contain ammonoids, bivalves, brachiopods, echinoids and
some other groups. Similar rocks are also found in Jaisalmer and Barmer
regions of Rajasthan.
 Cauvery Basin: Along the eastern coast, Cretaceous rocks are exposed in
the Cauvery basin in Tamil Nadu and Puducherry (Fig. 3.6). They are
divided into four groups, namely, Uttattur, Trichinopoly, Ariyalur and
Niniyur. Out of these, the Uttattur, Trichinopoly and Ariyalur range from late
Lower to Upper Cretaceous in age while the Niniyur is of Palaeocene. All
these groups are highly fossiliferous and have yielded ammonoids, bivalves,
echinoids, foraminifers, sharks and reptiles. A detailed account on the
Mesozoic stratigraphy of the Kachchh, Jaisalmer and Cauvery basins are
presented in Unit 6 of Block 2 of this course.
 Narmada Basin: The Cretaceous marine rocks are dominantly composed of
fossiliferous limestones in the Narmada valley in the central part of India in
Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat (Fig. 3.6) referred to as Bagh Beds. These
beds are richly fossiliferous and have yielded nautiloids, ammonoids,
bivalves, gastropods and echinoids. Overlying this is a freshwater formation
known as Lameta Formation. Sandstones and limestones are the main rock
types of the formation. This formation is characterised by the presence of
64
Unit 3 Physiography of India
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….….....…
diverse freshwater to terrestrial fauna consisting of fishes, frogs, dinosaurs
and crocodiles.

Fig. 3.6: Map showing major Mesozoic basins of India.

 Upper Gondwana Sequence: You have already read that the Upper
Gondwana Sequence is of Mesozoic age. The rocks of this sequence are
widely distributed in Central India notably in Pranhita–Godavari valley and
Jabalpur region. They are rich in plant fossils constituting Ptilophyllum flora.
 Rajmahal Volcanics: They comprise a series of volcanic lava flows and are
located in the eastern Jharkhand. They are composed dominantly of basalt
and occupy a surface area of about 4100 km2 attaining a maximum
thickness of 600 m. The sedimentary rocks interbedded with the Rajmahal
lava flows yield excellently preserved plant fossils, including flowers, seeds,
etc. They are of Lower Cretaceous age.
 Deccan Volcanics: Towards the end of Cretaceous, peninsular India was
engulfed in a major phase of volcanicity and the lava flows covered a vast
area including Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan (Fig. 3.6). The lavas range up to a
maximum thickness of 2500 m and comprise black or dark gray basalt. Beds
of volcanic ash associated with the lava flows are a very common feature.
There are thin sedimentary beds in between the lava flows which are known
65
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…......
as intertrappean beds. A detailed account on the stratigraphy of the
Gondwana Supergroup and Deccan Traps is presented in Unit 7 of Block 2
of this course.
2. Mesozoic Rocks of Himalaya
Marine Mesozoic rocks are widely distributed in the Tethyan part of the
Himalayan region. Triassic rocks are well developed in the Himalayan region
and widely distributed stretching from Kashmir (Jammu and Kashmir) in the
northwest through Spiti (Himachal Pradesh) to Kumaon (Uttarakhand) in the
south east (i.e. along the Himalayan belt). Triassic rocks are best developed in
the Spiti region and a detailed account on its stratigraphy is presented in Unit 6
of Block 2 of this course.
The Jurassic rocks of Himalaya are represented by highly fossiliferous black
shale named Spiti Shale or Spiti Formation in the Spiti area of Himachal
Pradesh, where it is well developed. This formation contains ammonoids and
bivalves in phosphatic nodules. The Cretaceous sediments are represented by
the Giumal and Chikkim formations, which are sparsely fossiliferous.
3.3.4 Cenozoic Stratigraphy
Marine Cenozoic sediments are exposed in continuation to the Mesozoic rocks
along coastal areas in peninsular India. Freshwater Upper Cenozoic rocks are
also exposed in some parts of the peninsular India. In the Himalayan region,
the lower part of Cenozoic received marine sedimentation, while the upper part
was replaced gradually by freshwater sedimentation. This is because, in the
Early Cenozoic, the Himalayan region was a sea (known as Tethys), but
eventually it got uplifted and finally became a mountain range. The Himalayan
uplift took place in several phases. Earlier, when it was a sea it was receiving
sediment, but when it got uplifted it started providing sediment to the rivers that
flowed from it and new freshwater basins were formed in front of it. Let us
discuss the Cenozoic marine sediments of peninsular India, freshwater and
estuarine sediments of south India and Cenozoic rocks of Himalaya.
1. Cenozoic Marine Sediments of Peninsular India
Lower Cenozoic rocks (Palaeogene and Lower Neogene) are widely distributed
as marginal deposits almost all around the Indian craton. These rocks are
deposited in Kachchh and other western basins including parts of Rajasthan
and mainland Gujarat. Cenozoic rocks in Kachchh display a marine sequence
from Palaeocene to Pliocene. In that respect, this is one of the few areas in
India where such a fossiliferous sequence is exposed.
The outcrops in Rajasthan are confined to three basins from north to south,
namely, Bikaner-Nagaur, Jaisalmer and Barmer. Of these maximum exposures
are present in the Jaisalmer basin. You have already read that in Tamil Nadu
and Puducherry, the Cretaceous marine sequence is unconformably overlain by
the Niniyur Group. It comprises fossiliferous limestone, shelly limestone and
argillaceous nodular limestone and fossils indicating a Palaeocene age.
2. Cenozoic Freshwater and Estuarine Sediments of South India
In Tamil Nadu, the Miocene is represented by rocks that may have originally
been deposited as a continuous cover over the older formations. But it has
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Unit 3 Physiography of India
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since been dissected by streams rendering them as isolated outcrops. Such
outcrops are known as Cuddalore Sandstone. They are widely distributed
from Pudducherry to Thanjavur and Sivaganga and comprising sandstones with
bands of conglomerates and clays, indicating deposition in fluviatile, lacustrine
and estuarine conditions.
3. Cenozoic Rocks of the Himalaya
The Cenozoic rocks in the Himalaya were deposited mainly in the Lesser and
Outer Himalayan regions. In addition, some deposits are also known in the
Tethys Himalaya in Ladakh. In the Lesser Himalaya, Paleocene and Eocene
are represented by marine fossiliferous rocks that extend from Jammu to
Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. These rocks are named as the Subathu
Group. Overlying this is a thick sequence of estuarine and freshwater deposits
of Oligocene-Miocene age named Murree Group.
In Meghalaya and Assam, a thick sequence of marine rocks followed by
freshwater rocks was deposited in Cenozoic times. In Lower Assam, the Barail
Group is one of the thickest units that have a widespread distribution. This
group has an economic importance as it bears coal measures and together with
the overlying Tipam Sandstone is a repository of hydrocarbons.
The emergence of the Himalayan range following the Early Miocene phase of
uplift resulted in the formation of a foreland basin in front of the newly emerged
mountain chain. This basin became the site of extensive deposition of fluviatile
sediments derived from the uplifted regions of the mountain chain. The suite of
sedimentary rocks deposited in this basin has been named as the Siwalik
Group. The main lithology of the Siwalik Group is sandstone-mudstone
alternation while pebbly sandstone and conglomerate predominates towards
the upper part of the sequence. The Siwalik rocks bear a rich vertebrate fauna,
especially mammals and ranging from Middle Miocene to Pleistocene.
The Upper Pliocene to Lower Holocene fluvial, lacustrine, glacial and aeolian
deposits of the Kashmir valley are referred to as Karewa Group. The group
comprises semi-consolidated sand, gravel, silt and clay which bear occasional
lignite seams. A detailed account on the Cenozoic stratigraphy of Himalaya is
presented in Unit 8 Block 2 of this course.
Learners, you have learnt the Precambrian, Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and
Cenozoic stratigraphy of India. Now, spend few minutes to perform an exercise
to check your progress.

SAQ 3
a) Name three groups that are of Cretaceous age in marine coastal sequence
of Tamil Nadu.
b) In the Himalayan region the Middle and Upper Jurassic are represented by
a highly fossiliferous black shale named -----------------------------------------------
c) Name the freshwater formation of Miocene age exposed in Tamil Nadu that
bears lignite.
d) Which group of rocks of Cenozoic age extends from east to west in the
outer Himalaya?
67
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…......

3.4 ACTIVITY
In the given outline map of India (Fig. 3.7), mark and label the following:
1. The physiographic divisions of India: the Himalaya, Indo-Gangetic plains,
desert region, peninsular plateau and coastal regions.
2. Mobile belts and Cratons.
3. Vindhyan, Cuddapah and Chhattisgarh Supergroups.

Fig. 3.7: Outline map of India.

3.5 SUMMARY
Let us now summarise what you have learnt in this unit:
 Physiographically, India comprises three well marked divisions from south to
north, namely, Peninsular plateau, Indo-Gangetic plain and the Himalayan
mountain chain.
 Himalaya can be linearly divided into five parts from north to south. They are
Trans Himalaya, Tethyan domain, Greater Himalaya, Lesser Himalaya and
Outer Himalaya.
 Peninsular plateau is bounded by Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats and
Satpura mountain chain.
 Peninsular shield is composed of cratons such as Dharwar, Bastar,
Singhbhum, Bundelkhand and Aravalli and mobile belts like Eastern Ghat,
Pandyan, Aravalli and Satpura.
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Unit 3 Physiography of India
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….….....…
 Proterozoic sedimentary basins of Peninsula comprise 20% of the Indian
shield.
 Marine Palaeozoic rocks are restricted mainly to the Himalayan region.
 There are three major breaks in Palaeozoic sequence. They are Upper
Cambrian-Lower Ordovician, Devonian and Upper Carboniferous.
 Coastal facies of Mesozoic are best exposed in Kachchh, Western
Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu
 Towards the end of Mesozoic there was a major volcanic outburst in
peninsular India known as the Deccan Traps.
 In the peninsula India, Cenozoic rocks comprise coastal facies while the
Himalaya Palaeogene is marine and Neogene is of freshwater origin.

3.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the physiographic divisions of India.
2. Give an account on the Precambrian cratons and mobile belts of the
peninsular India.
3. Discuss the Proterozoic sedimentary basins of peninsular India.
4. Write an account of the Palaeozoic rocks of India.
5. Discuss the Mesozoic stratigraphy of India.
6. Describe in brief the Cenozoic stratigraphy of the Himalaya.

3.7 REFERENCES
 Kumar, R. (1988) Fundamentals of Historical Geology and Stratigraphy of
India, New Age International Publishers, New Delhi.
 Naqvi, S.M. (2005) Geology and Evolution of the Indian plate (from Hadean
to Holocene – 4Ga to 4Ka), Capital Publishing Company, New Delhi.
 Ramakrishnan, M. and Vaidyanadhan, R. (2008), Geology of India Vol. 1 and
2, Geological Society of India, Bangalore.
 Sharma, R.S. (2009) Cratons and Fold Belts of India, Lecture Notes in Earth
Sciences, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, Germany.

3.8 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Krishnan, M.S. (1949) Geology of India and Burma, The Madras Law Journal
Press, Madras.
 Naqvi, S.M. (2005) Geology and Evolution of the Indian plate (from Hadean
to Holocene – 4Ga to 4Ka), Capital Publishing Company, New Delhi.
 Ramakrishnan, M. and Vaidyanadhan, R. (2008) Geology of India Vol. 1 and
2, Geological Society of India, Bangalore.
 Valdiya, V.S. (2016) The Making of India: Geodynamic Evolution, Society of
Earth Scientists Series, Springer International Publishing Switzerland.
 Wadia, D.N. (1919) Geology of India, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company
Ltd., New Delhi.
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Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…......

3.9 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1. a) Trans Himalaya, Tethyan domain, Greater Himalaya, Lesser Himalaya
and Outer Himalaya.
b) Syntaxial bends.
c) Aravalli Range.
d) Western Ghat, Bay of Bengal.
e) Rann of Kachchh and Sunderbans estuary.
2. a) Dharwar, Bastar, Singhbhum, Bundelkhand and Aravalli.
b) Krol and Blaini groups.
c) Panjal Traps of Permian age.
3. a) Uttattur, Trichinopoly and Ariyalur.
b) Spiti Shale.
c) Cuddalore Sandstone.
d) Siwalik Group.
Terminal Questions
1. Refer to Section 3.2.
2. Refer to sub-section 3.3.1
3. Refer to sub-section 3.3.1
4. Refer to sub-section 3.3.2
5. Refer to sub-section 3.3.3
6. Refer to sub-section 3.3.4

70
 Glossary
Aeolian : Aeolian deposits are sediments, such as loess,
made up of windblown grains of sand and dust,
i.e., winds may transport and deposit materials.

Alluvial Deposits : Detrital material transported by a river and

deposited usually temporarily, at points along the
flood plain of a river. They are composed
commonly of sands and gravels. Many important
minerals occur locally concentrated in alluvial
deposits. They are also known as alluvium.

Apparent Dip : Apparent dip is the amount of dip in any direction

other than that of the true dip.
The value goes on reducing as we move away
from the direction of the true dip and it becomes
zero at right angles to the direction of the true dip.

Arenaceous : Refers to sedimentary rocks and deposits of sand

size particles.

Argillaceous : Refers to rock or sediment in which components

are fine grained and mostly are clay minerals.

Attitude : By attitude we mean how the beds are displayed in

an area. They can be horizontal as they were
originally deposited or they can be tilted and
dipping in a particular direction. The attitude
indicates the amount and direction of the dip, if
any.

Batholiths : A very large emplacement of igneous intrusive

rock that forms from cooled magma at great depth
inside the Earth. Batholiths usually contain a
complex of acid plutonic rocks and are always
related with orogenic belts.

Basin : It is a depressed area like sea, lake or river where

water flows and brings with it the sediment that
gets deposited there.

Beds : They are the smallest layers in a sedimentary

sequence that can be distinctly seen as separate
units. The thickness of a bed varies from one rock
unit to another. Thus, we have terms like thick-
bedded and thin-bedded denoting the nature of
beds in a rock.

71
Biostratigraphic : It is a body or layer of rock sequence characterised
Unit by its content of fossils. Range zone, interval zone,
assemblage zone and abundance zones are the
common biostratigraphic units.

Brunton Compass : It is also known as Brunton Pocket Transit, a type

of compass made by Brunton, Inc of Riverton,
Wyoming. The compass is used by geologists for
making various observations in the field including
recording attitudes of rocks and location of places.

Cambrian : A division of geological time in the Palaeozoic era

between 542 and 488 million years.

Catastrophic Event : Catastrophic event is a sudden, extensive, or

notable disaster that brings about some major
changes.

Chisels : It is a metal tool with a sharp beveled edge, used

to cut or shape rocks, stone, wood or metal.

Concordant : When the beds or rock units are corresponding in

Discordant direction with the underlying and overlying strata
they are referred to as concordant. Conversely,
when they cut across the strata.

Conglomerate : The cemented and rounded fragments of water

worn rock or pebbles which are bound by a
siliceous or argillaceous material. The size of
fragments can vary from large boulders to gravel
so fine that it is almost coarse sand.

Craton : The name is derived from a Greek word meaning

“strength”. It is used to distinguish those portions of
continental crust that are stabilised after a series of
cycles of orogeny (mountain building) and are
composed of crystalline rocks. The term craton is
used against mobile belts, which are still
unstable. The term shield is often used to denote
a region composed of cratons and associated
mobile belts.

Cretaceous : A division of geological time in the Mesozoic Era

between 145 and 65 million years ago.

Deccan Plateau : Deccan plateau is a large plateau in India, located

between the mountain ranges of the Western
Ghats and the Eastern Ghats.

72
Deposition : It is the laying down of material through natural
processes. The natural agencies may comprise
water, wind or glaciers. These agencies bring the
material in suspension or solution and deposit
them in a basin. When the material is brought in
suspension, it is known as sediment and the
process is called sedimentation.

Denudation : It is the sum total of the processes which cause the

wearing away of the land surface. It involves the
processes of weathering, transportation, and
erosion, etc.

Desertification : Refers to the process by which an area becomes a

desert, i.e., a type of land degradation in which a
dry land region becomes increasingly arid.

Dip : It is defined as the angle that a geological feature

(e.g., bed, fault) makes with a horizontal plane. It
means that the angle being measured in a
direction perpendicular to the strike of the plane.

Disposition : Refers to the process in which something is placed

or arranged in relation to other things.

Dolomite : Dolomite is an anhydrous carbonate mineral

composed of calcium magnesium carbonate
CaMg(CO3).

Dunes : In areas having loose, unconsolidated, surface

deposits, e.g., sandy deserts, a well-established
prevailing wind will be able to heap up the sand
into regular accumulations called dunes.

Dyke : A columnar body of igneous rock which cuts

across the bedding or structural planes of the host
rock. Dykes may be composite or multiple and may
be found in association with any larger igneous
body.

Fault : It is a fracture in a rock along which the adjacent

rock surfaces have been differentially displaced

Flora : The naturally occurring native plant life that occurs

in a particular region or time. The equivalent term
for animal life is fauna.

Genus : Genus is a taxonomic rank used in the biological

classification of living and fossil organisms. Its
plural version is genera.

73
Ghats : The word Ghat means a step like mountain. The
English name of Sahyadri is Western Ghats

Gneiss : A variety of rocks having a banded or coarsely

foliated structure which is formed by regional
metamorphism; included under this are a number
of rock types which have different origins.

Granites : A coarse-grained crystalline plutonic rock having

granular texture. It consists essentially of quartz
(20-40%), alkali feldspar, and very commonly a
mica, biotite and/or muscovite. A number of
accessory minerals may be present. Granites
occur exclusively as intrusive bodies.

Hiatus : Refers to a break, a gap or interruption or

discontinuity in the age of strata.

Himalaya : The word Himalaya is derived from Sanskrit word

Him-alaya. Him means snow and alaya means
covered range, which refers to the snow covered
mountain range. Most western writers pluralise it
as “Himalayas”, which is incorrect because the
Sanskrit word itself is pluralised.

Jurassic : A division of geological time in the Mesozoic Era

between 200 and 145 million years ago.

Limestone : It is a sedimentary rock composed mainly of

calcium carbonate (CaCO3), deposited usually
under marine conditions, and composed of
chemically derived lime muds or fossilised shells,
or both.

Lithology : It denotes the physical characteristics of a rock,

like rock type, composition, colour, hardness, and
other distinguishing features.

Lithostratigraphic : They comprise bed, member, formation, group and

Units supergroup, and are classified on the basis of
lithology.

Magma : A naturally occurring molten or semi-molten rock

material which is formed within the crust or upper
mantle of the Earth and may consolidate to form
an igneous rock. It is a complex high temperature
fluid substance.

Mappable units : They constitute a rock type or a set of rock types

that are sufficiently thick and continuous so that
they can be recorded in a map to the scale.

74
Mesozoic : An Era, a division of geological time between 251
and 65 million years ago.

Microfossils : Microfossils are fossils commonly smaller than one

millimeter and not larger than four millimeter. The
study of microfossils requires the use of light or
electron microscopy.

Mishmi Hills : Mishmi hills are in the northeastern part of India in

Arunachal Pradesh and occur at the junction of
Northeastern Himalaya and Indo-Burma ranges.

Orogeny : Orogeny refers to mountain building processes,

i.e., forces and events leading to a large structural
deformation of the Earth’s crust due to the
movement of tectonic plates.

Paleosol : Refers to soils that formed long ago and are

preserved by burial underneath either by
sediments or volcanic deposits.

Permian : A division of geological time in the Palaeozoic Era

between 299 and 251 million years ago.

Physiography : It deals with the physical processes and patterns of

the Earth.

Pyroclastic : Pyroclastic rocks are clastic rocks that are

composed mainly of volcanic material.

Rann of Kachchh : Rann of Kachchh is a salt marsh located in the

Kachchh District of Gujarat, India. It covers a huge
area of around 10,000 square miles and the area
has desert on one side and the sea on the other
side making it an interesting region.

Sandstone : It is a sedimentary rock composed of sand sized

grains of minerals, rock or organic material. It also
contains a cementing material that binds the grains
together.

Sedimentary : It denotes the beds of different sedimentary rocks

Sequence lying one upon the other constituting a series. It is
customary to use the term for a set of rocks that
are available in continuation.

Sedimentary : They are produced during the process of

Structures deposition. They are a result of movement in the

75
 medium that brings the sediment. The common
types of sedimentary structures are ripple marks,
cross-bedding, etc.

Shale : It is a fine grained clastic sedimentary rock

composed of mud mixed with clay minerals along
with silt size particles and other minerals like
quartz and calcite.

Silt : Silt is a sedimentary rock composed of tiny

particles smaller than sand but larger than clay.
Siltstone is consolidated or compacted silt.

Strata : It is the plural of a Latin word Stratum meaning a

layer of rocks. Strata are used for a series of such
layers that are seen in a sequence one above the
other.

Stratified Rocks : These are those that are found in layers. The
name is derived from strata meaning layers. All
rocks produced by sedimentary processes are
usually stratified. In addition some volcanic rocks
can also be stratified.

Stratigraphic : These are major changes that took place in Earth’s

Events history. These changes happen suddenly and alter
the pattern of sedimentation. They also bring about
change in organisms that can be seen from the
fossil content.

Strike : The direction in which a horizontal line could be

drawn on a plane. A strike line is the line joining
points of equal height above or below a datum, on
a planar structure.

Time-rock Unit : It is formally known as a chronostratigraphic unit

consists of all rock strata in the world that were
deposited during a particular interval of time. A
time unit, formally known as a geochronologic unit
indicates an interval of time during which a time
rock unit formed.

Topographical Map : It is a map of an area is one that shows various

locations to the scale with contour lines to denote
the altitudes at different places giving a total
picture of the topography (position of hills and
valleys and other elevation details). Topographical
maps come in various scales. In India these maps
are prepared by the Survey of India and can be
obtained from their offices and sale centres.

True Dip : True dip is the angle of the dip with respect to the

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 horizontal in the exact direction in which the beds
are dipping. It is always the highest value of the
angle of dip.

Ultrabasic Rocks : Igneous rocks which have essentially

ferromagnesian minerals to the virtual exclusion of
quartz, feldspar and feldspathoids. Originally it was
defined as rocks which have less than 45% silica.

Weathering : When rocks are exposed to action of water, air and

other natural agencies like frost action, they break-
up, decompose or dissolve producing small
fragments, soil, etc. This process is known as
weathering. But when this weathered material
gets transported through various agencies like
water, wind and glaciers and deposited
somewhere else, the process is called erosion.

Xenoliths : Refers to an inclusion in an igneous rock in which

it is embedded. It differs in origin, composition,
structure, etc, from the igneous rock enclosing it.

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