INGLES MEDICO II_CLASE 3

VOCABULARY OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Respiratory apparatus: set of organs of respiration.

Nasal cavity: chamber of the nose.

Oral cavity: chamber of the mouth.

Epiglottis: fold of cartilage that closes the glottis during swallowing.

Trachea: tube connecting the larynx to the bronchi.

Cartilage: crest that separates the openings of the right and left bronchi.

Left lung: left respiratory organ.

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Oblique fissure: separation between the two pulmonary lobes.

Diaphragm: large, thin muscle that separates the chest from the abdomen.

Oesophagus: part of the digestive tract between the pharynx and the cardia of the stomach.

Alveoli: small pulmonary cavity where gas exchange takes place.

Right lung: right respiratory organ.

Right bronchus: tube connecting the larynx to the lungs.

Terminal bronchiole: division of the bronchus that ends in a cluster of alveoli.

Larynx: voice organ situated between the pharynx and the trachea.

Pharynx: part of the digestive tube between the mouth and the oesophagus.

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 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

STRUCTURE OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The respiratory system is made up of air passages through the nose, a tube called the wind-pipe
or trachea, and the lungs. The lungs are situated in a space inside the chest called the thoracic
cavity. The walls of this space are supported by the ribs and its floor is a sheet of muscle called
the diaphragm.

The inner surface of the thoracic cavity and the outer surface of the lungs are covered with a shiny
slippery skin called the pleural membrane. It produces pleural fluid. This fluid acts as a lubricant,
reducing friction as the lungs rub against the ribs during breathing.

Air breathed in through the nose is warmed, made moist, and has dust and germs removed from
it before it reaches the lungs. The air passages down to the lungs are lined with a carpet of
microscopic hairs called cilia. Between the cilia are cells which produce sticky liquid called mucus
in which germs and dust are trapped. Cilia wave back and forth like oars, moving the mucus with
trapped germs and dust up to the throat, where it is swallowed.

The wind-pipe has walls supported by curved strips of cartilage. These hold the wind-pipe open
even when the neck is bent. The voice box or larynx, is at the top of the trachea. Membranes
called vocal cords are attached to the sides of the voice box. Normally these membranes are
slack and air passes soundlessly between them. But when muscles pull them taut and air is forced
between them, they vibrate and make sounds which form the voice.

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At its base the wind-pipe divides into two tubes called bronchi. One bronchus leads into each
lung. Inside the lungs the bronchi divide like the branches of a tree into extremely narrow tubes
called bronchioles. The smallest bronchioles have muscles in their walls which can make them
wider or narrower, thereby altering the rate of air flow in and out of the lungs.

Bronchioles end in tiny bubble-like air sacs called alveoli. Each alveolus is about 0,2 mm in
diameter and there are about 300 million in a set of human lungs. Alveoli give the lungs a spongy
texture. A network of capillaries surrounds each alveolus. The blood in these capillaries absorbs
oxygen from air breathed into the alveoli, and releases carbon dioxide into the air breathed out,
of the alveoli.

BREATHING

Air is moved in and out of the lungs by the action of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles.

Inspiration (breathing in)

The diaphragm is dome-shaped and relaxed before a breath is taken. During the first stage of
breathing in, the diaphragm contracts and becomes flatter in shape. At the same time, external
intercostal muscles contract, pulling the ribs upwards so that they pivot where they join the
backbone. The flattening of the diaphragm and the lifting of the rib cage increase the volume of
the thoracic cavity. This is automatically followed by an increase in lung volume. The increase in
volume reduces air pressure inside the lungs, and air rushes into them from the atmosphere
through the air passages.

Expiration (breathing out)

The diaphragm and external intercostal muscles relax. The rib cage drops and the diaphragm
returns to its original dome shape. These movements reduce the volume of the thoracic cavity
and the lungs return to their original volume. These squeezes air out of the lungs through the air

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passages. Air can be forced out of the lungs by contracting the internal intercostal muscles. This
happens, for example, when playing a wind instrument.

At rest, an adult breathes about 16-18 times a minute, using the diaphragm alone. During exercise
this rate increases, and the intercostal muscles are used to increase the volume of each lung.
This supplies the muscles with extra oxygen and removes carbon dioxide more quickly. The
external intercostal muscles raise the rib cage and the internal intercostal muscles lower the rib
cage, forcing air from the lungs.

LUNG VOLUME, BREATHING RATE, AND ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION

Lung volume

The total average volume of human lungs is 4,5 liters in females and 5,5 liters in males. But in
normal breathing, only 500 cm3, or half a liter, of air is breathed in and out. This is called tidal
air.

The greatest amount of air which can be inhaled into and forced out of the lungs is called the vital
capacity of the lungs. Vital capacity varies between 4 and 5 liters, depending among age and
fitness. It is greatly increased by regular strenuous exercise.

No matter how hard you try it is impossible to force all the air from your lungs. The remaining 1 to
1,5 liters which cannot be exhaled is called residual air. Residual air is not stagnant; it is mixed
with inhaled air at each breath.

Regulation of breathing rate

An adult at rest breathes about 16 to 18 times a minute. This rate is increased by exercise,
disease, and shocks such as pain or sudden chill. Breathing can be increased or decreased at
will but normally it is controlled by two unconscious mechanisms which work together.

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Nervous Control of breathing: Breathing rate is controlled by the part of the brain called the
respiratory centre. This centre controls the diaphragm and intercostal muscles and it is
connected to nerves called stretch receptors in the walls of the bronchioles and alveoli. As the
lungs fill with air, these receptors are stretched and send off many nerve impulses to the
respiratory centre. When the lungs are deflated the receptors are relaxed and send out few
impulses. The number of impulses from the stretch receptors provides the respiratory centre with
information about the amount of air in the lungs. It uses this information to increase or decrease
the rate of breathing and volume of each breath according to the body`s oxygen needs.

Chemical control of breathing: The respiratory centre is sensitive to changes in the amount of
carbon dioxide present in the blood. During exercise there is a rise in the level of blood carbon
dioxide owing to the increase respiration in the muscles. The respiratory centre detects this rise
and automatically increases the depth and rate of breathing. This removes the excess carbon
dioxide from the body and at the same time provides it with extra oxygen for respiration in the
muscles.

Certain arteries in the neck contain nerve cells sensitive to changes in the amount of oxygen in
the blood. At high altitudes, for instance, low air pressure can greatly reduce the rate at which
oxygen is absorbed into the blood. This is detected by the nerve cells which send impulses to the
respiratory centre, resulting in an increased rate of breathing.

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Artificial respiration

It is often possible to restore normal breathing in someone rescued from drowning, for example,
or who has received an electric shock, by various methods of artificial respiration. One of the most
successful methods is called mouth-to-mouth resuscitation.

Mountain sickness

Air pressure, and the amount of oxygen available, is reduced as a climber ascends a mountain
or as an airplane gains altitude. Above 3000 m lack of oxygen makes clear thinking difficult and
can cause giddiness or sickness, and above 6000 m it can cause permanent damage to the brain.

But the body can adapt to these conditions. Mountain people who live most of their lives above
3000 m have larger lungs, breathe more deeply, and have more red blood cells and a greater
output of blood from the heart than people who live at sea level.

GASEOUS EXCHANGE

The body absorbs oxygen from the air and at the same time it releases into the air carbon dioxide
produced by respiration. In other words, the body “exchanges gases” with the atmosphere. The
technical name for this process is gaseous exchange, and it takes place within the alveoli of the
lungs.

Absorption of oxygen

Blood entering the capillaries of the lungs is deoxygenated; that is, it contains no oxygen. This is
because haemoglobin in its red cells has released all its oxygen to the cells of the body. But air
breathed from the atmosphere into the alveoli is rich in oxygen. This oxygen dissolves in a film of
water lining the alveoli, then diffuses through the alveoli and capillary walls, a distance of only
0.005 mm, into the blood. Here, it combines with haemoglobin in the red cells making
oxyhaemoglobin.

The capillaries that cover the alveoli walls are narrower in diameter than red blood cells. The red
cells are squeezed out of shape as they are forced through the lung capillaries by blood pressure.
This helps oxygen absorption in two ways. First, it causes a large area of each red cell to be
pressed against capillary walls through which oxygen is diffusing. Second, red cells, are slowed
down as they squeeze through the capillaries, thus increasing the time available for oxygen
absorption. By the time blood leaves the lung capillaries it is oxygenated.

Release of carbon dioxide

Blood entering the lung capillaries is full of carbon dioxide which it has collected from respiring
cells on its journey around the body. Most of the carbon dioxide is dissolved in the plasma either
in the form of sodium bicarbonate or carbonic acid. A little carbon dioxide is transported by red
cells as a substance called carbamino-haemoglobin.

As blood enters the lungs an enzyme in the red cells causes chemical reactions which break
down sodium bicarbonate and carbamino-haemoglobin, releasing carbon dioxide gas. This gas
diffuses through the capillary and alveoli walls into the film of water and then into the alveoli.
Finally, it is removed from the lungs during breathing out.

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Key words Useful Verbs
air passages: vías respiratorias rub: friccionar, rozar
trachea (medical term): tráquea breathe: respirar
wind-pipe (lay term): tráquea wave back: agitarse
diaphragm: diafragma swallow: tragar
pleural membrane: membrana pleural pull: tirar
lung: pulmón release:liberar, soltar
bronchus (singular): bronquio increase: aumentar
bronchi (plural): bronquios decrease: disminuir, reducir
alveolus (singular): alveolo squeeze out: eliminar
alveoli (plural): alveolus supply: suministrar
bronchioles: bronquiolos remove: remover
throat: garganta raise: elevar
larynx: laringe force: forzar, empujar
vocal cords: cuerdas vocales stretch: estirar
air flow: flujo de aire send: enviar, transmitir
breathing in (inspiration): inspiración absorb:absorber, asimilar
breathing out (expiration): espiración diffuse: difundir, esparcir
rib cage: caja torácica
air pressure: presión de aire
lung volume: volumen pulmonar
tidal air: volumen corriente

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vital capacity: capacidad vital
residual air: volumen residual
breathing rate: frecuencia respiratoria
respiratory centre: centro respiratorio
stretch receptors: receptores de estiramiento
gaseous exchange: intercambio gaseoso