Ecosystems: 4.1 Definition and Concept of Ecology

Ecosystems 4
Learning objectives
To define and build up the concept of ecology and ecosystem.
To be acquainted with abiotic and biotic components of the ecosystem.
To know about their structural arrangement like food chain, food webs and ecological pyramids.
To find out how these structures are related to functions like energy flow and nutrient recycling.
To know about the process of transition in ecosystem (ecological succession).
To classify ecosystem.
To know the characteristic features and distribution of biota in various ecosystems and the reason
behind such distribution.
To develop a comprehensive understanding about the various species interactions.
To enumerate the ecosystem services that people receive.
4.1 Definition and Concept of Ecology

The word ecology has emanated to the forefront of human consciousness. It is the branch of science
that incorporates the basic conceptions of civilization. The word was introduced by Hans Reiter,
a German scientist, by combining two words ‘Oikos’ (house) and ‘logos’ (to study). Thus, it deals
with the study of animal and plant inter-relationship and also their relation to the environment.
Ernst Haeckel was the first to define ecology as the systematic study of organisms in their natural
home. It was Odum (1963) who defined ecology as ‘the study of structure and function of nature’.
It is the study of any or all inter-relationships between organisms in relation to their surrounding
or environment. Ecology can be studied as plant and animal ecology. Often the tern ‘bioecology’
is used when equal importance is given to the study of flora and fauna.
4.1.1 Ecology as a discipline

Ecology was regarded as an offshoot of biology as it deals with all forms of life and explores the
riddles at different hierarchies of living systems. But presently, it is a multidisciplinary science
that requires input from the various streams like physics, chemistry, biology, geography, geology,
economics, international relations, policies, legislation and uses mathematical, statistical and
computational tools to explain naturally observed phenomena with relevance to their varied
consequences.
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Ecosystems 113
4.1.2 Basic ecological principles
There are four fundamental doctrines of ecology.

It encompasses a web of inter-relations of its constituents.
These interconnected networks form an arrangement that involves both abiotic (non-living)
and biotic (living) components.
The system of networks exhibits energy flow and flow of nutrients.
Solar energy is the prime regulator in the nutrient and energy flow.
From these main beliefs arise the fundamental ecological ideas and concepts like population,
community, habitat, territory and ecosystem. Thus, through ecology one strives for understanding
and ways to explain the various life processes, adaptation, species distribution and abundance,
the various stages in the development of communities and the material and energy flow through
ecosystem.
An ecosystem maintains a biological equilibrium or balance of nature between its various
components referred to as homeostasis. It is the dynamic equilibrium among the biotic members
of an ecosystem with changing environmental conditions of water, air, wind, soil and nutrients with
time. This ecological balance is maintained by a number of factors such as carrying capacity, ability
to recycle waste, etc.; the balance is maintained through intricate and interlocking sequences. One
component of the ecosystem keeps a check on the other component through feedback systems
and this may be either positive or negative. For example, increase in plant population lead to
increase the population of herbivores. Such a control is known as positive feedback. In another
case when the increased population of insectivorous animal, predates on herbivorous insects, it is
called negative feedback mechanism.
4.1.3 Scope of ecology
Ecology plays significant role in conservation and management of land and its resources like
minerals, forests etc.; livestock, water and pisciculture; urbanization and town planning;
population control; risk assessment and disaster management.
Ecology can also be studied as:
Autecology: when individual organisms with their environment are studied, for example,
study of population.
Synecology: when groups of organisms in relation to environment are studied, for example,
study of community.
4.1.4 Sub-divisions of ecology

There are three levels of integration in ecology –
individual;
114 Fundamentals of Environmental Studies
population: assemblage of interbreeding organisms belonging to same species inhabiting a

given area, for example, Homo sapiens; and
community: Group of populations interacting in a given habitat for example, forest floor.
Figure 4.1: Levels of organization
Biosphere Earth Solar system Galaxy Universe
Biomes
Ecosystems
Communities
Populations
Organisms Tissues Organs Cells Molecules Atoms
Box 4.1: Ecological footprint
It may be defined as the impact of the human activities measured in terms of biologically
productive land and water that is needed for the production of goods and services and to
assimilate the generated waste. It is a measure of natural capital in comparison to Earth’s
ecological capacity to rejuvenate. The human ecological footprint was estimated to be 1.5
earth, for the year 2007. Ecological footprint can also be measured for individual countries.
4.2 Concepts of an Ecosystem
4.2.1 Definitions
Ecosystems were initially defined as ‘units of the earth’s surface, i.e., the whole system including the
organisms and the physical factors that form the environment.’ (Tansley, 1935)
‘Ecosystem is a complex in which habitat, plants and animals are considered as one interesting unit,
the materials and energy of one passing in and out of the others.’ (Woodbury, 1954)
Later on, ecosystems were grouped by their structure and function with much stress on
integration and interactions. The ecologists were classified into two groups – those who were
engaged with quantifying an ecosystem’s input and output relationships (flows of matter and
energy; Evans, 1956) and those that were concerned with particular populations (Levin, 1976).
‘Populations do react to environmental stimulus and so ecosystems can also be defined by biota and
by the environment.’(Chapin et al., 1997)
Ecosystems 115
An ecosystem is the basic functional unit in ecology, as it comprises both organisms and
their abiotic environment. Organisms cannot exist without their environment. Ecosystem thus
symbolizes the highest level of ecological integration and is based on energy. A forest, a lake, a
mangrove, paddy field and even laboratory culture can represent ecosystems. Thus, an ecosystem
is a specific unit of all the organisms inhabiting a specified space that interacts with the physical
element of the environment to produce discrete trophic structure, biodiversity and nutrient
cycling. The term ecosystem was first proposed by the British ecologist A. G. Tansley.
4.2.2 Basic/Elementary processes in an ecosystem

Nutrient cycle comprises the transfer of inorganic substances between living beings and
the environment. The plants are able to prepare complex organic materials from simple raw
materials. This organic matter is finally released as raw material after their death and is reverted
back to the environment.
Continual energy inflow is another fundamental requisite of the ecosystem. Solar energy
is trapped by the green plants by photosynthesis. Sun is the ultimate source of energy.
Herbivores procure their nutrition and energy from the plants. This energy intake passes on
to other organisms. In this way the energy gets transferred from one organism to another. This
is known as energy flow in ecosystem.
4.3 Components of Ecosystem
4.3.1 Abiotic components
The term abiotic refers to non-living substances like air, water, land, elements and compounds.
These are innate but become a part of biotic world once they enter the body of living organisms.
The oxygen required in for metabolism comes from the air people breathe. The hydrocarbons
that form our body come from the hydrogen in water and carbon dioxide in air. Most of the
necessary elements are found as ores such as calcium in limestone, iron in magnetite etc. The most
important aspect of these substances is the entry into living organism and their release from the
living organism, i.e. their recycling.
Based on Odum’s classification the abiotic components are grouped into three:
Inorganic: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus etc.
Organic: carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, coenzymes etc.
Climatic factors: light, rainfall, temperature, soil types etc.
4.3.2 Biotic components
The diverse groups of living organisms comprise the biotic components. These organisms interact
to allow the unidirectional flow of energy that was fixed by the autotrophs and also the nutrient
cycling. Bulk of the energy trapped by the producers is dissipated in the environment as heat
energy.
Producers: They are autotrophs (‘self-feed’); Figure 4.2: Flow of energy and nutrient
they manufacture both the food and energy they recycling between the biotic components
require. Examples include all photoautotrophs of ecosystem
(planktons, algae, cyanobacteria and all green
Solar
plants) and chemoautotrophs (Sulfolobus, energy
Thiobacillus, Thiothrix). Chemoautotrophs can
use inorganic energy sources, such as hydrogen
sulphide, elemental sulphur, iron (ferrous),
molecular hydrogen, ammonia etc; most of
them are either bacteria or archaea that live in the
hostile environments such as hydrothermal vent,
hot springs, volcanic fumaroles and geysers. Autotrophs Producers
Consumers: These are heterotrophs that obtain

food and energy by feeding on other creatures. Nutrient Metabolic heat
cycle
Examples – herbivores, carnivores and parasites.
Animals are unable to manufacture their own Consumers
Detritivores
food and are hence dependent on plants and/or Heterotrophs
Decomposers
other animals. Consumers can be of three types:
a. Herbivores: They are the animals that eat only plants (also known as primary consumers).
b. Carnivores: The animals that consume other animals are carnivores.
i. Carnivores that consume herbivores are called secondary consumers.
ii. Carnivores that consume other carnivores are referred to as tertiary consumers.
iii. Omnivores: They are animals who nourish on both plants and animals. Example – man,
crow.
iv. Parasites: These are organisms that derives their food and shelter at the expense of living
hosts. Example – tape worm, round worm, plasmodium.
v. Scavengers: They are animals that eat on dead animals. Example – vultures; however, the
biggest assemblage of scavengers are the insects.
c. Decomposers/Detritivores: Detritus refers to the decaying organic material and can range
from the dead meat or carrion to bacteria, including organic leftover from vegetation and
animals. Heterotrophs that acquire energy from deceased or decomposed organic remains and
wastes of other organisms are known as decomposers. They assist in returning the nutrient
back to the producers or autotrophs. Detritivores essentially refer to small insects, earthworms,
bacteria, fungi etc. They get their energy requirement by devouring dead plants and animals as
well as animal waste. Organisms such as bacteria and fungi transform these wastes materials and
dead remains into nutrients that can be reused again by the plants and animals.
It is to be noted that scavengers and decomposers are also heterotrophic organisms, but instead
of devouring living flora and fauna they devour on detritus. In reality, detritivores and decomposers
nourish at each trophic level.
Ecosystems 117
Box 4.2: Schematic representation of the ecosystem components

Ecosystem
Abiotic Biotic
Physical Chemical Producers Consumers Decomposers

i. Climatic i. Macronutrients i. Photoautotrophs i. Primary (herbivores)
Sunlight ii. Micronutrients ii. Chemoautotrophs ii. Secondary (carnivores)
Temperature iii. Trace elements iii. Tertiary (carnivores)
Humidity iv. Organic compounds * Omnivores (herbivores +
Wind v. Toxic substances carnivores
Precipitation
ii. Edaphic
iii. Geographic
4.4 Structures and Functions of an Ecosystem

4.4.1 Structure implicates
Composition and arrangement of biotic community: this comprises species in the community,
their abundance, their biomass, life history, distribution in space, etc.
Amount and allocation of non-living substances, such as different nutrients, water, etc.
Range or gradient of the factors of survival, such as temperature, sunlight, pH, etc.
Functions of an ecosystem include:
Rates of energy flow, i.e. the productivity and rates of respiration in the community.
Rates of materials flow or nutrient cycles, such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus etc.
Biological or ecological regulation that comprises both control of organisms by environment
and vice versa.
Hence in any ecosystem, their structure and function are inseparably and intricately linked
with each other and thus to be considered together.
Trophic structure: Trophic literally means ‘to feed’. The trophic structure comprises the
‘feeding levels’ or tiers and the feeding relationships between the ecosystem components. It
states the pattern of organization in which the organism exploits the food sources and helps in
transfer of energy within an ecological system. Every ecosystem rests on autotrophs that make
organic food matters for themselves and other members of the community. Some bacteria are
capable of utilizing chemical energy to make food (chemoautotrophs). Organisms possessing
chlorophyll are able to use solar energy through photosynthesis. They use water from the soil
and carbon dioxide from the air for photosynthesis to make organic materials like glucose
and releases oxygen as a byproduct. Macromolecules like starch, proteins and vitamins are
assembled from the simple molecules along with the minerals (sulphur, nitrogen, phosphorus)
present in the soil.
Animals consume these plant products and breathe in atmospheric oxygen. They oxidize
these food substances with the help of oxygen and release carbon dioxide and water, a mechanism
known as cellular respiration or metabolism. All green plants starting from microscopic plant
(phyto-planktons) to the grasses, shrubs, herbs and trees photosynthesize. Two third of all oxygen
on earth is produced by the phyto-planktons.
Figure 4.3: Trophic cycle
Trophic structures can be Producers
exemplified graphically as food (Autotrophs)

green plants
chains, food webs and food photosynthetic

microbes
O
rg
pyramids (ecological pyramids).
a
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ia
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A. Food chains: Food chains
es
or
In
illustrate and depict the flow of
energy from plants to animals Decomposers Consumers and scaveners
and from animals to animals by (Bacteria and (Primary,

fungi) Heterotrophs secondary,
the route of eating and being tertiary and
quaternery)
eaten relationship. Green plants
are the producers since they can manufacture their own food. Plants undergo photosynthesis
to make carbohydrates. Consumers devour on vegetation and other creatures. Each such
nutrient step in a food chain is referred to as trophic level.
Table 4.1: The trophic levels
Trophic level Type of organism Energy source Examples
1st Primary producer Sun Trees, shrubs, algae

Grasshoppers, deer
2nd Primary consumer Primary producers
(herbivores)
Frogs, lizards, crabs
3rd Secondary consumer Primary consumers
(carnivores)
Eagles, tigers, sea otters
4th Tertiary consumer Secondary consumers
(top carnivores)
A food chain is a linear arrangement of who is eating whom in any ecosystem. Otherwise, a
food chain is a straight line sequence that comprises links in a food web commencing with a
trophic species or organisms that consumes no other species in the network and concludes with
a species that is again eaten by no other species or organisms in the web. Food chain seems to
be basic abstractions of the food webs operating in reality, but complex in their dynamics and
consequences.
Usually, food chains are restricted within four or five trophic levels. For example, a food chain
consisting of a plant, a frog, a snake and finally peacock consists of four levels, whereas, a food
chain comprising grass, a grasshopper, a mouse, a snake and finally eagle consists of five levels.
Thus, a food chain can vary in lengths.
Ecosystems 119
Food chains can be of two types –

i. Grazing food chain: This type of food chains always begin with autotrophs followed by
grazers.
Plants Deet Tiger
ii. Detritus food chain: This type of food chains begin with dead matters followed by detritivores.
Leaf Small Big
litter Bacteria Protozoa
fish fish
Figure 4.4: Inter-relation between grazing and detritus food chain
Herbivores Predators Grazing food chain
Solar radiation Producers
Detritivores Predators Detritus food chain
B. Food web
It was Charles Elton who presented the notion of food web what he referred to as food cycle.
Food web refers to anastomosing or interwoven food chains with numerous producers,
consumers and decomposers operating simultaneously. It is the real depiction and illustration
of the feeding relationships amongst species in a community. It is also a way of displaying how
food energy flows between various organisms of a community as a consequence of feeding
relationships. In a food web the species are interconnected by means of arrows called links.
Figure 4.5a: Food web in a Figure 4.5b: Food web in Antarctic ecosystem
grassland ecosystem Killer whale (Orca)
Owl
Leopard Seal
Snake Weddell
Seal Blue Whale
Emperor Penguin Adelie

Lizards
Penguin
Frogs Humpback
Crabeater
Whale
Seal Squids
Mouse Fishes
Snow Petrel
Grasshopper
Krill
Grass Diatoms
A food chain shows only a partial picture of the food web consisting of a simple, linear sequence
of species (e.g., plant, herbivore and a predator) coupled by feeding relations. A food chain
exhibits linear monophagous pathway and differs from a food web which is actually a complex
polyphagous network of feeding links that are grouped into trophic species. The objective of a
food web is to portray a more inclusive image of the feeding inter-relationships. Simply it can be
referred to as a system of numerous interconnected food chains operating within the community.
All the species in the similar position in a food chain represent a nutrient or trophic level within
the food web. For example, all of the green plants in the food web make up the first trophic level
or ‘primary producer’, all herbivores consist of the second trophic level or ‘primary consumer’ and
carnivores that consume the herbivores make up the third trophic level or ‘secondary consumer’.
C. Ecological pyramid
Trophic structure and trophic function of an ecosystem may also be graphically represented by
means of ‘ecological pyramids’ where the producer or autotroph level occupies the base and
successive consumer levels form the steps and create the apex.
i. Pyramid of numbers
‘Pyramid of numbers may be defined as the graphical representation of number of organisms per
unit area in the various trophic levels arranged stepwise with producers forming the base and top
carnivores the tip’.
The shape of the pyramid of numbers may vary from one ecosystem to another ecosystem.
In grassland and aquatic ecosystems, producers are present in massive numbers per unit
space. They sustain a reduced number of herbivores, which in turn sustain fewer carnivorous
animals. Hence, the manufacturers are the maximum in number but usually of smaller body
size while, top carnivores are lesser in number and larger body size. Therefore, the number
pyramid in aquatic and grassland ecosystem is always upright and erect.
In a forest ecosystem, large sized trees bear enormous number of insects which in turn are
eaten by frogs, lizards etc.; these are again consumed by carnivorous birds like hawks and
eagle, which are less in number. The pyramid assumes a spindle shape and is known as semi-
upright pyramid.
In a parasitic food chain, for example, a banyan tree offers food to quite a lot of frugivorous
birds. The birds harbor and sustain a good number of ecto-parasites. This when graphically
represented, forms an inverted pyramid.
Figure 4.6: Pyramids of number
C4- 5 Hawk
C3-50 Snakes C3 - 80,000 Fleas
C3 - 50 Snakes
C2 - 5,000 Lizards C2 - 50,000 Lice and Bugs
C2 - 5,000 Frogs C1 - 1,50,000 Insects C1 - 5,000 Birds
C1 - 20,000 Grasshoppers
P - 100 Trees P - 100 Trees
P - 1,50,000 Grass
a. Upright pyramid in grassland ecosystem b. Semi-upright pyramid in forest ecosystem c. Inverted pyramid in parasitic food chain
Ecosystems 121
ii Pyramid of biomass
The overall quantity of living or organic substance in an ecosystem at any moment is termed
biomass. Pyramid of biomass is the graphical illustration of the organisms biomass present per
unit space in the different trophic levels, with producers occupying the base and top carnivores
making up the top spot.
In the biomass pyramids a trophic level seems to have more energy than it does in reality.
For instance, the exoskeletal structures like beak, feathers and skeletons, though constitute the
biomass are not consumed by the next higher trophic level. These portions of the body would be
still measured and shown even though they do not add to the process of energy flow.
In a land ecosystem, the maximum biomass befalls in producers followed by a sequential and
progressive decrease in biomass as one moves from lower to higher trophic levels. Thus, in a
land ecosystem, the pyramid of biomass is upright.
In an aquatic ecosystem the pyramid of biomass is either inverted or semi-upright. Here the
biomass of each nutrient level depends upon the biotic potential and lifespan of the member
in the ecosystem.
Figure 4.7: Pyramids of biomass
C2 - 500Kg/Km2 Snakes C3 - 50,000Kg/m2 Big fish

C1 - 5,000Kg/Km2 Squirrel C2 - 10,000Kg/m2 Small fish
P - 10,000Kg/Km2 Insects C1 - 1,000Kg/m2 Aquatic insects
P - 100,000Kg/Km2 Grass P - 100Kg/m2 Phytolplankton
a. Upright pyramid in grassland ecosystem b. Inverted pyramid in lake ecosystem
iii. Pyramid of energy

The energy pyramid is by far the most practical of all the three classes of ecological pyramids.
It directly corelates the energy content and the individual nutrient level. Thus, it represents the
quantity or the amount of energy at each trophic levels. Likewise it starts with the producers and
ends with consumers in the higher trophic levels. It represents the transition of energy from one
to another trophic level.
In an healthy ecosystem, the energy pyramid shall always appear like ‘standard ecological
pyramid’. For the ecosystem to be self sustaining, lower trophic levels should have more amount
of energy than the higher trophic levels. This help the lower level organisms to maintain a stable
population, which would be fed by the organisms at upper trophic levels, thus aiding in transfer of
energy up the pyramid.
During the transfer of energy to the subsequent trophic level, merely around 10 per cent of it is
utilized to assemble bodymass at the next trophic level and become stored energy. Remaining 90
per cent is lost in metabolic activities. This is referred to as Lindemann’s data or 10 per cent law.
The advantages of the pyramid of energy are as follows:
It represents an account of the rate of production over a period of time as each trophic level
represents energy per unit area or volume per unit time. A simple example of unit can be – cal/
m2/year.
The energy content of two species bearing same mass or weight may be different; in such case
biomass may be a misleading parameter whereas energy is truly comparable.
In energy pyramid, the relative energy flow can be compared and so also different ecosystems
can also be compared using energy pyramids.
Energy pyramids can never be inverted.
The input of sunlight can be taken into account.
The disadvantages of the pyramid of energy are:
Complete combustion of a sample is required in order to obtain the energy value for an
organism of given mass.
Difficulty exists in assigning organisms to a specific trophic level as there is a problem in
assigning the decomposers and detritivores to a particular trophic level.
The best way of presenting of the feeding relationships of a community is to do with the help of
energy pyramids.
4.5 Energy Flow in Ecosystem

4.5.1 Definition of energy flow and concept Figure 4.8: Pyramid of energy
All organisms need energy to perform the essential
C3 - 1 cal/m2
functions such as maintenance, growth, repair,
C2 - 10 cal/m2
movement, locomotion and reproduction; all of
these processes require expenditure of energy. In the C1 - 100 cal/m2
ecosystem the energy flows from sun to autotrophs, P - 10,000 cal/m2

the energy is then transferred to organisms which Upright pyramid in all ecosystem
feed on autotrophs and itself become prey for
tertiary consumers. It is the amount of energy that is received and transferred from organism to
organism in an ecosystem that modulates the ecosystem structure.
Energy flow refers to the amount of energy transferred through the food chain up the nutrient/
trophic level. Energy flow is alternatively known as calorific flow since energy input or the energy
entering the ecosystem is measured in joules or calories.
Sun is the biggest source of energy. Energy left unutilized in the ecosystem is ultimately lost
as heat. When one organism feeds on another organism, both energy and nutrients are transferred
through the food chain. The surplus or the leftover energy in an ecosystem is then devoured by the
decomposers. While nutrients are recycled through an ecosystem, energy is simply lost over time.
Energy flow in any ecosystem commence with the autotrophs that would trap the energy
from sun. Herbivores feed on these autotrophs to transform the energy within the plant into their
usable form. The carnivores then feed on these herbivores to obtain their energy, lastly, other top
Ecosystems 123
carnivores prey on the lower level carnivores. In each such step, energy from one trophic level is
transferred to the next higher trophic level and every time some amount of energy is lost in the
form of heat into the environment. This happens because each one utilizes part of the energy they
obtain from the other one for their sustenance. The top consumer receives the least amount of
energy.
Earth is constantly hit by the radiation coming out of the sun about 93 million miles far-
off which provides energy not only to the air, water and land, but also to the objects capable of
absorbing energy; in simple words, radiant energy is transformed to heat energy. The winds and
water currents are caused by unequal heating; i.e. thermal energy is transformed into kinetic
energy. Water evaporates into air due to warming thus setting on the hydrological cycle. Potential
energy is formed with the vaporization of water which when starts flowing from kinetic energy.
Nevertheless, the most important radiant energy mediated course of action with respect to the
living beings is photosynthesis.
4.5.2 Solar constant
The amount of radiant energy emanating out of the sun and striking the earth’s atmosphere is
called solar constant and has a value of 1.361 kW/m² or 1.952 calories per minute per square
centimeter, (approximately, 2 cal/min/cm2) on the upper atmospheric region of the Earth. The
value may vary as a consequence of Earth’s elliptical path. The energy left after reflection by the
Earth’s surface is known as the net radiation. An astronomical unit is used for doing the calculations
of solar constant. The mean distance between Earth and Sun is referred to as the Astronomical
unit (AU); 1 (AU) is almost equal to 149,604,970 km.
The temperature of the earth is mainly controlled by evaporation and convection of air. The air
movements enable the heat energy to be given out into the space, which, otherwise would make
earth unbearable due to overheating and life would smother. Such interaction is also very useful to
maintain the polar ice caps. On the other hand, a decrease in the solar constant by 2–5 per cent
would be sufficient to lead to a second ice age. The uncontrolled burning of fossil fuels can also
increase earth’s temperature. The polar ice caps also facilitate in reflecting back a portion of Earth’s
radiation which is very crucial in the maintaining of present day climatic conditions.
Energy budget: About 340 watts/m2 of solar light is incident on the Earth (only one-fourth of the
total solar irradiance). Earth moves the heat energy from the surface and lower atmosphere back to
space. Such incoming and outgoing flow of energy is known as Earth’s energy budget. To have a
stable temperature over considerable periods of time, the incoming energy should be equal to the
outgoing energy or the energy balance at the top should balance at the top of the atmosphere. This
state of balance is referred to as radiative equilibrium.
Of the energy that falls on the earth, nearly 29 per cent of the solar radiation arriving at the
upper part of the atmosphere is reradiated or reflected back to space by the clouds (20 per cent),
air particles (5 per cent) and the ground surface like ice or snow (4 per cent). Remaining 71 per
cent of the total incoming solar radiation is thus absorbed by the Earth system. Of this, water
vapour, dust and ozone in the atmosphere absorb 23 per cent and the surface absorbs 48 per
cent.
On absorption of energy by matter, the particles (atoms and molecules) that comprise the
matter gets excited and sets in rapid movement. This increased movement also increases the
material’s temperature. The temperature does not rise indefinitely since, apart from absorbing
solar energy they also radiate infrared radiation. According to Stefan–Boltzmann Law, the energy
radiated by a black body per unit surface area is directly proportional to the fourth power of the
thermodynamic temperature of the black body.
j = σ T4 where j is the energy radiated, T the thermodynamic temperature and σ is the Stefan–
Boltzmann constant.
So, if Earth’s temperature rises, it emits an increasing amount of heat to the space. This is known
as radiative cooling.
The atmosphere and the surface together absorb 71 per cent of the solar light. The
atmospheric absorption is 23 per cent while surface absorption is 48 per cent. To balance
they must radiate almost equal amount of energy to keep earth’s temperature stable. In this
case the contribution of the atmosphere and the surface is asymmetric. Satellite observation
reveals that the atmosphere radiates 59 per cent infrared energy and the surface radiates only
12 per cent.
Most solar heating takes place at the surface. The question arises about how and where the
reshuffling of energy takes place between the surface and the atmosphere. Let’s look at the
phenomenon at the surface first.
Of the 71 per cent, 23 per cent of solar radiation absorbed by the atmosphere is radiated back.
Therefore, 48 per cent of energy remains that is absorbed by the surface. To strike a balance, the
surface must radiate this 48 per cent back; energy primarily leaves the surface by evaporation,
convection and thermal infrared energy.
25 per cent of the incoming radiation leaves the surface through evaporation of water; nearly
5 per cent of the incoming radiation leaves the surface through convection of air; a net amount of
17– 18 per cent of the incoming radiation leaves the surface as thermal infrared energy radiated
by the ground particles thus amounting to 25 per cent + 5 per cent + 17 to 18 per cent = 47 to 48
per cent.
Coming to the atmosphere, evaporation and convection transfer 25 per cent and 5 per
cent of solar radiation from the surface to the atmosphere. The atmosphere (clouds, aerosols,
water vapour, ozone) absorb 23 per cent of the sunlight. Thus, a total (25 per cent+ 5 per cent+
23 per cent = 53 per cent) is transferred to the atmosphere. As per the satellite measurement 59
per cent of the energy is radiated back by the atmosphere. Therefore, the remaining fraction of 5–6
per cent (56 per cent – 53 per cent) comes from the earth’s surface.
Major proportion of the atmospheric gases like oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen are transparent
Ecosystems 125
to both incoming solar radiation and outgoing infrared radiation. But the molecules like water
vapour, CO2, CH4 are opaque to infrared energy. Of the net 17 per cent infrared heat, 12 per cent
directly escapes to the space and the rest 5–6 per cent is transferred to the GHG molecules
in the atmosphere which
Figure 4.9: Earth’s energy budget allowance
absorbs that energy. This raises
its temperature. The GHGs
radiate infrared heat in all
directions. Some of this energy
comes down, gets in contact
with the Earth’s surface and
is absorbed. The temperature
of the surface gets warmer.
This additional heating of the
surface by the atmosphere
is the natural green house
effect that raises the Earth’s
temperature to an average of
nearly 15 0C.
4.5.3 Laws of thermodynamics as related to ecology
The thermodynamics laws are elemental doctrines and theories to all the chemical processes of
this world. They are not only imperative in chemical sciences, physical sciences but also in many
biological phenomena. The laws state how energy is transformed from one form to another; this is
applicable to ecology as energy transfer and is all that drives metabolism.
Zero Law of Thermodynamics: Of all the three laws, this seems to be the most comprehensible.
It merely states that if there are three objects X, Y and Z and the temperature of object X and Y are
equal, and also temperature of object Z and Y are equal, then the temperature of object Z is also
equal to the temperature of object X.
The First Law of Thermodynamics: It states that energy cannot be created nor be destroyed,
but can be converted from one form to another form. Therefore, in a system the overall influx of
energy should be equal to the overall outflow of energy.
Second Law of Thermodynamics: The randomness or ‘entropy’ of the universe is constantly
rising. The energy flow from one trophic level to the next cannot be 100 per cent efficient. Energy
transfer is always followed by a dissipation of energy into other forms. Majority of ecological
applications is interpreted by this thermodynamic law. The second law also propounds a dire
consequence that there will be a ‘heat death of the universe’ taking place as all the energy of the
universe gets uniformly distributed, though this will not happen for at least 10,100 years.
Third Law of Thermodynamics: According to this law, the entropy of the system decreases as the
temperature of a system approaches absolute zero (0oK). Correctly, any system at absolute zero is
said to have zero entropy. This is theoretically impossible because absolute zero cannot be reached
experimentally. This explains the reason why substances turn into gases at high temperatures
as entropy increases and freeze at low temperatures as entropy decreases. Decomposition or
breakdown also proceeds at a higher rate at elevated temperatures for the same reason.
4.5.4 Productivity in ecosystems

Energy flow is always unidirectional. This is in contrast to the cyclic flow of material in ecosystems.
Energy flow comprises production (manufacture), consumption (utilization), assimilation
(incorporation), non-assimilatory losses (faeces) and respiration (maintenance costs).’
‘In broad terms, energy flow (E) can be basically defined as the sum total of metabolic
production (P) and respiration (R), such that E = P+R’.
In ecology, productivity or production denotes the rate of generation of biomass, usually
expressed in mass per unit area (or volume) per unit time, let’s say grams/square meters/day.
Productivity at producer level, such as plants is called primary productivity, while that at
consumer levels such as animals is called secondary productivity.
Primary productivity: Primary productivity is the manufacture of new organic materials

from inorganic molecules such as H2O and CO2. It is achieved by the process of photosynthesis
which utilizes sunlight to manufacture organic molecules such as sugars. A small fraction of
primary production is also achieved through chemosynthesis. Organisms responsible for
primary production include green plants, phyto-planktons, blue green algae, sulphur bacteria etc.
Theoretically one is able to determine the energy uptake by the autotrophs by calculating the
total sugar produced since the entire radiant energy trapped by the producers is converted
into sugars. This amount is referred to as Gross Primary Production (GPP) as it happens in
the autotrophs or producer level. But more practical and relevant is to assess the Net Primary
Productivity (NPP).
In ecological system NPP refers to the rate at which the dry mass is built up by the
producers, generally expressed as kilograms/m2/year or the energy added in unit time
(kilojoules/m2/year). It is this reserve of energy that will serve as the prospective food for the
consumers up the trophic levels in ecosystem.
‘NPP can be measured as the difference between the rate of photosynthesis by plants
and their rate of respiration. Glucose manufactured out of photosynthesis has two main
outcomes:
Some of it provides energy for anabolism such as growth, maintenance, repair and reproduction
besides a certain amount of respiratory energy being lost as heat.
The residual or surplus amount of glucose is stored in and around cells and signifies the dry
mass (NPP = GPP – R).
Ecosystems 127
Factors limiting net primary production:

Terrestrial factors include:
sunlight; heat and temperature;
moisture and water; and availability of nutrients.
Aquatic factors include:

sunlight; heat and temperature; and
availability of nutrients.
Global warming has been immensely affecting the Net Primary Production of aquatic ecosystems,
such as decline of the coral reef due to coral reef bleaching. Coral reef supports one-fourth of the
marine biota.
Secondary productivity (SP): ‘It is the total amount of chemical energy assimilated by
consumer organisms’.
Secondary production is the production of biomass in the subsequent trophic levels by the
consumer organisms in ecosystem. This is the rate at which primary organic matter is made into animal
tissue per unit area in a given time. This includes consumption of primary producers by herbivorous
or carnivores. Custodians of secondary production include protozoans, fungi and animals.
Figure 4.10: A simplified energy flow model in ecosystem with three trophic levels
in a linear food chain
PRODUCERS CONSUMERS
Trophic levels 1 2 3
green plants Herbivores Carnivores
NU NA
NU NA
Total light
A
L and LA PN I A
PG or A
P I P
Heat R R R
3000 1500 15 1.5 0.3

L LA PN P2 P3
kcal / m2 / day
I –Total energy input, LA – Light absorbed, PG – Gross primary production, PN – Net primary production, A – Assimilation,
NU – Energy not utilized, NA – Energy not assimilated, R – Respiration, P – Secondary production
All of the biomass that is being consumed is not utilized by the animals. Undigested matter comes
out as faeces. Gross production in animals is simply the biomass or the assimilated energy minus
faecal matter.
Similar to the producers, the assimilated energy of the consumers is utilized in the cellular
processes by way of respiration while the surplus is available for new biomass. The amount is known
as Net Secondary Production.
So, Net secondary productivity (NSP) = Foodstuff consumed – faecal matters – respiratory
energy.
NSP = GSP- R
Table 4.2: Productivity and biomass in different ecosystems

Sunshine Biomass Productivity
Vegetation type
Kcal/m /yr 2
t/ha t/ha/yr
Tropical rainforests 3.0 250–400 10–50
Estuaries - 0.1–40 2–40
Temperate deciduous forests 2.1 70–250 3.5–10
Taiga coniferous forests 1.8 25–70 4–20
Upwelling zones - 0.2 4–10
Savannah grasslands 3.0 5–35 3.5–5
Continental shelves - 0.01 2–6
Prairie grasslands 2.4 1–18 1–4
Deserts 2.7 0–1 0–2.5
Tundra 1.3 5 0.1–4
Estuaries - 2–40 0.1–40
Cultivated lands - 1–40 4–120
4.6 Biogeochemical Cycles

The constituent atoms of diverse elements and compounds form the unit of both living beings
(plants and animals) and non-living things like (water, air, rocks). These units are recycled in
different parts of the world over and over again. The word ‘bio’ means living organisms; ‘geo’
refers to Earth, which can be inclusive of air and water; and the word ‘chemical’ represents all
the elements and compounds found in nature. So, biogeochemical cycle refers to how these
chemicals move between living beings and non-living things and back to living.
Three types of biogeochemical cycles are usually categorized:

Hydrological cycle – water cycle
Gaseous cycle – The recycling of those elements, that spends most of their lifetime in a
gaseous form in the air, known as gaseous cycle. Elements like carbon, nitrogen and oxygen
fall in this category. Carbon generally occurs in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide (CO2),
nitrogen as nitrogen gas (N2) and oxygen as oxygen gas (O2).
Ecosystems 129
Sedimentary cycle –These elements mostly occur in a solid form. For example, phosphorus
and sulphur.
4.6.1 Water cycle
Water makes up 80 to 90 per cent of all living organisms. Water acts as the most important buffer
in all living forms and the environment, preventing heat shocks. Human body comprises 70 per
cent of water. Water is plentiful, but more than 97 per cent of this is salty water and the remaining is
freshwater. 2 per cent of this freshwater is trapped in ice caps and glaciers; 0.31 per cent is reserved
in deep groundwater reserves. Less than 0.01 per cent is existing in the rivers and lakes. Water is
unique in its properties like latent heat, density etc, and an excellent solvent. These properties are
attributable to its molecular composition and arrangement.
Water is cycled through the mechanisms of evaporation from any exposed surfaces, respiration,
transpiration from plants parts (mainly the leaves) into the atmosphere, and precipitation in the form
of rain, snow, sleet etc back to Earth. Huge amounts of water disappear from the exposed surfaces of
the Earth’s oceans and seas by evaporation. Approximately one thousand gigatons of water evaporate
from the ocean surface per day. Water molecule has an average residence time of about eight days.
It is predicted that 41,000 Km3 of water
Figure 4.11: Water cycle
comes back to the sea from the land,
harmonizing the transfer of water from Water in the clouds
sea to land.
Water is thought to be the bottomless Respiration
sink but acute water problem becomes Rain Rain
Transpiration Snow
evident due to pollution like acid rain,
Animals Ice
eutrophication, dam construction and Evaporation
irrigation and consumption patterns. Plants

Evaporation
The uneven distribution of water gives Soil
rise to severe conflicts and water war River

and
lakes
like situation. The problem needs to be Ocean
and
sea
Groundwater
addressed and handled carefully.
4.6.2 Carbon cycle Underground water
Carbon forms the structural element of all living organisms; it exists as coal and limestone
deposits in the lithosphere, carbon dioxide in the air and in water. Atmospheric lifetime of carbon
is approximately nine years. Air contain 750 billion tonnes of carbon chiefly in the form of CO2;
living plants and animals contain 560 billion tonnes, buried organic matter in the soil contains
about 1,400 billion tonnes, ocean and seas contain 38,000 billion tonnes as dissolved CO2 and
about 11,000 billion tonnes are locked up in methane. With development and industrialization,
burning of fossil fuels increasing, huge amounts of CO2 (22 billion tonnes/year) are released.
Deforestation adds a further amount of 1.6–2.7 billion tonnes.
The main stores of carbon are the sedimentary rocks, fossil fuels (coal, petroleum and natural
gas), oceans and biosphere.
Carbon goes primarily through three cycles with different time constraints:
a long-term cycle linking the sediments and the lithospheric depths;
a cycle involving the atmosphere and the lithosphere; and
a cycle relating the air and the oceans.
The cycles 2 and 3 are faster and subjected to anthropogenic interference.
Carbon cycle 1 – between air, oceans and sediments: This cycle occurs between air, oceans, and
sediments and entails a sluggish dissolution of carbon in the air and rock carbons by weathering
into the oceans. Oceans contain huge deposits of carbon as calcium carbonate deposits. The carbon
in the sediments dissolves slowly and some of the sediments are reverted into the air in the course
of volcanic eruption. This cycle is extremely long and takes over hundreds of millions of years.
Carbon cycle 2 – between air and land: This cycle between the atmosphere and biosphere may
range from few days to decades. Carbon dioxide serves is the basic food ingredient to the living
beings and thus the biosphere plays an instrumental role in this cycling. Plants fix atmospheric
carbon through photosynthesis. The chemical may be represented as:
sunlight
CO2 + H2O CH2O + O2
chlorophyll
Simple sugars are assimilated to form complex substances like starch and cellulose. Plants
are consumed by animals; part of it is respired as CO2 and part turned into animal tissue. When
plants and animals die they form detritus and most of it is decomposed into inorganic forms. Over
millions of years, fossil fuels are formed as partially decomposed matter. Combustion of fossil fuels
adds CO2 to the air. Respiration of plants and animals also releases CO2 in the air.
Figure 4.12: Three carbon cycles integrated
Carbon cycle 3 – air and sea cycle:
Oceans are vast deposits of carbon. Photosynthesis
Over thousands of year the carbonates

of the rocks dissolve and makes up the Atmospheric Green plants
and photosynthetic
CO2
oceanic biomass. Diffusion
bacteria
Respiration
The summary of the three cycles Combustion Decay and Carbohydrates
CO dissolved decomposition
together is shown in Figure 4.12. 2
in water
Eating
(H CO )
2 3
Animals
4.6.3 Nitrogen cycle Weathering
and Fossi lization
Bicarbonates dissolution
Nitrogen is the most abundant element
Upliftment with time
Fossil fuels
in the air and makes 79 per cent by coal, petroleum
and natural gas
volume of air. Nitrogen forms the
building blocks of protein monomers Rock
carbonates
Ecosystems 131
– the amino acid and also forms the constituent of bases in DNA and Ribonucleic acid (RNA) –
adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine.
The nitrogen cycle is subjugated by the N2 in the air. NO2 is the second most familiar form.
N2O, normally referred to as laughing gas, is a greenhouse gas (GHG).Nitrogen gas is inert and so
it is able to offset the high reactivity of oxygen, the other major atmospheric component. Nitrogen
can form a range of compounds owing to its variable valency. For instance, it combines with
oxygen in variable proportion to form N2O, NO, NO2, or N2O5. Collectively, these oxides (except
for N2O5) are represented as NOx.
Nitrogen is an essential element of all living beings. Amino acids, the monomer, are the
building blocks of proteins. They contain nitrogen in the form of the ‘amino’ group (NH2).
The four nitrogenous bases of DNA and RNA [Adenine (A), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G), and
Thymine (T)/ Uracil (U)] consist of either single or double rings of carbon and nitrogen atoms,
with various side chains. Nitric oxide (NO) is also a neurotransmitter.
Nitrogen is inert in the air. All living organisms want considerable amounts of nitrogen for
sustenance. Neither plants nor animals are able to fix atmospheric nitrogen. Nitrogen from the air
is fixed by three processes.
by microbes;
by lightning; and
by Haber’s process.
Microbial fixation can be symbiotic or asymbiotic. Symbiotic fixation is between the
leguminous plants like peas, beans, alfalfa, clover and the symbiotic bacteria like Rhizobium.
Rhizobium traps atmospheric nitrogen, converts it into nitrates and gives it to the plants. The
plants give finished food to the bacteria. Aymbiotic fixation is mediated by blue green algae like
Nostoc and Anabaena.
Lightning momentarily raises the temperature causing Figure 4.13: Nitrogen-fixing
the atomic nitrogen and oxygen to react together form bacteria on legume roots
nitrogen monoxide and further into nitrogen dioxides. The
oxide dissolves in water to form nitric acid that precipitates
down into the soil and water along with rain. This enriches
the nitrogen content in the soil as nitrites.
In industry, nitrogen and hydrogen is combined under
controlled temperature and pressure and in presence of
catalyst to form ammonia. The process is known as Haber’s
process.
Plants take up soluble nitrates from the soil, along with
other minerals, and utilize them to build up plant tissues.
Animals in turn get their nitrogen requirement by nourishing
on plants. Plant and animal wastes and their dead remains are transformed into ammonia by the
process of ammonification with the help of Clostridium. The use of fertilizers like ammonium
nitrate is to compensate for the nitrogen deficit in the soil. Ammonia undergoes the process of
nitrification in two steps aided by soil bacteria. In the first step, Nitrosomonas converts ammonia
into nitrite and subsequently in the second step, Nitrobacter converts nitrite into nitrates. Nitrates
are then be easily taken up by the plants with the help of plant roots. Denitrifying bacteria like
Bacillus convert the nitrates back into elemental nitrogen making it unavailable once again.
4.6.4 Oxygen cycle

Figure 4.14: The nitrogen cycle
Oxygen is a basic element of life. It constitutes
about 21 per cent of the atmosphere. Oxygen Atmospheric Electric discharge
nitrogen
is omnipresent. It also occurs in combined NO Microbial
state in Earth’s crust and mantle and in water. fixation
ss NO2
Oxygen is highly reactive. Dissolved oxygen p ro
ce
r’s De
be (Baci nitrifi
in water supports aquatic life. Photosynthesis Ha llus c
, P ation
HNO3
bio
tic
seu ym c)
As osto
releases oxygen in the atmosphere whereas do
mo
nas
)
(N
respiration, burning or combustion and NH4+

(Nitrosomonas)
NO-2
(Nitrobacter)
NO3-
decomposition utilizes oxygen. Symbiotic

Ammonificafion
(Clostridium)
Nitrification (Rhizobium)
4.6.5 Sulphur cycle

Absorption
Sulphur, a yellow coloured solid chiefly occurs Tissue Death

Animals Eaten
Plants
proteins (Legumes)
as sulphates in the rocks and as elemental
Decay
sulphur. Sulphur is one of the essential
elements in living organisms. It occurs in
three amino acids like methionine, cystine and cysteine. Sulphur in elemental form cannot be
utilized by the plants and animals. Sulphur is oxidized to sulphates by bacteria like Thiobacillus
thioxidans. Sulphates assimilated by Figure 4.15: The oxygen cycle
plants are incorporated into amino Oxygen and ozone
acids and then to proteins. Plants are in Stratosphere
consumed by animals who utilize it.

Following their death, the organic
substrates are oxidized into organic Oxygen in
air and water
acid and then reduced to H2S by O2 O2
Desulfotomaculum. Sulphates can also
Respiration
be reduced in the same manner. H2S ( Living organisms )
Photosynthesis
(Photosynthetic
resulting from suphate reduction and Combustion
organisms)
amino acid decomposition is oxidized
to elemental sulphur by Purple and CO2 and H2O
Sulphur bacteria. Oxygen in CO and H O
air and water 2 2
Ecosystems 133
4.6.6 Phosphorus cycle Figure 4.16: The Sulphur cycle

Weathering of phosphate rock supplies Elemental
sulphur
phosphates to the soil. The dissolved
Purple and
phosphorus is absorbed by the plants sulphur
Bacteria Thiobacillus
and animals do obtain phosphorus from [O]
]
[H
the plants. Phosphorus is an essential
ingredient to nucleic acids, Adenosine
Di Phosphate (ADP), Adenosine H2S
Desulfotomaculum
Sulphates
Tri phosphate (ATP), Nicotinamide [H]
Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate Decay and

decomposition [H]
(NADP) and phospholipids. ( Desulfotomaculun ) Absorption
Plants and animals during their Excreta

Plants
lifetime excrete and die. Decomposers
breakdown the organic phosphates and Animals
Eaten
lphur
return phosphorus to the soil. A part nic su
Orga teins )
ro
(P
of it is leached to the oceans through
the rivers and streams and deposited
in the shallow sea. A Figure 4.17: The phosphorus cycle
part of these deposits
are utilized by marine Animals Plants
animals and after their

Decomposition
death they contribute to of excreta and
Absorption
Sedimentation
organic matter
rocks. Weathering may
increase the availability
of phosphorus to the Dissolved phosphate
biotic community. Much

of the shallow deposits Dissolution
over time
are lost to the relatively
Shallow sediments
deep sea deposits. Marine
fish and
birds
The biogeochemical Phosphate rock
cycles are illustrations of Deep sediment
the Law of Conservation

of Mass; matter is neither created nor destroyed but simply transforms from one form to another.
4.7 Ecological Succession

4.7.1 Definition and concept
This refers to the sequence of changes that the biotic community goes through as it matures
towards a stable condition known as climax. These changes are systematic, progressive and more
or less predictable. It involves stepwise replacement of one community by another community
over time. The term succession was first put in use by Henry David Thoreau.
Successions that initialize in aquatic habitats like lake, ponds, marshes etc. are referred to as
hydrarch. Various stages of hydrarch progress make up hydroseres. The different stages in salty
areas called haloseres. For successions initializing in arid conditions like sand dunes and bare
rocks etc., the term xerarch is often used and the different stages are known as xeroseres. Xeroseres
developing on barren rock are termed lithoseres; while xeroseres on sand are called psammoseres.
Succession beginning on inter–habitat between water and sand is termed mesarch.
The seral stages in aquatic habitat may be: submerged stage – floating stage – reed swamp –
sedge meadow – shrub – tree (climax)
Succession in terrestrial habitat may include the following seres: lichen – moss – herbs – shrubs
– forest (climax)
4.7.2 Types of succession
A. Primary and secondary succession
i Primary succession: Primary succession is a ‘change in vegetation which occurs on
previously barren terrain’ (Barnes, et al., 1998). Primary succession is the sequence of
community changes on a completely new-fangled habitat that have never been colonized
previously. So, if succession progresses from a nude area, i.e., area uninhabited by
organisms or an area unchanged by living beings, is known as primary succession. Such
habitats are generally newly uncovered or deposited surfaces.
Examples of primary succession:
Glaciations (continental glaciers and Volcanic eruptions – Iceland volcanic
Alpine glaciers) – Plants and other life eruptions, Mt. Pinatubo, Mt. St.
take possession of the bare rock. Helens, Mt. Kilimanjaro
Raising sea floor by faulting. Lofty sand banks and sand dunes.
Quarried rock fronts. Landslides.
Volcanic lava flows – Hawaii.
After volcanic eruption or glaciations, the pioneers colonize the barren land, this along
with weathering facilitates pedogenesis or soil formation through interaction with the
surface. Their interaction also adds organic debris to the surface.
ii. Secondary succession: ‘Secondary succession occurs after a disturbance disrupts
ecosystem processes and removes part of the existing biota’ (Barnes, et al., 1998). Forest
depletion, deluge, blaze and wind stream can all culminate into secondary succession. It
takes place on formerly occupied, disturbed and damaged habitat. It proceeds from a state
where other organisms are still present such as seeds, left over stumps and root system
and the effects are obvious. Vegetation recovery followed by forest fire is an example of
secondary succession. Since the soil is already developed, vegetation was already present,
vegetation transformation occurs quickly and rapidly.
Examples of secondary succession:
tree felling, clearance of woodland; and
forest fires.
Ecosystems 135
B. Autotrophic and heterotrophic succession

The succession can be illustrated as autotrophic and heterotrophic succession. The autotrophic
succession is marked by early and sustained domination of autotrophs. It begins in mainly inorganic
setting. The heterotrophic succession on the other hand is marked by an early dominance of
heterotrophic organisms and this usually starts in primarily organic environment. The last stage of
succession is known as the climax community.
C. Autogenic and allogenic succession
The stages in succession is caused by both endogenous (internal) or exogenous (external)
factors depending upon whether such changes are brought about by the actions of the foliage by
themselves or by outside factors. Transitions caused by endogenous factors or internal factors are
termed autogenic, whereas those caused by exogenous factors or external factors are referred to
as allogenic. Primary succession is the typical case of autogenic change, in that the plant is partly
the reason for the development of soils. On the other hand, allogenic succession is determined by
intermittent disturbances.
4.7.3 General process of ecological succession (mechanism of succession)
The process of primary succession moves all the way through a number of orderly steps, which
pursue one another.
Nudation is the progress of an exposed surface without any living forms. It may be due to
topographical factors (wearing away of soil, landslides, earthquake etc.) or climatic factors
(glaciations, hailstorm, fires etc.) or even biotic factors (manmade activities, epidemics etc.).
Plants who will be able to arrive and colonize will survive. They must be able to thrive and
withstand the conditions at the new place in order to survive. They are known as pioneers. For
example moss and lichens are lithophytes that colonize on the bare rocks.
Invasion refers to the successful founding of a species in a bare or exposed area, which occurs
in three steps.
a. Migration: transport of seed or spores in such a nude area through agents like wind, water
etc.
b. Ecesis or ‘establishment’ means adjustment of the migrated species with the existing
conditions of the region. The pioneers after arrival alter the environment. The old ones are
replaced by the new ones, the roots penetrate deeper and deeper breaking the particles,
increasing the water retention capacity and making enough space for others to move in.
c. Aggregation: After establishment, the living organisms multiply and grow in number by
reproduction.
Competition and co-action: Intra-specific and inter-specific competition for food and space
begins as the plants increase in number. Larger and tall plants grow and overshadow the
smaller ones. The species enters into various types of interactions.
Reaction: The living organisms modify the environment and new seral stage replaces the
existing community. The process is repeated.
Stabilization: When the community becomes stabilized with the climatic conditions of a
given area, it is said to be the final or terminal community often known by the name of climax.
This community is in equilibrium with the prevailing conditions of a given area. The climax
dominates for a long time except for catastrophic condition. Succession may be arrested by
several factors and thus the progress into the climax community may be inhibited. Sometimes
this arrested development leads to subclimax like condition. If the arresting phase prolongs, a
completely different type of vegetation might develop.
4.8 General Classification of Ecosystems

Ecosystems can be classified into two major groups: terrestrial ecosystems and aquatic ecosystems.
Box 4.3: Scheme of ecosystem classification
Ecosystem
Terrestrial Aquatic
Forest Grassland Desert Freshwater

Marine
Oceans Lotic Lentic
Seas Rivers Ponds
Streams Lakes
Estuaries
4.8.1 Terrestrial ecosystems

Terrestrial ecosystems comprise the relationships between the abiotic and biotic components on
the landmasses such as continents and islands. It covers 28 per cent of the Earth’s surface. They
are different from aquatic ecosystems because aquatic habitat is the prime requisite of aquatic
ecosystems. The dominant species here are the pteridophytes, angiosperms, gymnosperms,
burrowing organisms like annelids, insects, reptiles, birds and mammals.
Classification of terrestrial ecosystems: Terrestrial ecosystems can be classified as –
Grassland ecosystem (Temperate and Savannah): It predominantly consists of various types
of grasses. Temperate grasslands are known as the pampas in South America, the prairies in
North America, Murray–Darling Basin in Australia, the Steppes in Central Asia and the Veldt
in Africa.
Summers are warm and moist. Rainfall is not enough to support the growth of forest. The
humus content is high. The climatic condition is cooler to a great extent than the Savannahs with
an average summer temperature of 18oC and winter temperature of 10oC.
The primary producers are the grass. Fauna includes hares, deer, Saiga antelopes, foxes,
Ecosystems 137
gophers, sheep, goat, cow, wild dogs and bison occur in the temperate grasslands. They act as
natural pastures for the grazers.
Savannahs’ are intermediate between grassland and forests. The grasslands are interspersed
with trees. Rainfall varies from 100 to 150 cm. Fire serves as a limited factor. Panicum, Imperata,
etc., are the common species of grasses.
In India Deyeuxia and Arundinella can be found in the Himalayas, Cymbopogon in the Western
Ghats, Dichanthium in the Malwa Plateau and Saccharum in Sunderbans and Cauvery delta.
Forest ecosystems: Forests cover roughly 30 per cent of land and 9.4 per cent of all the planet
Earth. It refers to the section of land that is thickly covered with trees may be defined as a forest.
They are also known as woods, weald or woodlands. A forest is a unit of living organisms on land
that exhibits unique environment and many small undefined micro environmental conditions
within that covers broad to very small areas. The environmental ‘common denominator’ of forest
community is the tree and obeys all the natural cycles of energy, water and nutrients flow. There
is substantial amount of detritus and huge number of decomposers. Fire is another limiting factor
in the forest. Many plants develop adaptations to re-grow even after fire events. For example the
presence of thick bark, dormant buds at the base of the trunk and epicormic buds under the bark.
If the leaf canopy is removed they are stimulated to spring up. The tree cover generally reaches at
least 2 m height at maturity.
Temperate and tropical forests: Tropical Forests occur close to the equator. The distinctiveness
lies in the presence of only rainy and dry season lack of winters. Tropical forests may be tropical
rainforests and tropical deciduous forests.
Temperate forests occur in between polar and tropical regions in both Northern and Southern
Hemisphere. They exhibit modest and reasonable climatic conditions. Temperate forests can be
grouped as deciduous, coniferous and broadleaved evergreen forests. The kinds of trees form the
basis of classification. It is the abode to many faunal species, like rabbits, mountain lions, giant
pandas, bears, kookaburras etc.
Forests ecosystems are dynamic and constantly changing community. Forests are treasured
for social, environmental, cultural, and economic factors. Forests provide wood and non–timber
products and services; plays key role in combating climate change, contributes to the economy
and provides superb opportunities for amusement and tourism.
Importance of forests:
Globally over 1.6 billion people are reliant on the forests directly for their livelihoods –
foodstuff, attire, shelter, and conventional medicine.
Industries dependent on forest gives employment to over 60 million people all over the world.
They serve as essential source of raw materials like timber and non-timber products. Timber
products consist of wood, pulp and paper and other wood-based products. Approximately, 3
billion people all over the world are dependent on fuel wood for heating and cooking. Forests
offer medicines, saps, spices, rubber, and oils are also a significant part of the forestry industry.
Berries, nuts, seeds, mushrooms etc are edible.
Tress removes carbon dioxide through photosynthesis and gives out plentiful of oxygen
thus purifying air. Forests trap and store huge amounts of carbon dioxide –which assist in
mitigating climate change. Tropical forests provide carbon-offsetting service, which may
value up to $140 billion annually.
Trees offer shade during the daytime and protects from the wind streams in the winter.
Tree roots play a vital role in soil binding thus preventing weathering of soil by wind or rain.
Forests also play a significant role in scavenging pesticides, fertilizers and other pollutants
from local water bodies.
Forests form the habitat for about 90 per cent of the world’s terrestrial organisms.
Forests are aesthetically beautiful.
In many religions, trees are considered to be sacred and important parts of local tradition and
mythology.
Deserts ecosystem: Deserts are usually hot during the day and cold at night. Deserts are generally
found in the heart of the continents, generally between 25o to 40o north and south of equator.
Deserts have extreme temperatures. Deserts may range from hot and dry deserts to cold deserts.
Plants and animal life vary from desert to desert. During the day the temperature may be as high
as 50°C, whereas night temperatures may fall to below 0°C. Rainfall is less than 250 mm per year
and can be unpredictable. Animals and plants that reside in deserts have adapted to live in these
adverse conditions. Major plants are the shrubs that are hardy and resistant to droughts such as
sagebrush and cactus. The principal desert animals include desert snakes and desert lizards, foxes,
dama gazelles etc.
Three factors cater to the formation of deserts:
existence of high pressure resulting in cloud-free conditions;
cold ocean currents; and
mountain ranges to create rain shadows areas.
A few of the world’s deserts are – Sahara Desert, Sonoran Desert, Mojave desert, Atacama
Desert, Thar Desert, Kalahari Desert, Gobi desert, Siberia (cold desert) etc.
4.8.2 Aquatic ecosystem
The interactions between biotic and abiotic components in oceans, seas, lakes, streams, creeks,
marshes, pools and ponds form the aquatic ecosystem. The primary habitat in this case is water.
Aquatic organisms can be classified as:
Planktons, that flows with the water current – phytoplanktons (sargassam, diatoms,
dinoflagellates) and zooplanktons (copepods, shrimps, jelly fish).
Nektons or strong swimmers – squids, lobsters, crabs, fishes.
Neustons or organisms that rest or swim on the water surface – Collembola, Gerris, Flying
fish.
Ecosystems 139
Benthos or bottom dwellers –sea stars, sea cucumbers, sea anemones, brittle stars, clams and
oysters.
Periphytons that are attached to the submerged surfaces – crustaceans.
An aquatic ecosystem can be marine or freshwater ecosystems.
Marine ecosystems: Marine ecosystems cover approximately 71 per cent of Earth’s surface.
Diverge habitats ranging from coral reefs to estuaries, open pelagic sea to the deep benthic and
abyssal region, and constitute this largest aquatic ecosystem in the planet. Major examples of
marine ecosystems are:
Oceans and seas: Characterized by the presence of salt water, this ecosystem is additionally
classified into important oceans and smaller seas. They are huge reservoirs of water and
support more than 2.5 lakh of marine species. The five major oceans are Pacific Ocean, Indian
Ocean, Arctic Ocean, Atlantic Ocean and Southern Ocean. Notable seas are Red Sea, Caspian
Sea, Black Sea etc.
Intertidal zone: The area which remains under the water at high tide conditions and
transforms into terrestrial habitat at low tide is referred to as the intertidal zone. Rocky cliffs
and sandy beaches all fall under intertidal zones.
Estuaries: Areas lying between riverine and marine environments, those which are vulnerable
to tides and inflow of both freshwater and saline water. Estuaries are extremely rich and
diverse as it is an ecotone. Estuaries exhibit constant mixing of water which stirs up the silt
and increase the availability of nutrients. Due to the inflow of both fresh and marine water,
estuaries have elevated levels of nutrients and exhibit a high biodiversity. Such a phenomenon
is called edge effect. Organisms show a wide range of tolerance to temperature and salinity.
They are often rich in migratory fishes such as salmon, eels, etc. Estuaries are alternatively
known as inlets, lagoons, harbors. Examples are Chesapeake Bay, San Francisco Bay, Thane
creek, Vasai creek, Vellar, etc.
Coral reefs: Referred to as the ‘rainforests of the sea’. They are mounds found in marine waters as
a consequence of accretion of calcium carbonate deposited by oceanic organisms like corals and
shellfish. Coral reefs represent the most speckled marine ecosystems on this earth, but comprize
less than 1per cent of the world’s ocean. Nonetheless, reefs support around 25 per cent of marine
animals including varieties of fishes, sponges and mollusks. E.g. – Great Barrier Reef.
Common species found in marine ecosystems include:
Marine mammals such as seals, dolphins, whales and manatees.
Different species of fish including halibut, sea horse, mackerel, sardine, flounder, salmon,
dogfish, sea bass, etc.
Organisms such as brown algae, diatoms, corals, mollusk, echinoderms, etc.
Presently, marine ecosystems are susceptible to environmental issues such as climate change,
pollution and overfishing and tourism.
Freshwater ecosystems: Freshwater ecosystems cover only 0.8 per cent of the Earth’s surface.
The water is non–saline. About 41 per cent of all the fishes are found in freshwater. Freshwater
ecosystems faces threat because of the speedy extermination rates of several nonchordates and
chordates, mainly because of pollution, overfishing, and other harmful activities.
Freshwater ecosystems can be of the following types:
Lotic ecosystems – Lotic systems refer to the swift flowing waters that move unidirectionally.
Rivers and streams are the best examples, which shelter numerous species of insects, crustaceans,
snails, slugs and fishes. Crayfish, crabs, clams and limpets, crocodiles and fishes are very common
in streams and rivers. Lotic mammals include beavers, otters and river dolphins.
Lentic ecosystems: Lentic ecosystems refer to immobile, still or stagnant waters such as lakes and
ponds. Ponds are usually of shallow depth and holds key to the village activities. Ponds and lakes
supports a wide variety of organisms such as algae, rooted plants, floating – plants, protozoans,
crabs, shrimps, crayfish, clams, frogs, salamanders, alligators and water snakes. Presently, ponds
and lakes are subjected to pollution as a consequence of human activities such as washing clothes
and utensils, bathing, cattle bathing and for drinking. Lake are much more deeper than the ponds
and usually have a shallow littoral zone, an open water zone called limnetic zone with effective
light penetration and a deep water or profundal zone without light.
On the basis of temperature lakes can be stratified as the epilimnion (warm surface water) and
hypolimnion (cold non-circulating bottom water) with thermocline in between.
Lakes can be classified as:
Oligotrophic lakes with poor nutrients and clear water – Lake Vostok, Lake Superior.
Eutrophic lakes with excess nutrients – Lake Erie.
Dystrophic lakes with low pH and high humic acid – Lake Matheson, Humic Lake.
Endemic or ancient deep lakes – Lake Baikal, Lake Tanganyika.
Desert salt lakes with very high salt concentrations and high evaporations – Great Salt Lake,
Utah and Sambhar.
Volcanic lakes receiving water from volcanic eruptions – Lake Toba, Lake Chagan.
Meromictic lakes with permanent stratification – Round Lake.
Artificial lakes constructed by man – Nagarjuna Sagar, Govind Sagar.
Case Study 4.1: Coral reefs, coral bleaching and Agatti Conservation Reserve,
Lakshadweep, India
Coral reefs survive best between the the World Meteorological Organization
temperatures 25°–29°C. The reefs stretch (WMO), tropical coral reefs provide global
over an area of 280,000 sq. km and support goods and services worth more than US
about 2 million other marine species. It $30 billion per year. Coral reefs assist the
is the shelter for more than 25 per cent of environment by:
fishes and a nursery bed for the juveniles.
They protect the shores from storms and
Corals serve as important input to the food
wave actions.
chain and help in nutrient recycling. As per
Ecosystems 141
They have a prospect for food and species composition and reef community.
medicines Many susceptible species may die as a result
They are attractive tourist spots resulting of bleaching leading to loss of coral islands.
in economic benefits,. The Lakshadweep Islands are a cluster of
islands about 200–300 km from the coast
As per the ‘Status of Coral Reefs around
of Kerala in the Arabian Sea. The islands
the world’ in 2004, 20 per cent of the reefs
are very rich in biodiversity with thousands
have been destroyed with no prospects of
and thousands of marine species including
recovery and 24 per cent of the reefs are
150 coral species. It has 11 inhabited and
under the risk of collapse.
14 uninhabited islands. The area suffers
The corals reefs faces threat from inland severe human threats as a consequence
pollution, climate change and temperate of human population, pollution, climate
rise, over fishing by bombing and cyanide change, erosion, tourism pressure, beach
poisoning, dredging practices, coastal armouring, fishing and fishing vessels, coral
development, industrial and tourism collection, fishing methods for tuna, etc.
transports, mining of coral reef rocks, ocean After monitoring the island for few years,
acidification and lack of good governance. changes in lagoon ecosystem, reef integrity
Warmer temperatures result in expulsion of and giant clam population were observed. In
the algae (zooxanthellae) from the tissues 2008, the Agatti Conservation Reserve was
of the corals turning the corals completely established in collaboration with BNHS,
white, a phenomenon known as coral Lead International and funding from Darwin
bleaching. The coral are not dead with such Initiative with an objective of conserving
bleaching event but become highly stressed the giant clams, improving the local
and more vulnerable to mortality. peoples livelihood through sustainable use
When a coral bleaches, it is not dead. Corals of natural resources, creating opportunities
can survive a bleaching event, but they for eco–tourism and reducing the direct
are under more stress and are subject to human impacts on the reef. A local group
mortality. Such weak reef cannot act as a called the Sandy Beach Cultural and
buffer to the shorelines and becomes visually Ecotourism Society has developed a glass
less appealing both to the divers and tourists. bottom boat business to cater eco-tourism
There may be an accelerated change in the and a programme for turtle nest protection.
Wetlands: Wetlands include swamps, bog lands and marshes, where the water is usually of shallow
and low depth. They are regions between land and water. As per Ramsar convention, wetlands can
be defined as
‘areas of marsh, fen, peat land or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary,
with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the
depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters’.
Wetlands can be marine, estuarine, lacustrine, riverine or palustrine. Wetlands are excessively
diverse and provide shelter to numerous animals and plant species such as black spruce, sundri,
water lilies, mangrove, goran and tamarack. A range of reptiles, amphibians, birds and mammals
are found in wetlands. Notable wetlands are Sundarban, Rashikbeel, Bhitorkanika, Vembanad, etc.
Case Study 4.2: The Sunderban mangroves

Mangrove forests comprise less than 1 many questions on the viability of these
per cent of all the forest areas all over the ecologically critical area. Some 4.75 million
world. Sunderbans are one of the carbon tonnes of coal would be burnt annually. The
rich tropical forests with a very high carbon EIA report admits the daily air emissions of
sequestration potential. They are a transition about 142 tonnes of SO2 and 85 tonnes of
from marine to freshwater and terrestrial NO2. About 5 lakh tones of sludge would
systems. The Sunderban ecoregion lies in be produced. Power plant construction
the delta formed by the confluence of the would involve site clearance, land filling,
Rivers Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna, sand lifting, etc which will surely affect
extending across the southern Bangladesh the aquatic habitats and diversity. The
and West Bengal of India. The region bherry cultures have already damaged
experiences heavy rainfall of over 350 cm the ecologically valuable juveniles. Such
during monsoon and temperatures as high practice will lead to the collapse of the
as 48oC. The unstratified and dense forest is ecosystem. The air emissions will affect the
characterized by Heritiera fomes, Avicennia kewra tree leaves on which the deer thrives.
sp., Sonneratia apetala, Rhizophora, The impact on deer population will in turn
Nypa, Xylocarpus, etc. Numerous fishes spill over to the tiger population.
and lower animals spend their juvenile Environmentalists are worried over the
periods amongst the pneumatophores. threats from pollution, ignorance, hunting
The extensive mangrove food pyramid and poaching, illegal trade in wild life, lack
has a huge reserve of phytoplanktons in of monitoring, all of which will jeopardize
water and detritus in the forest floor. The the future of Sunderbans. Such mangroves
tigers, at the pinnacle of the pyramid, are serve as major barrier to climate change
active swimmers. They predate on Chital, and protect the coastal area from tsunamis
Munjtjac deer, wild boar and even Rhesus and cyclones. What Sunderbans needs at
monkey. Often the people, moving into the present, is the conservation of habitat, policy
thick forests for collecting honey, fish or and advocacy, information dissemination,
wood fall prey to these tigers. capacity building, adaptation to climate
The plan of setting up of a 1,320 MW coal change, lessening man wildlife conflict
fired power plant at Rampal, located 14 where humans can live in harmony with
kilometers from the Sunderbans raises nature.
Ecosystems 143
Table 4.3: Characteristic features of the various ecosystems
Forest Grassland Desert

Characteristics Dominated by trees. Dominated by grass. Deserts are dry places
For example, Tropical Grasslands once with sandy soil, too hot
rainforests of the Amazon occupied up to 25 to 40 or too cold, availability
basin, the temperate per cent of the earth's of water is an important
forests of eastern North land surface, but many factor that determines
America, and the Boreal of these grasslands have the distribution of
forests of northern been used up for crop organisms; on an average
Europe. production. having less than 25 cm
Mature forests often of precipitation per year;
exhibit distinct vertical Grasslands can be strong tendency to lose
layers – forest floor, classified as temperate water by evaporation and
herb layer, shrub layer, or tropical. Temperate the potential for water
understory, canopy, grasslands have cold loss exceeds the annual
emergents. winters and warm to hot rainfall. All this result in
summers; have deep, scanty vegetation.
fertile soils.
Tropical grasslands are
warm throughout the
year, having marked wet
and dry seasons with
annual rainfall amounting
of 50 to 130 cms; have
more number of woody
shrubs and trees than
temperate grasslands.
Abiotic components
Inorganic Calcium, Phosphorus, Sulphur, Calcium, Minerals are
Sulphur, Potassium, Potassium, Magnesium, comparatively less.
Magnesium, Nitrogen, Iron, Nitrogen,
Oxygen, Carbon dioxide Phosphorus,
Organic Chlorophyll, Chlorophyll, Chlorophyll,
Carbohydrates Carbohydrates, Proteins, Carbohydrates, Proteins,
Proteins, Fats, Humus Fats Fats
Climatic Light, Temperature, Light, Temperature Sandy soil, dry, porous,
Humidity, Rainfall fluctuations, low to very low rainfall
moderate rainfall
Biotic components
Maple, walnut, junipers,
Producers Cynodon, Digitaria, Acacia, Calotropis,
Pine, Spruce, Teak, Setaria, Aristida Opuntia, Euphorbia,
Sal, Rosewood, palms, Zizypus
orchids etc
Forest Grassland Desert

Consumers Beetles, ants, spiders, Cow, Buffalo, Goats, Kangaroo rats, cattles,
deer, elephants, Nilgai rabbits, hare camels
Frogs, fox, snakes, Wolves Snakes, Lizards, jackals, Sphryna, Lizards

foxes
Lion, tiger, leopard Vultures
Clostridium, Bacillus, Mucor, Rhizopus, Thermophilic bacteria

Decomposers Nitrobacter, Aspergillus
Fusarium, Agaricus,
Physarum
Examples Tropical evergreen, Prairies, steppes, Pampas, Thar, Gobi, Atacama,
tropical deciduous, Veld Sahara, Sonoran desert
tropical rainforest,
Freshwater Estuary Marine

Characteristics Freshwater represents It is the ecotone between It covers two–thirds
very small proportion of freshwater and sea of the surface of the
the earth and includes water, Mixing of two Earth and is the largest
lakes, ponds, rivers, opposite currents; the of Earth's aquatic
streams etc. unidirectional flow of ecosystems. They include
river water mixes with the oceans, salt marsh, seas,
Salinity is less than 1per oscillating tidal currents coral reef etc.; they are
cent. of the sea. marked by high salinity.
Abiotic components Calcium, Phosphorus, Sodium, Chlorine, Sodium, Chlorine,
Sulphur, Potassium, Calcium, Phosphorus, Calcium, Phosphorus,
Magnesium, Nitrogen, Sulphur, Potassium, Sulphur, Potassium,
Oxygen, Carbon dioxide Magnesium, Nitrogen, Magnesium, Nitrogen,
Oxygen, Carbon dioxide Oxygen, Carbon dioxide
Abiotic components Chlorophyll, Chlorophyll, Chlorophyll,

Carbohydrates Carbohydrates Carbohydrates
Proteins, Fats Proteins, Fats Proteins, Fats
Turbidity of water and Turbidity of water and Turbidity of water and
light penetration, pH, light penetration, pH, light penetration, pH,
temperature, pressure, temperature, variable temperature, pressure,
hardness in water salinity
Biotic components Blue green algae, Sea grasses and sea weeds Dinoflagellates, Diatoms,
Euglena, Chlamydomonas, Red algae ( Chondrus) ,
Oscillatoria, Chara, Brown algae (Sargassum)
Chlorella, Spirogyra
Ecosystems 145
Freshwater Estuary Marine

Lemna, Wolffia, Sea grasses and sea weeds
Eichhornia, Hydrilla,
Vallisnaria, Sagittaria
Oysters, Neries, Arenicola
Protozoans, Daphnia,
Cyclops, insects
Small fish, frogs
Large fish, aquatic birds Shoe crab Crustaceans, Molluscs
Bacteria and fungi Herring, Shad, Mackerel
Shark, Whale
Marine barophilic
bacteria
Examples Baikal, Chilka lakes, Hudson Bay, Chesapeake Indian Ocean, Pacific,
ponds, Ganga, Tapti Bay, Vellar Atlantic, Caspian, Red
Sea
4.9 Species Interactions in Ecosystems

The fundamental life processes such as growth and development, nutrition and reproduction
be governed by the interactions between individuals of same species (intraspecific) or between
different species (interspecific). Certain interactions or associations are beneficial to each other
and some are harmful or some may be neutral. The various types of possible interactions/
associations can be categorized as:
A. Neutralism: This is the most familiar type of interspecific interaction (between individuals of
different species) where neither population affects each other. These inter-relations are held to be
indirect or incidental.
B. Beneficial association/interactions:
i. Proto-cooperation:
These types of interactions are mutually beneficial but non-obligatory between two species.
For example, birds taking away pests from the bodies of bovine creatures etc. In absence of such
interactions however, the birds have the choice of finding substitute nutrients sources and so do
the bovine animal which is not dependant on the birds for survival.
The Crocodile bird (Pluvianus aegyptius) frequently goes inside the oral cavity of the crocodile
and nourish on the leeches which are parasites of the crocodile. In this way, the bird procures its
food and the crocodile is relieved of the sanguinivorous parasites.
ii. Mutualism (Symbiosis):

It is mutually beneficial, absolutely obligatory association between two species. For example, the
association between bees and flowers; the honey bee gets food in the form of nectar, flowers in
turn gets its pollen transported to distant areas by the bee. Without the flower the bee was not
able to collect pollen and the plant would not have its pollination that will affect its survival ability.
Benefit in terms of nutrients exchange is often termed as ‘syntrophism’.
Lichen (association of algae with fungus) is the association in which algal part gets protection
and simple nutrients provided to it by the fungal hyphae. The fungus obtains and uses CO2 given
out by the algae during the process of photosynthesis.
Microorganisms may also form symbiotic relationships with plants. An example is the nitrogen
fixing bacteria, Rhizobium-legume association; the plant is benefited by getting readily available
nitrate released by the bacterial partner, whereas Rhizobium is getting protection and finished
food from the plant. A similar type of interaction exists between Anabaena and Azolla. This
association is of enormous significance in paddy fields, where nitrogen is habitually a limiting
nutrient. Symbiosis between actinomycetes (Frankia) with the roots of Casurina and Alnus (non-
legumes) is widespread in temperate forest.
Another example of symbiosis subsists between the fungus and the roots of higher plants
called Mycorrhiza. The fungus gets essential organic nutrients and protection from the plants. The
plants absorb phosphorus, nitrogen and other inorganic minerals made readily available by the
fungi. Zoochlorella subsists on the outer tissues of the Poriferan sponges. The alga manufactures
food by photosynthesis and gives out O2. In return the host offers matrix that serves as shelter to
the algae and nitrogenous wastes as raw material.
iii. Commensalism:
In this type of interaction, one organism/partner is benefited and the other partner is neither
benefitted nor harmed. For instance, many fungi are capable of degrading cellulose to the
monosaccharide, glucose, which is then used by many bacteria. Remora gets attached to the body
of the shark and is taken to new feeding sites. In due course, Remora is also able to feed on the
food pieces falling from the shark’s prey. Epiphytes clinging on trees receive mechanical support
but, barely affect the trees. Red billed ox-pecker (Buphagus erythrorhynchus) frequently feed on
the ecto-parasites such as lice, ticks and mites etc on the skin of rhinoceros. Rhinos are hardly
affected by such act. Hermit crab (Eupagurus prideauxi) is found to live inside the empty shell
of gastropods and allows sea – anemone (Adamsia pallicata) to fix and anchor on its shell. The
sea-anemone is responsible for disguise and camouflage (protective colouration) and defends the
crab from its enemies, while the crab aids in the speedy transit of the sea anemone and helps the
anemone to find new feeding grounds.
iv. Scavenging:
This is a direct food linked interspecific interaction in which the scavenger or saprobiont consumes
the deceased bodies of other animals, which have died naturally or is killed by some other creatures.
Ecosystems 147
Scavengers sanitize the surrounding and the prevailing food is eventually disposed of so that the
bulk of nutrients move in the nutrient recycling process. Animals such as vultures, foxes, hyenas,
etc. are regular scavengers. Dogs, crows and ants are infrequently observed to act as scavengers.
C. Negative (harmful) associations/interactions:
i. Antagonism/Ammensalism:
The interaction involves the environment where one species is inhibited by another species. The
inhibition may be direct or indirect; very common in case of antibiotic production. Antagonism
may be of three types, i.e. antibiosis, competition and exploitation.
In the case of antibiosis, the metabolites or antibiotics synthesized or made by one organism
inhibit or impede the growth and survival of another organism. Bacillus secreting an antifungal
agent blocks the growth of numerous soil fungi.
ii. Competition:
Active competition may exist among the organisms either for the available nutrients or for the
available space. The food and space may act as a limiting factor for one species and may result in
favouring one species over another. Hence, competition is usually defined as ‘the injurious effect
of one organism on another because of the removal of some resource of the environment’. Take for
instance, tiger and leopard competing with each other for preying upon a deer.
iii. Parasitism:
A hetero–specific association where one organism lives inside or on the body of another for
the purpose of food and shelter. The parasite is reliant on the host and establishes metabolic
relationship with the host. Consequently, in this host–parasite relationship, one organism
(parasite) is benefited while other organism (host) is harmfully or adversely affected, even though
not inevitably killed. Parasite can exist as ectoparasite or endoparasite. E.g. leech, Ascaris, Fasciola.
iv. Predation:
In this type of association/exploitation one organism (predator) kills and feeds on the other
organism (prey). Generally, the predator is stronger and stout as compared to the prey, for example,
tiger predating on an antelope.
Table 4.4: Summary of species interaction

Effect on Effect on
Interaction Nature of interaction
species A species B
A. Neutralism 0 0 None is benefitted, none is harmed
B. Positive
Beneficial to scavenger, who feeds on flesh or dead
Scavenging + 0
organisms
Commensalism + 0 One is beneficial, other is unaffected
Proto– cooperation + + Beneficial to both, but not obligatory
Mutualism or symbiosis + + Beneficial to both, obligatory
Effect on Effect on
Interaction Nature of interaction
species A species B
X. Negetive
Ammensalism + – One is beneficial, other is harmed
Competition – – Negative
Predation
+ – One is beneficial, other is killed
Parasitism + – One is beneficial, other is harmed
4.10 Ecosystem Services

Ecosystem function is the ability of the ecosystem to provide goods and services through natural
processes to fulfill human requirements, either directly or through indirect means. Ecosystem
functions are understood to be a subset of ecosystem structures. Natural processes are the outcome
of complex relations between living beings and the physio-chemical constituents of ecosystems
through the universal forces of matter and energy.
There are four main groups of ecosystem functions:
A. Regulatory functions: refers to the capacity of the natural and seminatural ecosystems to
regulate life support systems like photosynthesis, respiration and ecological processes like nutrient
cycles, energy flow, evaporation, precipitation etc. This in turn helps to provide fresh air, water and
land for sustenance.
B. Habitat functions: Natural ecosystems provide refuge and substrate to the wildlife. It
contributes to the conservation of biological diversity at all levels and to the evolutionary
process.
C. Production functions: The vital process like photosynthesis enables the autotrophs to trap
solar energy and convert it into food. These are then consumed and utilized by the secondary
organisms for their survival and a variety of other functions.
D. Information functions: Human evolution took place in the wild and nature serves as the
reference point for the multidimensional development of a person. The beauty, serenity and
diversity in nature provides excellent platform for spiritual improvement, intellectual advancement,
refreshment and amusement, etc.
The ecosystem function progresses toward a complete and inclusive view of the natural goods
and services which is shown in Table 4.5.
Ecosystems 149
Table 4.5: Ecosystem services according to de Groot et al., 2002
1. Regulation functions and related ecosystem 1. Regulation of gaseous components

services 2. Regulation of climatic pattern
3. Prevention of any disturbances
4. Regulation of water cycle
5. Supply of water
6. Retention of soil
7. Formation of soil
8. Recycling of nutrients
9. Treatment of waste
10. Pollination
11. Biological control
2. Habitat functions and related ecosystem 1. Act as refugium i.e. , a region unaltered by
services changes at has habitat for relict flora and fauna
2. Fostering and rearing
3. Production functions and related ecosystem 1. Supplies food

goods and services 2. Supplies with raw material
3. Provides with genetic resources
4. Excellent source of medicines
5. Source of orchids and ornamental resources
4. Information functions and related 1. Aesthetic information

ecosystem goods services 2. Eco-tourism and recreation
3. Cultural and artistic inspiration
4. Spiritual development and historic information
5. Dissemination of scientific and educational
information
Summary
Ecology is the branch of science that incorporates the basic conceptions of civilization. The
word was introduced by combining two words ‘Oikos’ (house) and ‘logos’ (to study). Ecology
plays significant role in conservation and management of resources, urbanization and town
planning, population control, risk assessment and disaster management.
An ecosystem is the basic functional unit in ecology, as it comprises both organisms and their
abiotic environment. Elementary processes in an ecosystem include the nutrient cycle and
continual energy inflow. Solar energy is trapped by the green plants by photosynthesis.
Components of ecosystem comprise the abiotic factors that refer to non-living substances like
air, water, land, elements and compounds. The diverse groups of living organisms comprise the
biotic components that interact to allow the unidirectional flow of energy. Bulk of the energy
trapped by the producers is dissipated in the environment as heat energy. Heterotrophs obtain
food and energy from the autotrophs. The left over energy in a dead organism is devoured by
decomposers.
The flow of energy can be depicted by food chains from producers to consumers by eating
and being eaten relationship. On the other hand, food web depicts anastomosing food chains
with numerous producers, consumers and decomposers operating simultaneously. Trophic
structure and trophic function of an ecosystem may also be graphically represented by means
of ‘ecological pyramids’
The average amount of energy from the sun reaching the Earth’s atmosphere is measurable
as solar constant. The thermodynamics laws state how energy is transformed from one form
to another and is applicable to ecology as energy transfer drives metabolism. Energy flow
is always unidirectional, which is in contrast to the cyclic flow of material in ecosystems as
represented by the biogeochemical cycles.
Ecosystem reflects series of transitions known as ecological succession as it matures towards a
stable climax condition.
Ecosystems are broadly categorized into terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Terrestrial
ecosystem refers to the interaction amongst the biotic and nonliving objects on land masses
like islands and continents. Aquatic ecosystems commonly refer to interaction of living
organisms and non-living entities in oceans, seas, lakes, streams, marshes and ponds. The
primary habitat in this case is water.
The fundamental life processes such as growth and development, nutrition and reproduction
be governed by the intraspecific or inter-specific interactions. Certain interactions are
beneficial to each other and some are harmful or some may be neutral.
Ecosystem, thus, provides goods and services through natural processes to fulfill human
requirements, either directly or through indirect means.
Exercise
MCQs
Encircle the right option:

1. The term ecosystem was coined by:
A. Haeckel B. Tansley C. Wilson D. Fourier
2. The chapter of interaction between living organisms and environment is called:

A. zoology B. ontology C. ecology D. physiology
3. Ecosystem comprise of:

A. biotic components B. abiotic components
C. biotic and abiotic components D. none
Ecosystems 151
4. Nutrient level in an ecosystem is called:

A. food chain B. food web C. trophic level D. none
5. The study of groups of organisms is known as:

A. Synecology B. Limnology C. Autecology D. Pedology
6. The dissipation of energy from one level to the next in an ecosystem follows _______ law of
thermodynamics:
A. Zeroth B. First C. Second D. Third
7. Pyramid of numbers in a parasitic food chain is:

A. Upright B. Inverted C. Semi upright D. all at times
8. The amount of solar radiation utilized by the producers is:

A. 2 per cent B. 10 per cent C. 8 per cent D. 50 per cent
9. ‘The 10 per cent law’ is by:

A. Maslow B. Grinnel C. Lindemann D. Malthus
10. Competition relationship is denoted by:

A. + + B. + 0 C. – + D. – –
Fill in the blanks.

1. The chapter of interaction between living organisms and environment is __________.
2. The number pyramid in parasitic food chain is _______.
3. ___________ is the main source of energy in ecosystem.
4. Lakes with algal blooms are referred to as _________.
5. GPP is highest in __________ forest.
State whether the statements are true or false.

1. Food chain exhibits eating and being eaten relationship in ecosystem. (T/F)
2. Both energy flow and nutrient flow are cyclical in nature. (T/F)
3. Normally ecosystem is in the state of equilibrium known as homeostasis. (T/F)
4. NPP is always less than GPP. (T/F)
5. Detritivores are also known as saprotrophs. (T/F)
Short questions.
1. Define ecology.
2. State the principles of ecology.
3. Compare autecology and synecology with proper examples.
4. What is ecological footprint?
5. Define ecosystem.
6. State the difference between photoautotroph and chemoautotroph.

7. What are omnivores?
8. How are scavengers different from decomposers?
9. What is trophic structure?
10. Define food chain.
Essay type questions.

1. Describe the various components of ecosystem and give suitable examples.
2. What are ecological pyramids? Describe the various types of ecological pyramids with suitable
examples.
3. Energy flow follows the law of thermodynamics. Justify.
4. Explain the water cycle.
5. Explain the Carbon cycle.

Ecosystems: 4.1 Definition and Concept of Ecology

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Ecosystems: 4.1 Definition and Concept of Ecology

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Ecosystems 4

4.1 Definition and Concept of Ecology

4.1.1 Ecology as a discipline

4.1.2 Basic ecological principles

There are four fundamental doctrines of ecology.

4.1.3 Scope of ecology

4.1.4 Sub-divisions of ecology

population: assemblage of interbreeding organisms belonging to same species inhabiting a

Organisms Tissues Organs Cells Molecules Atoms

Box 4.1: Ecological footprint

4.2 Concepts of an Ecosystem

4.2.2 Basic/Elementary processes in an ecosystem

4.3 Components of Ecosystem

4.3.1 Abiotic components

4.3.2 Biotic components

Consumers: These are heterotrophs that obtain

Box 4.2: Schematic representation of the ecosystem components

Physical Chemical Producers Consumers Decomposers

4.4 Structures and Functions of an Ecosystem

exemplified graphically as food (Autotrophs)

chains, food webs and food photosynthetic

and from animals to animals by (Bacteria and (Primary,

Trophic level Type of organism Energy source Examples

1st Primary producer Sun Trees, shrubs, algae

Food chains can be of two types –

Figure 4.4: Inter-relation between grazing and detritus food chain

Herbivores Predators Grazing food chain

Solar radiation Producers

Detritivores Predators Detritus food chain

Emperor Penguin Adelie

Figure 4.6: Pyramids of number

C2 - 500Kg/Km2 Snakes C3 - 50,000Kg/m2 Big fish

a. Upright pyramid in grassland ecosystem b. Inverted pyramid in lake ecosystem

iii. Pyramid of energy

4.5 Energy Flow in Ecosystem

ecosystem the energy flows from sun to autotrophs, P - 10,000 cal/m2

4.5.2 Solar constant

4.5.3 Laws of thermodynamics as related to ecology

4.5.4 Productivity in ecosystems

Primary productivity: Primary productivity is the manufacture of new organic materials

Factors limiting net primary production:

Aquatic factors include:

3000 1500 15 1.5 0.3

Table 4.2: Productivity and biomass in different ecosystems

4.6 Biogeochemical Cycles

Three types of biogeochemical cycles are usually categorized:

4.6.1 Water cycle

sink but acute water problem becomes Rain Rain

irrigation and consumption patterns. Plants

The uneven distribution of water gives Soil

rise to severe conflicts and water war River

addressed and handled carefully.

4.6.2 Carbon cycle Underground water

Over thousands of year the carbonates

4.6.4 Oxygen cycle

respiration, burning or combustion and NH4+

decomposition utilizes oxygen. Symbiotic

4.6.5 Sulphur cycle

Sulphur, a yellow coloured solid chiefly occurs Tissue Death