Media and Religion
Media and Religion
Media and Religion
MEDIA AND RELIGION . The media have come to play an ever more prominent role in
social and cultural life since the emergence of the so-called "mass media" in the late
nineteenth century. Before that time, even though the media through which social and
cultural knowledge were shared (oral transmission, ritual performance, writing, visual
representation, and printing) were vital, they were more tacit and transparent to the
processes they enabled. Today, in a range of social and cultural contexts, the media are
foregrounded, even determinative.
The mass media emerged as the result of interacting technological and social
developments. Mechanized printing, which developed with the industrial revolution and
found its way into mass-market communication in Britain in the 1870s, brought about major
changes in production, in reception, and in the political economy of media. Mass
production allowed media to be financially supported by advertising instead of direct sales
of newspapers or magazines. The resultant economic logic saw readers as audiences and
sought to maximize their numbers. This coincided with the increasing concentration of
populations in urban settings, removed from the social and cultural supports of the village
and town. These audiences began to be thought of as "mass" audiences, and the content of
media began to reflect more generalized class tastes.
A debate has raged ever since over how the resulting relationship between the mass
audience and the mass media is to be seen. To some observers, the media ideologically
dominate the audience. To others, the media act as a kind of cultural canvas on which is
inscribed the more or less common themes, ideas, and discourses of the culture. To still
others, the media are important as palliatives, replacing the lost connectedness of pre-
industrial village life. For most, the class and taste orientation of mass media necessarily
has meant that they are at least not the preferred communicational context for the authentic
business of the culture.
These structural realities and social assumptions have come to condition the way the media
function in relation to culture, and therefore, religion. The media are connected with
generalized "mass" tastes. They are industrial and technical and thus are seen as artificial
and their abilities to authentically articulate cultural and social artifacts, symbols, and values
are suspect. They are commercial, and thus necessarily traffic in commodified culture and
cultural experience. At the same time, though, they are intrinsically articulated into the fabric
of modernity in ever-deepening ways. Thus, while social and cultural structures and
institutions might wish to exist outside the boundaries of media culture, it is increasingly
difficult for them to do so. These realities define the role that media play in the evolution of
modern and late-modern religious institutions and practices.
The role of the media is not only social-structural, it is also geographic and
semiotic/aesthetic. And, as the scholarly study of the interaction between religion and media
has developed in recent years, it has become obvious that these three aspects of
mediatization interact in interesting ways in the formation of the religious-media landscape.
A phenomenology of media and religion in the twenty-first century would see media and
religion in a number of different relationships.
Religion Using Media
There is of course a long and deep history of mediation of religion. Various religions have
been typified by means of their relationship to various media. It is commonplace to think of
the development of the religions of the modern West as having been affected in major ways
by moveable-type printing. In the twentieth century, a number of religions developed
specific and particular relationships to the mass media. In most cases, these relationships
were defined by the assumption of a kind of dualism, separating the "sacred" sphere of
authentic religious history, claims, faith, and practice, from a "profane" sphere represented
by the media. Islam, for example, is widely thought to eschew mass mediation, and
particularly mediated visual depiction. The asceticism of Buddhism is also thought to
separate it from a media sphere dominated by materiality and material concerns. Jewish
scholarship has stressed the importance of "the book," but has tended to think that other
modes of communication and representation were less worthy.
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At the same time that Christian thought has assumed the sacred-profane dualism,
Christianity in the modern and late-modern West has come to exhibit a range of responses
and relationships to mass media, and the Christian relationship has come to be in some
ways definitive, due to the fact that the media of the Christian West have come to dominate
the media worldwide (a situation that has begun to change in small ways). Christian groups
were among the earliest publishers in both Europe and North America. The evangelical
impulse in Christianity seems, over time, to have given it a particular cultural interest in
publication. All Christian groups (and most non-Christian groups and other religious
movements in Europe and North America) have historically produced printed materials such
as tracts, pamphlets, newsletters, magazines, Sunday school materials, and books.
Missions programs, including Bible societies, have also been prolific publishers.
The nonprint media have been a less comfortable context for most religions, however. In
the twentieth century, as the establishment religions of Europe and North America
confronted the emergence of the mass media, these groups began a struggle for definition
and cultural ascendancy that continues unabated. The dualist assumption brings with it a
suspicion of the media of the "profane" sphere. While the medium of print has long been
understood by religions to be an appropriate context for the conveyance of religious ideas
and values, the succeeding waves of non-print "new" media have been seen differently.
Probably as a result of their association with secular entertainment and thus secular values,
film, broadcasting, television, and digital media has, in its turn, met with suspicion on the
part of religion and religious authorities.
The most significant exception to this has been the case of Evangelical Protestantism.
Beginning with the earliest days of radio, Fundamentalist and later Evangelical individuals
and groups have seen great promise in these new technologies. It can even be argued that
through the careful use of film, radio, and television, that what now is known as "neo-
Evangelicalism" found its place in the religious landscape. Billy Graham, for example, who
became one of the most significant Evangelical leaders of the twentieth century, was an
active producer of media of all kinds, and is widely regarded as having risen to prominence
in part as a "media figure." This further suggests a central role for mass media in religious
evolution, as the mediation of Graham and the Evangelical movement generally played a
large part in establishing their legitimacy. The phenomenon of televangelism, which
emerged in the 1970s in North America and then spread, as a form, to much of the world,
further contributed to the definition of religious and political landscapes. Such use of media
by religion is not without its dangers, however. As a number of scholars have noted, religion
has had to make compromises in order to fit into the structural and other conditions and
limitations of the media form.
In the case of North America, religion has not necessarily been part of that mix. For most of
the twentieth century, religion was seen by journalism to be a story of religious institutions
and their practices and prerogatives. At the same time, these institutions were treated with
deference, when treated at all. There was much evidence that religious institutions, at least,
were of fading importance as the century progressed, and journalism generally assumed
that secularization was moving ahead apace. It was not until late in the century that religion
came to be seen as "hard" news, largely as the result of news events such as the Islamic
Revolution in Iran in 1979, the rise of traditionalist religious movements worldwide, and the
emergence of Evangelicalism as a political force in North America. The terrorist attacks of
September 11, 2001, on New York, Washington, D.C., and Pennsylvania, put religion much
more squarely on the "news agenda," with increasing coverage of religion per se among
European and North American journalism.
In entertainment television, a range of new programs and series began to appear in the
1990s, featuring both explicitly and implicitly religious themes. Globally syndicated U.S.
programs such as Touched by an Angel, The X-Files, Buffy: Vampire Slayer, The
Simpsons, and Northern Exposure integrated a wide range of religious sensibilities, from
traditional, to spiritual, to New Age, to Pagan and Wiccan. The situation became even more
diverse in the digital media of the internet.
These trends resulted from changes in both religion and the media. For the media, rapid
change in the structure and regulation of the electronic and digital media led to an
exponential increase in the ubiquity and number of such channels fed into homes
worldwide. A simultaneous increase in the differentiation of printed media into smaller and
smaller "niche" markets meant that the media were both motivated to seek out new content
and audiences, and to become increasingly able to provide material suiting specialized
tastes. At the same time, religion was also undergoing great change, described in the case
of North America as a "restructuring" that de-emphasized the traditional religious
institutions. At the same time, religion increasingly became focused in the religious
practices and meaning quests of individuals.
In Writing Women's Worlds, I suggested that we could write critical ethnographies that went
"against the grain" of global inequalities, even as we had to remain modest in our claims to
radicalism and realistic about the impacts of these ethnographies. Television, I believe, is
particularly useful for writing against the grain because it forces us to represent people in
distant villages as part of the same cultural worlds we inhabit—worlds of mass media,
consumption, and dispersed communities of the imagination. To write about television in
Egypt, or Indonesia, or Brazil is to write about the articulation of the transnational, the
national, the local, and the personal. Television is not the only way to do this, of
course … [b]ut television makes it especially difficult to write as if culture and
cultures … were the most powerful ways to make sense of the world. (Lila Abu-Lughod,
1999, pp. 110–135)
On the global level, media and religion interact in events such as the national and
international experience of the September 11 attacks and their aftermath. The direct
experience of the attacks was mediated, and the fact that the attacks in New York took
place in the world's leading media center made the images available and accessible, live
and in real time. Whatever national and international processes of existential reflection and
ritual mourning ensued, those processes were largely mediated as well. Media were also
implicated in the widespread impression of distance and misunderstanding that was
invoked. The media should be the primary means by which the developed West knows the
Islamic East and vice versa. That the Islamic East was self-defined in large measure by
religious identity places the media at the center of whatever misunderstanding may have led
to or exacerbated the attacks. Further, a measure of the Islamic critique of Western culture
is rooted in a moral reaction to the profanity and licentiousness found in the largely
American popular culture that floods the developing world. Thus the media are taken to
represent religious culture whether they intend to or not. Finally, the media were and are the
primary context for the national and global rituals of commemoration and mourning around
the event, thus assuming a role not unlike a "civil religion" in this regard.
The second of these trends is reflexivity. Prominent theorists of late modernity recognize the
role of mediation in the encouragement of a reflexive mode of consciousness. Reflexivity
results from the access to sources and contexts of knowledge that offer individuals a self-
consciousness of place that is historically unprecedented. With this reflexive knowledge
comes a sense of autonomy in spheres of normative action, including self and identity. In
late modernity, mediation plays a major role in our knowledge of place and location, and
thus is implicated in important ways in the reflexivity that today defines much of the religious
quest for self and identity.
Finally, globalization and what is coming to be called "glocalization," the blending of a global
concept to a local application, are definitive trends. The media are major global and
globalizing industries, of course, but their implications extend well beyond their structural
and economic relations. To the extent that globalization is a fact, it results in large measure
from the capabilities of the media to provide global interconnectivity, socially, culturally, and
religiously. The media are, after all, "consciousness industries," and among their capabilities
is the conveyance of cultural symbols, forms, and texts related to the deepest human
desires for connection and belonging. They can transcend space and time, and frequently
do provide, for a variety of "imagined communities," a connectivity across space and time
that is unprecedented in its depth and speed.
Increasingly, the media can be seen to be active in the negotiative frameworks that underlie
glocalization as well. The media are no longer thought of as determinative or dominant, as
noted. Instead, they provide, to reflexive individuals and communities, senses of the
structured relations of local, national, and global life, and symbolic and other resources
relevant to making sense of that life. This involves the constructive negotiation of that
consciousness, those contexts and those resources. What results is an imbrication of the
global and the local, a reflexive consciousness of place within those frameworks, and
senses of self and group identity relevant to this awareness. Religion is a fundamental
quest, as well as an important dimension of these relations. Thus religion and mediation
interact in fundamental ways in the ongoing development of global and glocal
consciousness.
But the globalized world is not only a place of harmony, it is also a place of conflict and
struggle. Among the social and cultural relations increasingly accessible today are those
between conflicting worldviews. In the case of religion, the media can and do offer much
information about the religious "other," but that does not necessarily lead to increased
understanding. The Anglican Church, for example, learned during their struggles over gay
ordination in the early part of the twenty-first century, that a global media context made
those deliberations accessible worldwide, increasing the intra-communal tension as African
Anglicans could have real-time access to the debates taking place among North-American
Anglicans. As globalization and glocalization move ahead, international media will continue
to place before religion challenges to self-understanding and inter-religious understanding.
The third effect of media on religion is in the consumption and reception of religious
symbols and discourses. The secular media define the terms of access for religious and
spiritual material as it enters the public sphere. In the field of contemporary Christian music,
for example, the ability of religiously motivated musicians to "cross over" into the
mainstream, a desire by some, is constrained by a set of expectations established by the
conditions under which the public, secular, mass media operate. The primary one is the
expectation that to be public, such material must appeal to general as opposed to narrower,
sectarian tastes. In both popular music and book publishing, separate "lists" continue to be
maintained.
The fourth effect, then, is that in this and many other ways, religions can no longer control
their own stories if they wish to be present in the public sphere and in public discourse. The
terms of reference, the language, the visual and linguistic symbols, and the conditions
under which religion becomes public are all matters determined by media practice. It is
possible for religious groups and individuals to remain separate from this process, but they
then surrender opportunities to be part of the public culture. Even groups that aspire to
separation, such as the Amish, find it increasingly difficult to do so.
This relates to a fifth effect, that it is no longer possible for religions to retain zones of
privacy around themselves. Increasingly, and as a result of the reflexivity of late-modern
consciousness, individuals today expect a level of openness from public institutions. As
religious groups and movements interact with the commercial and governmental spheres,
they begin taking on the attributes of publicness and are thus seen to be subject to media
scrutiny, journalistic and otherwise. Both the Roman Catholic Church, in its struggles over
scandals and vocations crises, and the Anglican Communion (and other Protestant bodies)
as they face the question of gay rights, have found that the conversation is not and cannot
be a private one any more.
A sixth effect is that, as was noted earlier, the media bring individuals the religious and
spiritual "other." In the context of globalization/glocalization, this is felt in the increasing
cross-national and cross-cultural exchange of information, symbols, images, and ideas,
circulated through journalism, through popular culture, and through the personal media of
the digital age. In the context of the increasing international flow of persons, both through
travel and through immigration, the media have become active in providing information
about the "others" who are now arriving next door or in the next town. The media are now
becoming the authoritative context for interreligious contact and dialog. At the same time,
they can and do provide information about some traditions that other traditions find to be
scandalous.
A seventh effect of media has been discussed in some detail already. That is that the media
are today a major source of religious and spiritual resources to the "seeking" and "questing"
sensibilities that increasingly define religion in the developed West. This is related to an
eighth effect, that it has been suggested that the media have the potential to support the
development of "new" or "alternative" religions. This has been thought by some to be a
particular potential of the new digital media. The Internet provides opportunities for
interactive relations among focused networks of like-minded people. Thus they might well
be a context where those networks could develop into religious movements of their own.
This of course remains to be seen.
Finally, an effect of media on religion is the central role that the media play in national and
global rituals around major public events. Beginning with the Kennedy assassination and
continuing through royal weddings and funerals, crises such as the Challenger, Columbia,
and Columbine tragedies, the death of the Diana, Princess of Wales, and of course the
September 11 attacks, the media have come to accept a central role in a new civil religion
of commemoration and mourning.
The relationship between media and religion is a profound, complex, and subtle one. While
the media have grown in cultural importance over the past century, and religious institutions
and movements have contemplated how to respond and experimented with ways of
accommodating to this new reality, a relationship has developed that now determines, in
important ways, the prospects and prerogatives of religion into the twenty-first century.
MEDIA DAN AGAMA
MEDIA DAN AGAMA. Media telah memainkan peran yang semakin menonjol dalam
kehidupan sosial dan budaya sejak munculnya apa yang disebut "media massa"
pada akhir abad kesembilan belas. Sebelum waktu itu, meskipun media melalui mana
pengetahuan sosial dan budaya dibagikan (transmisi lisan, pertunjukan ritual,
tulisan, representasi visual, dan pencetakan) sangat penting, mereka lebih diam-diam
dan transparan terhadap proses yang mereka aktifkan. Saat ini, dalam berbagai
konteks sosial dan budaya, media berada di depan, bahkan menentukan.
Media massa muncul sebagai hasil interaksi perkembangan teknologi dan sosial.
Pencetakan mekanis, yang berkembang dengan revolusi industri dan menemukan
jalannya ke komunikasi pasar massal di Inggris pada tahun 1870-an, membawa
perubahan besar dalam produksi, penerimaan, dan ekonomi politik media. Produksi
massal memungkinkan media untuk didukung secara finansial oleh iklan daripada
penjualan langsung surat kabar atau majalah. Logika ekonomi yang dihasilkan
melihat pembaca sebagai audiens dan berusaha memaksimalkan jumlah mereka. Ini
bertepatan dengan meningkatnya konsentrasi populasi di lingkungan perkotaan,
terlepas dari dukungan sosial dan budaya desa dan kota. Audiens ini mulai dianggap
sebagai audiens "massa", dan konten media mulai mencerminkan selera kelas yang
lebih umum.
Perdebatan telah berkecamuk sejak itu tentang bagaimana hubungan yang
dihasilkan antara khalayak massa dan media massa harus dilihat. Bagi sebagian
pengamat, media secara ideologis mendominasi khalayak. Bagi orang lain, media
bertindak sebagai semacam kanvas budaya yang di atasnya digoreskan tema, ide,
dan wacana budaya yang kurang lebih sama. Bagi yang lain lagi, media penting
sebagai paliatif, menggantikan keterhubungan yang hilang dari kehidupan desa pra-
industri. Bagi sebagian besar, orientasi kelas dan selera media massa tentu berarti
bahwa mereka setidaknya bukan konteks komunikasi yang disukai untuk bisnis
budaya yang otentik.
Realitas struktural dan asumsi sosial ini telah mengkondisikan cara fungsi media
dalam kaitannya dengan budaya, dan oleh karena itu, agama. Media terhubung
dengan selera "massa" yang digeneralisasi. Mereka bersifat industri dan teknis dan
dengan demikian dipandang sebagai buatan dan kemampuan mereka untuk secara
otentik mengartikulasikan artefak budaya dan sosial, simbol, dan nilai-nilai yang
dicurigai. Mereka komersial, dan dengan demikian tentu saja lalu lintas dalam budaya
yang dikomodifikasi dan pengalaman budaya. Namun, pada saat yang sama, mereka
secara intrinsik diartikulasikan ke dalam struktur modernitas dengan cara yang
semakin dalam. Jadi, sementara struktur dan institusi sosial dan budaya mungkin
ingin ada di luar batas budaya media, semakin sulit bagi mereka untuk
melakukannya. Realitas ini menentukan peran yang dimainkan media dalam evolusi
institusi dan praktik keagamaan modern dan akhir-modern.
Peran media tidak hanya sosial-struktural, tetapi juga geografis dan
semiotik/estetika. Dan, seiring dengan berkembangnya studi ilmiah tentang interaksi
antara agama dan media dalam beberapa tahun terakhir, menjadi jelas bahwa ketiga
aspek mediasi ini berinteraksi dengan cara yang menarik dalam pembentukan
lanskap media-religius. Sebuah fenomenologi media dan agama di abad kedua puluh
satu akan melihat media dan agama dalam sejumlah hubungan yang berbeda.