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    The Endocrine System: Did You Know

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    mir-medicina
    The endocrine system consists of glands that produce hormones which act as chemical messengers throughout the body. The hormones are released into the bloodstream and elicit slow, prolonged responses in target cells. Some of the major endocrine glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pancreas, ovaries, and testes. Hormones can have synergistic, antagonistic, or permissive effects and are regulated through negative feedback loops. Common endocrine disorders include hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, and goiter.

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    The Endocrine System: Did You Know

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    mir-medicina
    140 views40 pages
    The endocrine system consists of glands that produce hormones which act as chemical messengers throughout the body. The hormones are released into the bloodstream and elicit slow, prolonged responses in target cells. Some of the major endocrine glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pancreas, ovaries, and testes. Hormones can have synergistic, antagonistic, or permissive effects and are regulated through negative feedback loops. Common endocrine disorders include hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, and goiter.

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    The endocrine system consists of glands that produce hormones which act as chemical messengers throughout the body. The hormones are released into the bloodstream and elicit slow, prolonged responses in target cells. Some of the major endocrine glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pancreas, ovaries, and testes. Hormones can have synergistic, antagonistic, or permissive effects and are regulated through negative feedback loops. Common endocrine disorders include hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, and goiter.

    Copyright:

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    Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as ppt, pdf, or txt
    140 views40 pages

    The Endocrine System: Did You Know

    Uploaded by

    mir-medicina
    The endocrine system consists of glands that produce hormones which act as chemical messengers throughout the body. The hormones are released into the bloodstream and elicit slow, prolonged responses in target cells. Some of the major endocrine glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pancreas, ovaries, and testes. Hormones can have synergistic, antagonistic, or permissive effects and are regulated through negative feedback loops. Common endocrine disorders include hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, and goiter.

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    The Endocrine System:

    Did you know…


    • adrenal glands produce
    the greatest number of
    hormones
    • smallest endocrine
    gland = parathyroid
    • largest pure endocrine
    gland = thyroid
    • endocrine gland
    proportionately largest
    at birth = thymus
    What are hormones?
    • Hormon = “to excite”
    – “troph” = to nourish,
    grow, change
    • Chemical messengers
    • Target most cells in the
    body
    – Note: endocrine system
    is not continuous
    • Endocrine glands
    produce
    – Vs. exocrine glands
    – Parenchyma (function)
    vs. stroma (form)
    What do they do?
    • Alter activity
    (metabolism) of target cell
    • Alter PM permeability or
    voltage
    • Stimulates production of
    proteins/enzymes
    • Activates/deactivates
    enzymes
    • Stimulates mitosis
    • Induces secretory activity
    How does the endocrine sys.
    compare to the nervous sys.?
    • Slow messages
    • Prolonged,
    continued response
    • Via blood
    • Can continue to
    adapt/respond to
    conditions for day or
    even weeks
    • Often general,
    widespread effects
    on many organs
    What are the types of
    hormones?
    • Eicosanoids
    (paracrines)
    • Monoamines
    • Steroids
    • Peptides
    What are the types of hormones?

    • Eicosanoids
    (paracrines)
    – More localized,
    lipids
    – Not true hormones
    – Leukotrines
    (inflammation)
    – Prostaglandins
    • Inc. bp, dec. uterine
    contractions,
    enhance clotting, etc.
    What are the types
    of hormones?
    • Biogenic amines
    – AKA monoamines
    – From tyrosine (except
    melatonin from
    tryptophan)
    – Includes some
    neurotransmitters
    • NE, epinephrine,
    dopamine
    (catecholamines)
    – NE from SNS, E from
    adrenal medulla
    – Also thyroid hormones
    (TH)
    What are the types
    of hormones?
    • Steroids
    – From cholesterol: lipid sol.
    – Sex steroids
    – Corticosteroids (cortisol,
    aldosterone, etc.)
    • Passes through PM
    – travel to cell via transport
    protein
    • proteins extend half-life
    – Bind to DNA receptor in
    nucleus
    • Activates transcription
    • 3 binding sites on DNA
    receptor molecule
    – Hormone
    – Chromatin acceptor site
    – DNA activation site
    – lipid-soluble hormone animat
    ion
    What are the types
    of hormones?
    • Peptides
    – 3 to 200 aa’s
    • ADH, oxytocin
    – All releasing/inhibiting
    from hypothalamus
    • Most from anterior
    pituitary
    – Bind to PM receptor
    • Can’t pass through PM
    • Act through secondary
    messengers
    – peptide hormone activity
    How do secondary messengers
    work again?
    • cAMP
    – Hormone binds to G
    protein
    – Activates adenylate
    cyclase
    • causes cAMP production
    – cAMP
    activates/deactivates
    kinases
    • By contrast: T3, T4 (direct cell
    entry, no secondary messenger)
    – binds to:
    • mitochondria
    – Stimulates oxidative
    metabolism
    • Ribosomes
    – Stimulates translation
    • Nucleus
    – Stimulates transcription
    – Na+-K+ pump controlled this
    way
    What are the mechanisms of hormonal action?

    • Only cells w/
    appropriate
    receptors
    respond to
    hormone
    – These are target
    cells
    – Receptors on
    PM, nucleus,
    mitochondria,
    other organelles
    What are the mechanisms
    of hormonal action?
    • Receptors
    – Specificity
    – Saturation
    – Amplification
    – Up-regulation
    • More receptors
    • Greater sensitivity
    • Oxytocin receptors in late
    pregnancy
    – Down-regulation
    • Fewer receptors
    • Response to high concentrations
    • Adipocytes & insulin
    How do hormones interact with
    each other?
    • Synergistic effects • Antagonistic effects
    – Greater than sum – Opposing actions
    – FSH + testosterone =
    – Insulin vs. glucagon
    adequate sperm
    production – Estrogen vs.
    • Permissive effects prolactin
    – Hormone enhances
    target’s response to
    second hormone
    • Estrogen stimulates up
    regulation of
    progesterone receptors
    What is the pituitary gland?
    • Hypothalamus secretes:
    releasing/inhibiting hormones
    • Hypophysis = _______________
    • No nerve connection to
    adenohypophysis (anterior
    __________)
    • Releasing and inhibiting
    hormones sent via blood
    • hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal
    system
    What is the hypothalamus-hypophysis axis?
    • Better question:
    • What IS an axis?

    • Let’s look at the portal


    system…
    What is the hypothalamus-hypophysis axis?
    What is the hypothalamus-hypophysis axis?

    • Neurohypophysis—
    not a true gland
    (posterior
    _________)
    • Mass of axons from
    hypothalamus
    • Hypothalamo-
    hypophyseal
    tract
    • Hormones
    stored in
    neurohypophysi
    s
    • Oxytocin
    • ADH
    • Nerve signal
    stimulates
    release
    Anterior pituitary hormones
    Hormone Target cell(s) Action
    Follicle-stimulating Ovaries, testes Stim egg dev.
    hormone (FSH) (A gonadotropin) Stim. Sperm prod.
    Luteinizing hormone Ovaries, testes Stim. Egg release & corpus
    (LH) (a gonadotropin) luteum to release progesterone
    Peak at mid-menstrual Stim. Interstitial testicular
    cycle cells to release testosterone

    Thyroid-stimulating Thyroid gland Stim. thyroid growth and


    hormone (TSH) hormone secretion
    (metabolism)
    Adrenocorticotropic Adrenal cortex Reg. Stress response
    hormone (ACTH) Pancreas (insulin Stim. Ad. cortex to secrete
    release) glucocorticoids (glucose, fat
    and protein metabolism)
    Anterior pituitary hormones
    Hormone Target cell(s) Action
    Prolactin (PRL) Mammary Stim. milk synthesis after birth
    glands Sensitizes testes to testosterone
    Testes (permissive)

    Growth Hormone Many Stim. Hyperplasia (growth by


    (GH) or Esp. liver mitosis) and hypertrophy (growth by
    Somatotropin Secreted mainly increase in cell size) of tissues
    at night Increases fatty acid metabolism,
    decreases muscle uptake of glucose
    Liver: stim. Somatomedins
    production (insulin-like growth
    factors, IGF); this stim. fat, cartilage,
    bone, tissue
    Bone growth at epiphyseal plates
    What does the posterior pituitary secrete?
    • ADH--antidiuretic hormone
    – AKA vasopressin
    • Causes vasoconstriction at very
    high levels
    – Inc. water retention (lower urine vol.)
    – Prevent dehydration
    • Oxytocin
    – Stims uterine contractions
    – Stims milk secretion after birth
    • Nerve system stimulation controls
    both
    – Nursing stimulus
    – Osmoreceptors in blood vessels detect
    inc. osmolarity and stim. ADH
    – Stretching of baroreceptors inhibits
    ADH
    How do negative feedback loops
    control secretion?
    • Products from target organs
    often inhibit further secretion
    of hormone
    • Example:
    – Dehydration lowers blood
    volume and pressure
    – Osmoreceptors detect
    – Stimulates hypothalamus to
    secrete ADH via posterior
    pituitary
    – Blood volume/pressure
    increases
    – Osmoreceptors detect
    – Inhibit further ADH release
    • Another example: thyroid
    hormone (see p. 645 (new)
    (646, old) if you’re interested)
    What are some pituitary disorders?
    • In juveniles
    – Hyposecretion
    (hypopituitarism)
    • Pituitary dwarfism
    – Hypersecretion: gigantism
    • In adults
    – Hypersecretion:
    acromegaly
    • Posterior lobe
    hyposecretion: diabetes
    insipidus (which is:
    ___________)
    – WHY?
    What is the pineal
    gland?
    • Roof of third
    ventricle
    • Produces serotonin
    – Converted to
    melatonin
    – Possible sexual
    maturation control
    • Prevent early
    maturation?
    What is the thymus?
    • Location: mediastinum
    • Involution after
    puberty (shrinks like
    pineal)
    • Secretes thymopoietin
    – Regulates development
    of T-lymphocytes
    What is the thyroid?
    • Largest endocrine gland
    – Wraps around trachea
    • Contains
    – Sacs: thyroid follicles
    • Lined with follicular cells which secrete T 3 and T4
    • Increases BMR, HR and heart contraction
    – C cells
    • Produce calcitonin
    – Stores calcium by stimulating osteoblasts, inhibiting osteoclasts
    • Antagonistic to parathyroid hormone (PTH)
    • Regulation via the hypothalamo-hypophyseal-thyroid axis
    What are some thyroid diseases?
    • Hyposecretion
    – Congenital
    hypothyroidism
    • facial
    thickening, low
    body temp,
    lethargy, brain
    damage
    – Adults:
    myxedema
    • Low BMR,
    sluggish, sleepy,
    weight gain,
    cold, tissue
    swelling
    From: http://www.type2hypothyroidism.com/Type1VsType2.html
    What is goiter?
    • Another thyroid disorder; two types
    • Endemic goiter: dietary deficiency of
    iodine
    – No TH produced so pituitary receives no
    neg. feedback and more more TSH
    produced
    – Results in hypertrophy
    • Toxic goiter (Grave’s disease)
    – Autoimmune disease
    – Abnormal antibodies mimic TSH, raising
    TH levels
    • Called thyroid-stimulating
    immunoglobin
    – Causes high BMR & HR, sleeplessness,
    weight loss, exophthalmos
    From: http://www.medstudents.com.br/image/endoc/imgend1.htm
    What are the parathyroids?
    • PTH: stim’s osteoclasts,
    inhibits osteoblasts
    – Calcium released
    • Hypoparathyroidism
    – If parathyroid removed:
    • Decreased calcium levels
    • tetany and death without HRT
    • Hyperparathyroidism:
    – Bone softening, fragility,
    deformity
    – Renal calculi formation
    What are the adrenal glands?
    • Adrenal medulla
    – Sympathetic
    neurons innervate
    – Secrete
    catecholamines
    • Adrenal cortex
    – Makes more than 25
    corticoids (AKA
    corticosteroids)
    – Small amounts of
    sex steroids
    (androgen/estrogen)
    • Including DHEA
    (an androgen)
    which is converted
    to testosterone
    What are the adrenal glands?
    – Mineralcorticoids
    • Mostly aldosterone
    (retain Na+, secrete K+)
    – Glucocorticoids
    • Secreted in response to
    ACTH
    • Cortisol
    (hydrocortisone) is
    most important
    – Stimulate
    gluconeogenesis (fat
    and protein
    catabolism)
    – Also glycolysis
    – Stress response
    – Suppresses immune
    system
    What are some adrenal
    disorders?
    • Regulated by hypothalamo-hypophyseal-adrenocortico
    axis
    • Cushing syndrome
    – Via adrenal tumor or ACTH excess
    • Hyperglycemia, hypertension, muscular weakness, edema, “moon
    face”, “buffalo hump”
    What are some adrenal disorders?

    • Addison disease
    – Hyposecretion of
    glucocorticoids and
    mineralcorticoids
    • Hypoglycemia, Na/K
    imbalance, loss of stress
    resistance, hypotension,
    • Via excess ACTH
    secretion (b/c no neg.
    feedback)
    • Bronzing b.c ACTH
    stimulates melanin
    production
    • Fatal if not treated with
    corticoids
    From: http://www.historyplace.com/specials/portraits/presidents/
    What does the pancreas secrete?
    • Mostly exocrine digestive tissue
    • Some endocrine tissue in pancreatic islets
    – Islets of Langerhans
    What does the pancreas secrete?
    • These secrete:
    – Insulin via beta cells
    • A peptide hormone
    • Stimulates glycogenesis and inhibits
    glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis
    • Recruits glucose transporter proteins
    (GLUTs)
    – Glucagon via alpha cells
    • Stimulates gylcogenolysis (glycogen
    hydrolysis)
    – Somatostatin (GHIH) via delta cells
    • Paracrine secretion
    • Modulates beta and alpha cell secretions
    What are some pancreatic
    disorders?
    • Hyperinsulinism
    – Sometimes pancreatic tumor causes
    – Sometimes accidental over-injection
    – Causes hypoglycemia, weakness, hunger,
    • Hypoglycemia stimulates E, glucagon, GH
    secretion
    – Anxiety, hi HR, sweating
    – Insulin shock—brain deprived of glucose
    » Disorientation, convulsions, unconsciousness
    What are some pancreatic
    disorders?
    • Diabetes mellitus (DM)
    – Diabetes = “to syphon or
    run through
    • Mellitus = “sweet”;
    insipidus = “tasteless”
    – Hyposecretion or inaction
    of insulin
    – Three signs:
    • Polyuria (excessive urine
    output)
    • Polydipsia (intense thirst)
    • Polyphagia (intense
    hunger)
    – Tests reveal hyperglycemia,
    glycosuria, ketonuria From: http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/conditions/urinarytract2.shtml
    What types of DM can patients
    have?
    • Type I—insulin-dependent
    (IDDM)
    – 10% of cases
    – Autoimmune destruction of
    beta cells
    – AKA juvenile diabetes (age 12)
    • Type II—non-insulin
    dependent (NIDDM)
    – Insulin resistance
    • Adipocytes secrete resistin?
    • Shortage of insulin receptors?
    • Heredity, age, obesity
    • AKA adult onset (age 40)
    What do the gonads secrete?

    • Exocrine products:
    egg and sperm
    • Endocrine products:
    gonadal hormones
    • We’ll cover this more
    at the end of the
    semester
    What is stress and how do we
    adapt to it?
    • Any stimulus that upset homeostasis
    – Body copes via stress response (AKA general
    adaptation syndrome, GAS)
    • Alarm reaction
    – NE from sympathetic, E from adrenals = Fight or
    flight
    What is stress and how do we adapt
    to it?
    • Stage of resistance
    – If stress continues, glycogen reserves drop
    – Cortisol dominates to provide fuels for metabolism
    • Long-term cortisol exposure suppresses immune system
    • Stage of exhaustion
    – Fat reserves exhausted, rely on protein
    • Body wasting and weakening
    – Rapid decline and death: heart/kidney failure,
    infection

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