Question 1:

Answer the following

A. Whati is the difference in the atomic models of Thomson and Rutherford ?
B. What is meant by valency of an element ? what is the relationship between the number of valence electron and
valency ?
C. What is meant by atomic mass number ? Explain how the atomic number and mass number of carbon are 6 and 12
respectively.
D. what is meant by subatomic particle ? give brief information of three subatomic particles with refrence to electrical
charge, mass and location.

Answer:

a. Difference between Thomson and Rutherford Theory are as follows :

 

Thomson
Rutherford Theory
Theory
States that
electron are
embedded in a
positively
States that an atom is composed of an atomic nucleus around which electrons are revolving in an orbit
charged solid
material which is
spherical in
shape
Does not give
any detail about
Explains about the atomic nucleus
the atomic
nucleus
States that
electrons are
uniformally States that electrons are located around a central solid material
distributed in an
atom
Indicates that
atom is spherical Indicates that an atom has a central solid core called as nucleus surrounded by the electrons
in shape
Does not give
any idea about
States that nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons
constituents of
nucleus
b. Valency of an element : It is the number of electrons of an atom of the element uses to combine with atoms of other
elements.
It is the combining power of an atom of the element.
Valency of an atom is determined by its electronic configuration.
It gives idea about the number of electrons loss or gain in order to achieve the nearest noble gas configuration.
For example: Na(11) = 2,8,1 So, its valency is 1
                      Cl(17) = 2,8,7 So, its valency is also 1

Number of valence electron : It is defined as the number of electrons present in the outermost shell of an atom.
It is not necessary that all the valence electrons take part in bonding.
For example: Na(11) = 2,8,1 So, its number of valence electron is 1
                      Cl(17) = 2,8,7 So its number of valence electron is 7

It can be seen that valency of an element is related to number of valence electrons in that atom.

c.Atomic Mass Number : It is the sum of total number of protons and neutrons present in a nucleus.
Atomic mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons.
Atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons. It is denoted by Z.
Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons. It is denoted by A.
For example : Carbon atom its, Number of proton = 6
                           Number of neutrons = 6
                           Number of electron = 6
                           Atomic number(Z) = number of protons = number of electrons = 6.
                           Mass number(A) = number of proton + number of neutrons = 6 + 6 =12.
 
d.Subatomic particles : A subatomic particle is a structural and functional unit of the matter. That means all the matters
are made up of these fundamental particles. According to modern atomic theory, an atom has a nucleus, which is present
in its center or core. These nucleus contain subatomic particles like protons and neutrons.
Difference between subatomic particles are as follows :

Electron
1. Electrons are present outside the nucleus of an atom.
2. Electrons are negatively charged that is (1.6 × 10−19
coulomb).
3. The mass of an electron is considered to negligible. It is 1800  times less than that of a hydrogen
4.Relative mass = 1/ 1840 times hydrogen
5. It revolves around the nucleus in the discrete orbit.

Proton
1. Protons are present in the nucleus of an atom.
2. Protons are positively charged that is (1.6 × 10−19coulomb).
3. The mass of a proton is approximately 1u(1Dalton) that is (1u = 1.66 × 10−27 g).
4. They are closely bound in the nucleus.
Neutron
1. Neutrons are present in the nucleus of an atom.
2. Neutrons are neutral.There is no charge.
3. The mass of a neutron is nearly equal to the mass of a proton that is 1u(1Dalton) that is (1u = 1.66 × 10−27 g
).
4. They are closely bound in the nucleus.

Page No 38:

Question 2:

Give secientific reasons.

A. All the mass of an atom is concenrated in the nucleus.
B. Atom is electrically neutral.
C. Atomic mass number is a whole number.
D. Atoms are stable though negatively charged electron are revolving within it. 

Answer:

a. All the mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus because atom contains three subatomic particles like electron,
proton and neutron.Out of which, nucleus present at the centre of an atom contains two subatomic particles that's
protons and neutrons and the mass of nucleus is the sum of mass of protons and neutrons located at the centre of an
atom.

b.Atom is electrically neutral because in an atom electrons and protons carry charges and each atom has equal numbers
of protons (positively charged) and electrons (negatively charged).

c.Atomic mass number is a whole number because it is the sum of numbers of protons and numbers of neutrons present
in an atom.Which is present in the form of integers.

d.Atoms are stables though negatively charged electrons are revolving within it because each atom contains equal
numbers of protons and electrons. So, charge on negatively charged electrons are balanced by charge on positively
charged proton. Therefore, atom is electrically neutral and stable. 

Page No 38:

Question 3:

Define the following forms

A. Atom 
B. Isotope
C. Atomic number
D. Atomic mass number
E. Moderator in nuclear reactor

Answer:
a. An atom is defined as  the structural and functional unit of a matter. The term "atom" comes from the Greek word
which means indivisible, because atoms are the smallest things in the universe and could not be divided. atoms are made
up of three subatomic particles like protons, neutrons and electrons.

b.Isotopes : Isotopes are atoms that have same atomic number but different mass number. Isotopes have same numbers
of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
These are some common examples of isotopes: 3
2He, 4
2He, 12
6C, 14
6C, 235
92U, 239
92U, 289.

c.Atomic number: The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, which is characteristic of a chemical element and
determines its place in the periodic table. Atomic number is also equal to numbers of electrons in an atom.
For example :
Atomic number of carbon = 6
Atomic number of nitrogen = 7
Atomic number of oxygen = 8
Atomic number of magnesium = 12

d.Atomic Mass Number : It is the sum of total number of protons and neutrons present in a nucleus.
atomic mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons.
Atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons.It is denoted by Z.
Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons. It is denoted by A.
For example : Carbon atom its, Number of proton = 6
                           Number of neutrons = 6
                           Number of electron = 6
                           Atomic number (Z) = number of protons = number of electrons = 6
                           Mass number (A) = number of proton + number of neutrons = 6 + 6 =12

e.Moderator in nuclear reactor: Moderator of a nuclear reactor is a substance that slows down the speed of neutrons. In
traditional nuclear reactors, the moderator is the same thing as that of coolant like water.

Page No 38:

Question 4:

Draw a neat lablled diagram

A. Ruthrford's scattering experiment
B. Thomson's atomic model
C. Diagramatic sketch of electronic configurations of magnesium  (Atomic number 12)
D. Diagramatic sketeh of electronic configuration of Argon (Atomic number 18)

Answer:

a. Rutherford's scattering experiment :

b. Thomson's atomic model

c. Diagramatic sketch of electronic configurations of magnesium  (Atomic number 12) :

   

d. Diagramatic sketeh of electronic configuration of Argon (Atomic number 18) :

Page No 38:
Question 5:

Fill in the blanks.

A. Electron, proton, neutron are the types of _________ in an atom.
B. An electron carries a _________charge.
C. The electron shell _____________ is nearest to the nucleus.
D. The electronic configuration magnesium is 2,  8,  2. From  this it is understood that the valence shell of magnesium
is_____________
E. The valency of hydrogen is 'one as per the molecular formula H2O . Therefore valency of 'Fe' turns out to be
______________ as per the formula Fe2O3. 

Answer:

a. Electron, proton, neutron are the types of subatomic particles in an atom.

b. An electron carries a negative charge.
c. The electron shell K is nearest to the nucleus.
d. The electronic configuration magnesium is 2,  8,  2. From  this it is understood that the valence shell of magnesium is
M shell.
e. The valency of hydrogen is 'one as per the molecular formula H2O . Therefore valency of 'Fe' turns out to be three as
per the formula Fe2O3. 

Page No 38:

Question 6:

Match the pairs.

Group 'A' Group 'B'

a. Proton i.Negatively charged
b.Electron 2.Neutral
c.Neutron 3.Positively charged

Answer:

Match the pairs:

Group 'A' Group 'B'

a.Proton 1.Positively charged
b.Electron 2.Negatively charged
c.Neutron 3.Neutral

Page No 38:

Question 7:
Deducd from the datum provided.

     Datum          To deduce

       N1123a
      Neutron number
      C614
       Mass number
      C1737l
        Proton number

Answer:

     Datum          To deduce

       N1123a
  
    Neutron number = Mass number - Number of protons
                                 = 23 - 11
                                 = 12
      C614
  
    Mass number = 14
 
      C1737l
     
    Proton number = Atomic number
                               = 17

.1    How hydrogen atom is different from atoms of all other elements?

All the atoms are made up of three subatomic particles: electrons, protons and neutrons.
Hydrogen atom is made up of only one electron and one proton. It does not contain any
neutron. So, it is different from atoms of all other elements.

Q.2    What is discharge tube?

A discharge tube is a long glass tube closed at both the ends. Two metal plates A and B are
sealed at the ends and these plates are called as electrodes. A vacuum pump is attached to
suck out the air or gas present inside the tube to reduce the pressure. Both the plates are
connected with electrical power with high voltage. The plate with negative terminal is called
cathode and with positive terminal is called anode.

Q.3    Name the subatomic particles present in an atom.

Atom is made up of smaller particles called subatomic particles. The sub-atomic particles are
electrons, protons and neutrons.

Q.4    What is an electron? What is its relative mass and charge?

An electron is that subatomic particle which is negatively charge and has a mass about
1/1840 u of that of an atom of hydrogen.

Q.5    What is relative mass and charge of an electron?

The mass of electron is about 11840 of the mass of hydrogen .The absolute mass of an electron
is 9×10−28 gram. The absolute charge on an electron is coulomb of negative charge which is
smallest, carried by any particle. Thus, it is taken as unit of negative charge.
Q.6    Find out the number of electrons present in last shell of an atom having atomic number
15?

Electronic configuration of element with atomic number 15 will be 2, 8, 5. Hence, the number
of valence electron present in an atom is 5.

Q.7    What is the basic differences between proton and neutron?

The basic difference between proton and neutron is the electric charge. Proton has a positive
charge (1.6 × 10—19 coulomb) where as neutron has no charge i.e. electrically neutral.

Q.8    What is meant by atomic number of an element? Does the atomic number of an element
change when its atoms form ions? Give one example each of diatomic and triatomic
molecules.    

The atomic number of any element is the number of protons present in the nucleus of

an atom of that element. The protons are present in the nucleus and they do not take part in
the reactions. Therefore, the atomic number of an element which is nothing but the number of
protons present in the nucleus of an atom of that element also remains same. 
Diatomic molecule is molecule made up of two atoms. For eg – oxygen (O 2).
Triatomic molecule is molecule made up of three atoms.for eg – water (H2O), O3 (ozone) etc.

Q.9    Define the term ground state of an atom?

Ground state is the state of an atom, where all the electrons are in their lowest energy levels.
After receiving energy, electrons can jump in higher energy levels which are known as
excited state.

Q.10   How cathode rays are produced?

Cathode rays are produced in the discharge tube. The gas filled in the discharge tube,
contains electrons. When high voltage is applied between electrodes, the electrical energy
pushes out some of the electron from the atoms of the gas. These fast moving electrons form
“Cathode rays”.

Q.11   What are the properties of cathode rays?

Some important properties of cathode rays are:

1. When an object such as a metal cross is placed in the path of the cathode rays, they
generate a shadow of the object at the back of glass tube. So, cathode rays travel in straight
lines.

2. When a light paddle wheel is placed in the path of the cathode rays such that cathode rays
strike the blades of upper half, it starts to rotate. Hence, cathode rays are consists of particles.
3. When an electric field is applied on the cathode rays, they are deflected towards the
positive plate of the electric field thus cathode rays carry negative charge.

4. They produce green fluorescence on the glass walls of the discharge tube. When cathode
rays strike the atoms in the glass, they knock their valence electrons into a higher energy level
and when the electrons fall back to their original energy level, they emit light. This process is
called as fluorescence, causing the glass to glow, usually yellow-green.

5. Cathode rays produce heating effect. Thus, when cathode rays strike a metal foil, it
becomes hot.

6. When electrons hit against the surface of hard metals like tungsten, molybdenum etc, some
of the electrons strike on nucleus of metal atoms and get deflected because of positive charge
of nucleus. This deflection results the energy of electron to decrease and then results in
formation of X-rays. So, cathode rays produce X-rays.
Q.12   Who discovered the fundamental particles neutron, electron and proton?

(i) Neutron - Chadwick

(ii) Electrons - Thomson

(iii) Proton - Goldstein

Q.13   How are anode rays produced?

The presence of positively charged particles in an atom was shown by Goldstein in 1886. He
took a discharge tube filled with H 2 gas and applied high voltage between the anode and the
cathode. He observed that some rays were coming from the side of anode and passed
through the holes in the cathode and then strikes on the glass wall and they are called “anode
rays”. They carry positive charge and hence called “positive rays”.

Q.14   What are the properties of Anode rays?

The different properties of anode rays are as follows: - 

1. They travel in straight lines. If an object is placed in their path, they cast a shadow at the
back of glass tube.

2. They are made up of material particles. If a light paddle wheel is placed on an axle in their
path, it begins to rotate.

3. Anode rays carry positive charge. They get deflected towards the negative plate of the
electric field.

4.  Mass of the positively charged particles constituting the anode rays depends upon the
nature of the gas. The mass is found to be nearly equal to the mass of the atom of the gas.

Q.15   What is a proton?

A proton is a positively charged particle which carries one unit positive charge and found in
the nucleus of atoms of all the elements.

Charge on proton = +1; mass = 1 u

Hence it is represented by the symbol 1P1

Q.16   Write detail account on Thomson’s model?

J.J. Thomson proposed his model of atom in 1903. According to Thomson’s model of the
atom:

1. An atom consists of a sphere of positive charge with negative charged electrons embedded
in it.

2. The positive and negative charges in an atom are equal in magnitude, due to which atom is
electrically neutral. These equal and opposite charges balance each other.
Q.17   Give a detail account on discovery of nucleus.

Rutherford made the following observations:

 Most of the α -particles (99.9%) passed straight through the gold foil without
undergoing any deflection.
 Some α -particles were deflected by small angles and a few were deflected through
large angles.
 Very few were deflected back, i.e. through an angle greater than 90°.
From these observations, Rutherford drew the following conclusions :

 Most of the α-particles passed through the foil without any deflection, thus there must
be sufficient empty space within the atom.
 Since some α-particles were deflected through small angle or large angle and α-
particles are positively charged particles, these could be deflected only by some
positively charged body present within the atom. The α -particles deflected through
large angles were those which passed very close to the positive body.
 Since some α -particles are deflected back and α -particles are heavy particles, these
could be deflected back only when they hit heavier body inside the atom.
 Since very few α -particles deflected back, this shows that the heavy body present in the
atom must be occupying a very small volume.

Q.18   Define the term scintillations?

Scintillations are bright flashes produced through the α -particles in Rutherford model of an
atom. When these particles passed through a slit and strikes against the gold foil, they get
scattered and produce bright flashes known as scintillations.

Q.19   What is Rutherford’s Nuclear Model of atom?

The main points of this model are as follows:

  An atom is made up of two parts, nucleus and extra nuclear part. Nucleus is the center
of the atom with positive charge. Extra nuclear part means the space around the
nucleus in which the electrons are distributed.
 The whole mass of the atom is located in the nucleus. Since the electrons have
negligible mass, the mass of the atom is mainly due to protons.
 The electrons revolve around the nucleus in well defined orbits.
 An atom is electrically neutral because number of protons and electrons is equal.
 Most of the atom is empty space.

Q.20   What are planetary electrons?

Rutherford compared his model of an atom with our solar system where the nucleus is like
the sun and the electrons are like the planets. Thus, these electrons are also called planetary
electrons.

Q.21  What was the reason behind the selection of gold foil by Rutherford in α -particle
scattering ?

Gold is a highly malleable metal which can be hammered and converted into very thin sheets
or foil. Thus, it is easier for the α -particle to pass through the gold foil rarely deviated by
nucleus. As the thickness of the foil decrease, the possibility of correctness of experiment
increases.

Q.22   Cathode rays originate from the cathode whereas anode rays do not. Explain?

Cathode rays consist of electrons with same mass and charge. These electrons are produced
due to their knock out from the atoms of the gas inside. This shows that the cathode rays
must be first originating from the cathodes which are hitting the atoms of the gas to knock
out electrons from them.

Anode rays consist of positively charged particles with mass nearly equal to the mass of the
atoms of the gas. These are also produced due to knock out of electrons from the atoms of the
gas by cathode rays converting the atoms into positive ions. Thus, these positive ions are
produced in the space between cathode and anode and do not originate from the anode.
Q.23   What are the major drawbacks of Rutherford’s model of atom?

A major drawback of Rutherford’s model of the atom is that it does not explain the stability
of the atom. According to electromagnetic theory of physics, if charged particle undergoes
accelerated motion, then it must radiate energy or lose energy continuously. It means the
electrons revolving around the nucleus with accelerated motion, will also lose their energy
and their speed will also go on decreasing and finally the electrons should fall into the
nucleus and atom should collapse. But this does not happen and atom is quite stable.

Q.24   During a chemical reaction, number of electrons changes but number of proton
remains constant .Why?

In a chemical reaction, exchange of electrons occurs. During a chemical reaction, electrons are
lost, gained or shared between different atoms of different elements. Proton which is present
in nucleus does not participate and its number which also represents atomic number of
element remains constant.

Q.25   What is Bohr’s mode of atom?

 Bohr’s model of the atom : Nucleus is at the centre
Electrons revolve round the nucleus in ‘fixed’ energy levels or electron shells
(only first four energy levels are shown in the above diagram)

The Bohr’s model of atom can be described as follows: -

1) An atom consists of electrons, protons and neutrons. Due to the presence of equal number
of negative electrons and positive protons, the atom on the whole is electrically neutral.

2) The protons and neutrons are located in the center of an atom.

3) The electrons revolve in shells or orbits or shells .Orbits are represented either by the
numbers 1, 2, 3, 4.....or by the letters K, L, M, N......

4) The maximum number of electrons accommodated in any shell is fixed. For eg, the first
orbit or K shell can hold a maximum of 2 electrons; second orbit or L shell can hold a
maximum of 8 electrons; third orbit or M shell can hold a maximum of 18 electrons and
fourth orbit or N shell can hold a maximum of 32 electrons.

5) Each orbit or shell is associated with a fixed amount of energy, the shell nearest to the
nucleus having minimum energy and the shell farthest from the nucleus having the
maximum energy.
6) There is no change in the energy of electrons when it revolves in the same orbit and atom
remains stable.

The change in the energy of an electron occurs when it jumps to a higher orbit or when it
comes down to a lower energy level. When an electron gains energy, it jumps from a lower
shell to a higher shell, and when an electron comes down from a higher shell to a lower shell,
it loses energy.

Q.26   Why are Bohr’s orbits called stationary states?

According to Bohr’s theory, electrons revolves around the nucleus and they have fixed
amount of energy. Thus, they are called as stationary states.

Q.27   What is a neutron?

Neutron is a fundamental particle which carries no charge, i.e. it is a neutral particle and has
a mass equal to proton (i.e. amu).

Charge on neutron = 0; mass =1 u

It can be represented as 10n

Q.28   What are nucleons?

Total number of protons and neutrons present in nucleus of an atom is known as nucleon.

Q.29  How neutron has been discovered?

The presence of neutrons in the nucleus was confirmed by Chadwick in 1932. He did an
experiment. He bombarded the nuclei of some light element with fast moving α - particles.
He found some particles were ejected from the nucleus. These particles carry no charge and
have a mass equal to proton. These particles were named as neutron.
Q.30   Tabulate the characteristics of electron, proton and neutron.

Q.31  What is atomic number?

Atomic number of an element is number of protons present in the nucleus of the atom of that
element for e.g.

- Nucleus of Hydrogen atom contains one proton; hence its atomic no. is 1.

- Nucleus of C atom contain 6 protons; hence its atomic number is = 6.

All the atoms of same element have same number of protons in their nuclei .Atomic number
distinguishes the atoms of different elements. In a neutral atom, the number of protons is
equal to the number of electrons.

Thus, atomic number of an element = Number of electrons in one neutral atom

Q.32   What is mass number?

Mass number of an element is the sum of number of protons and neutrons present in the
atom of the element.

Mass number = No. of protons + No. of neutrons.

For e.g. : Hydrogen atom has 1 proton but 0 neutron thus the mass number of H is 1.
The mass number of an element is denoted by the letter A. Protons and neutrons present in a
nucleus, together known as nucleons.

Hence, Mass number = Number of nucleons. 

Q.33   What is relation between atomic number and mass number?

Mass number = no. of protons + no. of neutrons

As, the number of protons is equal to atomic number of the element.

Hence, Mass number = Atomic number + no. of neutrons.

Q.34   What is the difference between mass number and atomic mass?

The difference between mass number and atomic number is that mass number is always a
whole number (because it is number of protons and neutrons) where as atomic mass is mass
of protons and neutrons compared to C-12 atom taken as 12 for e.g. mass number of
hydrogen is 1 but its atomic weight is 1.008 u.

Q.35   What is Bohr’s – Bury Scheme for distribution of electrons in different shell?

The main points of Bohr-Bury Scheme are as follows:

(i) The maximum number of electrons that can be present in the nth shell is equal to 2n2.

Shell                                                    Maximum number of electrons present

1st shell or K-shell (n = 1)                                           2 × 12 = 2

2nd shell or L-shell (n = 2)                                          2 × 22 = 8

3rd shell or M-shell (n = 3)                                          2 × 32 = 18

4th shell or N-shell (n = 4)                                           2 × 42 = 32

(ii) The outermost shell cannot have more than 8 electrons.

(iii) Electrons do not enter into a new shell unless the inner shells are completely filled. In
other words, the shells are filled in a step-wise manner.

(iv) The penultimate shell (i.e. second last shell) cannot accommodate more than 18 electrons.

(v) The anti penultimate shell (i.e.third last shell) can have a maximum of 32 electrons.

Q.36   What do you mean by valence electrons?

The outermost shell of any atom is known as valence shell and the electrons present in this
shell are known as valence electrons.

For e.g. Carbon (atomic number Z= 6) => electronic configuration = >   K - 2 ,  L - 4

Thus, L shell is the valence shell and the 4 electrons present in this shell are valence electrons.

Q.37   Define the term valency.

The number of electrons gained, lost or shared by the atom of an element to complete its
valence shell with 8 electrons is called the valency of that element.

For e.g.

Sodium (11) = > electronic configuration = > 2, 8, 1

By losing 1 electron its octet will be complete so its valency is 1.

Q.38   What is variable valency?

The term variable valency is used for those elements which show more than one valency.

Valency = Number of electrons in the valence shell

Or

= (8 — Number of valence electrons)

For e.g., Phosphorus (Z = 15) has electronic configuration 2, 8, 5.

So, valency of Phosphorus is 5 as well as 8 – 5 = 3.

Q.39   What is electrovalency? Give examples.

The number of electrons lost or gained by one atom of an element to acquire nearest noble
gas configuration, in the process of formation of any ionic / electrovalent compound is
known as electrovalency. The element which lose electrons convert into positive ions, so they
have positive electrovalency where as the elements which gain electrons convert into
negative ions, known as negative electrovalency.

e.g. 1, Valency of Magnesium : -

Atomic number of Magnesium is 12 and its electronic configuration is 2, 8, 2. It has 2 valence

electrons .Magnesium atom lose these 2 valence electrons and forms a magnesium ion, Mg +2
to achieve the noble gas configuration. Thus, the valency of magnesium is (+2).

e.g.2, Valency of oxygen :

Atomic number of oxygen is 8 and its electronic configuration is 2, 6. It has 6 valence

electrons so it needs 2 more electrons and forms oxygen ion, 0 -2 to achieve the noble gas
configuration. Thus, the valency of oxygen is (-2).
Q.40   What is covalency? Give examples.

The number of electrons contributed by one atom for sharing to acquire the nearest noble gas
electron configuration is known as covalency.

For e.g., Covalency of Nitrogen : -

Atomic number of N is 7 so its electronic configuration is 2, 5. It has 5 valence electrons. Since

one nitrogen atom shares 3 electrons to achieve the nearest noble gas configuration. Thus the
covalency of N is 3.In the formation of Nitrogen molecule, N 2; each N atom shares its 3
electrons with other atom.

Q.41   What are the different isotopes of oxygen?

There are three isotopes of oxygen. They are-

Q.42   What are the general features of isotope?

The general features of isotopes are as follows: 

1. The isotopes of an element have same atomic number (i.e. same number of protons in the  
nucleus and same number of electrons in the extra nuclear part)

2. The isotopes of an element have different mass numbers (i.e. different in the number of
neutrons present in the nucleus)

3. Isotopes have same electronic configuration hence share similar chemical properties.

4. Isotopes of an element have different masses, so they have different physical properties
like melting point, boiling point, density etc.

5. Due to difference in the nuclear structure (i.e., number of neutrons), they have different
nuclear properties, e.g., C-14 isotope is radioactive whereas C-12 isotope is non-radioactive.

Q.43   What are radioisotopes?

The radioactive isotopes are called as radioisotopes. For e.g. C-14

Q.44   Define the term “Half-life”.

Half –Life is a feature of unstable radioactive elements which disintegrate with time and
emits alpha and beta particles or Half-life (t1⁄2) is the amount of time required for a quantity to
degenerate to half of its value as compared to the starting of the time period. The rate of
decay is depends on the amount of substances. For eg the half-life of Cobalt 27C60 is 5 years. If
we start with 100 gm of cobalt, then after 5 years only 50 gram would be left.

Q.45   What are the different applications of isotopes?

The isotope having larger number of neutrons is generally unstable. It emits α, β, and γ-
radiations spontaneously. Such isotopes are called radioisotopes. These radioisotopes possess
some special properties which make them very useful in a number of fields. Some
applications of the isotopes are given below:

1. As nuclear fuel -In the nuclear reactor, an isotope of uranium (U-235) is used as a nuclear
fuel.

2. In medical field- Some radioisotopes are widely used for treatment as well as diagnosis of
fatal diseases like cancer, tumour etc.

A few examples are given below:

(i) Cobalt-60 is used in the treatment of cancer. The high energy -rays emitted by Co-60 kills
the malignant cells of the cancer.

(ii) Phosphorus – 32 is used in the treatment of leukemia i.e. blood cancer.

(iii) Iodine-131 is used in the diagnosis and treatment of thyroid disorders (i.e. disease called
goiter).

(iv) Some radioisotopes are used as isotope, called tracer, is injected into the body.
Radioactive imaging is then used to detect accumulation of the isotope and therefore detect
tumours and blood clots before they become dangerous. For e.g., sodium-24 is used to detect
the blood clot and arsenic-74 is used to detect the tumour.

3. In carbon dating- Carbon dating is a technique of finding the age of fossils ( i.e. old samples
dead animals) at archeological sites. Plants fixatmospheric carbon during photosynthesis, so
the level of 14C in plants and animals when they die approximately equals the level of 14C in
the atmosphere at that time. Although, it decreases thereafter because of radioactive decay,
allowing the date of death or fixation to be determined.

4. In industry- Radioisotopes are used to detect the leakage in the underground oil pipes, gas
pipes or water pipes. In such a case, radioisotope is allowed to flow through the pipe. At the
point of leakage, a large amount of radiation will be emitted and this can be detected with an
instrument called Geiger-Muller counter.

Q.46   What are isotopes? Give example.

Isotopes are the atoms of the same element with same atomic number but different mass
numbers.

For e.g., The isotopes of Hydrogen are -

Q.47   Which isotope is used as nuclear fuel?

Uranium-235 is used as nuclear fuel.

Q.48   What is the reason behind fractional atomic mass?

The reason behind the fractional atomic masses of elements are the different isotopes of an
element present in nature. Most of the elements have more than one natural isotope having
different masses. Since the atomic mass of an element is the average relative mass of all the
natural isotopes of that element.

For e.g., Chlorine in found to exist as two isotopes i.e. Chlorine 35 and chlorine 37 in ratio of
75% and 25% respectively.
This means that isotope of mass 35 u will contribute 75% whereas isotope of mass 37 u will
contribute 25% to average atomic mass of Chlorine.

Average atomic mass of Chlorine = 35×75100+37×25100

= 2625100+925100

= 26.25+9.25

= 35.5u.

Thus, average atomic mass of Chlorine is 35.5 u i.e. in fraction.

Q.49   What are isobars? Give examples.

Isobars are the atoms of different elements having different atomic number but same mass
number. Isobars have different number of protons but the total number of nucleons (protons
+ neutrons) is same.

For e.g., Argon (Ar) and Calcium (Ca).

Q.50   Tabulate the properties of Cathode rays and Anode rays.

Q.51   What are α - particles?

α-particles are doubly charged helium ions (He+2) each having two protons and two neutrons
bound together into a particle identical to helium nucleus.

α - Particles = > He+2.

Q.52   What are isotones?

Some atoms of different element have different atomic number and different mass numbers
but they have same number of neutrons. These atoms are known as isotones.

For e.g., 126C and 168O.

Both C and O have same number of neutrons i.e. 8.

Q.53   What are isoelectronics ?

The species (atoms or ions) having same number of electrons are called isoelectronics.

For e.g., Na+ and Mg+2.

Both Na and Mg contains 10 electrons.

Q.54   What are nucleons?

Total number of protons and neutrons present in nucleus of an atom is known as nucleon.

Q.55   Why Bohr’s orbits are called stationary states?

According to Bohr’s theory, electrons revolve around the nucleus and they have fixed
amount of   energy. Thus they are called as stationary states.

Q.56   What is an orbit?

Orbit is the path of the electron around the nucleus.

Q.57   What is mean by electronic configuration of elements?

The systematic arrangement of electrons in different orbits or shells of an atom of element is

known as electronic configuration of elements.

Q.58   Why some atoms shows radioactivity?

When the number of neutrons exceeds the number of protons in the nucleus of atom, it
becomes unstable and shows radioactivity. For eg , 6C12 has 6 protons and 6 neutrons so it
stable while 6C14 has 6 protons and 8 neutrons is unstable and shows radioactivity.
1. In 1903 who had proposed the model of an atom, due to which electrons and protons were known to us?
A. Dalton
B. J.J. Thomson
C. Rutherford
D. Goldstein
Ans. B
2. Which model of an atom is similar to a Christmas pudding?
A. Thomson’s model
B. Rutherford model
C. Dalton’s Model
D. None of the above
Ans. A
3. The present concept of the structure of an atom is given by which scientist?
A. Rutherford
B. Goldstein
C. Niels Bohr
D. J.J. Thomson
Ans. C

What do you mean by Atomic Structure

4. Name an atom in which the nucleus of that atom does not contain any neutrons?
A. Oxygen
B. Hydrogen
C. Phosphorous
D. Sodium
Ans. B
5. Which model does not able to explain the stability of an atom?
A. Bohr’s Model
B. Rutherford’s Model
C. Thomson’s Model
D. None of the above
Ans. B
6. According to Goldstein’s experiment, on passing high voltage electricity through gases at very low pressure
resulted in the discovery of:
A. Electron
B. Proton
C. Nucleus
D. Neutron
Ans. B
7. Who had discovered electron?
A. Niels Bohr
B. E. Goldstein
C. J.J.Thomson
D. James Chadwick
Ans. A
What is Catalysis?
8. In 1932 who had discovered neutron?
A. J.J Thomson
B. James Chadwick
C. Goldstein
D. Rutherford
Ans. B
9. Which model describes that there is no change in the energy of electrons as long as they keep revolving in the
same energy level and atoms remains stable.
A. Bohr’s Model
B. Rutherford Model
C. J.J Thomson Model
D. None of the above
Ans. A
10. The correct electronic configuration of sodium is:
A. 2,8,1
B. 8,2,1
C. 2,1,8
D. 2,8,2
Ans. A

What is the difference between atoms and elements?

Get ready for an imperfect analogy.

Imagine going to an ice cream store. Let's say they have 30 different flavors of ice cream. Those are elements, the things
I have available from which to build my dessert. The smallest amount of ice cream the store will sell to me is a scoop.
This is an atom. If I want, I can put two or more scoops of ice cream together. This is a molecule. If my molecule has
more than one flavor of ice cream, I can call it a compound.

So, in summary:

element - a basic substance that can't be simplified (hydrogen, oxygen, gold, etc...)

atom - the smallest amount of an element

molecule - two or more atoms that are chemically joined together (H2, O2, H2O, C6H12O6, etc...)

compound - a substance that contains more than one element (H2O, C6H12O6, etc...)

What's wrong with the ice cream analogy? Splitting an atom creates different elements (split an oxygen atom and you
don't have oxygen any longer). Splitting a scoop of ice cream results in smaller blobs of the same flavor. For the analogy
to hold true, the flavor of the ice cream would have to change when you split a scoop (the chocolate 'element' would
have to change into some other 'element' (flavor)).
What is the simplest way of explaining what atoms, elements, compounds and mixtures are?

Atoms are the smallest bits of ordinary matter and are made from particles called protons (which carry a positive
electrical charge), neutrons (which carry no electrical charge) and electrons (which carry a negative electrical charge).
The protons and neutrons cluster together in the central part of the atom, called the nucleus, and the electrons 'orbit' the
nucleus. A particular atom will have the same number of protons and electrons and most atoms have at least as many
neutrons as protons.

An element is a substance that is made entirely from one type of atom. For example, the element hydrogen is made from
atoms containing just one proton and one electron. If you had very, very good eyes and could look at the atoms in a
sample of hydrogen, you would notice that most of the atoms have no neutrons, some of them have one neutron and a
few of them have two neutrons. These different versions of hydrogen are called isotopes. All isotopes of a particular
element have the same number of protons, but can have different numbers of neutrons. If you change the number of
protons an atom has, you change the type of element it is. If you change the number of neutrons an atom has, you make
an isotope of that element. All known elements are arranged on a chart called the Periodic Table of Elements.

A compound is a substance made from two or more different elements that have been chemically joined. Some
examples of compounds are water (H2O), table salt (NaCl), table sugar (C12H22O11) and chalk (CaCO3).

A mixture is a substance made by combining two or more different materials in such a way that no chemical reaction
occurs. A mixture can usually be separated back into its original components. Some examples of mixtures are a tossed
salad, salt water and a mixed bag of M&M's candy.

What is the difference between a compound and a molecule?

A compound is a substance that is composed from two or more different elements. Water (H2O), table salt (NaCl),
carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and chlorophyll (C55H72O5N4Mg) are a few examples of compounds. They are
compounds because they each contain more than one kind of element. Things like nitrogen gas (N2) and
buckminsterfullerene (C60) are not compounds since they only contains one kind of element (nitrogen gas contains only
nitrogen and buckminsterfullerene contains only carbon).

Whether something is a molecule or not depends on the type of bond that is formed when its atoms join together. In
general, electrons can be shared between atoms (a molecular bond) or electrons can be completely removed from one
atom and given to another (an ionic bond). Molecules have molecular bonds.

Nitrogen gas (N2) is a molecule because the bond between the nitrogen atoms is a molecular bond. Water (H2O) is a
molecular compound because it is a substance made from more than one kind of element that is held together with
molecular bonds. Salt (NaCl) is an ionic compound because it is a substance made from more than one kind of element
that is held together with ionic bonds.
Also, what constitutes a molecule isn't quite as clean-cut as it's stated here. Atoms can bond by sharing electrons (a
molecular bond) or by completely transferring electrons from one atom to another (an ionic bond). Properly, only
something with molecular bonds can be called a molecule. We very cleverly avoided listing any ionic compounds (such
as NaCl) in our molecular example list for this reason.

What is an element? How many elements are there?

An element is a substance that is made entirely from one type of atom. For example, the element hydrogen is made from
atoms containing a single proton and a single electron. If you change the number of protons an atom has, you change the
type of element it is.

If you had very, very good eyes and could look at the atoms in a sample of hydrogen, you would notice that most of the
hydrogen atoms would have no neutrons, some of them would have one neutron and a few of them would have two
neutrons. These different versions of hydrogen are called isotopes. All isotopes of a particular element have the same
number of protons, but have a different number of neutrons. If you change the number of neutrons an atom has, you
make an isotope of that element.

Currently, scientists know of 118 different elements. Some, like gold, silver, copper and carbon, have been known for
thousands of years. Others, such as meitnerium, darmstadtium and ununquadium, have only recently been created by
scientists. All known elements are arranged on a chart called the Periodic Table of Elements.

1. What is diffusion?

Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration down
the concentration gradient.

2. List the types of diffusion.

Diffusion can be of two types, namely, simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion.

3. What is simple diffusion?

Simple diffusion is defined as the process in which a substance moves through a semipermeable membrane without any
help from transport proteins.

4. State an example of simple diffusion.

In a cell, water, oxygen and carbon dioxide molecules can pass directly through the cell membrane without needing any
energy along the concentration gradient. This is a form of simple diffusion.
5. What is facilitated diffusion?

Facilitated diffusion can be defined as the passive movement of molecules across the cell membrane from a region of
higher concentration to a region of lower concentration by means of a carrier molecule.

6. Provide an example of facilitated diffusion.

In the human body, glucose molecules, sodium and potassium ions use carrier proteins to pass through the cell
membranes.

7. How does dialysis work?

Dialysis works through the diffusion of solutes across a selectively permeable membrane. A selectively permeable
membrane is the one that allows only specific ions and molecules to pass through while obstructing the movement of
other molecules.

8. What are the factors affecting diffusion?

Temperature, area of interaction, size of the particle and the steepness of the concentration gradient are all factors that
affect the process of diffusion.

9. State the significance of diffusion.

Diffusion is quite important as it affects many life processes. All living organisms exhibit one or the other form of
diffusion, allowing the movement of the molecules during various metabolic or cellular processes.

A particle changes its path when another particle collides with it. Further collisions cause the particle to follow a
random, zig-zag motion. It involves a transfer or exchange of momentum/energy between the particles.

Causes and Effects of Brownian Motion

Brownian motion describes randomness and chaos. It is one of the simplest models of randomness. The various causes
and effects of this motion are listed in this subsection.

1. What Causes Brownian Motion?

 The size of the particles is inversely proportional to the speed of the motion, i.e. Small particles exhibit faster
movements.
 This is because the transfer of momentum is inversely proportional to the mass of the particles. Lighter particles obtain
greater speeds from collisions.
 The speed of the Brownian motion is inversely proportional to the viscosity of the fluid. The lower the viscosity of the
fluid, the faster the Brownian movement.
 Viscosity is a quantity that expresses the magnitude of the internal friction in a liquid. It is the measure of the fluid’s
resistance to flow.
2. Effects of Brownian Motion

 Brownian movement causes the particles in a fluid to be in constant motion.

 This prevents particles from settling down, leading to the stability of colloidal solutions.
 A true solution can be distinguished from a colloid with the help of this motion.