RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIZORAM :

A STUDY OF PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATION UNDER

RURAL DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT, MIZORAM

Thesis
Submitted to the Mizoram University for the
Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

By
LALTHANCHAMI SAILO

Supervisor
PROFESSOR SRINIBAS PATHI

DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

MIZORAM UNIVERSITY
AIZAWL
2014
 MIZORAM UNIVERSITY
Post Box No . 190
Aizawl : Mizoram Gram : MZU
Phone2331606/2331612
www.mzu.edu.in Fax : 0389-2331606
Email :
pa_mzu@yahoo.ion

Department of Public Administation

Professor Srinibas Pathi

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis, titled Rural Development in Mizoram : A

Study of Personnel Administration under Rural Development Department,
Mizoram, submitted by Mrs. Lalthanchami Sailo, for the award of Degree of Doctor
of Philosophy of Mizoram Unversity is her original work. In preparing the thesis,
Mrs. Lalthanchami Sailo has complied with all the requirements as laid down in
Mizoram University. This thesis has not been published or it has not been submitted
to any other University for any other degree.

(Professor Srinibas Pathi)

Supervisor
Professor of PublicAdministration
Department Of Public Administration
Mizoram University
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This is to acknowledge the constant and unwavering guidance and support of

my mentor and supervisor, Professor Srinibas Pathi and a much deserved extension
of my gratitude for his belief in seeing me complete the study, for which I am greatly
indebted.

I would like to extend my acknowledgement to the faculty members of the

Department of Public Administration, Mizoram University for their concerted
advisories, through the years of my study.

My heartfelt acknowledgement goes to my husband, Thomas Zodingliana,

my young daughters, Amber Lallawmzuali and Angeline Lalhruaitluangi, for
believing in me and in being the essential catalysts for the study.

I would also like to extend my acknowledgement to my mother,

Lalengphungi Sailo, for giving me the confidence and the will to aspire for the study.

I must acknowledge the undying resonance of my father, Lalhluna Sailo

(1935 - 2001) in introducing me to the world of higher education; this stride that I
have embarked upon is dedicated in his memoriam.

Lastly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the indispensable team

consisting of invaluable fronts, for providing me with all necessary logistic support;
but for which this research study would not have seen the day of completion.

(LALTHANCHAMI SAILO)
Date : Ph.D.Regn. No. MZU/Ph.D/152/31.05.2007
Extn.vide AC:22:4(19) dt. 01.06.2012
Extn. vide AC:24:4(34) dt. 07.06.2013
 PREFACE

Poverty reduction, sustained socio-economic growth and development along

with the commensurate transformation of the rural communities in the villages
connotes the phenomenon of rural development. A nation which is constituted by a
larger proportion of the rural population defines the exacting need and requirement
to plan and formulate the correct measures and strategies to ameliorate the plight of
the poverty stricken and the general alleviation of the rural communities and to
channelise their aspirations to reach parity with the nation’s urban populace. It is
therefore required that the transfer and the delivery of the required input necessary
for the rural population be given the added impetus and the thrust be translated
effectively and efficiently, through a regimen of well thought-out and well-defined
sets of strategies and deliverables, so as to gain optimum dividends for the well
being of the rural population in Mizoram and in India as a whole.

Given the magnitude and the multi-dimensional character that rural

development conveys, it cannot be over emphasised that it is a subject of priority
and is a subject that needs to be prioritised, for an equitable and all round
development of a nation, whether it be under-developed, developing or a developed
nation.

As an effort to focus on the actual picture of rural development and its

mechanism for delivering the rural development packages and programmes and
projects, the study has been centred in and around the subject. The first chapter
opens with an introduction to the study, highlighting the research problem, review
of literature, objectives of the study, research questions and the methodological
aspects of the study.

The second chapter covers the general concepts of rural development, a

general overview of rural development administration, as a part of public
administration and highlights of the rural development programmes implemented
in India, beginning from the colonial days to post colonial days of India. This chapter
has also covered the institutional and organisational arrangements for rural
development programmes as conceptualised and executed by the Indian Union,
delving on the initiatation of the Community Development Programmes and on to
the era of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act.

The third chapter revolves around the historical, political and administrative
development of Mizoram, interspersed with the development of the rural people of
Mizoram in the early years when it was known as the Lushai Hills. This chapter has
also covered the rural development administration in Mizoram.

The fourth chapter deals with the general concepts of personnel

administration. It is also an exercise the nuances of personnel administration that
had existed during British rule over India and which was continued after India
gained its Independence. The chapter also focuses on the evolution of personnel
administration in Mizoram in general and in the context of rural development in
particular.

The fifth chapter covers the concept of planning and management within the
ambit of rural development. The chapter has also diversified into the roles and
functions that planning and management have on the rural development
programmes of India and along with similar contextual application in respect of
Mizoram.

The sixth chapter has been a study central to the problems and challenges of
rural development programmes in India and the similar challenges being faced by
Mizoram in delivering the rural development packages, with added focus on the
issues of personnel administration in the delivery mechanism of rural development
in Mizoram.

The seventh and the last chapter covers the concluding observations and
remarks in respect of rural development programmes and the significance of
personnel administration in rural development of the rural areas of Mizoram. The
findings of the study along with the suggestions resulting out of the study have also
been duly incorporated.
 ABBREVIATIONS

APO - Assistant Project Officer

ARWSP - Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme

ANP - Applied Nutrition Programme

BPL - Below Poverty Line

BADP - Border Area Development Programme

BDO - Block Development Officer

BRGF - Border Region Grant Fund

BAFFACOS - Bamboo Flowering Famine Combat Scheme

CEO - Chief Executive Officer

COO - Chief Operating Officer

CDP - Community Development Programme

CRSP - Centrally Sponsored Rural Sanitation Programme

CSRD - Crash Scheme of Rural Development

CSS - Centrally Sponsored Schemes

CBO - Community Based Organization

CAPART - Council for Advancement of People’s Action & Rural Technology

DDP - Desert Development Programme

DPAP - Drought Prone Areas Programme

DPIC - District Planning Implementation Committee

DRDA - District Rural Development Agency

DWCRA - Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas

DPSU - District Plan Support Unit

DAVP - Department of Audio Visual Publicity

DAR & PG - Department of Administrative Reforms & Public Grievances

DP & AR - Department of Personnel & Administrative Reforms

EAS - Employment Assurance Scheme

FFWP - Food For Work Programme

FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization

GoI - Government of India

GKY - Ganga Kalyan Yojana

GSDP - Gross State Domestic Product

HADP - Hill Area Development Programme

IFAD - International Fund for Agricultural Development

IAY - Indira Awaas Yojana

IMF - International Monetary Fund

INC - Indian National Congress

IEC - Information Education and Communication

IRDP - Integrated Rural Development Programme

IWDP - Integrated Wastelands Development Programme

IWMP - Integrated Watershed Management Programme

JGSY - Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana

JRY - Jawahar Rozgar Yojana

MGNREGA - Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act

MHIP - Mizo Hmeichhe Insuihkhawm Pawl

MIP - Mizoram Intodelh Programme

MNF - Mizo National Front

MoRD - Ministry of Rural Development

MPC - Mizoram People’s Conference

MUP - Mizoram Upa Pawl

MWS - Million Wells Scheme

MZP - Mizo Zirlai Pawl

MZSRLM - Mizoram State Rural Livelihood Mission

NGO - Non Governmental Organization

NREP - National Rural Employment Programme

NAEP - National Adult Education Programme

NABARD - National Bank For Agriculture and Rural Development.

NIRD - National Institute For Rural Development.

NEC - North Eastern Council

NER - North Eastern Region

NFBS - National Family Benefit Scheme

NHRDP - National Human Resource Development Programme

NLCPR - Non-Lapseable Central Pool of Resources

NLUP - New Land Use Policy

NMBS - National Maternity Benefit Scheme

NOAPS - National Old Age Pension Scheme

NREGS - National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme

NREP - National Rural Employment Programme

NRLM - National Rural Livelihood Mission

NSAP - National Social Assistance Programme

OBC - Other Backward Classes

PRI - Panchayati Raj

PD - Project Director

PIREP - Pilot Intensive Rural Employment Project

PMGSY - Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana

PMGY-GA - Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana-Gramin Awaas

PMGY-RDWP - Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana-Rural Drinking Water

Programme

PMRY - Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana

PO - Project Officer

RFD - Results Framework Document

RBI - Reserve Bank of India

RLEGP - Rural Landless Employment Generation Programme

RFLP - Rural Functional Literacy Programme

RGDWM - Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission

RLEGP - Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme

RGDWM - Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission

SLMC & IAC - State Level Monitoring Cell & Internal Audit Cell

SC/ST - Scheduled Tribe/Scheduled Caste

SPSU - State Plan Support Unit

SLNA - State Level Nodal Agency

SAY - Samagra Awaas Yojana

SGRY - Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana

SGSY - Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana

SEGC - State Employment Guarantee Council

SIRD - State Institute of Rural Development

SITRA - Supply of Improved Toolkits to Rural Artisans

TRYSEM - Training of Rural Youth for Self Employment

UMFO - United Mizo Freedom Orgnisation

UNO - United Nations Organisation

UNICEF - United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund

WHO - World Health Organization

YMA - Young Mizo Association

 LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Table Title Page

3.1 Mizoram GSDP at Factor Cost by Industry of Origin

2009 – 10 & 2010 – 11. 92
3.2 District wise Fund Releases against Centrally Sponsored
Schemes by the Government of India & Government of
Mizoram, since inception – 2012. 97
3.3 Organogram of the Directorate of Rural Development,
Mizoram. 103
4.1 Organogram of the Rural Development Department,
Government of Mizoram. 149
5.1 Illustration of the Inter-Relation of Planning and
Management. 159
5.2 Percentage of people Below Poverty Line in India
(1973-2004). 161
5.3 Financial & Physical Performance of IRDP to SGSY during
Eighth – Ninth Five Year Plan. 167
5.4 Overview of MGNREGA Performance w.e.f. 2006 – 07 -
2011 – 12. 182
5.5 IAY Financial Performance during Eleventh Plan
(2007-2008) 187

5.6 IAY Physical Performance during Eleventh Plan

(2007-2008) 188
5.7 Physical and Financial Progress of NSAP during
Eleventh Plan 190

5.8 Structure of Respondents 212

5.9 Job Satisfaction Level 214

5.10 Recruitment and Selection 217

5.11 Staffing Pattern 219

5.12 Service and Corporate Benefits 221

5.13 Training and Capacity Building 223

5.14 Public and Peer Relations 226

5.15 Service and Tenure Conditions 228

5.16 Motivational Factor and Competency 230

5.17 Intervention and Impact Factor of Rural Development 232

 CONTENTS

Certificate
Acknowledgement
Preface
List of Abbreviations
List of Tables and Figures

Chapter I Pages
Introduction 1- 17

Chapter II
Administration of Rural Development Programmes
- A conceptual study 18 – 64

Chapter III
Rural Development Administration in Mizoram: A profile 65 – 104

Chapter IV
Personnel Administration and Rural Development in Mizoram 105 – 149

Chapter V
Planning and Management of Rural Development programmes
in Mizoram 150 – 233

Chapter VI
Problems and Challenges in the implementation of Rural Development
Programmes 234 – 260

Chapter VII
Conclusion 261 – 292

Bibliography 293 – 304

Appendices 305 - 358

 CHAPTER I
Introduction

The term „Rural Development‟ is a subset of the term „Development‟1,

which in the broader sense connotes the societal objectives of economic
growth, income equity and equitable access to resources, education, health
care, employment opportunities and justice, with accent on the overall
development of the rural areas and with a focused view to improve the
quality of life of the rural people. Rural development is therefore a
comprehensive and multi-dimensional concept which covers the broad areas
of development within the sectors of agriculture and allied activities, village
and cottage industries, socio-economic infrastructure and the development
of human resources in the rural areas; encompassing the extensive and
multi-dimensional range of activities, to transform the life of the people in
the rural areas.

Since time immemorial, India as a nation, has been deeply connected

with the strains of the villages, of which the nation is largely comprised of
and its prerogative during the British rule and after its independence has
been focused on the development of the rural areas and has continued to
address the issues of the rural populace. As a developing nation, India in its
strive towards being classed as a developed nation, the emphasis of planned
development has been in prioritizing the rural development sector through
its Five Year Plans and has formulated programmes and packages to
ameliorate the conditions of the poor through a succession of eleven Five
Year Plans, spanning from 1952 till date 2.

1. Katar Singh, Rural Development: Principles, Policies and Management, 2009, p. 1.

2. planningcommission.nic.in. Accessed on 17.12.2013.

 The nation has been on the pathway to accelerate the development
pace in the rural areas and has made differences in a large number of the
rural population but with the burgeoning population of India, more so in the
rural areas, the anticipated effect and end-results have not been
encouraging. Such incongruences and disparities have in due time being
attended to and reviewed for deriving a novel and revised form of strategy or
process in driving home the anticipated objectives and purpose for the
welfare of the rural poor. Accordingly, the government has been seen to have
revamped and reconstituted its welfare measures for the rural areas in
regular succession and these reconstitutions have been arrived at after a
series of deliberations and reviews for the welfare of the rural population.3
Through these administrative procedures assigned to bring about
transformation and growth to the rural population, the vital element to bring
about the phenomenon of rural development has been identified as the
„process of rural development‟ or the „rural development process‟
interchangeably, which implies the engagement of individuals, communities
and the nation itself in the pursuit of its goals and objectives, meant for the
rural population. It can therefore be said that the sustainable improvement
in the quality of life of the rural people is largely vested on the rural
development process; a process which is responsible and accountable for the
actual delivery of the deliverables for the rural people. The government
machinery has not been ignorant nor complacent in recognising and
identifying the essentiality and significance of a well defined rural
development process. It is within this rural development process that the
larger chunk of responsibility is being shouldered by the assigned rural
development personnel and functionaries; it is therefore an effort to frame
and devise a complementary Human Resource policy, indicating a team of
competent and specialized manpower for the staffing pattern.4

3. Planning Commission, Government of India, Towards a Self- Reliant Economy :

India‟s Third Five Year Plan, 1961-1966.

4. Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, Report of the Committee on

Restructuring of DRDA, 2012.

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 It is within this ambit of study that rural development as a
phenomenon be implemented so as to garner the desired end-results.
Mizoram, as one of the States of the Indian Union has been partaking in this
rural development phenomenon and process since it attained the status of
Union Territory and Statehood and has been fortunate to witness a growing
economy and decreasing BPL population in the evergrowing rural
population.5 However, for want of a better and sustained economy, though
the State Govt has been deploying its physical and financial resources for
the upliftment of the rural poor, for a good number of decades, much is
needed to be done in the rural development process; in terms of addressing
the requirement of the human resources available at hand and in garnering
the best of additional resources for a better mode of delivery mechanism. The
rural development personnel of Mizoram, working and functioning for the
activities of the rural development sector have been catalysts since the days
of the Community Development Programme and Tribal Development Blocks 6

and have been rendering their duties and responsibilities in the rural
development phenomenon and to attain the desired goals and targets till
date but they have been faced with a series of differentials and stumbling
blocks in their endeavour to upgrade and transform the rural sector. It is
within this perspective that the research study has been attempted and
focused on; as a means to find out the actual reality in the ground force.

Scope of the Study

The study covers the general aspects of rural development in

Mizoram; the planning and management that have been applied in
administering the various Centrally Sponsored Schemes; the State
Sponsored Schemes; and other rural development activities taken up by the
State government. In order to get a clear picture, the study has covered the
rural development administration, with focus on its planning,
implementation and exit protocols.

5. Economic Survey, Mizoram, 2012.

6. Lianzela, Economic Development of Mizoram, 1994.

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 The study has probed into the personnel administration of rural
development of Mizoram at all levels, rank and grade of the functionaries,
elucidating on the structural organisation and the functional administration
in the hierarchical set-ups. Since rural development is concerned with a
multi-disciplinary amalgamation of different officials, professionals and
specialists drawn from different development departments and fields, the
functional inter-relationship was also accounted for in the study and how
the efforts of the rural development personnel have been facilitating the
growth or destabilising such anticipated development of Mizoram in the rural
areas.

During the course of the study, we have looked into the limitations
and challenges that the different personnel of rural development have been
encountering in their line of duty and to obtain an in-depth idea on how an
integrated delivery mechanism can effect the execution and implementation
of the rural development programmes for the general welfare and
development of the rural areas in Mizoram.

Research Problem

Rural Development and administration of rural development in

Mizoram as research topics have been taken up as discourses and research
topics in the by-gone years but often have been attended to for a particular
schematic programme and taken up as a general theme. Till date, there
exists no research conducted on the study of Personnel Administration
under Rural Development Department, Mizoram, consonant to the delivery
of the rural development programmes and its administration within the
State. Through the decades of administering rural development in Mizoram,
there has been informal and off-beat discussions on the need for a better
system of Personnel Administration in the realm of rural development but
have been mere discourses without any scientific bend or substantiation
based on valid and genuine documents and official records.

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 Till date, there is no official record or document to support the
research topic and an absence of published materials in this account.
Whatever materials derived at have been sought from hearsay and from
focused interviews with retired officials and serving officials. It may also be
pertinent to indicate that official records during the era of Commmunity
Development Programme are few due to the irregular and poor maintenance
of record during the days of its implementation, a state of affairs which could
have been the after-effects of an insurgency torn- state.

Review of Literature v

While deciding the research problems, a number of books and other

publications were taken into account for our field of research. Some of the
literature are as follows :

Durgesh Nandini (1992), in Rural Development Administration talks

about the issues on the complex nature of functioning of the administrative
organisation; where the administrative structure prevalent in the rural
development delivery mechanism is not conducive and not people-oriented
and has caused to impose hurdles in the active participation of the rural
poor and subsequently resulting to the rural poor often being indisposed
from receiving their full benefits from the government. Administrative draw-
backs have been highlighted as the prime challenges that the rural
development as a process has been encountering through the many decades
of development in India.

R.D Sharma (1992) in Development Administration : Theory and

Practice has elucidated on the significant aspects of administration through
decentralised delegation of power and that there is requirement to create a
pool of administrators for rural development through the local government
of Panchayati Raj. He further stressed on the fact that one amongst the

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impediments in the implementation of rural development programmes is the
administrative ills which heavily relies more on the mobilisation of resources
primarily and one which is not positioned in achieving efficient allocation of
available resources leading to a growth and transformation strategy.

Vasant Desai (2009) in Rural Development in India (Past, Present and

Future) A Challenge in the Crisis makes a clear stand that the launching of a
large number of programmes, both through the sectoral efforts and other
steps has led to the multiplicity of organisations and the multiplicity of the
human resources involved, leading to duplication of managment efforts. That
the delivery system at various levels is largely inadequate and that for
effective implementation of poverty alleviation programmes, a clarion call is
required for better planning at the state level and the district level, involving
a close coordination of various disciplines and departments along with a
stream-lined organizational set-up to ensure optimal use of resources,
banking on the full utilization of the rural development processes; its
functionaries and available manpower.

Harendra Sinha (2012 ), Bureacracy and Rural Development in Mizoram

has pointedly brought out the unstructured and disorganized administrative
mechanism of the Rural Development Department, Mizoram. The absence of
well-defined planning coupled with non-coordination amongst the
development departments while executing programmes and projects has
been identified as the bane of Rural Development as a department,
indicating with clarity that the Rural Development Department, Mizoram,
requires administrative re-organisation to correct its administrative
procedural norms and policies of personnel augmentation, training, transfer
and postings, service conditions and welfare measures for concerted and
diligent appplication rural development initiatives in the rural areas of
Mizoram.

S.L. Goel (2009) in Development Administration : Potentialities and

Prospects talks about development administration as being the essential
ingredient for delivering economic development and social upliftment.

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Administrative culture mediates among individuals, groups and
communities that needs to be strengthened if the new millenium is to be
made meaningful and socially productive. The development administration
must be based on Rule of Law which means that the society must be
governed by law or dharma and not according to whims and fancies of
administrators. One of the most important characteristics of development
administration is the administrative capability which can translate inputs
into outputs and would ensure making administration responsive, citizen-
friendly, transparent, ethical, with an objective to bring about equity and
social justice, inclusive growth, sustainable environment and development
and the government machinery development-oriented.

Katar Singh (2009) in Rural Development Principles, Policies and

Management has exhorted on the need for organzing rural development by
designing appropriate organzational structures, the essentials of facilitating
desirable human behaviour within the organsation and in efficient
organising of clientele of a programme, so that the goals of the organisation
and the programme under consideration are achieved as effectively as
possible. The failure to organize properly can result to wasted energy and
resources. That the inability to accumulate knowledge, a dependency on the
presence of certain people for existence and failure to provide incentives as
being stumbling blocks for an effective and efficient organization of rural
development has been areas of concern and requiring urgent redressal.

Surendra Kumar Pachauri (1984) in Dynamics of Rural Development in

Tribal Areas talks about the dynamics of rural development in the tribal
areas of Andhra Pradesh, a contextual similarity of Mizoram with reference
to the connotation of the word „tribal‟. The author is of the opinion that
people should develop along the lines of their own genius and should avoid
imposition of factors or elements which are not conducive or irrelevant to the
local tribal needs. The area and scope of development ought to be in sync
with the social and cultural institutions of the locale and that developmental

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results should not be judged by statistics alone but by the quality of human
life that evolves through the dispensation of the rural development medium.

S.L.Goel (2008) in Public Personnel Administration : Theory and Practice

banks on the principle of the human factor being the be-all for churning out
managerial effectiveness in any set of organization. As human is more
important than the capital that is being assigned for the intended task, the
factor of the human remains to be the key to development; that an
organization needs to rely on the moulding of behaviour of members of the
organization through a leadership, motivation, communication,
participation, which all yields to personal commitment and involvement of
employees towards the organizational goals, which will in turn produce
mutual respect and trust amongst organizational members, resulting to a
higher degree of confidence in the job to be delivered and an all-round job-
enrichment – to inculcate the enthusiasm and the confidence to give their
best abilities in achieving excellence in their own fields of expertise and
profession.

Peter F. Drucker (1987) in Management : Tasks, Responsibilities,

Practices idealizes on the need to invoke the principles of establishing the
ethos and machinery of personnel management and the essentials of good
leadership in any organization and on the best practices for managing
service institutions for performance along with the positive thrust towards
an innovative organisation, which is focused on the pre-requisites of
planning, organising, integrating and developing people to become more
productive. The book emphasizes on developing subordinates in the right
direction, helping them to grow and in becoming better in the dispensation
of their duties for the general development of the organization and in
delivering the organizational goals - all prime indicators that will determine
directly whether one will develop, will grow or wither, improve or deteriorate.

S.P. Singh (2003) in Planning and Management for Rural Development

discusses the absence of co-ordination in the Gram Panchayats, i.e. the
lowest but most significant tier of rural self-government and the problems of

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communication and the glaring non-involvement of proper assessment of
management, problems in financing, planning, organizing and directing the
works of rural development.

Surat Singh and Mohinder Singh (Eds)(2006) in Rural Development

Administration in the 21st Century : A Multi-dimensional Study talks about the
need for reducing bureaucratic dominance in the development of the rural
areas, while understanding their complementary roles. It is an emphasis on
the need to re-introduce the essence of democratic decentralization of the
local self-governments with the need for re-structuring the existing
administrative machinery, the need for various administrative apparatus
responsible for the implementation of the rural development programmmes
at different levels and the need for integration, role identification and role
differentiation of functionaries involved in the activities of rural development
for avoiding duplication and over-lapping of duties and delivery of
programmes intended for the rural poor. It also stresses on the need for a
strong political will for curbing corruption, providing adequate finances and
in removing parallel activities and institutions so as to ensure coordination,
efficiency and cost-effectiveness in the rural development strategy and
process.

Komol Singha, Gautam Patikar (Eds)(2010) in Rural Development in

North East India are of the opinion that the essential remedy for rural
development to succeed in the global environment is the right appplication of
the human capital and infrastructure, terming it as the public capital along
with adequate financing, termed as social capital. Public capital are crucial
components for sustainable rural development along with the much required
social capital; the translation of which pin-points to the fact that the rural
sector that has a thriving social network and institutions and a good human
capital is bound to have adequate social capital or finances as well. While
infrastructure is no doubt important in the development of the rural
economy, the equally important factor but one factor which often goes
unnoticed is the human capital and the exacting infusion of this much

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required factor and asset makes or unmakes an organisation for rural
development.

Ganapathy Palanthurai (2004) in Rural Transformation and Peoples

Entitlements discusses the instability in the governance of rural
development, the rampant corruption in politics and administration of rural
development. It is an analysis of the changes in the individuals and the
institutions existing in the rural areas, in terms of their perception,
behaviour, performance and whether the entitlements of the people have
impacted them as planned and anticipated. It is a micro level discourse on
the the State discharging its responsibilities, to be discharged under any
given condition as duty defines and mandates and the simultaneous
portrayal of the efficacy of the State in India, in its dispensation of of
responsibility as a job under rural development.

U.N. Roy, J.S. Saini (2009) in People‟s Empowerment and

Sustainable Rural Development : a Technological Approach discusses the
various experiments initiated by government, non-government and corporate
agencies to promote various models of development. It is also a discourse on
the agriculture and natural resource management to promote sustainable
development and also covers some other technological approaches for
sustainable development and is devoted to the application of information
communication technologies for sustainable rural development which
includes issues like on-line education, knowledge resource centre, rural
marketing and people‟s rights.

R.C. Meena (2010) in Indian Rural Economy explains the rural

economy of our country. The book talks on the extent of how modern and
scientific techniques are useful to improve rural economy of our country and
to suggest measures for improving the standard of living of our rural public.
The book discusses new changes in rural life, rural reconstruction in India,
rural unemployment and of population pressure in rural areas.

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 Nupur Tiwari (2009) in the article, Rural Development Through
Integrated Planning and Implementation at the Panchayat Level , discusses
the functions of the Panchayat as self-government institutions for
preparation of plans and the implementation of schemes for economic
development and social justice. However, because of the weak administrative
action for effective transfer of the three Fs, „functions‟, „funds‟ and
„functionaries‟ have not sufficiently activated the Panchayats to mobilize as
units of local self-government. The shortcomings that are manifested in the
CSS approach as currently seen are rigid conditionalities, no consistent
approach to institutional structures, obsession with financial performance
and ineffective monitoring of outcome. It also emphasises participation by
users and beneficiaries in fine-tuning scheme guidelines to local situations
and requirements for the effective implementation of CSS.

Shalini Goel (2010) in the article, Education on Satellite Imagery

Applications for Rural Development discusses that development
administration is required to optimally manage its resources and generate
wealth for the well-being and prosperity of all, especially the poor and
downtrodden, a task which is replete with many challenges and constraints.
There is a need to identify and appropriately manage resources, beneficiaries
and techniques in a transparent and accountable manner.The huge
paraphernalia of officials, non-officials and stakeholders need to join hands
for making any progressive outcome successful. However, the vastness of
developmental domain makes it difficult to manually plan, implement and
monitor any activity and has suggested the usage of satellite imagery data
generated by Remote Sensing Application, data processed by the Indian
Space Research Organisation (ISRO) as a handy tool for development
administrators.

Sooyoung Park(2009) in the article, Analysis of Saemaul Undong : a

Korean Rural Development Programme in the 1970s talks of the historical
application of a successful reformation of rural development in Korea based
on three factors; (i) radical land reform as a foundation for both rural and

- 11 -
urban-industrial growth, (ii) capacity of the government to mobilize rural
households to focus on village modernization through training and
indoctrinating leadership; to act as a mechanism to locally integrate rural
development activities, on a sense of common purpose beyond sector
ministries, through a culture of cooperation launched to raise enthusiasm
and mobilize contributions and participation and (iii) to focus on agriculture-
green revolution followed by mechanized farming, by allowing the
government a high degree of autonomy in carrying out the rural development
activities through community empowerment initiatives.

Debi S. Saini (2009) in the article, Rural Development International

discusses the case of employee retention in the organization and NGO; the
Rural Development International (RDI) when faced with a financial meltdown
and was having problems in maintaining its existing workforce. The case is
indicative of employee relations and the corporate social responsibility of the
employer, more so aggravated when it plans on retrenchment of contract
employees who had been loyal to the organization for a long time. It is a
discussion on whether an organization can be labeled as an unfair
management and whether it can be sued if the issue be taken as a dispute.

After going through the above mentioned books and articles on the
subject matter, we could not find any relevant study on the situation of
Mizoram, which necessitated the present research endeavour.

Research Questions

The following research questions have been formulated to conduct the

present study -

1. What is the Human Resource Policy in the Rural Development

Department and the other rural development agencies of Mizoram ?
2. What are the service benefits, training facilities and other incentives
for the personnel in the department ?

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 3. What is the role of political will in the rural development process to
bring about the anticipated socio economic development of the State?
4. What is the impact of rural development in Mizoram?

Objectives of Study

The research study is aimed at identifying the scope and extent of

involvement and the intervention capacity that the rural development
personnel bear on the rural development process and rural development as a
phenomenon. It is also an attempt to address the deficiencies in the
implementation of the rural development programmes while simultaneously
addressing the capacities and the incapacities or the incapacitation of the
functionaries in their role as facilitator(s) of rural development. The study is
also an endeavour to seek amenable measures and uniform quality
standards for incorporation into the Human Resource Policy of rural
development and to churn out the best pracitices and principles for a well-
rounded development of the rural areas.

In line, the research has been concentrated as :

- A study of the problems and challenges that rural development as a

process has been facing, both institutionally and in implementation
and
- A study of the need to reform and re-organise personnel
administration including the organizational structure and functions
for ensuring an effective and efficient rural development
administration.

Methodology

The research study is based on the collection of primary and

secondary data, sourced from the erstwhile Community Development
Programme officials, Rural Development Department, Govt of Mizoram,
Directorate of Rural Development, Mizoram, District Rural Development

- 13 -
Agency, State Institute of Rural Development, Mizoram and the Ministry of
Rural Development, Government of India. Data and information have also
been collected from books, journals, magazines, newspapers - both national
and local, booklets and other information banks, both published and
unpublished. In order to collect first hand information and to ascertain their
viewpoints, focused interviews were held with the Rural Development
officials and staff of the Rural Development Department, Government of
Mizoram, with the help of Interview Schedules, having both structured and
unstructured questions. As a means to ascertain the ground reality faced by
the rural development personnel, one hundred samples from different rank
and grade of officers and staff of the Rural Development Department,
Mizoram have been taken into account.

Chapterisation

The research study is presented in seven chapters. The first chapter is

a brief introduction on the concepts and focal ideas of the study, highlighting
on the main subject, the objectives of the research study alongwith the
research problems, review of literature, hypotheses and methodological
aspects of the study.

The second chapter generalises the concept of Rural Development and

on the aspect of Rural Development Administration as a part of Public
Administration. It has also been an exercise to highlight the rural
development programmes that had been made functional since the dawn of
planned development in India and on to the new generation rural
development programmes of today, inclusive of an elucidation on the
institutional and functional arrangements for rural development
programmes.

The third chapter is a study on the history of rural development from

the days of the Lushai Hills to the 21st century Mizoram and tracing the
historical genesis of Mizoram and the Mizo people in general, while attending

- 14 -
to the rural development aspects and its administration in the state of
Mizoram.

The fourth chapter deals with the concept of Personnel Administration

general and it also discusses the constitution and growth of Personnel
Administration from the days of the British Raj and the transition into the
post- colonial days when India devised and formulated its own set of
personnel policies and principles to run the government. The study further
emphasises on the sustenance of Personnel Administration within the state
government of Mizoram and its continuous transformation through the days
of the District Council to the Union Territory and Statehood, followed by the
organizational system of Personnel Administration in rural development,
highlighting the different levels of governance.

The fifth chapter focuses on the analysis of the principles of planning

and management and the implementation of rural development programmes
in the context of Mizoram.

The sixth chapter deals with the problems and challenges in the
implementation process of rural development programmes, through its
personnel.

The seventh chapter summarises on all the previous chapters, that is,
Chapter 1-6, under Part-I. Under Part-II, the study concentrates on
answering the research questions and in proffering justifications for arriving
at the consolidated explanation for the study, followed by general
observations emerging out of the research endeavour along with suggestions
and indications for improvement of the scenario and possible scope for any
future research study.

Relevance

Since the foundation of any development is derived from the

development of the rural areas and its people, the application of the best of
practices and technology and the intervention of an efficient and effective

- 15 -
team of professionals and specialists in delivering the chartered plans and
objectives through well- defined and strategically framed procedural
principles, amenable and conducive to the needs and requirement of the
intended is significant in any set of organisation. Given that the rural
development phenomenon is a major perspective of any State government,
be it of the developed and developing nations, the thrust and the magnitude
to bring about socio-economic parity amongst its citizen is pertinent to the
welfare of the rural people as this defines the socio-economic stability of a
nation.

Accordingly, it has never been more significant to lend our thoughts,

our viewpoints and research towards the delivery of an accurate
measurement of rural development and the essential linkage of the
personnel and the manpower within the strategy; the main brunt of the
workforce who are responsible to ensure that the development of the nation
from the level of the grassroots is implemented with effectiveness. Factors
like the rapid growth of population, an element which is more pronounced in
the rural areas, urbanisation growing at a speed which may not be
commensurate to the growth of the rural areas and industrialisation leading
to an aggravated situation of economic disparity: all speaks for an
accelerated but rational and prudent delivery of rural development through a
process manned by a dedicated and competent team of professionals, who
have been infused with the principles of rural development and committed
towards that end and backed up with a set of incentives and permanency in
their service for the nation and development of the rural areas singularly.7

Till date, there has not been an indepth study on the close and deep-
seated co-relation between the rural development phenomenon and the rural
development processes; no study has ever been conducted on the much
needed active association and relevance between the administrative
mechanism and the manpower which runs the machine; attention has not
been drawn toward the close relationship between the institution and the

7. S.L. Goel, Public Personnel Administration : Theory and Practice, 2008.

- 16 -
organization made up of a veritable class of personnel; a situation much
pronounced in the Rural Development Department of Mizoram. While it has
been an established principle that the management of human resources
makes or unmakes an organisation, however big or small,8 it has been
indicative that human resource development in the activities of rural
development within Mizoram may yet require a complete re-constitution of
its structural organisation along with a well-defined transaction of business;
a definitive assignment of roles and functions, between the personnel or
manpower in the governmental machinery, the autonomous bodies and
other stakeholders in the delivery mechanism of rural development in
Mizoram.

The research study is an attempt to place on record the

administrative nuances and the actual delivery mechanism of rural
development in Mizoram, focusing on the functionings of the rural
development processes, manned by a multi-disciplinary manpower
generalists and technocrats, professionals and specialists in the endeavour
to transform and develop the well being of the rural poor of Mizoram.

8. P.S. Rao, Personnel and Human Resource Management, 2009.

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 CHAPTER II

Administration of Rural Development Programmes

– A Conceptual Study

In the previous chapter, that is, Introduction, an atttempt has been

made to introduce the subject matter of the present study. The chapter
covers the scope of study, research problem, review of literature, objectives,
methodology, chapterisation and relevance of the study.

The terminology “development” can be described as the holistic

enrichment of the quality of man‟s life. Development is an age-old concept
and has been portrayed in different perspectives; perceived as political
development, as nationalism and development, as modernization, as change
and growth: which could broadly mean change in social, economic and
political aspects of life, instilling the fact that development brings about
change + growth with social justice. It can therefore be assigned that a
considered reduction or removal of poverty, inequality and unemployment
can be a basic index of development. It would be apt to portray Dudley Seers
definition of development as “the questions to ask about a country‟s
development are therefore: What has been happening to poverty? What has
been happening to unemployment? What has been happening to inequality?
If all three of these have declined from high levels, then beyond doubt this
has been a period of development of the country concerned. If one or two of
these central problems have been growing worse, especially if all three have,
it would be strange to call the result „development‟ even if per capita income
doubled.”

Development has been defined by social scientists on the basis of their

ideological commitment, often being defined to one particular concept.
Development is not a static concept, it is a terminology bearing variances,
dependent on the fabric of the content and aspect, example, development for
sociologists bear social overtones or social transformation while economists

- 18 -
would align development in relation to economic development.1 As there
exists an inherent trend as to how the term „development‟ can be adjudged, a
general agreement by Edward E. Weidner can be summed up as “process of
dynamic transformation. Development as a process is never ending and
never complete.”

It is within this vast process of dynamic transformation of

„development‟ that rural development bears a distinctive and all important
assignment, encapsulating the major and central dimensions for the
development of not only the poor rural masses but is a major indicator of the
term „development‟. Rural development is the total development or over-all
development of all sections of village community: rural development is in fact
a process aimed at improving the well being of the rural people,
encompassing all the policy efforts directed towards rural uplift and can be
summed up as the planning and executing changes in the rural areas, in all
dimensions of development and not merely focusing on economic
development.

Rural development generally refers to the process of improving the

quality of life and generating the economic well-being of people living in
relatively isolated and sparsely populated areas. Traditional connotation of
rural development had purely focused on the “expansion, development and
modernization of agriculture” and was made synonymous for agricultural
development.2 Over the years, rural development has emerged as a strategy
designed to improve the economic, social and cultural life of a specific group
of people living in the rural areas while bringing about the desired
transformation. The term, rural development, when used in a wider
connotation implies the integrated development of rural areas. However,
the emerging focus rests largely on human development, to provide a

1. Edward. W. Weidner, Development Administration in Asia, 1970. pp. 3-24.

2. Planning Commission, ( Rural Development Division). Government. of India, Report of

the Eleventh Plan Working Group on Proverty Elimination Programmes, 2006.

- 19 -
balance between the individual, community and the country – where the
strategy of planning is concentrated on the grass roots and vested into the
lap of the rural people. The goals of economic equity, social justice and self
reliance demand that man should be considered as the focus of development
: of which the poor and the deprived are slotted as priority sectors, therefore,
it can be summarised that “Rural Development is a strategy designed to
improve the economic and social life of a specific group of people – the rural
poor”.3

Fundamentally, development of the rural areas means not only the

aggregate development of the area but also the development of the people
living in the rural areas : with development objectives pin- pointing towards
sustained increase in per capita output and income, expansion of productive
employment and greater equity in the distribution of growth benefits,
ensuring an all-round development of the rural community at large.

Rural development is therefore multi-dimensional, it aims at achieving

higher levels of employment, higher productivity, higher income as well as
minimum acceptable levels of food, clothing, shelter, education, health and
building up of a sound value system, in keeping with the heritage of the
country. Rural Development is an essential aspect in the lives of the rural
masses and must constitute a major part of the development strategy.

Mahatma Gandhi, a visionary of India had with clarity emphasized on

the concept of rural development as “India lives in her villages, if village
perishes, India will perish too.”The assertion made by Gandhi points towards
the core concept of rural development, relating to the fact that the progress
of a country lies in the development of a majority of its rural villages : for the
development of the rural economy, industry, honing of its rural skills and
capacity.

3. World Bank, Policy Paper, 1975.

- 20 -
 Rural development as outlined by Gandhi contained self-sufficiency,
inter- dependence for wants and bringing about the pathways for rural
reconstruction with sound scientific values.4

Rural development implies the total development or over-all

development of all sections of the village community; inferring the total
convergence of social and cultural development, politico-administrative
development, economic development, environmental development and
intellectual development within the rural areas, by systemic planning and
executing changes within the localized rural community.The conceptual core
of rural development can be said to being directly pertinent to economic
development, especially so in the developing countries, where a substantial
majority of the population comprises of the rural mass, over 7 billion people
thrive in the world, out of which 3.3 billion of them live in the rural areas.5

Although millions of the rural populace have stood to escape the

bitterness of poverty as a direct end-result of rural development, a large
majority yet languishes in abject poverty. The socio-economic disparities
between the rural and urban areas are yet widening and creating pressure
on the socio-economic fabric of the world, more so in the developing
countries – indicating the close symbiosis of the core essence of Rural
Development.

Every country, every nation which aspires to grow into an

economically strong nation cannot under-estimate the synonymous growth
and development of its rural villages and its rural poor. While the urban
areas have witnessed growth, the rural areas are yet to see the dawn of a
better day. For an economy to be strong, the rural economy needs to
simultaneously grow. If the rural areas and its populace are poor, the
country as a nation is still rated as poor. Rural villages need to grow in

4. M. K. Gandhi, The Harijan, 1936.

5. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, The State of World
Population, 2011.

- 21 -
tandem with the urban cities so as to bring about an inclusive growth –
which can only materialize with the application of rural development.

For decades, the socio–economic fabric of the rural population has

undergone changes. Nevertheless, 48 percent of the world‟s population living
in the rural areas, more so in the developing countries do not have adequate
income nor employment opportunities, ravaged by illiteracy and ignorance,
rampant with degraded ecology, inadequate infrastructural facilities and
belong to an unorganized lot – the apathy which can only be responded
through the pattern and mechanism of rural development. Though man
cannot overcome all the limitations imposed on by the existing environ, the
system needs to attempt modify the limitations, to the best possible
convenience, through gradual adaptation of changes + growth +
development. To lift the rural masses from these limitations, integrated rural
development is the only answer : as rural development is the core of
development, with a continuous process.

It can therefore be indicated that the conceptualization of rural

development stems from an adjective,“POVERTY”. Poverty has many
dimensions. In addition to low income, illiteracy, poor health, gender
inequality, environmental degradation are all the aspects of being poor. The
phenomenon of poverty does not only affect the poor but is counter-
productive to every individual, irrespective of their being poor or non-poor.
The Philadelphia Charter had highlighted that “poverty anywhere constitutes
a danger to prosperity everywhere” while Townsend has defined “poverty
must be regarded as a general form of relative deprivation which is the effect
of the maldistribution of resources. That section of the population whose
resources are so depressed from the means as to be deprived of enjoying the
benefits and participating in the activities which are customary in that
society can be said to be in poverty.” Poverty can be said to be directly linked
to deprivation : i) deprivation of the basic needs of life, in terms of food,

- 22 -
housing and clothing ii) deprivation of what one is entitled to; right to
decent standard of living.6

The system, process and mechanism to usher in the required changes

and amelioration of the“poverty factor” is the campaign slogan of rural
development. Targeting the eradication or reduction of poverty, achieving
parity in education without gender biasness, ensuring child survival, better
access to medical treatment and halting ill health and death through
diseases, decrease in vulnerable employment, concentrating more on women
and youth, increase in gender equality and women‟s empowerment, decrease
in maternal and child mortality, stemming hunger and under-nourishment
through food security, use of improved sources of water encapsulates the
essential constituents of rural development. Similar constituents which
share similar agenda with the United Nations Millenium Development Goals,
has propagandized eight objectives for Ending Poverty and Hunger,
Universal Primary Education, Gender Equality, Child Mortality, Maternal
Health, Combat HIV and AIDS, Environmental Stability and Global
Partnership For Development; all constituting the campaign to end poverty,7
by 2015.

Given the myriad and multi-faceted dimensions of rural development,

the contributions of national governments, international communities, civil
society and the private sector is all the more required to tackle the
challenges; challenges which are factors under the domain of rural
development.

Rural Development Administration

Rural Development, when taken as a primary activity may need to be

magnified within the context of „Development Administration‟ and within the
realm of „Development‟ and „Administration‟ as a separate entity.

6. Vasant Desai, Rural Development in India, A Challenge in the Crisis, 2009, pp. 37-39.

7. www.undp.org/mdg, United Nations Millenium Development Goals, 2000. Accessed

on 16.05.2012.

- 23 -
 Development is a complex issue, with many different and sometimes
contentious definitions. Different schools of thought have no doubt evolved
varied definitions, based on their ideas, backgrounds, their work spheres
and areas. In line, there have emerged many sets of principles wherein
development have been confused with „modernization‟ or singularly with
„growth‟ or with „change‟. Development is a concept with varying degrees of
being translated into different streams, continuously changing with the
theory of the State, government, political system and political will.

Development has been defined by Weidner as “Development means

more of the good things of life. To the man on the street, development means
the ability to attain his goals in life. To the man in the planning office, it
means attaining more of the national goals. To the man in the ivory tower, it
means that mankind maximizes its happiness. Development is
fundamentally an equalitarian goal. It is equalitarian within a given people.
Development means more of the good things of life and a greater fulfillment
of individual happiness.” Most of the presumptions and assumptions made
by different schools of thought have more or less given more emphasis on
„development‟ than on „administration‟.8 A good number of assertions have
defined development from sources which are not exacting within the confines
of development administration; where the needs and characteristics of a
developing country require a special kind of administrative character
consistent to its variations for growth + change, the developmental targets so
emphasized would need to be attended by a specific set of administration –
the different set of characteristics and features requiring a specialized set of
administrative application can be construed as “Development
Administration.” These special characteristics, these expanded or
emphasized role of the Government, State and local bodies, directly affecting

8. Edward Weidner, “Development Administration, A New Focus for Research”, In

Ferrel Heady and Sybil L Strokes (eds), Papers in Comparative Public
Administration, 1962.

- 24 -
the socio-economic inclusiveness would necessarily define the work and
operations of a public administrator, in a different perspective. Where such
differences exist, public administration can be termed as being synonymous
to development administration.

Development does signify a relative change in a given time period,

either in an organizational form or behavioural aspect. Development of
administration would ipso facto, imply that administrative development or
development of bureaucracy translates as development in its organization,
process, functions and culture.

Therefore, it can be asserted that development administration is a

carrier for innovation and upgradation, based on a defined set of structures,
organizations and agencies involved in the primary activity of developing a
particular society or community, by enabling the transformation of a poor
degree of socio-economic status to that of a higher degree. Development
administration is a kind of public administration involved in the primary
activity of the socio-economic transformation of the people. It is the specific
part of an administrative set-up engaged in the socio-economic
transformation or development, where the State or government
administration is involved in developing people. Development Administration
is therefore akin to administration for development and cannot be inferred
that development is a separate entity from administration.

Rightly so, Development Administration is the optimum utilization of

all resources required for moving in the direction of the planned and
accepted objectives, that is, development with growth, with systematic and
planned change towards a particular goal. Development as planned growth,
towards nation building and socio – economic progress involves substantial
differentiation and variances. Development from the viewpoint of economists
rests largely on the structural change needed to make growth a part of
development, in terms of identifying growth with the factor for capacity to
produce. Economic aspects of development therefore can be stressed as the
accelerated economic growth, with equitable distribution of wealth and

- 25 -
income, coupled with the full utilization of manpower and available
resources.

While the economic aspect of development stands crucial in

determining the growth and change of a particular society, the role of social
development cannot be under-emphasized. Social development when literally
translated is the social services essential to the needy society along with
protection of the human environment. Development is thus the “process of
social and economic change from a retrogressive to a forward looking
progressive society” and the administration of development or development
administration as termed by Swerdlow “is that part of administration
concerned with the development of a country‟s economy and society”.9

The context of Development Administration necessarily includes an

all-encompassing discipline as :

Educational Administration

Health Administration

Rural Development Administration

Urban Development administration

Roads and Communications Administration

Forest Development Administration

Public Sector Administration

Cooperative Sector Development Administration

Power Generation Development Administration

Water Development Administration

Agriculture Development Administration

9. Lucien Pye, “The Political Content of National Development,” in Irving Swerdlow

(ed), Development Administration: Concept and Problems, 1963.

- 26 -
Horticulture Development Administration

It can therefore be construed that Development Administration is a set

of an administrative system to mobilize and bring about socio-economic
change, modernization and development in a society, whether democratic or
an authoritarian system of government. Development Administration is
moreover not just related to the Third World (developing) countries, it is
equally relevant to the developed countries too: wherein development in the
field of agriculture, industries, education, public health - all the concerns of
development administration remain to be key aspects of their developmental
stride; as these factors form the backbone of an economy10.

Swerdlow further emphasizes on the constant that “the concept of

Development Administration is a particular type of Public Administration”,
having added bearings and meanings in less developed and developing
countries and different bearings in high income countries. The “structure” of
the government, on which the economic and social change of the developing
countries depend upon remains to be relatively different in high income
countries and the corresponding work profile of the officials and their
performances maybe different in developed countries. As such, it can be
assumed that the different features and characteristics would require a
different and specialized administrative set-up and system; which can
specifically be termed as “Development Administration”. It may even be said
that the defined and specific role of the government to bring about an
emphasized socio-economic transformation directly relating to the distinct
role that a public administrator is required to play in the larger and specific
ambit of work performances can be termed as “Development
Administration”.It may be stated that Development Administration is the set
of structures, organizations and agencies involved in the primary activity of
development for the needy.It can therefore be said that Development

10. World Bank Working Papers, 2011.

- 27 -
Administration is a well defined and specific form of Public Administration;
with a primary activity of socio-economic change within a system. It is the
specific part of the administrative system which is wholly concentrated for
developing people.

Thus, Development Administration is synonymous to administration

for development. However, it may be stressed that any particular framework
of organization for development or blueprints or chartered plans for
development may be senseless and meaningless unless manned by corps of
trained administrators, equipped with the knowledge and resources to
translate programs and policies into accomplished tasks of transformation
for the specific society intended.

It can further be highlighted that Public Administration in developing

countries is Development-oriented-administration, which in effect is
“Development Administration” and essentially “Rural Development,” with
core issues to be addressed being:

Illiteracy
Hunger, wants, needs
Housing
Inter-connectivity, in terms of roads, communication
Health and medicines
Environmental degradation.

Rural Development therefore is an assimilation of multiple objectives,

to derive more production, more employment, more equitable distribution of
income and improved local level planning amenable to the rural poor. 11

A basic perspective equates development with economic and social

metamorphosis based on the set standards and principles; a process which

11. R.D. Sharma, Development Administration: Theory and Practice, 1992, pp. 21-22.

- 28 -
is never-ending and never reaching completion. The United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP) uses a more detailed definition as “to lead
long and healthy lives, to be knowledgeable, to have access to the resources
for a decent standard of living and to be able to participate in the life of the
community”.

Development is an engagement to consciously try and bring about

changes in a particular direction. Development, when viewed from the rural
perspective would be directly linked to human development, opening the
viewpoint that it is a process of freeing people from the obstacles that affect
their ability to develop their own lives and related communities. Development
is therefore “Empowerment”; it is about the rural masses and the rural poor
engaged in the path of taking charge and controlling their goals and
objectives, by expressing their demands based on required determinants and
identifying the solutions to address and redress their problems.

Development in order to be successful, the implementing

organization must develop the ways of means of effectively and efficiently
utilize the men, money and material, as a continuous activity, a case in
point which is apt in the realm of rural development.12

The area and the inhabitants; the entity which bears the pivotal point
in the development of the rural environ projects the principle factor of
administration in the field of rural development; that Rural Development
Administration is not a mechanical form of development but a form of
development mechanism, hugely vested on the human process and their
lives. Rightly so, Rural Development Administration is the association and
contribution of the State government, civil communities, private sectors -
synchronizing the system to evolve and harness the positives in the socio-
economic lives of the rural lives, so as to channelize increased employment,

12. S.L. Goel, Development Administration: Potentials and Prospects, 2009. p.742.

- 29 -
higher productivity, higher income, minimum acceptable levels of food,
clothing, shelter, education, health, sound value system, in keeping with the
heritage of the nation.

Administering rural development in any country or nation is a task

which consists of over-hauling and addressing every aspect of the socio–
economic fabric of the rural people and rural poor. Rural development in
India, with more than one billion people, of which 78 percent of the total
population is of the rural population, 29 percent of the rural population
living below the national poverty line, out of which 9 percent belong to the
small marginal farmers and landless labourers, dependent solely on
agriculture) had all along shown keenness towards the development of the
rural areas even during the colonial days and worked its way to gain greater
momentum in rural development, through adaptation of focused planning
and priority on rural development and its related spheres, more so, during
the post independence years.

Rural Development and its administration has been closely inter-

linked and has been steeped in a long history in India. Varied measures
introduced during pre-independence days, such as the passing of the India
Co-operative Societies Act in 1904, legislation on tenancy and rents,
consolidation of land holdings, regulation of agricultural produces and its
markets; factors all related to rural development had already made deep
imprints.

The administration of rural development in India made varied

attempts at rural reconstruction though initiation of the Model Villages, that
is, villages of Gurgaon, Rahi, Moga, Martandam, Vadmalaipuram,
Pratapgarh, initiation of the cooperative efforts in villages, introduction of the
community projects modeled on the lines of extension services in the
agriculture sector of the United States of America. Despite the myriad
hypotheses on the probable impact of such rural reconstruction initiatives,
one needs to understand that the rural community does not face a single
problem in their lives but are plagued by a host of problems; where it may

- 30 -
not be possible to address only agriculture development, even though
agriculture forms the main bulk of under-development but that the process
of development requires to address a multi-dimensional problem in a multi-
pronged stance.13

Through the years and in entering the era of planned development,

the concept of rural development has undergone changes, evolving as a
strategy designed to improve the economic and social life of a specific group
of people; the rural poor. The strategic designs and plans were targeted
towards the benefit of development to the poorest among those who seek
livelihood in the rural areas. These groups include the small and marginal
farmers, landless labourers and rural artisans. Rural development has
sought to bring about improved productivity, increased employment, higher
income for target groups, minimum acceptable levels of food, clothing,
shelter, education and health. Since planned development was initiated,
India has been moving with the mantra of „growth with social justice‟, even
though the passing of the years has instead largely focused on the growth
factor rather than the social justice factor, due to the high incidence of
unprecedented population rise, with less or no commensuration in food
production and unstable economy.

Despite the obstacles faced by India, the removal of poverty has held a
central dimension; which has urged planning in India to continue its
emphasis towards the need for meeting the basic needs, increased
employment, balancing the in-equalities in income and wealth, increased
productivity of the poor in the rural areas – all integrated within the central
aspect of human development and the essence of socio-economic
development package, in keeping with the metaphor exhorted by Jawaharlal
Nehru as“ seventy six percent of our people live in the villages. India is poor
because the villages of India are poor. India will be rich if the villages of India
are rich. Therefore, the basic problem is to remove the poverty from the
Indian villages.”

13. Vasant Desai, Rural Development in India, A Challenge in the Crisis, 2009.

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 With this concept of rural development, India set up the administrative
infrastructure, to devise and implement the development programmes, so
chalked out by the Planning Commission of India. It was with this
perspective in mind that India started the Community Development
Programme in 1952, through a set of broad-based and well-planned effort to
launch a comprehensive rural development programme in India, by instilling
the priority sectors as :

Providing substantial increase in agricultural production

Improvement in education
Improvement in rural communications
Improvement in rural health and hygiene
Added thrust in infrastructure creation

The National Extension Scheme was also launched alongside the

Community Development Programme, as a complementary scheme. These
initial schemes however failed to evoke the set objective of „self-reliance‟ in
the village communities nor did the schemes improve or increase income or
skill capacities of the rural poor. With the non satisfactory results, the plans
and designs were translated into targets of „employment and poverty
alleviation‟, thereby establishing the much needed revamping of the
administration of rural development.

Till the Fourth Five Year Plan, developmental strategy carried out by
India was based on a „trickle-down theory‟ and gradually progressed on to a
developmental strategy poised towards a „target-oriented theory‟ from the
Fifth Five Year Plan.

Rural Development Administration being a broad-based operation is

reliant on two aspects:

Plans, policies and strategies for rural development.

Modus operandi for the implementation of the plans, policies and
strategies.

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 Bridging the urban-rural divide by ensuring fast track and time bound
development, with ample budgetary support.
Guarantee of wage employment, self employment and food security.
Creation of rural infrastructural facilities – in terms of all weather
connectivity, shelter, water supply, education, health and sanitation.
Assurance of people‟s participation, without the arbitrary intervention
of external factors – so as to open platforms to the needs of the poor
and translated into demand driven elements.

Consistent to the rural development objectives by the administrative

machinery of India, the Government of India (Allocation of Business) Rules,
1961, the Ministry of Rural Development was charted out to execute its roles
and functions as :

A : Department of Rural Development :

Public cooperation, including all matters relating to voluntary agencies

for Rural Development, Council for Advancement of People‟s Action and
Rural Technology (CAPART) and the National Fund for Rural Development,
other than aspects which fall within the purview of Department of Drinking
Water Supply.

Cooperatives relatable to the items in this list.

Road works financed in whole or in part by the Central Government in

tribal areas of Assam, as specified in Part I and Part II of the Table appended
to paragraph 20 of the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution.

All matters relating to cooperation with the Centre for Integrated Rural
Development for Asia and Pacific (CIRDAP) and the Afro-Asian
Reconstruction Organization (AARDO).

All matters pertaining to rural employment or unemployment, such as

working out of strategies and programmes for rural employment including
special works, wage or income generation and training related thereto.

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 Implementation of the specific programmes of rural employment,
evolved from time to time.

Micro level planning related to rural employment or unemployment

and administrative infrastructure thereof.

Integrated Rural Development including small farmers development

agency, marginal farmers and agricultural labourers etc.

Rural Housing Policy and all matters germane and incidental thereto
under country or rural planning, in so far as it relates to the rural areas.

All matters relating to rural connectivity including the Pradhan Matri

Gram Sadak Yojana.

B : Department of Land Resources :

Land Reforms, land tenures, land records, consolidation of holding

and other related matters.

Administration of the Land Acquisition Act, 1894 (1 of 1894) and

matters relating to acquisition of land for purposes of the Union.

Recovery of claims in a State, in respect of taxes and other public

demands including arrears of land revenue and sums recoverable, such as
arrears arising outside that State.

Land, that is to say, collection of rents, transfer and alienation of land,

land improvement and agricultural loans excluding acquisition of non-
agricultural land or buildings, town planning improvements.

Land revenue, including the assessment and collection of revenue,

survey of revenue purposes, alienation of revenues.

Duties in respect of succession to agricultural land.

National Wastelands Development Board.

National Land Use and Wasteland Development Council.

- 34 -
 Promotion of rural employment through wastelands Development.

Promotion of production of fuelwood, fodder and timber on non-forest

lands including private wastelands.

Research and development of appropriate low-cost technologies for

increasing productivity of wastelands in sustainable ways.

Inter-departmental and inter-disciplinary coordination in programme

planning and implementation of the Wastelands Development Programme
including training.

Promotion of people‟s participation and public cooperation and

coordination of efforts of Panchayats and voluntary and non government
agencies for Wastelands Development.

Drought prone area programmes.

Desert Development Programmes.

The Registration Act,1908 ( 16 of 1908).

(i) National Mission on Bio-Fuels; (ii) Bio-fuel plant production,

propagation and commercial plantation of bio-fuel plants under various
schemes of the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Panchayati Raj;
and (iii) Identification of non-forest land and wastelands in consultation
with State Governments, the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of
Panchayati Raj for bio-fuel plant production.

As is indicative, development of the rural areas has been the prime

objective of planning in India. Poverty alleviation and the welfare of its people
when translated means increased production, equal distribution of wealth,
productive employment opportunities to the rural people, encapsulating
coverage of the rural environment, the rural poor and other weaker sections
of the rural environ. Rural development being a strategy designed to alleviate
and improve the economic and social life of a specific group of people, the
rural poor involves extending the benefits of development to the poorest

- 35 -
among those who live in the rural areas. The process of rural development
therefore aims at providing the assurance of socio-economic development to
the common man – the rural poor through varied portals as :

Bridging the urban-rural divide : assurance of fast track and timely

development modules and schedules with ample budgetary support
Wage employment guarantee and food security
Guarantee of self employment and secure market for rural products
Creation of rural infrastructural items
Safeguarding the rural environ in its natural habitat and ensuring
restoration or preservation of environment

Rural development as a strategy is the application of

administrative structures and organizations, to turn the wheels of
transformation for the overall growth and development of the nation. The
mobilization of rural transformation and to enable the full extension of the
benefits of rural development to the rural poor can be a vehicle to transcend
under-development and social-economic deprivation of the rural poor.

Rural Development Programmes in India

Rural Development has a long history in India. Rabindranath Tagore‟s

Sriniketan experiment in West Bengal can be taken as one of the foremost
attempts at rural development,even though it was initiated in an isolated
pocket of India.14 Attempts at rural reconstruction were also launched at
South Travancore, Kerela, as the Martandum Experiment, the Gurgoan
Experiment, introducing a new technique of village development, the Baroda
Experiment, emphasizing on an economic package with an education and
moral programme of reconstruction, followed by the Bombay Experiment, an
intensive scheme for rural reconstruction started by the Bombay
Government with a view to carry on Mahatma Gandhi‟s programme of
Sarvodaya, earning the reputation of it being the first rural reconstruction

14. Vasant Desai, Op.Cit., p.71.

- 36 -
programme sponsored by a government in the pre-independence era,
through the medium of self-help, free education, local self government, self-
employment through village industries.

In 1944, the Government of India initiated the establishment of a

Planning and Development Board, culminating to the publication of The
Bombay Plan, The Gandhi Plan and The People‟s Plan, which was later
defined and resulted to the establishment of the Planning Advisory Board, in
1946, under the Interim Government headed by Jawaharlal Nehru.15

The basic ground for initiating the aforesaid Plans and Boards after
the Independence of India was spurred on by the need to promote a
balanced socio- economic development; to provide the foundation for
sustained economic growth, for promoting equity in income and raising the
living standards of the Indian populace : in consonance to the declaration of
India as a secular, socialist republic and “welfare state”, under the
Constitution of India, Part II, Articles 35 (b,c) and that the operation of the
economic system does not result in the concentration of wealth and that the
means of production to the common detriment.

Following the recommendations of the Advisory Planning Board of

1946, the Planning Commission was established by a Cabinet Resolution of
March 15, 1950, with a clear concept that the Planning Commission would
function as an agency to prepare national plans for economic development
within the framework of a federal government, a parliamentary democracy
and a welfare state, by way of tendering suggestions, coordination,
evaluation of policies and programmes, for the benefit of the nation.

Under the aegis of Jawaharlal Nehru,in July,1951,the Planning

Commission of India drafted an outline of plan for development, for a period
of five years from April, 1951 to March, 1956,16 with an accent on an
economic and social change; stemming from the factor of poverty and of the

15. Vasant Desai, Op.Cit., pp.72-76.

16. Government of India, Planning Commission, First Five Year Plan, 1951-1956.

- 37 -
inequalities in income and wealth. Planning in India took upon the task for
enabling the demands for right to work, right to adequate income and right
to education as enshrined in the Directive Principles of State Policy, under
Articles 36-51 of the Constitution of India.

India, being a land of villages, is a nation where the majority of its

people depend on farm and non-farm livelihoods, with varied levels of
poverty. The providence of opportunities to tide over poverty in a
sustainable way has been a challenge for the nation of India. Since
independence, it has been the task of the Indian Government to fight poverty
and inequality in the rural areas and to provide sustenance and upliftment
to the rural poor.

During the post-independence days, the nation has been engaged in

bringing about sustainable development and socio-economic transformation
in rural India. The desired change in social life and the production process of
the agrarian economy was initiated by introducing various schemes of socio-
economic development programmes. In its attempt to establish rural
reconstruction, India introduced the instrument of the Panchayati Raj
System along with a synonymous programme known as the Community
Development Programme during the First Five Year Plan to the Fourth Five
Year Plan (1952-1974), for the transformation of the social and economic life
of the villagers in the rural areas. Community Development has been defined
as a “movement designed to promote better living for the whole community
with the active participation and initiative of the community.” Community
development was essentially an integrated approach to local development
within the spectrum of planned national development, inclusive of the
National Extension service Programme, introduced from 2nd October, 1963,
to provide the extension of resources, complementary to the Community
Development Programme, projecting the following objectives as:

Rural masses be assured full employment

Rural masses be guided through scientific knowledge, to attain full
agricultural production and agro-employment

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 Rural masses attain credit-worthiness through the principle of
cooperation and extension services
Rural community efforts are concentrated for community benefit, in
terms of creating village roads connectivity, schools, wells and water
tanks, community centres, through maximum utilization of available
manpower

In essence, Community Development Programme aimed to change the

basic attitude of the rural folk, from that of a traditional mind-set to that of a
mind-set in keeping with modernity. To accomplish this aim, community
development embraces all the related programmes concerned with the lives
of the rural masses, that is, agriculture, education, health, employment,
housing, capacity training, social welfare benefits, in keeping with the
projected outline of the Planning Commission of India.

The Community Development Programme launched on 2nd October,

1952, was conceived primarily as a programme of intensive development of
selected areas, which would contribute to raising the level of agricultural
production, by mobilizing local manpower for a concerted and coordinated
effort at raising the level of rural life : a synthesis of ideas gathered for the
rural development works. The Community Development Programme started
off with 55 (fiftyfive)pilot projects on an experimental basis, which was later
extended to the entire nation. In the initial stages of it being introduced, only
55 (fifty five) blocks were covered under the Community Development
Programme , that is, coverage of 18 (eighteen) Community Development
Area; given that one Community Development Area covered 3 (three)
Development Blocks, each consisting of approximately 100 (one hundred)
villages, with a rural population of 60,000 - 70,000 persons. Each
Development Block was divided into groups of five villages, each group under
the operative supervision of a village level worker. The initial activity under
the Community Development Programme was focused only on agricultural
development, which was later diversified as agriculture and related matters,
irrigation, communication, education, health, supplementary employment,

- 39 -
housing, training and social welfare. 5000(five thousand) National Extension
Service Blocks were created under the Community Development Programme
by the end of the Second Five Year Plan.17

Community Development envisaged the establishment of a network of

extension workers through the expanse of India: through the establishment
of a viable network of administrative units, termed as „blocks‟. The approach
was to bring about a multi-dimensional activity for development by gathering
material and human resources of an area, by utilizing the cooperative efforts
of the people with the active support of the State. The initial attempts at
rural development through Community Development Programme and the
National Extension Scheme failed to evoke the main objective of „self-
reliance‟ in the rural village communities and failed to improve the income
generation capabilities of the rural poor. However, the initiation at rural
development progressed on with emphasis attached on employment and
poverty alleviation. In order to ensure that the fruits of economic reforms are
to be benefited by all sections of people, the Government of India has devised
a number of rural development programmes.

Simultaneous to the launching and implementation of the Community

Development Programme, the Government of India started a fresh Rural
Development policy, to identify growth and to assume Integrated Area
Planning, as a pilot research project, in collaboration and jointly financed
with the Ministry of Food, Agriculture, Community Development and
Cooperation and the FORD Foundation, New Delhi, during 1970-1980,
which provided proven ground-base for implementing the varied sectors of
Rural Development for the Indian future. However, it may be indicated that
the Fourth Five Year Plan (1968-1972) was devoid of any chapter on Rural
Development issues and Rural Development was constrained from being
accorded as „priority‟ sector; where the requisite Articles of the Directive

17. www.rural.nic.in. Accessed on 12.4.2013

- 40 -
Principles of State Policy, “The State shall strive to promote the welfare of the
people by securing and protecting, as effectively as it may, a social order in
which justice, social, economic and political shall inform all institutions of
national life” was to be effected.

During the Third Five Year Plan, momentum was reached through a
series of developmental schemes, though the allocations under the National
Extension Scheme tapered down. This was succeeded by the Small Famers‟
Development Agencies, the Marginal Farmers‟ Development Agencies, Crash
Schemes for Rural Employment, Food for Work Programme, Drought Prone
Areas Programme and Desert Development Programme in the early
seventies; the programmes were planned for strengthening the rural base of
the economy, accentuated on the primary sectors of agriculture, animal
husbandry, providence of employment through labour intensive works while
creating infrastructure of roads and other community assets for the rural
masses.

In recognizing the needs of the rural people and the complexities of

rural poverty and the ingrained ignorance, the Indian government devised a
number of rural development programmes to ameliorate the under-developed
rural society as :

A. Wage Employment Schemes:

Crash Scheme of Rural Development (CSRD). Started in April
1971 and operated for three years, by generating
employment for a working season of ten months for the
production of tangible assets. Unemployed persons were
given preference.
Pilot Intensive Rural Employment Project (PIREP).
Implemented during 1972-1976 in fifteen selected blocks as
a pilot study on employment in the rural areas.
Food for Work Programme (FFWP). Initiated during 1976-77
with the objective to create additional employment in the
rural areas through utilization of surplus foodgrains

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available in the buffer stock for payment as wages, while
creating durable community assets.
Training of Rural Youth for Self Employment (TRYSEM).
Started in 1979, wherein training on skills and technical
knowledge is imparted to the rural youth, aged eighteen –
thirty five years, to achieve gainful vocations.
National Rural Employment Programme (NREP). Scheme is
the restructured FFWP, in terms of funding, where
expenditure is shared by the Central and state governments
and where wages are paid in part as foodgrains and part
cash.
Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP).
Started in 1983 with a plan to improve and expand
employment opportunities for the rural landless, where at
least one member in a landless labour family or household
is provided hundred days of employment in a year.
Million Wells Scheme (MWS). MWS was started as a sub
scheme of the NREP and the RLEGP during 1988-89. It
continued as a sub scheme of the JRY from April 1989 -
31.12.1995 and later made to operate as an independent
scheme from 1.1.1996. MWS was introduced so as to provide
open irrigation wells, irrigation tanks, water harvesting
structures and for the development of lands belonging to the
target groups, free of cost to the rural poor, small and
marginal farmers living below the poverty line.
Jawahar Rozgar Yojana and Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana
(JRY & JGSY). JRY was started in April, 1989, by merging
the on-going NREP and the RLEGP into a single stream rural
employment programme, for generation of additional gainful
employment for the unemployed men and women of the
rural areas while creating durable community and social
assets; thereby contributing improved quality of life by

- 42 -
providing supplementary source of income through wage
employment and creation of community and social assets.
Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY). The programme was
launched on 1st April,1989 by merging the National Rural
Employment Programme (NREP) and the Rural Landless
Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP). The main
objective of the programme is the generation of gainful
employment for the unemployed and under-employed
persons, both men and women, in the rural areas, through
the creation of rural economic infrastructure, community
and social assets.
As an added impact, the programme was reviewed and
operatives targeted to the backward areas, characterized by
the concentration of the poor and the under-employed, with
additional resources along with introduction of special and
innovative projects, aimed at migration of labour, enhancing
women‟s employment and undertaking special programmes,
through voluntary organizations, for drought proofing.
Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS). EAS was started on
2nd October,1993 and initially introduced in the districts
where the Revamped Public Distribution System (RPDS) was
in operation; in areas classified as drought prone areas,
desert areas, tribal areas and hill areas. The main objective
of EAS is to provide hundred days of assured casual manual
employment during the lean agricultural season, at statutory
minimum wages, to all persons between the ages of eighteen
to sixty years, in need and seeking employment on
economically productive and labour intensive social and
community works.
Jawahar Rozgar Yojana was merged with EAS from
1.1.1996.

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Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY). As rural road
connectivity is one amongst the key components of rural
development in India, it is considered to be an effective
poverty reduction tool and machinery. PMGSY was started
on 25th December,2000, for construction of new roads and
for the upgradation of existing roads, so as to achieve rural
connectivity through all-weather roads.
Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY). Programme was
started on 25th September, 2001, by merging the on-going
schemes of JGSY and EAS, to provide additional wage
employment in the rural areas along with food security, i.e.
every worker seeking employment under SGRY will be
provided minimum five kgs of foodgrains ( in kind) per
manday as part of wages, the balance of wages will be paid
in cash, as an assurance of the notified minimum wages and
simultaneous creation of durable community, social and
economic infrastructure in the rural areas; with emphasis on
targeting the women, scheduled castes / tribes and parents
of children withdrawn from hazardous occupations.
National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS).
SGRY was merged with the NREGS from 1st April,2008. The
NREGS programme is an enacted scheme and made
operative through the National Rural Employment
Guarantee Act in September 2005 and introduced in two
hundred districts and one hundred thirty districts during
2006 and 2007-08 respectively, with the aim to enhance the
livelihood security of the rural people by providing
guaranteed wage employment through works that develop
the livelihood resource base and creation of durable assets.
It is a programme creating a social safety net for the rural
poor by providing an alternate employment avenue when
other sources of employment is inadequate or scarce :

- 44 -
 through rights-based structures, by conferring legal
entitlements and the right to demand employment while
making the government accountable for providing
employment in a time-bound manner.During 2009-2010,
through an amendment, the NREGA has been re- christened
as the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment
Guarantee Act (MNREGA).

B. Self Employment Programmes and Entrepreneurial

Development :
Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP). The
programme was started in April 1978, by integrating the
Small Farmers‟ Development Agency (SFDA), Marginal
Farmers‟ and Agricultural Labourers‟ Development
Programme (MFALDP) and Command Area Development
Programme(CADP), so as to bring about a multi-
dimensional and multi-sectoral approach and effort into
one stream of programme, the IRDP. The target group
being small and marginal farmers, agricultural labourers,
village artisans and others living below the poverty line
(annual income of ` 6400), to create productive assets
through minor irrigation, dairy, poultry, fisheries,
through finances of a margin of 25 – 50 percent of the
Central Subsidy per unit cost and term credit from
financial institutions.
IRDP aims at providing self employment to the rural poor
through acquisition of productive assets or appropriate
skills, so as to generate additional income on a sustained
basis to enable them to cross the poverty line for the rural
poor.
Training Of Rural Youth For Self Employment (TRYSEM).
Started on 15th August, 1979, TRYSEM is a facilitating

- 45 -
component of the IRDP, to provide basic technical and
entrepreneurial skills to the rural youth, in the age group
of eighteen to thirty five years, belonging to families living
below the poverty line, to enable them to take up self
employment in the fields of agriculture and allied sectors,
industries, services and business activities. TRYSEM
seeks to impart new skills and upgrade existing skills of
the rural youth through trainings and enable them to
take up sustainable livelihoods.
With a means to strengthen the programme, the
government reviewed its initiatives and evolved increases
in stipend and honorarium, emphasis on professionalized
training through established and recognized institutions
that is, the Industrial Training Institutes, Community
Polytechnics, Krishi Vigyan Kendras.
Supply Of Improved Toolkits To Rural Artisans (SITRA).
Started in July,1992, as a sub scheme of IRDP, with the
objective to enable the rural artisans living below the
poverty line to enhance the quality of their products,
increase their production, increase their income. The
rural artisans are supplied with a kit of improved hand
tools, with a financial ceiling of ` 2000, for which the
artisans are required to pay 10 percent and 90 percent as
subsidy from the Government of India. The supply of
power driven tools, subject to a ceiling of ` 4500 is also
permitted under this scheme and additional finance can
be augmented as loans under IRDP along with training
under TRYSEM.
Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas
(DWCRA). Started during 1982-1983, as a sub-scheme of
IRDP. As the Schemes of IRDP and TRYSEM were found
to be wanting in addressing the benefits of poor women, it

- 46 -
was felt that exclusive focus needed to be given on
economic empowerment of rural women, so as to build
working capital and credit, training, employment,
management skills; which is the essence of the
programme. The main strategy adopted under this
programme is to facilitate access for poor women to
employment, skill upgradation, training, credit and other
support services to the women groups to take up income
generating activities, to supplement their income. It seeks
to encourage collective action in the form of group
activities which are known to work better and are more
sustainable than individual effort. It encourages the habit
of thrift and credit among the poor rural women and in
guiding them towards self- reliance. The programme also
envisages that this target group would be the focus for
convergence of other services like family welfare, health
care, nutrition, education, child care, safe drinking water,
sanitation and shelter to improve the welfare and quality
of the family and the community at large.
DWCRA was further strengthened by the component of
Child Care Activities(CCA) in 1995-96 with the objective
of providing child care services to the children of DWCRA
women. The Information, Education and Communication
(IEC) was also introduced to generate an awareness
among rural women about the development programmes
being implemented for their upliftment and welfare along
with the extension of the Community Based Convergent
Services (CBCS), during the Eighth Five Year Plan (1988-
1992) and the introduction of the District Supply and
Marketing Societies (DSMS), for the sale of DWCRA
products.

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Prime Minister‟s Rozgar Yojana (PMRY). The PMRY was
launched on 2nd October, 1993, as a credit linked subsidy
scheme, to provide financial assistance to the less
educated unemployed youth, both in the urban and rural
areas.
Rural Employment Generation Programme (REGP). The
KVIC launched the Rural Employment Generation
Programme (REGP) and the Gramdyog Rozgar Yojana
from 1st April, 1995, to generate employment in rural
areas by developing the entrepreneurial skills and
aptitude amongst the rural unemployed youth, with
accent on rural industrialization.
Ganga Kalyan Yojana (GKY). Launched as a sub scheme
of IRDP during 1996-97, with an aim to provide irrigation
through exploitation of groundwater (borewells and
tubewells) to individual and groups of small and
marginal farmers living below the poverty line, through
subsidy from the government and term credit from
financial institutions.
Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY). The SGSY
was started as on 1.4.1999 as a revamped self
employment programme. With its launch, the earlier
programmes of Integrated Rural Development Programme
(IRDP), Training of Rural Youth and Self Employment
(TRYSEM, Development of Women and Children In Rural
Areas (DWCRA), Supply of Tool Kits in Rural Areas
(SITRA), Ganga Kalyan Yojana (GKY) and the Million
Wells Scheme (MWS) were abolished. The objective of the
SGSY is to bring the assisted poor families (swarozgaris)
above the poverty line by providing them income
generating assets through a mix of bank credit and
government subsidy; by establishing a large number of

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 micro enterprises in the rural areas, based on the ability
of the poor and potential of the area.
C. Rural Housing Programmes :
Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY). The IAY has been introduced
since 1985-86, with the objective of providing dwelling
units free of cost for families of Scheduled Castes and
Schedules Tribes and free bonded labourers in the rural
areas and for those living below the poverty line. The
scheme has been extended to non SC and ST rural poor
families of ex-servicemen of the armed and para military
forces killed in action and 3 percent of the allocation
reserved for disabled persons or families living below the
poverty line. IAY being a 100 percent subsidized
Government programme, the financial resources are
shared by the Central and State governments on a 75:25
basis.
In 1998, the Central government initiated the National
Housing and Habitat Policy, with an objective of „Housing
for All‟, emphasizing on extending the benefits to the poor
and the deprived, with a commitment to end deprivation
in housing by the Ninth Five Year plan. A comprehensive
Action Plan for Rural Housing was introduced as :
Provision for upgradation of unserviceable kutcha houses
in Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY), in addition to new
construction of houses under IAY. Assistance was
provided at the rate of ` 10,000 per unit by utilizing 20
percent of the available funds under IAY, with a
mandatory insistence for provision of a sanitary latrine
and smokeless chullah.
Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana : Gramin Awaas.
Credit-cum-subsidy Scheme for Rural Housing. The sub
scheme of IAY will be targeted to families living above the

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 poverty,having an annual income limit of ` 32,000, but
with poor repayment capacities to take benefit of loan
based programmes as offered by housing finance
institutions.
Innovative Stream for Rural Housing and Habitat
Development. The programme has been introduced with
the sole aim to harness and provide sound and cost
effective housing materials and technologies for rural
areas by providing financial assistance to housing related
organizations such as HUDCO, Building Material
Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC),Central Building
Research Institute (CBRI) and NGOs involved in such
initiatives.
Rural building Centres. The primary objective for
introducing the Rural building Centres is to transfer
technology and disseminate information, to impart
trainings on skill upgradation and the production of cost
effective and environment friendly material components to
rural carpenters, masons and builders.
Samagra Awaas Yojana. The programme was launched
during 1999 – 2000 and aims to infuse a comprehensive
package of housing and corresponding facilities and
infrastructure within a cluster for the rural poor.
Enhancement in equity contribution by the Ministry of
Rural Development to HUDCO.
National Mission for Rural Housing & Habitat. The
adoption of a „mission‟ approach to alter the scenario of
rural housing by enabling the induction of science and
technology through community intermediation is the
thrust of the National Mission, in order to sustain quality
construction techniques, habitats and practices.
D. Area Development Schemes :

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Intensive Agriculture District Programme (IADP). The
IADP was initiated to tackle the Indian food crisis during
the fifties by way of enabling adequate and readily
accessible farm supplies, farm credit, intensive agro
education programmes, assured prices for produce,
reliable marketing facilities, rural public works,
evaluation and analysis and a coordinated approach – to
improve the farmers‟ lot in the areas selected for the
purpose and creation of a sound agricultural base for the
overall economic development and social upliftment.
Intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP). The IAAP
was to intensify the development of crops, by the
adoption of modern technology, use of fertilizers and
improved seeds so as to achieve progressive increases in
the production of crops.
Desert Development Programme (DDP). The DDP was
initiated to garner the best suitable conditions for raising
the levels of production and employment potential in the
desert and arid areas, through ground water
development, water storage facilities, afforestation,
grassland development, rural electrification, development
of agriculture, horticulture and animal husbandry.
Drought-Prone Areas Programme (DPAP). The programme
was established during 1973-74 and aims to garner the
optimal utilization of available land, water and human
resources, where dry farming technology, pasture
development through choice and proven technology is
initiated.
Command Area Development Programme (CADP). The
objectives of CADP is the optimal utilization of the
irrigation potentials by providing on – the – farm
infrastructure.

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 Tribal Area Development Programme (TADP). The
programme aims to bring about an overall development of
the tribal areas and to foster the economic development
of the tribal population. Under the programme, increased
production and development of forest resources were
marked as priority.
Hill Area Development Programme(HADP). The
programme was introduced so as to evolve a suitable
pattern of development in the hilly backward areas and to
remove regional disparities
Integrated Wastelands Development Programme (IWDP).
The area development is being implemented on watershed
basis through the programme of IWDP since 1995 -1996,
in areas not covered by the Drought Prone Areas
Programme (DPAP) and the Desert Development
Programme(DDP).
Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP).
DPAP, DDP and IWDP have been integrated and
consolidated into a single modified programme called the
Integrated Watershed Management Programme in 2009-
2010 and is being implemented as per the Common
Guidelines for Watershed Development Projects, 2008, on
a demand- driven base.
E. Social Welfare Schemes :
Applied Nutrition Programme. The scheme aims at
improving the nutritional standards of people, specially
of mothers and children in the rural areas. The
programme imparts knowledge on hygienic preparation
of foods, retention of nutritional value and
demonstration on improved techniques of cooking and
feeding. ANP was further diversified to provide minimum
services on immunization, health care services,

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environmental sanitation, supply of potable water, by
joining hands with the UNICEF, WHO and the FAO.
Educational Programmes. Rural Functional Literacy
Programme (RFLP) provides education training in areas
of agriculture and allied sectors, health care, free of cost
while the National Adult Education Programme (NAEP)
provides a comprehensive programme on community
upliftment through community action, with emphasis on
health, recreation and improved community lives.
National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP). The
programme was launched on 15th August,1995, initiating
a national policy for social assistance, to benefit the poor
households, for the old aged, death of primary bread
winners and maternity through the following sub
schemes :
i) National Old Age Pension Scheme : Central
assistance of ` 75 (increased to) per month is
provided to male or female applicants, aged
sixty five years and above, with little or no
means of subsistence from any source of
income or financial support.
ii) National Family Benefit Scheme : Central
assistance is available as a lump sum benefit of
` 10.000 for households below the poverty line,
whose primary bread winner (aged 18 -65) dies
a natural or accidental death.
iii) National Maternity Benefit Scheme : Maternity
benefit is provided as a lump sum cash
assistance of ` 500 to women belonging to
families living below the poverty line. The
benefit is restricted to pregnant women up to
the first two live births, provided they are

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 nineteen years of age and above and assistance
disbursed 8-12 weeks prior to delivery or after
delivery.

E. Rural Water Supply Programme :

Since water availability is highly variable across the

Indian states, the provision of safe drinking water and
decent water supply system along with proper
sanitation system was rated amongst the priority
sectors of India, as evidenced in the First Five Year
Plan period and thereon, with accent on the rural
areas.
i) Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme
(ARWSP). The programme was introduced in
1972-73 by the Government of India, to assist
the States and the Union Territories in
accelerating the pace of coverage of drinking
water supply. The prime objectives of the
programme are to ensure coverage of all rural
habitations with access to safe drinking water,
to ensure sustainability of the system and
sources and to tackle the problem of drinking
water quality in affected habitations and to
preserve the quality of water through inflow of
scientific and technical inputs, so as to ensure
improved and cost-effective means of providing
adequate and safe drinking water supply.
ii) Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission
(RGDWM). The Government of India launched
the Technology Mission on Drinking Water and
related water management in 1986 and was also

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 called the National Drinking Water Mission
(NDWM), later renamed the Rajiv Gandhi
National Drinking Water Mission in 1991; over
hauling the entire programme by ensuring
maximum inputs of scientific and technical
know-how into the rural water supply sector.
iii) Centrally Sponsored Rural Sanitation
Programme (CRSP). The programme was
launched in 1986, with the objective of
supplying safe water by ensuring that the
sanitary aspects of water and the issue of
sanitation are addressed together, the
programme aimed at improving the quality of life
of the rural people.
iv) National Human Resource Development
Programme (NHRDP). Sustainable management
of rural water supply and sanitation requires the
cohesive coordination of the engineering system
but also the effort and cooperation of the
community participation and empowerment
together with the cooperation of adequately
trained professionals and sensitized planners,
administrators and decision makers. To build up
this much required resource base of
appropriately trained personnel, the NHRDP was
launched in 1994; to introduce rural orientation,
infusion of appropriate technology and practices.
v) Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (PMGY).
Rural Drinking Water Programme – The PMGY-
RDWP is a holistic programme to achieve the
objective of sustainable human development at
the village level, wherein rural water supply

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 holds a pivotal factor; by the adoption of
socially inclusive policies to spread the benefits
of water resource development to the poor, while
benefiting the whole society and by improving
their living conditions, health, social stability
and opportunities for productive employment.

Institutional and Organizational Arrangements for Rural Development

Programmes

The goals of social and economic policy are prescribed in the Directive
Principles of State Policy, under the Constitution of India. The Five Year
Plans represent the attempt of the Indian Government, its States and Union
Territories, local self-governing bodies and voluntary social welfare
organizations, to translate the package of vision into a national programme.
In a democratic frame work of India, the task of turning the wheels of change
and growth is largely vested in the realm of public administration along with
the cooperation of the people, with a call for a consciousness of social
purpose, courage to stand by principles and balanced restraint in the
exercise of authority.

With the dawn of planned development in India, the existing agencies

in the field of development were to be supplemented and strengthened while
other areas required induction of new institutions, largely dependent upon
the quality of public administration, the efficiency with which it works and
the cooperation which it evokes. The task of administration morphed into a
more dynamic and more complex form, with more emphasis attached to the
development of human and material resources and the eradication of
poverty; when in earlier years, the administrative task would be confined to
law and order, collection of revenue among other activities. Since the
objectives of development is a task to be fulfilled through national planning,
involving the Central and State Governments, the ideals of leadership,
organization and cooperation are to be called for into a sustained

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partnership. In line, the relationship between the political leadership which
forms the government and the public services which execute the
administration would bear the main brunt of work and responsibility.
Accordingly, the common aim, endorsed by the political leaders and the
public services machinery strive towards raising the standards of living
through phased economic and social development and better distribution of
wealth and income.

As the political leadership and political life largely reflects the will of
the people, the government is positioned to maintain close contact with the
needs and aspirations of the people and to secure their support and
cooperation in the programmes designed to meet those needs. It is therefore
the responsibility of the political executive to assess the public wants and
needs and how it is to be met; which in effect, is to formulate principles and
policies and to translate those principles and policies into action; to be
exercised in the interests of the people.

The execution of such tasks further requires devolution of power to a

large number of public servants, who, as a body constitute the
administration. The public services, work within a different arena from that
of the political executives; however, the knowledge and expertise gained
through years of experiences no doubt places the public servants in a level
where their hand is much required in shaping the principles and policies, by
diligently and honestly administering and implementing the task of the
nation.

While exhorting on the nuances of planning of principles and policies

in India, it is necessary to bear in mind the scale and dimension of the
problem along with the basic values to be instilled and inculcated. It is no
longer possible to refer development as a process for increasing the available
supplies of material goods, it is in fact necessary to ensure that a steady
advancement is made towards the realization of wider objectives, such as
employment, attainment of economic equality and social justice, which
constitute the accepted objectives of planning; working together on a series

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of related and connected aims with a balanced emphasis on all the sectoral
plan package.

During the 1950s, the working population of India comprised of 68

percent engaged in agriculture, 14 percent in industry, 8 percent in trade
and transport and remaining 10 percent engaged in services and
professions, including domestic services. Despite the large percentage of the
agricultural work force, productivity was low, leading to insufficiency in food
grains and raw materials for the industry; the problem all the more
compounded with the growing population of the country and giving rise to
large scale under-employment in the rural areas and the associated
phenomena of mass poverty.18

Notwithstanding the phenomenon of planned development, the

consistent policy decisions were aimed at promoting the doctrine of
„community development‟ in the early years of post independence, followed
intensively by the doctrine of „inclusive economic growth‟ during the Tenth
and Eleventh Plan periods, with focus on the social sector and priority
accorded on the subject of rural development have sought to insulate the
rural economy to some extent.

Since the concept of rural development had been idealized by the nation‟s
visionaries, it was realized that if the poverty of India‟s millions is to be
removed, attention is to be drawn towards the rural areas where 80 percent
of the Indian population are living. Several experiments in rural
reconstruction were undertaken by official and non-official agencies, proving
along the way that the intensive area projects and activities in various fields
of development had been operated in an integrated way.

The rural development programmes, introduced in the First Five Year

Plan aimed at initiating and directing a process of change, with a view to
transform the the rural fabric of life. The desired change in social life and the

18. Department of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India,

Handbook of Statistics on the Indian Economy, 2006-2007.

- 58 -
agrarian economy was sought to be achieved by initiating various
progressive schemes of socio – economic development programmes.
Community Development Programme was the result of this initiative : an
integrated approach to local development as a part of a bigger scheme of
planned development, under the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation,
Government of India.

The success or otherwise of the Community Programme, after two and

a half decades of operation had evoked semblance of how to move ahead; to
identify and establish a remedy for rural afflictions. This resulted in
providing a stepping stone for stimulating the aspirations for planned
development and the strengthening of the existing programmes.

Simulating on the Community Development Programme, the rural

development programmes were renamed and recast over the years by the
government and with the network of facilitating organs in the form of
extension services, voluntary bodies and farmers‟ fora, the rural populace
has been positioned for the process of change and development. Once where
the process of transformation was doled out, even to the extent of coaxing
and spoon feeding the rural poor, the rural programmes took a turn towards
obligatory „participatory approach‟, in the form of voluntary contribution of
labour and finances. The State was seen as a channel to direct people‟s
resources and the State seemingly acquired the the status of the „provider‟,
setting their sights in achieving the set objectives and targets; and making
the rural masses the protagonist(s) in the process of transformation and
development.

The developmental and welfare initiatives undertaken by the

Government in the rural areas brought about perceptible changes through
the inculcation of the „convergence approach‟, adopted for the optimization of
initiatives, resources and results, translating visions into tangible policies
and programmes. Based on the experiences and performances, initiatives
have been undertaken to bring about correctives in the process of
implementation, insertion of modifications where required and inclusion of

- 59 -
new elements and essences in the existing schemes and programmes, for
example, the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
(MNREGA) from that of the Crash Scheme of Rural Developmen, Rural
Landless Employment Guarantee Scheme, National Rural Employment
Programme, Indira Awaas Yojana, Integrated Watershed Management
Programme, National Social Assistance Programme. To make them more
effective, blueprints have been drawn up for new schemes or to improvise
on-going schemes and programmes like the introduction of the Aajeevika –
National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM) from that of the Swarnjayanti
Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY); to bring about a paradigm shift in the
approach to alleviation of poverty and to harness self-reliance in the rural
areas. Through the decades, new strategies have been worked out and
initiatives taken to strengthen the implementation and to enhance coverage
under various programmes as:

The governmental strategies and strides have envisioned better

employment opportunities through guaranteed public works
programme like MNREGA, envisioned enhanced livelihood
opportunities through SGSY, Watershed Development, stronger social
safety nets provided through NSAP, welfare measures like providing
dwelling units and homestead plots to the homeless under IAY,
combined with better infrastructure under the Government flagship
programme of Bharat Nirman, envisioning improved rural connectivity.
The Ministry of Rural Development plays a cardinal role in the overall
development of the 70 percent of the rural population of India‟s 1.2
billion strong population. The mission of the Department of Rural
Development, Government of India is spelt out in the Result
Framework Document (RFD) of 2010-2011,19 envisioning a sustainable
and inclusive growth of rural India, through a multi-pronged strategy

19. www.rural.nic.in . Accessed on 11.12.2012.

- 60 -
for the eradication of poverty; by increasing livelihood opportunities,
providing a stronger social safety net and developing infrastructure for
growth and improvement of quality of life in the rural areas. The
mission stands to correct the developmental imbalances of the rural
areas with an aim to reach out to the disadvantaged sections of the
society. The thrust of these programmes are an all-round economic
and social transformation in the rural areas.
Capacity building through „Training‟ of the rural development
functionaries, elected members of the Panchayati Raj institutions,
NGOs and CBOs is an essential requirement for effective
implementation of rural development programmes of the Ministry of
Rural Develpment and the Ministry of Panchayati Raj. The constant
upgradation of capacities of these functionaries requires assessment of
capacity building requirement, imparting training and study of the
issues at hand. For upgradation of such knowledge and skills besides
developing pro-poor attitudes of the rural development functionaries,
the Ministry of Rural Development has a network of training
Institutions,that is, the National Institute of Rural Development (NIRD),
Hyderabad, twenty eight State Institutes of Rural Development (SIRDs)
and eighty nine Extension Training Centres (ETCs). The NIRD is a
national level autonomous Training and Research Institution under
the Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, while the
SIRDs and ETCs are State government institutions, imparting training
to Rural Development functionaries and elected PRI members at the
State, district and sub-district levels, governed by its own established
governing bodies.
A mechanism for monitoring and evaluation of the schemes and
programmes is sine qua non for ensuring efficiency and transparency
in the line of operation – to keep watch over the proper utilization of
funds released under the myriad schemes and to ensure optimum
utilization of resources. The Central Government has devised
comprehensive multi-level and multi-tool system of „Monitoring and

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Evaluation‟ for the implementation of its programmes. Appropriate
objective and verifiable performance indicators have been developed for
each of the specific programmes and for effective programme
monitoring at the district, block, gram panchayat and the village levels;
even to the extent of placing scope for mid-course corrections.20
With the multiple number of programmes under rural development, the
role of „Information Education and Communication‟ (IEC) as a change
agent to facilitate the desired transformation has been idealized too.
During the Eleventh Plan, India has witnessed a move in the realm of
technological capacity to transfer information and communicate
extensively and rapidly; to harness the capacity to develop
communication strategies that promote the transfer of information
relevant to the livelihood of the rural masses. In the past years, IEC
activities were carried out in a centralized manner, primarily by
disseminating information through mainstream media like the Radio,
TV, Press Communique and production of printed communication
materials in the form of hand outs, pamphlets, brochures and
guidelines.
Other options like the contact programmes and outdoor publicity are
also being used in select areas by the government agencies that is,
Directorate of Audio-Visual Publications(DAVP),Directorate of Field
Publicity, Department of Posts and Railways. In line, during 2011-
2012, a decentralized IEC strategy, with emphasis on community-
based mobilization and communication targeting the rural households
through a cadre of village-based volunteers known as the Bharat
Nirman Volunteers (BNVs) was initiated : catering to the dissemination
of information, awareness generation and rendering assistance to
prospective beneficiaries, not only towards Bharat Nirman but towards

20. Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India. Eleventh Plan Concept

Paper, 2007-2008.

- 62 -
 other departmental programmes too. This articulation of demand and
service delivery and participation of beneficiaries in the decision
making process through the Gram Sabhas is being initiated through
the State Institute of Rural Development.21
International cooperation for research and exchange of expertise in the
field of rural development has been tapped by the Ministry of Rural
Development, Government of India, wherein inter-government,
international organizations and fora, like the Afro-Asian Rural
Development Organization(AARDO) and the Centre on Integrated Rural
Development for Asia and the Pacific (CIRDAP), South Asian
Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), Bay of Bengal Initiative
for Multi Sectoral and Technical Cooperation (BIMSTEC).22
The system of proactive disclosure of information, provision for
monitoring and vigilance by the citizens, beneficiaries and civil society
organizations have been placed as the cornerstone for ensuring
transparency in the operation of most of the programmes and schemes
of rural development. With the time-bound and multi-pronged
appproach for transparency and accountability along with an
established monitoring mechanism, the focus of development in the
rural areas will enable the nation to realize its potential and secure its
rightful dues.
Rural Development is a complex task, as it is associated with a
myriad of typical yet dynamic factors; having a direct bearing on the
lives of people in the rural areas and requiring amelioration for their
woes. The complexity of rural development lies in its multi-sectoral
character as against a single sector, where one cannot wholly affix the

21. Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, Op.Cit.

22. Ibid.

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agriculture sector as being the rural development sector per se, as the
agriculture sector is multi-dimensional and multi-pronged. To sum it
up, rural development simply means an all-round development of the
rural areas and the people living in it : touching upon the lives of the
rural people for a better tomorrow.

In this chapter, we have made an attempt to analyse the rural

development administration and the programmes that have been and
are being implemented in India from a general and theoretical
perspective. We have also tried to analyse the institutional and
organizational arragements for the rural development programmes
within the context of rural development administration, again at a
theoretical perspective. The existing arrangements for the
organizational set-up and the institutional frame-works as devised
and executed by the government have been highlighted as a means to
better grasp the dimensions of rural development in India.

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 CHAPTER – III

Rural Development Administration in Mizoram : A Profile

In the second chapter, we have tried to present a theoretical analysis

of rural development administration in India, touching on the concepts of
rural development, the erstwhile and existing rural development
programmes planned and implemented by the Government of India along
with the institutional and organizational arrangements for executing the
rural development programmes in the rural areas of India. The present
chapter discusses rural development administration in Mizoram; it discusses
the profile of Mizoram in a historical content and outlines the origin of
traditional rural development in the State and its progression into
Statehood, till date.

Since the dawn of Independence, it has been an abiding task for the
government to speed up the process of development in the rural areas, where
the majority of the population lives. Many schemes and programmes aim at
the welfare of the rural population and development of the rural areas,
envisioning the assurance to ameliorate the conditions of the poor and to
find the ways and means to assuage their plight and converge the rural poor
into the mainstream. Rural development is a committed process and a
necessity for the large magnitude of the populace in the villages, so as to
provide the development of rural activities and secure the pace of social and
economic development of a country. The extension and attainment of the
benefits of development to India‟s 5.75 lakh villages and improving the
everyday lives of the rural people, particularly those living below the poverty
line has been a persistent objective of India‟s Five Year Plans and the Twenty
Point Programme. The on-going programmes have been enabling the rural
poor to a certain extent but the statistical indications portraying unabated
increase of rural poverty has been cause for alarm. To compound the
problem, the rise in rural population, ignorance, illiteracy, social disorder
and crime adds to the rigours of development; indicating that rural

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development needs to be planned on, reconstituted, restructured and
implemented with professional efficiency and effectiveness.

Brief Outline Of Mizoram

Mizoram, as it is known today was once the Lushai (Lusei) Hills or the
hills of the Luseis or Lushais, located in the Patkai range and extending into
Tripura, in the north-eastern area of India. The Lushai Hills was once a
mountainous district of Eastern Bengal and Assam, south of the Cachar, on
the border of Assam and Burma. As per the extant geography of India,
Mizoram lies in the north-eastern tip of India; its west borders with the
Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh, bounded in the east and south with
the Chin Hills and the Northern Arakans of Myanmar and the States of
Assam, Manipur and Tripura in the north and north-east.1

Despite the absence of authentic recorded history of the Mizos or the

Luseis; the Mizos, a conglomeration of different ethnic groups of the Chin
people are believed to have migrated from the Chin State in Burma or
Myanmar. The westward migration towards the present day Mizoram is
based on oral history and archaelogical inferences, yet requiring definitive
base; and establishing their final settlement in the present day Mizoram
during the close of the 18th century; by annexing the territories inhabitated
by the early settlers, the Kukis.2 The history of the Lushai Hills starts
presumably from the immigration of its people from North-west China, at
Shinlung or Chhinlungsan, by the banks of the river Yalung, China, moving
on to the Shan State during the 5th century and thereon to the Kabaw Valley
around the 8th century and to the Khampat , thence to the Chin Hills,

1. mizoram . nic. in . Accessed on 12.07.2013.

2. A.G. Mc Call, Anthony Gilchrist, Lushai Chrysalis, Aizawl Research Institute,

Mizoram, Reprint, Aizawl, 2003.

- 66 -
in the Indo-Burmese border, during the 16th century and settled in the land
now called Mizoram by the 18th century. The aforesaid ancestral lineages
and migration trends of the Mizos have largely been based on the traditions,
legends, oral history, customs, folklore, linguistic affinity and similarity in
dietary habits.

Such migratory movements were often inferred to be led by the

institution of the „warrior chieftainship‟, which later morphed into
„hereditary chieftainship‟, under the aegis of a „Chief‟ and „Chieftain‟, or „Lal‟,
which is affixed to the term, „leader of the tribe or clan‟ or when literally
translated as „Lord or Lordship‟. All the tribes of the Mizos adopted and
practised hereditary chieftainship, with their mode of governance relegated
to the ideals of rural development in the Mizo inhabitated areas of pre-
independent Mizoram or Lushai Hills.

The authority of the Chief was absolute in nature but was

democratized by a body of the „Council of Elders‟ or „Upas‟, an advisory body
appointed by the Chief; to assist him in the performance of his duties; the
Upas were selected by the Chief from amongst different clans or sub clans of
his land, so as to represent and safeguard the distinct interests of the
specific clans. The people living under the Chiefs evolved a political system,
hinting on the divine and the autocratic at the same time. The Chief was the
absolute ruler and the „all in all‟ in the affairs of the administration, which
may have prompted T.H. Lewin, the then Superintendent of the Lushai Hills
to describe the institution of the chieftainship as a “democracy tempered by
despotism” and an institution “classed among the visions of Utopian
philosophy”.3

The privileges and rights of the Chiefs were as :

Right to order capital punishment

Right to seize food larders and property of the subjects and villagers

3. Exercises in the Lushai Dialect, 1874.

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 Right over land in neighbouring lands or areas under British India
Right to tax traders rendering commercial business within the Chief‟s
land
Right of action against their offsprings
Right to help the slave(s), „bawih‟, who could not be redeemed through
customary laws
Right to attach property of villagers

By the time the present Mizoram was annexed to the Imperial Crown,
the British sought the best possible ways and means on governing the land
and created a system of administration on self-government, based on the
traditional chieftainship: which in effect was a diplomatic method in bearing
minimal expenses in administering the Lushai Hills, reliant on the system of
chieftainship. The Chiefs were assigned responsibility over the internal
administration of the villages, maintenance of law and order and collection of
revenue with the support of the British administrative officers ; all the while
maintaining status quo in the influence and authority that the Chiefs held
over their land(s).

The presence of the Luseis or the Mizos was not realized until 1840,
when they made an expedition into the district of Eastern Bengal from the
north, furthering their incursive expeditions into British territory. The
Lushai country came under British influence during 1871 – 1872 and the
skirmishes were quelled by diplomatic interventions of the British, led by
T.H.Lewin, the then Superintendent of the Chittagong Hills Tract, which
later led to the Lushai country being formally annexed and mapped within
the Chittagong Hill Tracts, which was formerly a part of the Arakan (Burma)
and the Lushai occupied land, as on 06.09.1895 and designated the land as
the Lushai Hills.4

In 1901, the Lushai Hills was under the Province of Bengal, but with
the realization that the Bengal government was excessively over-burdened in

4. B.C. Allen, Gazetteer of Bengal and North-East India,1979, pp – 458-460.

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Administering a wide expanse of area and consequential deterioration in the
standards of governance, more so in Eastern Bengal, redistribution of
territory was initiated, resulting to the establishment of the Province of
Eastern Bengal and Assam in October 1905, under the Bengal and Assam
Laws Act.

The administration of the Province was entrusted to a Lieutenant –

Governor, acting immediately under the orders of the Government of India,
with the executive staff drawn from the Covenanted Civil Service and a
certain portion of officers drawn from the Indian Army. The Province was
replete with its own Legislative Assembly, Board of Revenue and other
regular machinery concerned with public works, post and telegraph, police,
prisons, land records and agriculture, education, medical, sanitation etc.
The unit of administration being the District, charge was entrusted to the
District Magistrate and Collector or Deputy Commissioner.5

The population of the Lushai Hills as recorded in the Census of 19016

is :

Area in square miles : 7227

Number of towns : Nil
Number of villages : 239
Total population : 82434
Male : 39004
Female : 43430
Urban population : Nil
Population per sq mile : 11

The Lushai Hills was administered under the Chin Hills Regulation,
1891 and thereon by the Government of India Act, 1919, wherein the
Imperial Crown initiated the consolidation of the tribal dominated areas of
Assam and declaring the Lushai Hills as one of the “Backward Tracts”.

5. B.C. Allen, Op.Cit, pp. 9 -10.

6. Ibid., p. 14.

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Similar actions were later undertaken by the British by proclaiming the
Government of India Act, 1935, which enacted the exclusion of the Lushai
Hills as the “tribal areas, means the areas along the frontiers of India or in
Baluchistan which are not a part of British India or of Burma or of any
Indian State or of any foreign state”, instilling the principle of “excluded
area” for the Lushai Hills; invoking that the Lushai Hills are excluded from
the legislative jurisdiction of the Provincial or the Assam Legislature or the
Federal Legislature and under this Act, the subject of backward areas was
termed as a “reserved subject”. The Mizos and other tribes living in erstwhile
Lushai Hills were administered by the Governor of Assam in Council. The
area was under the governance of the Imperial Superintendent, under the
orders of the Assam Governor; the Governor being the representative of the
Imperial Crown. The Lushai Hills was further administered similar
concessions under the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution, introducing a two
tier system of administration, comprising of the District Council and the
Village Council. Besides its law-making powers, the District Council was
empowered with the exclusive jurisdiction and authority of establishment,
construction and management of primary schools, dispensaries, markets,
cattle pounds, ferries, fisheries, roads and waterways; a clear indication
that the adminstrative ambit of the District Council had established the
features of Rural Development in the then Lushai Hills. By the 1940s, the
Superintendent, Mc Call, recognized the need to introduce a a fair share of
economic and welfare measures; as a means to better the lives of the Mizos.
The economic condition of the Lushais or the Mizos was devoid of growth
even after years of being a protectorate state under the British. In order to
harness some semblance of economic development, Mc Call initiated cottage
industries,which was the first of its kind; and in organizing village welfare
committees in every village, which did not take off but nevertheless can be
attributed to an initiation into the affairs of Rural Development.7

7. T. Raatan, Encyclopaedia of North-East India, Volume. 2, 2008. p. 236.

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 This administrative system under the District Council continued till
1972 when the District Council was replaced by the Legislative Assembly of
the Union Territory of Mizoram, as on 29.04.1972. The Administrator of the
Union Territory, Chief Commisssioner of Mizoram, passed several orders
transferring the assets and liabilities of the Council to the Government of
Mizoram, wherein provisions were kept for the continuance of the laws made
by the District Council and in force immediately before the dissolution of the
District Council.

The Lushai Hills as per the Census 1941 covered an area of 8143 sq
miles, with a population of 1,46,900.8

During the early 1930s, the majority of Mizos who had been initiated
to Christianity by the Welsh missionaries with effect from 11.01.1894, had
embraced the religion. The church had set up schools and created
awareness on the basics of health and sanitation, which duly resulted to a
growing literacy rate alongwith improved and changed perspectives in the life
of the Mizo society.9 At the same time, the mass movements for
independence in mainstream India started to influence the Mizo mindset,
particularly in the stream of politics. Such purposes ignited the
establishment of the first non-political community based organization known
as the “Young Mizo Association”, originally named as the Young Lushai
Association, with effect from 15.06.1935. The very same year saw the
establishment of the Mizo Zirlai Pawl ( Mizo Students‟ Union). The two spring
organizations grew to encapsulate the mantra of unity and belongingness
amongst the young Mizo community throughout the Lushai Hills in a few
years. The mind set of the Mizos was further influenced by the onset of
World War II and the simultaneous anticipation of India‟s independence
from British rule and the obvious insinuations of the British administrators
that the Lushai Hills had a

8. Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Government of Mizoram, Statistical

Handbook, Mizoram, 2010.

9. P.K. Bandhyopadhyay, Leadership Among the Mizos, 1985. p.260.

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clear and open avenue to opt out of India‟s or Burma‟s dominion,
consequent to the Independence of India Act, 1947.10

Necessitated by the current scenario of the times, the Mizo Common

People‟s Union, later renamed the Mizo Union, was formed by reflecting on
the governance of chieftainship and the sentiments of the common people :
which arose out of the suspicion that the British administration was in
cohorts with the Chiefs and were planning on instilling independence for the
Lushai Hills, apart from the dominion of India or otherwise. In the wake of
India‟s Independence, the political scenario in the Lushai Hills was also
drawn along too. Though the Mizo Union was drawn towards India, a faction
group inclined towards merger with Burma or Myanmar arose, supported by
the majority of Chiefs and formed a political party, the United Mizo Freedom
Organization (UMFO), as on 05.07.1947.11

Through the changes in the political and societal structure of the

Lushai Hills, the Constituent Assembly of India, on 25.01.1947, appointed
an Advisory Committee on minorities, tribal areas and related issues under
the chairmanship of Sardar Vallabhai Patel. The aforesaid Committee
thereon constituted a Sub-Committee for the North-Eastern tribal areas and
the Excluded and Partially Excluded Areas, under the chairmanship of
Gopinath Bordoloi.12

A series of conferences, discussion of the pertinent issues in different

fora culminated to a recommendation that the tribal areas and its people be
vested full freedom to practise their traditions, customs, village

10. T. Raatan, Encyclopaedia of North-East India, Volume. 2, 2008. p.252.

11. Ibid. p.251.

12. This Sub-Committee was set up under the Chairmanship of Gopinath Bordoloi,
Premier of Assam. The members of the Sub-Committee were: Rup Nath Brahma,
A.V. Thakkar and Aliba Imti. Khawtinkhuma and Saprawnga were co-opted as
members for the Lushai Hills area, R.K. Ramdhiyani was the Secretary of the
Sub-Committee.

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administration and be provided safeguards from exploitation, resulting to the
recommendation for a distinct pattern of administration in the tribal areas
of the North-East and subsequently postulated in the Sixth Schedule of the
Indian Constitution, which was adopted on 26.01.1952; introducing a two
tier system of administration, comprising of the District Council and the
Village Council. This system continued till 1972 when the District Council
was replaced by the Legislative Assembly of the Union Territory of Mizoram.

As envisaged by the Sixth Schedule to the Constitution of India, six

autonomous District Councils were constituted in Assam, of which the Mizo
District Council was one amongst such, with a Regional Council set up in
the Pawi-Lakher region of southern Mizoram. The Advisory Council set up
earlier in 1948, as a prelude to the District Council was dissolved in
November 1951 and the formal election of the District Council was held on
04.04.1952, for a total strength of twenty four Council members, of which
eighteen were to be elected and six nominated. The first District Council
election saw a landslide win by the Mizo Union bagging seventeen seats and
one seat by the UMFO : thereby establishing a fully functional Mizo District
Council from. 25.04.1952,the nomenclature of which was later changed to
the Mizo Hills District in 1954.13

Under the Constitution of India, the Mizo District Council was

empowered as : 14

Regulation of the jhum practice

Management of land and forests, other than the forest reserves
Use of canal or water for the purpose of agriculture

13. T. Raatan, Op. Cit.

14. Report of the North-East Frontiers (Assam) Tribal and Excluded Areas Sub-Committee,
1947.

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 Establishment of village or town committee and matters relating to
village or town administration, that is, social and economic facets of
the people
Constitution of the village councils and courts, appoint its officers and
to prescribe procedures
To levy taxes, fees, tolls and to control and regulate trading and money
lending by non-tribals within its areas
Appointment or succession of the Chiefs
Inheritance of property
Marriage and divorce matters
Traditional social customs

As the Mizo Union gathered greater strong holds in the Mizo Hills, the
Assam Government passed the Lushai Hills District (Village Council) Act,
1953 with effect from 01.12.1953, as a precursor to democratise the village
administration and brought the Chiefs under the supervision and control of
the Mizo District Council, by abolishing the institution of Chieftainship
through the promulgamation of the Lushai Hills (Acquisition of the Chief‟s
Rights) Act of 1954, with no provision on compensation or privy purse,
which was later amended to compensate land rights and amounting to
meagre grant of grains and or cash. The rights and privileges of the two
hundred and fifty nine Chiefs were taken over by the Mizo District Council
and the Regional Council took over the charge of the fifty Chiefs in the Pawi-
Lakher region. Village Councils so constituted took over the mantle too and
discharged the functions earlier executed by the Chiefs and Council of
Elders or Upa. The Mizo Union swept the first Village Council hustings held
on 24.07.1954.

With the formation of the Mizo District Council, some measure of

autonomy was secured but largely under the jurisdiction of Assam; which
was often found to be biased and partial to the Hill States, giving rise to the
demand of a separate Hill State, apart from Assam; comprising of Manipur,
Tripura, the Autonomous Districts of Assam and the North East Frontier

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Agency (present day Arunachal Pradesh) and placed before the State
Reorganization Commission, during 1954; a Commission charged to look
into the demands of the different parts of India, to recommend re-
demarcation of area boundaries and re- constitution of new states. The State
Reorganization Commission however did not propose the creation of a
separate Hill State but instead suggested review of powers and functions of
the District Councils; a recommendation which did not stand ground and in
return inciting the political causes of the Hill States to a firmer resolve of
their demands, with the exception of Nagaland. After a number of parlays,
the Government of India proffered the Scottish Pattern of Autonomy, which
was greeted with dissension as the proposal did not stand to appease the
demand for statehood.15

To compound matters, the land of the Mizos was being ravaged with
famine, the Mautam Famine of 1959 brought on by the explosion of the rat
population consequent to the flowering of bamboos, exacerbated by the
Assam government‟s negligent response on famine relief operations :
bringing on a sense of disgruntlement amongst the Mizos. The Mizo National
Famine Front was then launched by Laldenga in 1960, enlisting Mizo
volunteers to provide relief to the famine stricken families; a movement
which witnessed widespread embrace within the Mizo populace. Its
popularity increasing, the „Front‟ morphed into a political party; the Mizo
National Front (MNF), with an objective to gain an independent and
sovereign Mizoram, which was lettered to the Prime Minister of India, in the
form of a Memorandum. On 28.02.1966, the MNF volunteers embarked on
their armed struggle and declared independence for Mizoram as on
01.03.1966; the struggle persisting on for twenty (20) years and wound
down with the MNF armed cadres laying down their arms with the
simultaneous signing of the “Memorandum of Settlement” or the commonly
used parlance, the “Peace

15. Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, Report of the States

Reorganization Commission , 1956.

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Accord of Mizoram” in 30.06.1986.16

Despite the insurgent turmoil reigning over the land, Mizo Hills
became the Union Territory of Mizoram with effect from 21.01.1971 and the
political reins were held by the Mizo Union till then and briefly thereafter
merged with the Indian National Congress. From then on, the political
scenario of Mizoram took a turn when the Congress won a majority in the
1984 election to the Union Territory Assembly, under Lalthanhawla, the
president of the party.

Shortly after assuming power, Lalthanhawla vacated the Chief

Minister‟s office and afforded the office to Laldenga, the MNF President;
subsequent to the peace settlement and the events shortly translating the
history of Mizoram attaining statehood in 20.02.1987, as the twenty third
State of India.

The young history indicating the political transformations and

struggles in Mizoram can be reflected in the doings and misdoings of the
regional and national political parties of the Mizo Union, the United Mizo
Freedom Organization, the Indian National Congress, the Mizo National
Front, the Mizoram People‟s Conference alongwith the involvement of the
community organizations; the Young Mizo Association, the Mizo Hmeichhe
Insuihkhawm Pawl(MHIP), the Mizoram Upa Pawl(MUP), the Mizo Zirlai Pawl
(MZP) and the active intervention of the churches.

Other than the concessions provided under the Sixth Schedule of the
Indian Constitution and Regulations , Mizoram, as a State, has been
recognized as one amongst the states of the North Eastern Region (NER)
needing special requirements and significant levels of government

16. When the Government of India and the MNF came to the conclusion of the
negotiation, the Congress ministry could share power with the MNF, the Chief
Minister coming down to Deputy Chief Ministership and three other ministers
being replaced by the MNF. Ensuing State Assembly elections of 1987, however,
saw the defeat of the Congress.

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investments. It was in 1969, when the Gadgil Formula for sharing Plan
assistance among states was devised and labelled Special Category States;
to bring those under-developed states on par with the development levels of
other states, amongst which Mizoram was included. These states are given a
higher share in the Union Government‟s resource allocation, due to harsh
terrain, backwardness and other social problems. For Special Category
States, 90 percent of Plan Assistance is given as grants, 10 percent as loans,
30 percent of the Centre‟s gross budgetary support for Plan expenditure,
significant excise duty concessions, raising the per capita level of Central
Assistance to Mizoram reigning as the highest in the country.17 It maybe
indicated that against the all India average of ` 683.94, the per capita
Central Assistance in the North-East was ` 2574.98 during 2006-2007,
with Mizoram being one of the highest recipents of the Central Assistance for
Plan purposes, consistently portraying a heightened trend of growth in the
per capita Central Assistance, indicating a growth of 3.93 times during the
Tenth Plan.18

Inspite of the exclusive favours afforded to the state, Mizoram has yet
been identified as one of the “ Less Developed States” by the Raghuram
Rajan Committee, chaired by Dr Raghuram G. Rajan, Chief Economic
Adviser, Ministry of Finance; to consider backwardness of the states and to
evolve a Composite Development Index of States, based on ten sub
components of (i) monthly per capita consumption expenditure (ii) education
(iii) health (iv) household amenities (v) poverty rate (vi) female literacy (vii)
percentage of SC and ST population (viii) urbanization rate (ix) financial
inclusion and (x) physical connectivity.19

Due to the geo-physical location of Mizoram being situated in an

isolated north-eastern tip of India, there exists untapped avenues for trade

17. S.S. Chauhan, Under Development of States , Pratiyogita Darpan, December, 2013.

18. Planning Commission, Government of India, Tenth Five Year Plan, 2001-2002.

19. S.S. Chauhan, Op. Cit.

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and commerce along the international borders with Bangladesh and
Myanmar, the unexplored natural resources of the state, the inadequate
harvest of energy and hydropower, the sub- standard transport and
communications and information highway systems for ample generation of
electricity and telecommunications, adequate and substantial augmentation
of water supply and rain water harvesting, proper sanitation and public
health, scientific and effective propagation of agro-horti and forest based
sectors being promoted into economically viable sectors, promotion of animal
husbandry, fishery, sericulture, cottage and small scale industries and
tourism for generation of the State revenues; meaningful and actual financial
inclusion through active and efficient banking and finance, even after more
than two decades of statehood. The revenue generation of Mizoram, in terms
of total Direct Taxes collected: contribution of the states are portrayed as :
2008-09 = ` 6.00 crores, 2009-10 = ` 8.00 crores and 2010-11 = ` 6.00
crores, indicates that Mizoram is the lowest contributor among the states.20
The social and economic pattern of the Mizo life has largely revolved around
the “jhum” or the „shifting cultivation”, which is a traditional means of eking
out their livelihood and sustenance. Prior to the time when the village and
district administration was democratized, the people relied on the land so
distributed by the Chiefs, on an annual basis and drawn on lots.

There existed no means of sustained and permanent farming or

agricultural methods amongst the Mizos and instead were traditionally
inclined to shift the arable lands; where they could harvest their seasonal
and annual needs of paddy, pulses, vegetables, herbs and spices, leading to
a continued depletion of forests and the ecological biodiversity and rapid
expansion of wastelands. Several attempts to alter the system of shifting
cultivation to that of settled farming, inducing a practice which can reap
sustained dividends has been initiated by the past and on-going
governments; the Congress had launched the New Land Use Policy (NLUP);

20. incometaxindia.gov.in/cbdt/Org.asp. Accessed on 9.12.2012.

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the MNF introducing the Mizoram Intodelh (self sufficiency)Project (MIP); a
re-oriented NLUP by the current Congress government are yet stand-
alone programmes attempted to re-charge the economic growth of Mizoram.
The level of development of a state is likely to be a resultant consequence of
a complex set of historical, cultural and sociological factors : a set of factors
which require greater impulse and accent by the once predominantly tribal
warrior land to metamorphosize into one of the developed states of India.21

Rural Development Administration In Mizoram

The Census of the Lushai Hills, held in 1901, indicated an entirely

rural population, with no portrayal of urbanity.22 The 1961 Census of India23
further highlights that the Lushai Hills was predominantly of a backward
economy and subsisting on poor and primitive method of agriculture, where
there existed no agro-based industry, sporadic traces of traditional small-
cottage handicrafts, rustic transport and communications; a condition which
has permeated on through the years with minimal growth rates and
accentuated more so in the rural areas of Mizoram. Even after more than
two decades of statehood, Mizoram is yet an under-developed state : its
agricultural sector is yet to flourish, with a meagre 22.75 percent share of
GSDP, industrial sector at 19.66 percent of GSDP share.24

In India, where the larger percentage of the population lives in the

rural areas, it is an implicit task of the country that developmental processes
be targetted in the rural areas, a factor pressing in the context of Mizoram
where 50.4 percent of the population comprises of the rural population, of
which 20.4 percent belongs to the BPL status, with per capita income of the
poor subsisting on ` 1066.25 There has been a nominal decrease of 0.7

21. Kalpana Das, Rural Development in Mizoram: A Study of IRDP, 2004.

22. Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Government of Mizoram, Statistical
Handbook, Mizoram, 2012.
23. Ibid., p.7.
24. Ibid., p.122.
25. Mizoram Population Totals, 2011, (Provisional)

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percent against 20.4 percent of 2011 to 21.1 percent of 2009-2010 but a
marked increase from that of 15.4 percent during 2004 – 2005.26

Added to the statistical projections, the reality prevalent in the existing

structure of the Mizo economy is compounded with the static agriculture
sector, leading to low agicultural productivity, under-developed, for lack of
industries, communications, meagre means of employment avenues and
inequitable distribution of wealth. The State is facing a task in devising
development strategies mainly concentrated on agriculture development,
protection of land from degradation, change-over for permanent and settled
farming, instituting small scale and cottage industries, enhancing
productivity and seeking self-sufficiency in livestock, pisciculture,
horticultural, forestry, sericulture, handloom and handicrafts, a progress
which can reap dividends and generate revenue for the state.

Besides the Centrally Sponsored Schemes, the State government has

launched various flagship programmes within the realm of rural
development; New Land Use Programme in 1990-1991 and revived with
certain restructurings in 2009-2010, Mizoram Intodelh Programme in 2002-
2003, BAFFACOS in 2005-2006 : programmes meant to wean the jhumia
families from the shifting cultivation.

Given the pace of economic development in Mizoram, there exists an

urgent clarion call, to rev up the engines of rural development, an aspect
which is synonymous and co-existent for the development of Mizoram.

Rural Development of Mizoram During The Pre-Independence Period

The economy of the Lushai Hills during the pre-independence era

revolved around the agriculture sector and livelihood was intrinsically woven

26. Planning Commission, Government of India, Poverty Ratio Estimates, 2011-12, &
Reserve Bank of India, Annual Report, 2012.

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with the traditional system of „jhum cultivation‟ or the „shifting cultivation‟, a
mode of agriculture perhaps perpetuated with the migratory trend of the
Mizos, leading to a system of migratory agriculture; where the means of
support for the 93 percent of the population was based entirely on
agriculture in 1901.27

The Mizos cultivated rice, maize, millet, cotton,tobacco and

vegetables, a form of agriculture which would provide subsistence on an
annual basis. Little attempt was made to introduce an improved system of
agriculture nor attempts made to improve the existing staples or introduce
new varieties. The advent of the Welsh missionaries in 1897 had embarked
not only on the introduction of Christianity,education, health and sanitation
but had introduced agricultural experiments like the cultivation of irrigated
rice, cash crops and even led the Chiefs to sojourn to the Naga Hills on a
study tour and learn the ways and means of an alternate mode of agriculture
with the then Superintendent. Livestock was mainly based on the
domestication of pigs, mithun, goats, fowls and dogs, to a scale enough to
sustain the family.

Despite the efforts initiated by the missionaries and despite the fact
that the Lushais were open to variances in the system of agriculture, such
attempts however proved to be unsuccessful and in turn relegated the
Lushaisor the Mizos to suffice with their traditional form of agriculture; the
jhum cultivation. Such failures were found to be the end-result of the
Lushais being faced with problems which did not favour them, in terms of
inadequate financial resources, little or no form of administrative support
nor the desired technical guidances. It is also clearly indicated in
government records that the development of the Lushai Hills had stood to be
disrupted and slow-paced due to scarcity of water, no arable lands, non-
availability of canal irrigation nor pastures for cattle grazing. The
administration of that period did recognize the problems of agriculture and

27. B.C. Allen, Gazetteer of Bengal and North-East India, 1979.

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the general economic conditions of the Lushais; it had the likely solutions
too but there was no concerted medium of dispensation for the government
to address the difficulties and pose the means to assuage the problems.28

The land of the Lushais bore no traces of mineral or rock deposits of

economic value and it was also further recorded that the only articles
manufactured by the Lushais or Mizos are earthen pots, pipes, traditional
machetes, hoes or axes, baskets, homespun cotton purely for personal
means. Trade and commerce was vested in a few hands and exchanged
hands with the merchants from Bengal and Rajasthan, wherein foodstuffs
and cloth were imported and forest produce exported.29

For general administrative purposes, the District was divided into two
sub- divisions : Aijal (Aizawl) and Lungleh (Lunglei), under the charge of the
Superintendent of the Hills, supported by District Engineer for public works
and a Civil Surgeon, stationed at Aijal. The political organization of the
Lushais was vested solely on the Chiefs and the internal or village
administration was largely left in the hands of the Chief. The Aijal sub-
division was divided into twelve Circles and the Lungleh sub-division into six
Circles; each Circle headed by a Circle Interpreter, through whom all orders
are transmitted to the Chiefs, who in turn is responsible for onward
execution of the task. The Circle Interpreter is also responsible for collating
information and submission of reports on the state of the crops within the
circle. Every village has an appointed Writer, who prepares and keeps up
the House List and is in return exempted from payment of house taxes and
labour for upkeep of the roads. The Chiefs of the villages are held
responsible for the morals and ethics in the village community, civil and
criminal cases disposed off by the Chiefs, while the Superintendent exercises
power over life and death issues. The Chiefs‟ authority is upheld by the
government and any litigation or appeals against the Chiefs is
discouraged.30

28. Government Administrative Report of 1933-1934.

29. Report of the Geological Survey Department in the Expedition of 1889-1890.
30. B.C. Allen, Op.Cit.

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 Land revenues were not assessed but villagers would pay a nominal
sum of ` 2.00 per house along with labour, on payment of eight annas as
wages, when so required by the government. Law and order was assigned to
the hands of two sub-inspectors, supported by forty nine head constables,
equipped with a jail to house thirteen prisoners. In 1903-1904, there were
two schools at Aijal, one maintained by the government and the other by the
Welsh Presbyterian Mission and two schools at Lungleh and Khawnbawk,
patronized by one hundred and seventy nine pupils. By 1901, 2.5 percent of
the population were able to read and write, which prompted the then
administrative authorities to assert a positive recording that the Lushais
were fast learners with an inclination to progress and learn in the civilized
world.31

Since the traditional form of agriculture continued to constitute the

lives of the Lushais, the impact on their soci-economic pattern remained to
be stagnant, showing no signs of growth and changes in the societal
structure, with their poverty and crudeness remaining unabated; resulting
to a poor and backward economy, even after decades of interaction and
amalgamation with the British and the India – the glaring truth indicated in
the Census,1961.32 The under- development and backwardness of the pre-
independent Lushai Hills can be affirmed by the meagre contribution of 1.5
percent only to the revenues of Assam, of which it was a part and parcel – an
indication that the Lushai Hills were not well covered within the scope of
what is rural development.33

31. Administration Report of the Lushai Hills for the year 1906-1907, Government. of
Assam, Shillong, 1907.

32. Statistical Abstract, Mizo District, 1961, District Statistical Officer, Aizawl,
Department of Economics and Statistics, Government. of Assam.

33. Report of the Adminstration of the Mizo Hills for the year 1954-1955, Government
of Assam, 1955.

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Rural Development in Mizoram In Post-Independence Period

With India gaining independence from the British Raj, the prime and
foremost task set ahead was the development of the agriculture sector and
idealized in the Plan schedules of independent India. The operatives were
then channelled through the creation of the Community Development
Programme and duly introduced in the Mizo District Council, later renamed
the Mizo Hills District, from 01.04.1953.34

Implementation of the Community Development Programme was

characterized by the division of the country into “blocks” and establishing
the “block level functions” headed by the “Block Development Officer”,
supported by a team of Extension Officers and Village Level Workers.
Though the Community Development Programme was found to have gained
momentum in the early stages of inception, the goals and objectives were not
reached in many counts, failing to induce people‟s participation in the
programme, as envisaged, thereby necessitating a review of the
programme.35

Community Development Programme in Mizoram was started by 1953,

by the establishment of 9 (nine)Community Development Blocks at Aizawl,
Lunglei, Chhimtuipui, Kolasib, Hnahthial, Mamit, Lawngtlai, Saitual and
Serchhip; selection was based on the topography of the areas,
communication and transport facilities. The Community Development Blocks
in the tribal areas were gradually converted into tribal blocks, organized
under a special scheme introduced by the Ministry of Home Affairs in 1956.
The purpose of introducing the scheme of Tribal Blocks, as „intensive
development blocks‟ was an effort to gauge the best practice of
developmental process as suited to the tribal way of life and a concerned
effort to wean the tribal people from the agrarian practice of shifting
cultivation towards

34. Report of the Administration of the Mizo Hills, Op. Cit.

35. Development Commissioner, Government of Mizoram, Aizawl Records.

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settled agriculture. Focus under the intensified blocks were in areas of
irrigation, agriculture with terracing, drinking water facilities, public health,
medical facilities, education. These Community Development Blocks were
headed by a Project Executive Officer and continued until the administrative
functionings under the Tribal Development Blocks were put to a halt due to
uprising of 1966, with little or no growth nor development to be seen until
the Mizo Hills saw tranquility in 1972.36

When Mizoram was given the status of a Union Territory, the existing
Community Develpment Blocks were reorganized and eleven additional
Community Development Blocks were created, totaling to twenty functional
Blocks by 1976 :

1. Zawlnuam Development Block (28.08.1974)

2. W. Phaileng Development Block ( 31.01.1974)
3. Reiek Development Block (19.08.1974)
4. Tlangnuam Development Block (16.08.1953)
5. N. Thingdawl Development Block (01.11.1956)
6. Darlawn Development Block (13.08.1974)
7. Aibawk Development Block (13.08.1974)
8. Serchhip Development Block (04.08.1961)
9. Thingsulthliah Development Block (07.01.1974)
10. Ngopa Development Block (01.04.1974)
11. Khawzawl Development Block (13.08.1974)
12. E. Lungdar Development Block (13.08.1974)
13. W. Bunghmun Development Block (09.09.1974)
14. Lungsen Development Block (11.01.1969)
15. Lunglei Development Block (02.10.1956)
16. Hnahthial Development Block (30.03.1963)
17. Chawngte Development Block (27.08.1974)

36. Report of the Study Team on Tribal Development Programmes, Committee on Plan
Project, Planning Committee, New Delhi, 1969.

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 18. Lawngtlai Development Block (01.02.1959)
19. Sangau Development Block (27.08.1974)
20. Tuipang Development Block (19.07.1974)37

Even though thrust was given to the mobilization of the Community

Development Programme in Mizoram, the political and administrative
changes brought about by the status of a Union Territory initialized the
creation of new major Departments; which segregated and caused transfer of
the ready manpower along with financial allocations thereby disrupted the
operations of the Community Development Programme in Mizoram to an
extent. The Plan outlay during the initial operation of the programme in
1972-1973 amounted to ` 9.00 Lakh, depicting an increase to ` 22.00 Lakh
during 1973-1974, with further fund augmentation in the future years.38

The objectives of the programme was laid out as :

To remove poverty
To create self-reliance among the rural people
To uplift the living standards of the backward communities in the
rural

During the first two Five Year plans (1952-1956 & 1956-1961),
agriculture sector was given priority and the budgetary allocation was
accorded in tune towards Minor Irrigation, Wet Paddy Cultivation, Soil
Conservation, Land Reclamation, Fisheries and Community Projects. All the
developmental works were executed by the Community Development Blocks
with the exception of land

37. Department of Rural Development, Government of Mizoram, Citizens Charter, 2010.

38. Annual Plan of Mizoram,1972-73, Planning Board, Mizoram.

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reclamation works which were undertaken by the Agriculture Department of
the districts.39

During the Third Five Year Plan (1961-1966), Agriculture Sector was
accorded high priority again, banking on Agricultural Development,
marketing of agro-based products along with development of communication
and transport. However, the pace of development failed to keep pace as the
Mizo Hills District was embroiled in the Mizo National Front led insurgency
of 1966. Due to the failure of the Third Five Year Plan, the government was
forced to declare „plan holidays‟ (from 1966-67, 1967-68, 1968-69) due to
insurgency conflicts, lack of resources and increase in inflation. Three
annual Plans were drawn during this intervening period. Despite this, equal
priority was given to agriculture, allied activities and the industrial sector.40

During the Fourth Five Year Plan (1966-971), concentration was again
afforded to Agriculture and Allied sectors, banking on the Green Revolution
of India, Cooperation and Community Development. Despite the need to
execute developmental programmes, the administrative machinery and the
populace was weakened by the outbreak of insurgency. There was chaos
and despair in the land, food was scarce, developmental works were
constrained and in most cases put to a complete halt; a situation worsened
when more than twenty thousand families were uprooted and re-grouped
into new village clusters called the „Grouping Centres‟,41 as an administrative
measure imposed presumably for security measures. The administration
assigned for the developmental works were incapacitated with shortage of
staff as the regular retinue of manpower were engaged for administering the
Grouping Centres, under the charge of the Deputy Commissioner.

39. Department of Economics and Statistics, Government of Mizoram, Economic

Survey, 2008-2009.

40. Ibid.

41. T. Raatan Encyclopaedia of North-East India, pp. 278-282.

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 The Community Development Blocks were assigned the following
functions : 42

Removal of poverty
To create self-reliance amongst the rural people, upliftment of the
living standards of the backward communities in the rural areas
To popularize improved breeds of livestock and poultry and sell better
breeds at subsidised rates
Construction ogf Community Halls
Construction of Playgrounds
Construction of Steps and Culverts
Construction of Inter-Village Paths
Construction of Water Points
Construction of Urinal Sheds

With the enhanced number of Community Development Blocks, the

Government of Mizoram re-allocated the varied works and activities of the
Community Development Programme to newly created Departments. The
Community Development Programme which had been under the
administrative charge of the Deputy Commissioner was then placed under
the aegis of a newly formed „Directorate of Community Development‟, in the
year 1972.

It was in 1983-1984 that the „Directorate of Community Development‟

was upgraded to that of a major Department, the “ Rural Development
Department”; set up with the responsibility to focus on alleviation of rural
poverty. From then on, all Community Development Blocks were re-
designated as Rural Development Blocks and were made to function as
such.43

42. Government of Mizoram, Rural Development Department Records, 2010.

43. Ibid.

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 During the Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-1979), emphasis was laid on
self-reliance in agricultural production, employment, poverty alleviation,
community development, social justice, roads and communications.

During the Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-1985), the Community

Development Blocks were assigned additional development programmes like
the IRDP, NREP and other social assistance programmes formulated by the
Central government as:

Construction of Community Hall

Construction of Playground
Construction of Water Points
Construction of Urinal Sheds
Construction of Jeepable Roads
Construction of Steps and Culverts
Construction of Inter-Village Paths
Construction of Suspension Bridges

During the Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-1990), the Plan was focused
on improving the productivity level of industries, but its main objectives and
priority lay in the aspiration for increasing the economic productivity,
production of foodgrains and generation of employment, anti-poverty
programmes, increasing productivity of small-scale farmers for the
achievement of self-sustained growth.

Prior to 1971, before Mizoram was a Union Territory, the Plan

packages to the autonomous Mizo District Council were of meagre sizes and
failed to cover the requirements of the then district.44 To compound the
problem, Mizoram had been exposed to insurgency and meaningful
development had been rendered unreachable for the past six Plan periods,

44. S.C. Barve, Report on the Autonomous District Councils of Assam, Government. of
Assam, Shillong.

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that is, for thirty three long years. Despite the hurdles, Mizoram embarked
on the pathway of development, more so when it was provided the status of
the Union Territory in 1972 and subsequently statehood in 1987.

It was under a conducive atmosphere that the state of Mizoram during

1985-90, although lagging, poised itself to attain the namesake of a
productive state. However, due to its certain distinct identity and
constraints, the State of Mizoram is yet lacking in a promising agro-based
industries and other allied manufacturing and tertiary sectors, short of
productive, developmental and essential infrastructural sectors and has
continued to stagnate with focus on primary agriculture, as the main
occupation of the Mizos.

During the Eighth Five Year Plan (1990-1997), the State‟s objectives
were focused on agriculture and allied sectors, poverty reduction,
employment generation, strengthening infrastructure in consonance to the
national objectives. Besides the implementation of the Centrally Sponsored
Schemes, the State government institutionalized its own flagship
programme, the New Land Use Policy (NLUP), for alleviation of poverty and to
induce an increased generation of revenue of the state. With the introduction
of the NLUP and the launch of of the State sponsored Rural Housing
Scheme, in line with the Dr G.K. Rao‟s Recommendation of 1985, the Rural
Development Department created two hundred sixty eight new posts to man
and operate the two programmes, resulting to the re-designation of the
Department as the “Commissionerate of Rural Development”.45

During the Ninth Five Year Plan (1997 -2002), Mizoram was again
primarily focused on development of self-reliance on agriculture, generation
of employment by giving priority to agriculture and rural development,
reduction of poverty ensuring proper availability of food and water for the
poor, availability

45. Rural Development Department Records, 2010, Op.Cit.

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of food and water for the poor, availability of primary health care facilities
and other basic necessities.

During the Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-2007), Mizoram witnessed a

change in government, from that of the Indian National Congress to that of
the Mizo National Front holding the helm of governance. The Plan so devised
saw similar focus on the introduction of the Twenty Point Programme,
reduction of poverty, not only through the Centrally Sponsored Schemes but
through the flagship programme known as the “Mizoram Intodelh
Programme” or the “Self- Sufficiency Programme”.46

By the end of the Plan period, the percentage share to the Gross State
Domestic Product (GSDP) of Mizoram, as per the Mizoram statistics, 2010,
were projected as :

1. Agriculture sector - 22.75 percent

2. Industry sector - 19.66 percent
3. Services sector - 57.59 percent,

depicting a slow and steady growth rate from that of 1.5 percent contribution
made during the 1950s-1960s.

During the Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-2012), Mizoram planned to

increase the growth rate in agriculture and allied activities, industry and
services along with a campaign for an inclusive growth through the re-
structured flagship programme of the government, the New Land Use Policy,
re-launched during 2009. By 2010-2011, the Mizoram Statistics, 2012
projected GSDP at Factor Cost as :

1. Agriculture sector - 18.79 percent

2. Industry sector - 21.40 percent
3. Services sector - 59.81 percent (See Figure 3.1, page 92)

46. Project Report on MIP, A Project for Self-Sufficiency of the Rural Poor in Mizoram,
2003-2004. Prepared by the office of the MIP Executive Authority, Goverment of
Mizoram, Aizawl.

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 Figure 3.1

Mizoram GSDP at Factor Cost by Industry of Origin at Current Prices

(2009-10)

Mizoram GSDP at Factor Cost by Industry of Origin at Current Prices

2010-11 (Q)

Source : Statistical Handbook Mizoram, 2012.

- 92 -
 The Central and State governments follow a comprehensive and yet a
fairly simple strategy; to bring about development in the rural areas. The
focus of rural development is all-encompassing, focusing not only on
individuals, groups or family-oriented benefits but also on community
assets, in the form of infrastructure such as roads, drinking water facilities
and schools. Therefore, the beneficiaries of rural development schemes
include individuals, groups (Self Help Groups), families and the whole
village(es). Similarly, the benefits of rural development schemes have come to
include financial benefits in the form of loans and subsidies to the
individuals, groups, inclusive of assets to families, in terms of land, houses,
sanitation facilities, villages, in terms of community assets such as drinking
water and sanitation facilities, inter-village or internal roads and schools.

The instrument or the means used to bring about rural development is

through the programmes or schemes launched by the Central Government
and the State government, through its State Sponsored programmes and
the Special Area programmes of the Government of India as :

I. Centrally Sponsored Schemes and Programmes :

Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY): A self-emploment
programme where assistance is given to poor families living below the
poverty line.Village Haats and District Haats were introduced by the
Ministry of Rural Development, during 2009-2010 as a sub-
component of SGSY, to create better marketing facilities for the SHGs
and rural artisans under SGSY. District Haats were established during
2011 -2012 and has been linked with the state government‟s flagship
programme of NLUP.47

National Rural Livelihood Mission or Aajeevika: This programme is a

re-structured SGSY, to reach out to all families, link them to
sustainable livelihood opportunities and nurture them until they cross

47. MZSRLM, Mizoram Records, 2012-2013.

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the poverty line and enjoy a decent standard of life. Under NRLM, the
interested youth would be offered skill development after counselling
which matches the aptitude for the job requirements and place them
in jobs that are remunerative. Self-employed and entrepreneurial
oriented poor would be provided skills and financial linkage for
establishment. NRLM also encourages public sector banks to set up
Rural Self Employment Training Institutes (RSETIs) in all the districts
of the State, where banks would run the training schedules with full
autonomy. In Mizoram, the State Bank of India is the nodal financial
institution for RSETIs and one Institute has been set up in Aizawl
District, with further expansion in the pipeline. Currently, MZSRLM is
currently being implemented on a pilot basis in the two districts of
Kolasib and Serchhip.48
Indira Awaas Yojana: A flagship scheme of the government to facilitate
construction and upgradation of houses for the rural poor. During the
Eleventh Plan, 14,300 houses have been constructed and upgraded in
Mizoram.49
Samagra Awaas Yojana: To provide convergence to activities of
construction of houses, sanitation facilities, drinking water schemes
through effective implementation and induction of the IEC and
innovative ideas, which was taken up by Aizawl District during 2003 -
2004, with funding to the tune of ` 50.00 lakh.50
Integrated Wastelands Development Programme (IWDP)- Integrated
Watershed Management Programme(IWMP): IWDP covers fifty two
projects in the State and are to be wound up and completed during
2011-2012; the newly introduced IWMP was initiated during 2009-
2010.

48. MZSRLM Records, Op.Cit,

49. Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, Achievement
Report, 2012-2013,
50. DRDA , Aizawl, Mizoram. Annual Report, 2003-2004.

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 Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee
Scheme(MGNREGS): MGNREGS was first introduced in Mizoram in
the two districts of Lawngtlai and Saiha, followed by Lunglei and
Champhai during 2006-2007, remaining four districts were
eventually covered in the subsequent year. Since introduced into the
State till 2012, the programme has sought to generate 1000 lakh
persondays of wage employment.51
II. Special Area Programmes :
Irrigation and Flood Control: Rural Development Department is
currently undertaking the “Flood Control and Irrigation of Potential
Areas of Ngopa,” funded by the North Eastern Council (NEC), with an
estimated cost of ` 432.16 lakh; to tap the waters of the Damdiai
River, located on the outskirts of Ngopa village, for irrigation of the
agricultural lands and drinking water. For this purpose, a dam has
been constructed under Border Area Development programme (BADP)
and a number of reservoirs, zonal tanks and distribution pipelines are
being constructed under this project. Till date, a total of ` 317. 33
lakh has been expended for the project.52
Backward Region Grant Fund. The Government of India had
identified the two districts of Lawngtlai and Saiha with 100 percent
funding, under the charge of the Deputy Commissioner.
Border Area Developoment Programme(BADP). BADP is implemented
along the borders of Mizoram that is, the Indo-Bangladesh and Indo-
Myanmar borders. BADP is currently being operated in sixteen Rural
Development Blocks as :

Ngopa Khawzawl Champhai Khawbung

East Lungdar Zawlnuam West Phaileng Bunghmun

51. Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram. Annual Report, 2011-2012.

52. Directorate of Rural Development, Government of Mizoram. Citizens Charter, 2010.

- 95 -
Lungsen Hnahthial Bungtlang South Chawngte

Lawngtlai Sangau Saiha Tuipang

(See Table 3.2, page 97-98)

Continued..

- 96 -
 Table 3.2

DISTRICT-WISE FUND RELEASES BY GOVERNMENT OF INDIA & THE GOVERNMENT OF MIZORAM

(CNETRAL + STATE) SINCE INCEPTION OF THE PROGRAMMES

No YEAR NAME OF DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY

Aizawl Champ Saiha Lawngtla Kolasib Lunglei Mamit Serchhi Total

hai i p

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1 EMPLOYMENT 5647.32 76.347 1876.6 53.708 39.205 1907.7 57.709 40.706 9699.94
ASSURANCE SCHEME 9 87 41 2
(1193-2002)

2 JAWAHAR ROJGAR 1086.04 0 295.01 0 0 312.36 0 0 1693.42

YOJANA (jry) (1989-1999) 5 3 7 5

3 JAWAHAR GRAM 487.584 172.821 243.51 145.512 117.03 328.86 143.069 119.069 1758.08
SAMRIDHI YOJANA 2 3 4
(JGSY) (1999-2004)

4 SAMPOORNA GRAMEEN 1257.47 522.065 257.79 261.438 413.92 580.16 504.941 416.181 4213.96
ROZGAR YAJONA (SGRY) 6 5 5 1 2
(2002-2008)

5 INTEGRATED RURAL 1553.18 0 519.78 0 0 518.84 0 0 2592.96

DEVELOPMENT 9 2 8 9
PROGRAMME (IRDP)
(1987-1999)

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 6 DEVELOPMENT OF 79.744 0 25.974 0 0 33.118 0 0 138.836
WOMEN AND CHILDREN
IN RURAL AREAS
(DWCR) (1985-1999)
(Central + State)

DWCRA BY UNICEF 25.2 0 17.3 0 0 9.841 0 0 52.341

7 SWANJAYANTI GRAM 649.356 454.588 208.11 361.616 202.79 500.63 277.294 205.719 2860.22
SWAROZGAR YOJANA 6 8 7 4
(S.G.S.Y) (1999-2012)

8 MAHATMA GANDHI 15640.3 17258.2 10520. 18107 9910.4 22733. 10397 7800.70 112367.
NREGA 5 4 46 31 19 8 4

9 INDIRA AWAAS YOJANA 2545.04 1796.53 2045.6 3559.52 1045.7 3735.6 1907.18 531.436 17175.7
(IAY) 5 7 37 7 31 27 1 6

10 INTEGRATED 2281.48 2444.21 1075.7 2387.61 1650.4 3209.1 2976.33 1417.13 17442.1
WATERSHED 8 5 6 2 74 47 1 1 6
DEVELOPMENT

Source : Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, Status Report, 2012.

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 North Eastern Rural Livelihood Project (NERLP) : This is a scheme
jointly undertaken by the Ministry of Development of North Eastern
Region (DoNER) and the World Bank and visualized for
implementation in Mizoram; with an aim to transform the rural
livelihood, on similar lines with SGSY, after the Project
Implementation Plan (PIP) is approved of. The districts of Aizawl
and Lunglei are currently being targeted as a first phase project.
Non Lapsable Central Pool of Resources (NLCPR) : The NLCPR
affords the North Eastern States added assistance for the
development of infrastructure, that is, roads, irrigation, reservoirs
and canal, education and health. Under this scheme, the Rural
Development Department is currently undertaking the
construction of twenty five Community Halls, with an estimated
budget of ` 470.00 lakh, out of which ` 328.88 lakh has been
utilized during 2012-2013.53
13th Finance Commission on Unique Identification (UID) : As
envisaged by the Thirteenth Finance Commisssion Report, the
Central Government is poised to undertakle the UID of its citizenry.
As a means to facilitate the operation, the BPL families of the state,
the old and aged and the MGNREGS beneficiaries are to be
afforded an incentive of ` 100.00 for the UID registration. As per
the recommendation of the Commission, ` 24.00 lakh has been
sanctioned for disbursal by the department.54
III. State Sponsored Schemes under State Plan Funds :
Social Education: To create durable assets of public utility and
civic infrastructure, genuinely needed by the society. Initiated to
forge closer ties within the community while facilitating their
socio-economic development through construction, repair and

53. Citizens Charter, 2010, Op.Cit.

54. Ibid.

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 restoration of community halls, play grounds, pavilions and civic
amenities. The scheme covers the entirety of Mizoram but priority
is given to areas not covered by BADP and villages falling under
BADP areas but ineligible for funding under BADP. During the
Eleventh Plan, ` 450.00 lakh was projected, with a physical
achievement of three hundred and thirty four items of work.55
Housing for Project Staff : There are twenty six Rural Development
Blocks under the Department of Rural Development with more
than three hundred existing and functional officers and staff
running the offices throughout the state. Majority of these Rural
Development Blocks are devoid of office buildings and staff
residential quarters, even the oldest establishment of the
Tlangnuam RD Block is yet functioning from rented premises.
Whatever facilities available in a few of the Blocks are in need of
repair and renovation too. To circumvent these problems, the
State government has been undertaking these works but often
met with meagre funds.56
Distribution of GCI Roofings : Distribution of GCI sheets for roofs
of houses was initiated during the 11th Plan, in the year 2009-2010
by the State government and has distributed GCI roofings to 2218
rural families (6 bundles of GCI sheets each to one family),
with an expenditure of ` 400.00 lakh; to help set up quality
roofings to rural households and augment rain water harvesting.57

As the main objective of the Rural Development Department is to

improve the socio-economic conditions of the rural community and to
uplift the people living below the poverty line, by providing wage
employment, self employment through income generating activities and to

55. Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram. Annual Plan

Proposal, 2012-2013,

56. Ibid.

57. Ibid.

- 100 -
create permanent assets for strengthening the rural infrastructure, the
Directorate of Rural Development, Government of Mizoram has undergone
a series of make-overs and re-organization in its administrative structures
and set-up through the years. The Directorate of Rural Development,
Government of Mizoram had been charged to over-see and supervise all
the activities connected with the planning, implementation, assessment
and monitoring of all rural development programmes, along with the State
government‟s flagship programme, the New Land Use Policy (NLUP),
during the first launch of the scheme with effect from 1990-1991. As the
Department was assigned as the nodal agency for NLUP, which required
the association and cooperation of all the development and line
departments, Rural Development Department underwent a major re-
organization, by re-designating it as the Commisionariat of Rural
Development, Government of Mizoram, during 1989, headed by a Minister
of State as the political head and a Commissioner appointed as the
administrative head, who was supported by Deputy Commissioners for
administration and from the line and technical departments. Supporting
officers and staff to man the enlarged Rural Development operative were
drawn from nine Development Departments of the State Government as :

1. Agriculture
2. Animal Husbandry
3. Industries
4. Sericulture
5. Fisheries
6. Soil and Water Conservation
7. Forest and Environment
8. Information and Public Relations
9. Finance and Accounts

This re-organization was effected due to the large-scale and

comprehensive programme of the NLUP, which encompassed all the
development activities under one package and necessitated a diverse
amalgamation of experts, to attend to the implementation of an attempt to

- 101 -
revolutionize the socio-economic fabric of Mizoram throughthe flagship
programme. After the NLUP programme was discontinued, the
Commissionariat was subsequently changed to the “Directorate of Rural
Development,” in 1999-2000, with some changes effected in the
administrative set-up too. 58 (See Table 3.3, page 103)

58. Directorate of Rural Development, Government of Mizoram Records. 2000-

2001.

Continued..

- 102 -
Source : Directorate of Rural Development, Government of Mizoram, 2013.

- 103 -
 Currently, the Department of Rural Development is headed by a
Cabinet ranking Minister, at its political helm, supported by a
Parliamentary Secretary, who is a sitting MLA. The administrative head is
the Secretary to the Government of Mizoram, at the Secretariat, supported
by the regular administrative hierarchy of Additional Secretary, Joint
Secretary, Deputy Secretary, Under Secretary at the executrive level
supported by Superintendent(s) and supporting staff.

Mizoram, the twenty third State of the Indian Union is a land largely
populated by rural people : the Population Totals, 2011, affirming that the
rural population is increasing more than the urban population. As
indicated in the extant projections of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI),
2012, poverty ratio is on the other hand declining in the State while the
Government of Mizoram‟s estimates stands in contradiction, a factor
which is yet to be documented in the BPL Census, 2011 by the State
Government in the near future. At a glance, it can be assumed that the
endeavour of the State of Mizoram towards rural development requires to
broaden its socio-economic dimensions, so as to embark on a meaningful
and fruitful pathway and develop the rural areas and its inhabitants.

To summarize, we may mention that rural development in Mizoram

has had a long history and tradition. We have tried to study rural
development administration in Mizoram starting from the minute steps
that it had taken from the days under the Superintendent of the Imperial
Crown to when it is progressing on through as the twenty third State of
the Indian Union.

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 CHAPTER – IV

Personnel Administration and Rural Development in Mizoram

In the third chapter, we have tried to present the picture of rural

development administration in Mizoram, outlining its historical and
traditional origins within the ambit of rural development and the onward
progression to upholding the mantle of discharging rural developmental
activities and programmes through its administrative set-up, as a State
government. The present chapter discusses the aspects and scope of
personnel administration in the realm of rural development
administration with accent on the rural development administration in
Mizoram.

Alleviation of poverty and the task of developing the socio-economic

conditions of the rural areas has been an agenda of the government.
Various programmes and initiatives with contrasting methodologies have
been tried and experimented, funds expended, yet poverty seems
unsurmountable. The government has been infusing changes and
additives to its anti-poverty programmes, by taking stock of the loopholes
that could have occurred in the erstwhile schemes and introducing fresh
strategies for a concerted and collective in-road into poverty through
comprehensive packages : with the assumption that the programmes
initiated would be able to bring about an intensive and holistic
approaches and ensuring a “safer bet” for the rural populace.
Development when applied in the specific context of rural India acquires
an altered meaning, signifying not just the aggregate development of the
rural area(s) but fundamentally means the development of the people
living within the area, in terms of sustained increases in per capita
income, expansion of productive employment, equity in the distribution of
benefits and wealth, upgradation of value systems and culture, adequate
provision of infrastructure and other amenities to promote socio-economic
growth, on an even keel.

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Concept Of Personnel Administration

The French word, “personnel” came into English usge in the

nineteenth century, a noun used synonymously with “employees.”
However, the term, “personnel administration and or management” is a
twentieth century terminology, coined after the World War II and is often
defined as “people employed in an organization or engaged in an organized
undertaking”.1

Therefore, Personnel Administration means administration of

human beings in an organization. Personnel Administration is that
branch of Public Administration which guides and supervises an
organization in the management of personnel resources, with the use of
articulated and planned use of principles, practices and rationalized
techniques in selecting, retaining and developing the personnel for the
fulfilment of the organizational objectives and goals. “Personnel
Administration is the art of selecting new employees and making use of
old ones in such manners that the maximum quality and quantity of
output and service are obtained from the working force.” It can therefore
be asserted that Personnel Administration is the systematized and
specialized knowledge and technique to help the organizations in
administering their personnel and facilitate the personnel achieve
optimum performances.2 An efficient and effective Personnel
administration is bound to generate development, dynamism,
modernization and towards the ultimate goal of nation building. Every
organization, every state is adjudged to be heavily dependent upon the
quality of its personnel, who are governed by set procedures of standards.
The objective of Personnel Administration is to ensure the effective

1. www. oxforddictionaries.com. Accessed on 18.10.2012.

2. Felix A.Nigro, The New Public Personnel Administration, 2013.

- 106 -
utilization of human resources in achieving its organizational goals.
Personnel Administration is the art and science of policy-making,
planning, decision-making, organizing, directing, controlling and
motivating human resources in an organization, so as to secure, maintain,
develop, integrate, involve, compensate and enrich the organizational
environment. Personnel Administration implies proper planning for work,
selection, placement and training of the personnel so selected along with
the assignment and distribution of work amongst them. Personnel
Administration is the supervision, conduct and discipline, motivation,
communication and welfare, grievance settlement, terms of employment.
It, in effect, encompasses the auxiliary functions from recruitment to
retirement. Personnel Administration is wide-based and covers the entire
work career of the personnel in an organization, whether it be in a
government, corporate worlds, industries, hospitals or universities. It is
in fact the theory and practice where the principle of the human factor is
the be-all for churning out managerial effectiveness in any set of
organization. As theorised by academicians, in Personnel Administration,
human is more important than the capital that is being assigned for the
intended task, the factor of the human remains to be the key to
development; that an organisation is required to rely heavily on the need
for moulding of behaviour of members of the organisation through
leadership, motivation, communication and participation which all yields
to personal commitment and involvement of employees towards the
organization goals.3

Personnel Administration is also known as Personnel Management and as

defined by Pigors and Myers is “a method of developing potentialities of
employees so that they get maximum satisfaction out of their work and
give their best efforts to the organization.” Therefore, Personnel
Administration and Personnel Management centres around similar and
synonymous factors and areas of „human resources‟ as :

3. S.L.Goel, Public Personnel Administration ; Theory and Practice, 2008, p.7.

- 107 -
 Getting the people who can make the organization
Enabling those people to acquire the required capabilities, to make
a successful organization
Motivating the personnel to contribute their resources continuously
for running the organization successfully.4

Personnel Administration or Personnel Management deals with the

procurement, development, compensation, maintenance and utilization of
human resources. It deals with the development of human resources for
the efficient utilization of theses resources in order to achieve the
individual, group and organizational goals and objectives. Personnel
Administration facilitates the efficient management of the human
resources and personnel management pervades all the necessary
functions so required for an effective and efficient Personnel
Administration.

Personnel Administration has assumed wider scope and significance

in the post millenium times. In the absence of proper personnel
management, transaction of business in any organization is bound to be
disrupted or maybe fail. To source out and to retain capable people in
creating and maintaining conducive and productive work for an
organization is the first and foremost task of personnel administration.
The efficiency of the organizational administration largely depends upon
the nature of the personnel within the set-up, as it is the personnel that
any organization bases itself on. An organization may formulate and
attempt to implement its policies, plans and programmes, rules and
regulations but primarily requires the active and consistent involvement of
its personnel or employees. However thorough the plans and policies may
be, the availability of competent human resources form the backbone of
any progressive and successful organization.

4. Pigors and Myers, Management of Human Resources, 1973.

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 Personnel Administration is therefore part and parcel of Public
Administration; both aspects are of similar domain, both domain is
concerned with the human problem and the quality which makes and
runs the organization determines the effectiveness and efficiency of the
administrative system. No activity of Public Administration can be
performed with competent personnel; well-planned organizational
structures have consistently failed due to the inefficiency of its personnel
running the organization. H. Finer aptly put it as “Personnel is sovereign,
if men and women are competent enough, they can give life even to
inexact, confused and rough-hewn demarcations. Personnel is the
sovereign factor in Public Administration. Will and mind are first, they
engender policy; and mechanism is subsidiary to function.” It can
therefore be indicated that the success or failure of organizational or
governmental policies and programmes depends hugely on its personnel.
Dr Rajendra Prasad had exhorted in the Constituent Assembly as
“whatever the Constitution may or may not provide, the welfare of the
country will depend upon the way in which the country is administered.
That will depend upon the men who administer it”. 5

However, it is given that principles of good public adminstration

cannot merely be adjoined only on the choosing of the best candidates,
but it is the proper management of manpower which will speak for the
success of an organization.

The operatives of any organization or the government is complex

and vast and cannot be left entirely in the hands of one person, not even
to the head of State; it necessitates the wholesome mechanization of the
entire network of personnel within the organization. A government of a
modern state maintains a retinue of administrative machinery, consisting
of a number of officials of different rank and grade, called the civil
servants or public servant or public personnel. They constitute an integral
and essential part of the administrative machinery. Devising and

5. Recorded Volume of the Constituent Assembly of India of 24th Jannuary, 1950.

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securing the efficient ways and means for functioning of the public
servants is automatically the responsibility of the organization or the
government ; which leads to formulation and promulgamation of

statutory policy to govern and administer the personnel; thereby churning

out the personnel policy. A sound personnel policy is the prime requisite
of a sound public or personnel administration and the foundation is based
on a number of vital pillars as :

1. Recruitment system : Recruitment is the process to discover the

sources of manpower to meet the requirements of the staffing
schedule and to employ effective measures for attracting that
manpower in adequate numbers so as to facilitate effective selection
of an efficient work force. Edwin B. Flippo defined recruitment as “
the process of searching for prospective employees and stimulating
them to apply for jobs in the organization”.6
Recruitment seeks to attract people with multi-dimensional skills
and experiences that suits the present and future organizational
strategies, to induct outsiders with a new perspective, to lead the
organization, to infuse fresh blood at all levels of the organization,to
develop an organizational culture that will attract competent people,
to head hunt or head pouch people whose skills fit the
organizational aspirations, to seek out non-conventional grounds of
talent, to design service conditions that competes on quality and not
on quantum so as to garner the best of man power.7
2. Conditions of service : A sound personnel policy is the provision of
a fair service condition. Every organization or government is
required to establish certain conditions or rules or regulations
governing the service conditions of its personnel. Service condition
is a comprehensive package consisting of the following factors; (i)
wages and salary of the personnel while taking into account the
prevailing living costs in the state, inclusive of bonus and

6. Edwin B.Flippo, Principles of Personnel Management, 1971.

7. P.Subba Rao, Personnel and Human Resource Management 2000.

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 incentives. (ii) allowances in terms of dearness allowances, house
rent allowances, medical, travelling, children‟s education
reimbursement allowances (iii) admissibility of leave, which maybe
granted as earned or privileged leave, medical or sick leave, casual
leave, study leave and other non-debitable kinds of leave to its
personnel (iv) work amenities and facilities congenial for drawing
out the best potential in the personnel, moderate working hours,
modern and safe office furnitures and accomodation (v) redressal of
grievances machinery which is prompt, dedicated and transparent
and (vi) security of job.8
3. Training : An organization and its personnel should develop and
progress simultaneously for their survival and attainment of mutual
goals and objectives. It is in fact the need of every organization to
develop the organization through human resource development,
that is, training. Personnel training is a specialized function and is
one of the fundamental operative functions for human resource
management. After an employee is selected and placed in an
organization, one must be provided with training facilities so as to
enable oneself for adjustment to the job. Training is an act of
increasing the knowledge and skill of an employee for executing a
particular kind of job. It is a short-term educational process and
utilizing a systematic procedure which will hone the administrative
or technical skills of an employee for a definitive purpose.
The objectives of training which would be in keeping with goals and
objectives of the organization are as; (i) to prepare the employee,
both new and old, to meet the present and changing requirements
of the job and organization (ii) to impart new entrants the basic
knowledge and skills for their defined jobs (iii) to prepare employees
for higher responsibilities and higher job profile (iv) to build up a a

8. P.Subba Rao, Op.Cit.

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 succession plan from amongst the competent employees (v) to
ensure smooth and efficient working of a department (vi) to promote
individual and collective morale, a sense of responsibility,
cooperative attitude and relationships in the work force. No
organization can obtain a candidate who would exactly match the
job profile and the organizational requirements, it is through
training that the employee is moulded to the job. Training is value-
addition to the employee and to the organization. Job and
organizational requirements are not static and are susceptible to
changes, given the technological advancements and competition in
the market. Organizational efficiency, productivity, progress and
development largely depends on training, leading to competence,
commitment, creativity and added contribution to the organization.9
4. Promotion : A personnel policy which makes provision for a fair
scope of promotion and retirement benefits attracts young and able
manpower to fill the vacant positions in the organization and to
retain them in continuity.
When there are vacancies in an organization, they can be filled up
by internal or external candidates. The organization may fill up the
vacant positions either from the internal candidates through a
selection procedure and when the vacancies can be filled up though
tests and selected for a higher level of job in the organizational
hierarchy. Such an upward movement in a service career is
“promotion.” According to Pigors and Myers, “promotion is
advancement of an employee to a better job – better in terms of
greater responsibility, more prestige or status, greater skill and
especially increased rate and quantum of pay or salary.” Promotion
is therefore the re-assignment to a higher level job to an internal
employee, delegated to perform higher responsibilities and discharge
authority required to perform the higher level of job, with higher pay
and allowances.

9. P.Subba Rao,Op.Cit.

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 The scope of promotion is provided with a view to achieve the
following : (i) to utilize the employee‟s skills, knowledge at the
appropriate level in the organizational hierarchy, resulting to
organizational effectiveness and employee satisfaction (ii) to develop
a competitive spirit and inculcate the zeal to acquire added skills
and knowledge required for a higher level of job (iii) to develop the
competency levels of the internal source of employees (iv) to infuse
job satisfaction and the enthusiasm to be more productive for the
organization (v) to reward committed and loyal employees.10
5. Code of Ethics : One of the essential factors of a sound personnel
management is the establishment of comprehensive rules of
conduct for its personnel or employees; to uphold integrity, honesty,
dedication to duty along with the procedural norms to handle
misconduct of its personnel, as and when required and called for.
The Government of India is fortified with the Central Civil Services
(Conduct) Rules and the Central Civil Services(Classification,
Control and Appeals) Rules, to govern the government servants.11
6. Grievance and suggestion procedures : The concept “grievance” has
been defined in several ways by different authorities. Grievance is
any dissatisfaction or feeling of injustice in connection with one‟s
employment situation that is brought to the notice of the
management. Such dissatisfaction which arise out of demands for
individual wages, complaints against the incentive system,
objections to the general methods of supervision, misinterpretation
of seniority, disciplinary discharge, transfer to another department,
inadequacy of safety and health services, violation of contracts,
fines, victimization, all form the nomenclature of a grievance(es).
Instances of any grievance in any organization needs to be handled
efficiently through well thought out procedures so as to quell the
dissatisfaction at the earliest possible by fulfilling certain factors as
10. P.Subba Rao, Op.Cit.
11. Ibid.

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 (i) the grievance machinery and procedure must be charted out in
conformity to the prevailing statutory provisions of the organization
(ii) grievance procedures need to be specific and each step of
representation is to be slated out with clarity, in that, an aggrieved
person must be well informed about the person and designation to
whom the representation is to be submitted, whether submission is
viable in oral or written alone or both, specification of time limit for
redressal of grievances and it is vital that the authority to redress
the grievance is clear of what is expected of him or her. What
measures one can take and the limitations thereof (iii) training is
required to be imparted to all the supervisory levels in an
organization and to the service associations and unions, so that an
impartial and speedy process of grievance reressal is assured with
transparency.

While endorsing the general concepts of personnel administration,

its association in the world of rural development is all the more required,
as it is in the rural areas and remote areas that the efficacy of a sound
personnel administration is required. The extension and application of
services to people at their doorsteps and on the spot is therefore the
responsibility of the governing machinery.12

Personnel Administration In India

The Pre-Independence Period

Indian history can be traced back to the Indus Valley civilization, a

civilization establishing the basic foundation which has shaped the
administrative features of the ancient, medieval and the British
administration of India. It can be highlighted that the major contributors
to charting out the tenets of public and personnel administration were the
Mauryan, the Gupta and the Moghul administration. In fact, it was

12. S.L. Goel, Shalini Rajneesh, Public Personnel Administration: Theory and
Practice,2008. p. 7.

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Kautilya‟s political treatise, the Arthashashtra of the Mauryan empire
which had drawn up the initiation of the state administration, the theories
and principles for effective governance, consisting of unity of command,
hierarchy and delegation of authority, decentralization of authority,
planning and formulation of policies, division of work, coordination,
budgeting and accounting, recruitment on merit, paid civil service, welfare
initiatives in the administrative set-up.13

In the Mauryan administration, the king was assisted by the „parishad‟

and the „sabha‟ and was the authority over the „constituent‟ functions
related to law and order, security and defense along with the „welfare‟
functions which were related to the provision of the welfare services to the
people. The provinces were divided into districts, sub-divided into villages
and manned by assigned and paid officials. The administration was run
on an amalgamated element of bureaucratic and military system of the
state through the different sets of departments.

The Guptas form of administration was similar to that of the

Mauryan empire, where villages and town councils were given their own
autonomy under the guidance and supervision of the officials appointed
by the king.

The Moghul administrative system was centralized under the

authority of the king, who was supported by appointed officials to man the
state, the revenue, finances and land systems, with the „suba‟ or
provincial authorities assigned as the administrative agencies, headed by
the „subedar‟ or executive head. The „suba‟ or province was divided into

13. Artha means material well being and in the wider sense is the material means
to meet human requirements. The Arthasashtra authored by the Indian
Brahmin scholar, Kautilya was composed around 300 B.C. and is a seminal
work which deals exhaustively with statecraft, economics, espionage,
administration, war science, ecology and various other aspects pertaining to
human living. The entire text is divided into 15 books, each containing
several chapters and is written mainly in slokas, that is, the Sanskrit verse
consisting of two lines. For details see Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient
and Early Medieval India : From The Stone Age To the 21 st Century, Pearson
Education India, 2008, pp. 322-323.

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„sarkars‟, further sub-divided into „parganas‟ and thereon into „chaklas,
each hierarchical rank held responsible with assigned tasks.

The administrative system before the advent of the British was

centralized and paternalistic. There existed a large machinery at the
centre, a framework of machinery repeated on similar means at the
provincial and local levels, with authority revolved around the autocratic
rule of the king. Land revenue was the principle source of income, land
tenures were complex, with the executive and judicial system functioning
under set rules and regulations, customs and traditions and under the
total control of the king. Society was feudal and the masses were often left
at the mercy of the system. It can therefore be summed up that the
principles of public administration during the Mauryan, Gupta and
Moghul period was a system which established cenralization of
governance, the civil service, setting up of different departments, manned
by a hierarchy of officials and a bureaucracy run on the lines of the
military.

Before 1858, British administration in India had begun on

commercial terms through the East India Company, a mercantile
company established during the 1600s; a company granted through a
charter trading rights in the eastern parts of the colonial empire by the
British crown. The system of governance was commercial in nature and
administrative powers vested on the government in Council. With the
growing levels of corruption, company losses on the increase and
mismanagement of the territorial acquisitions, the British government
intervened by imposing a series of Acts, to regulate the affairs of the
Company. Such Acts of Regulation are The Regulating Act of 1773, which
created a centralized administration in India, relating to military, financial
and administrative matters, followed by the Pitt‟s India Act, 1784 and The
Amending Act of 1786, which witnessed the establishment of the Central
Secretariat of four branches,that is, general administration, revenue,
commercial and the judicial branches, functioning under segregated

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transactions of business and ensuing transformations with the initiation
of administrative re-organization.

As the responsibilities of governing the territorial acquisitions

increased in India, the Governors and the Councillors needed assistants
in the Central offices and in the districts. During the East India
Company„s governance, the men who held these positions were drawn
from the ranks of writers, factors and merchants of the Company. But
after 1773, the administration was drawn away from the traders and
merchants with the realization that the administration needed better
equipped man power, churning out a policy wherein all the higher
positions in government service were manned by the Company‟s British
Covenanted Servants, promulgated through The Charter Act of 1793,
detailing defined duties of different departments, proportionate salaries,
promotion by seniority and eessentially concerned with the law and order
administration along with the revenue administration. In due time, with
the British Parliament passing a series of Acts, the East India Company
was deprived of its authority and power in India along with the
curtailment of its privileges. The Central Secretariat so established was
fine tuned over the years and alligned to respond to the exigencies of the
times, creating a reputation of its own.

While the British established a regular system of government in

India during the year 1857-1947, the slow pace of constitutional
experiments for the Indian masses at large were increasingly uneasy,
leading to the creation of the Indian National Movement, organized by the
Indian National Congress of 1885; as a means to voice their right of
representation in all interests that were Indian. Such movements were
however suppressed by the British government through the principle of
„divide and rule‟- the Morley Minto reforms of 1909 and subsequent
reforms of 1919, leading to the constitutional development of India.

Constitutional reforms were then reflected in the changed structure

of the governmental machinery, as the government was steered towards
the federal form; a representative government. This led to the creation of a

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structured administration with defined departments for a particular
subject, where the administrative activities in agriculture, education,
health and labour were conducted by the provincial governments, due to
the introduction of a decentralized form of government under the Acts of
1919 and 1935. This period saw the growth of departmental responsibility
and well defined delegation of authority in the adminstrative set-up and
the introduction of of the „classification of papers‟ as urgent, routine,
important, file noting systems etc through the declaration of the Preamble
of the Government of India Act, 1919, which provided for the increasing
association of the Indians in every branch of the Indian administration
and the gradual development of the self-governing institutions, within the
confines of the British Empire.

Over time, the period witnessed the expansion of of the

uncovenanted services as opposed to the covenanted services, which
favoured the demand of the Indian‟ participation and representation in the
affairs of the government.

Personnel Administration During The Post-Independence Period

Free India inherited a governmental machinery as developed by the

British, a federal structure of government with unitary features,
formulated through a succession of Parliamentary induced Acts and
reforms. The British administration was district-centred and was headed
by a generalist, who was made to repesent the government at the district,
a framework which is still predominant today. The All India Services, a
replica of the covenanted services provides the base of the administrative
machinery of today along with the legislative and judicial cultures and
institutions , reflecting the British legacy.

After India gained her independence from the colonial empire of the
British in 1947, power was transferred to the people of India by replicating
the administrative organization and framework that had existed during

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the British empire; an exercise required urgently due to the partition of
India which had depleted the administrative cadres to a large extent.

However, with the adoption of the Constitution of India in 1950, the

adminstrative arrangements took a turn from the prevalent conditions
under the British. The Constitution declared a democratic administrative
machinery by setting up its own Parliament at the Centre and the State
Legislatures, control over the executive and expression of popular opinion.
The Constitution of India further sought to guarantee the liberties of its
citizens, through the establishment of an independent judiciary, to
protect and safeguard the rights and privileges of its people. It set up the
federal political system based on the Union , that is, the Central and State
governments, local governments, representing the urban and rural
communities, Public Service Commissions at the Central and State levels
under the Constitution of India – all concentrated to increasing the roles
and functions of public administration within the frame work of a
parliamentary democracy.

After independence, there existed eighteen Departments, later

designated as Ministries, namely; (i) External Affairs and Commonwealth
Relations, (ii) Defence, (iii) Finance, (iv) Home, (v) States, (vi) Legislative,
(vii) Commerce, (viii) Industries and Supplies, (ix) Railways, (x) Transport,
(xi) Communications, (xii) Labour, (xiii) Agriculture, (xiv) Food, (xv)
Education, (xvi) Health, (xvii) Information and Broadcasting, (xviii) Works,
Mines and Power, with increased strength of personnel required to run
the adminstration. Through the years, the Indian government has re-
invented new Ministries and Departments, innovated forms of public
corporations, government companies and national level advisory and
subsidiary offices to complement the tasks of the government, for
example, the setting up of the National Academy of Administration in
Mussoorie. Internal organization and operatives of the different
departments have not undergone much change since pre-independence
times with the elements of hierarchy and bureaucracy based on the

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British defined manuals yet governing the administrative set-up to a large
extent.

Post independence, India‟s administration was in the hands of the

Indian Civil Service and the Indian Police Service, which had replaced the
Imperial Police Service, the prior service holding a pivotal position in the
administrative organization. The All India Services consisted of the
technical experts from the fields of medical, engineering, economics,
finance and accounts, forests and education. The members of the Indian
Civil Services occupied positions in the Executive Councils of the
Governor General of India and the Provincial Governors held focal posts
as Secretaries to the Departments in the central and provincial
governments which radically formed the elite circle. After independence,
under the India Indpendence Act of 1947, the ICS and other officers in the
All India Services were automatically assigned as officers to the
Government of India. The All India Services Act, 1951, thereafter provided
for the formation of the Indian Administrative Service and the Indian
Police Service, followed by the Indian Forest Service, the Indian Services of
Engineers, the Indian Medical and Health Services in 1966. These
developments brought about a conspicuous shift in the administrative
set-up, wherein the services were no longer the imperial masters of a
colonial government but were assigned officials in a democratic state; to
serve the people and not to be served.

The personnel belonging to the services are assigned to function in

varied departments of the Central government, under well defined
“classification of posts,” categorized into Group “A”, “B”, “C” and “D”, on
the basis of their pay scales and the grade of posts held by them.
However, with the implementation of the Sixth Pay Commission, group
“D” posts have ceased to exist and instead merged with the Group “C”
posts.14

14. Central Civil Services (Classification, Control & Appeal) Rules, 1965.

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 The All India Services and the Central Services further diversified
into the formation of services exclusively drawn from the specialists, along
with similar action taken up by the state governments too. The newly
established services followed the core attributes of the Indian Civil Service
and other services of pre- independence days, by way of retaining the
essences of political impartiality, selection by merit and integrity but the
public services of an independent India were established to function in
consonance to the Constitution.

In 1926, a Central Public Service Commission had been established

by the British to ensure impartial selection of meritorious civil servants to
the All India Services and the Central Services. Its functions were to
undertake recruitment to the public services, formulate standards of
qualification, methods of examination, screening of disciplinary cases and
other vital advisory functions relevant to recruitment, promotion and
discipline of public servants. The Commission was re-designated as the
Federal Public Service Commission under the Government of India Act,
1935. Under the 1935 Act, the provincial or state governments were
assigned to form its independent Public Service Commissions, in groups
of provinces or as stand-alone Commissions, with functions similar to
that of the Federal Commission.

After independence in 1950, India formed its own Public Service

Commission for the Union and a State Public Service Commission for
each State or a group of Joint Public Service Commisions for a group of
States, under Article 315 of the Constitution, with an autonomy of its
own.

The Constitutional directives seek to promote the ideals of a social

and economic order and idealizes on a welfare state and not the form of
governance concentrated on law and order and regulatory content alone,
which was predominantly the case during the British rule. After her
independence, India, through its Preamble to the Constitution made it a
requisite to secure to all citizens social and economic justice and equality
of status and of opportunity. Part IV of the Constitution, under the

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Directive Principles of the State Policy exhorts the State towards
minimising inequalities in income, status, facilities and opportunities
among individual and groups, equal pay for equal work, equal justice and
free legal aid, free and compulsory education for children aged fourteen
years, welfare of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and other
weaker sections of the society, right to work, education and public
assistance in old age and unemployment to be secured for every citizen of
India.

Personnel Administration In Mizoram

India had simultaneously sought to uphold the vitures of a

democratic and welfare state by setting up the Planning Commission in
March 1950, to guide the economic development of the country by
formulating Five Year Plans with effect from 01.04.1951, with an objective
to bring about a rapid and all-round economic development of the
resources of the country. The administration at the different levels of the
Central, State and local governments are assigned to ensure efficient and
effective implementation and realization of the goals and objectives set
forth in the Plans.

Planned development has been the hallmark of the Indian

administration since independence and it is within this framework that
the administration of development in the rural areas has been delivering
its initiatives The task for alleviation of poverty, to gain increased
productivity and employment, to end inequality in status and income, to
provide the basics of civic amenities and facilities to the rural areas on par
with the urban areas, to provide bettter medical and health standards,
providing economic means, techniques, tools and inputs, with ease of
access in the rural areas and assuring the transformation and
development so required through administrative, political and apolitical
institutions of the nation has been an on-going process in the State of
Mizoram too.

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 Prior to the consolidation of the Mizo Hills by the British, the
inhabitants, who were then known as the Lushais have been recounted by
researchers and historians to be a powerful and independent people,
comprising of different clans and sub-clans, with a singular form of
traditional governance and policies. The administrative organization of the
Lushais or the Mizos was largely rural, dependent on the village system,
composed of a series of petty states, each under a “Chief” or “Lal”. The
system of traditional chieftainship has been labelled as being autocratic
and at times democratic, dependent on the personality of the Chief or the
disposition of the Council of Village Elders, empowered with an advisory
function and who were personally appointed by the Chief, at his whim and
will. The illustration of the Chief on personnel administration by Thomas
Robert Lewin, the Superintendent and Deputy Commissioner and
Political Agent of the Chittagong Hill Tracts ( of which Mizoram was a part
of then) in 1866, as recorded, indicates that on a visit to the village of one
of the leading Chiefs among the Lushais and while traversing the streets
of the village, a drunken Lushai or Mizo happened to stumble along and
seized the Chief by the neck, admonishing him as to why the Chief had
stood in the way and blocked his path. When questioned of the outright
disrespect shown by a subject or villager to one‟s Chief, the response was,
“on the warpath or in the council I am Chief and my words are obeyed;
behaviour like that would be punished by death. Here, in the village, that
drunkard is my fellow and equal.”15

But in due time, the traditional rights of the chiefs were considered
to be arbitrary and was abolished; instead its people was governed by its
elected autonomous council, under the charge of the Superintendent, a
representative of the British crown and by a number of Regulations and
Acts, subsequently leading to the creation of a distinct Mizo District
Council, leading to the status of a Union Territory and Statehood under

15. T.H.Lewin, Wild Races of The Eastern Frontier, 1984, p.250.

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the Indian Union. Mizoram, has been functioning as a State for nearly
three decades, with effect from 20.02.1987.16

With the transition of Mizoram into a full fledged State of India, the
Government of Mizoram embraced a vision to enable an environment for
the development and management of human resources of the government,
so as to deliver an efficient, effective, accountable, responsive and
transparent governance, with a mission as :

Providing a dynamic and responsive framework of personnel

policies and procedures for the effective functioning of the
government.
Developing competence and innovation in government.
Building the capacity of human resources at all levels of
government for efficient delivery of public services.
Inculcating and supporting a culture of transparency and
accountability.
Institutionalizing a system for a constructive on-going
engagenment with various stakeholders.17

The entire business of the Government of Mizoram is transacted in

the departments of the government as specified, classified and distributed
between the departments under the Government of Mizoram (Allocation of
Business) Rules, 1987, as amended upto 17.07.2012. Currently, the
Government of Mizoram has forty five functional departments. The
existing departments under the Government of Mizoram are as :

1. Agriculture Department
2. Animal husbandry and Veterinary Department
3. Art and Culture Department
4. Co-operation Department

16. P.Lalnithanga, Political Development in Mizoram, 2006.

17. Government of Mizoram, Department of Personnel and Administrative Reforms,

Citizen‟s Charter, 2012.

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5. Disaster Management and Rehabilitation Department
(erstwhile Department of Relief and Rehabilitation)
6. District Council Affairs Department
7. Environment and Forests Department
8. Excise and Narcotics Department
9. Finance Department
10. Fisheries Department
11. Food, Civil Supplies and Consumer Affairs Department
12. General Administration Department
13. Health and Family Welfare Department
14. Higher and Technical Education Department
15. Home Department
16. Horticulture Department
17. Industries Department
18. Department of Information and Communication Technology
19. Information and Public Relations Department
20. Labour, Employment and Industrial Training Department
21. Land revenue & Settlement Department
22. Law and Judicial Department
23. Local Administration Department
24. Minor Irrigation Department
25. Parliamentary Affairs department
26. Personnel and Administrative Reforms Department
27. Planning and Programme Implementation Department
28. Political and Cabinet Department
29. Power and Electricity Department
30. Printing and Stationery
31. Department Public Health Engineering Department
32. Public Works Department
33. Rural Development Department

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 34. School Education Department
35. Secretariat Administration Department
36. Sericulture Department
37. Social Welfare Department
38. Soil Conservation Department
39. Sports and Youth Department
40. Taxation Department
41. Tourism Department
42. Trade and Commerce Department
43. Transport Department
44. Urban Development & Poverty Alleviation Department
45. Vigilance Department

All the Departments are headed by a Principal Secretary or

Commissioner or Secretary, designated or appointed by the Government
from time to time. The administrative head is assisted by an Additional
Secretary and Joint Secretary, Deputy Secretary, Under Secretary,
Superintendent and a number of ministerial staff and Group “D” staff.
The Secretariat Departments are under the control of the Secretariat
Administration Department (SAD), while the service conditions of its
officers and staff are administered and controlled by the Department of
Personnel and Administrative Reforms or the Secretariat Administration
Department, as allocated in the transaction of business rules of the State
government.

The function and duties of the Administrative department is

directive and regulative in nature for implementation and execution of
plans and programmes relating to each specific department. All financial
proposals and policies of the department requiring explicit decisions,
directives, orders and approval of the Government are dealt in the
departments concerned. The details of business for transaction and the
norms for discharge of functions are executed in consonance to the
Government of Mizoram (Allocation of Business) Rules and (Transaction of
Business) Rules, extant Acts, Rules and Regulations, Orders and

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Instructions of the Government of India, as adopted and issued by the
State Government from time to time.

The major department assigned to undertake the details of the afore

stated business is the Department of Personnel and Administrative
Reforms (DP&AR), headed by a Secretary to the Government of Mizoram,
who supervises and controls the functioning of all the five wings of the
department; namely the General Service Wing, the Civil Service Wing, the
Administrative Reforms Wing, the Secretariat Service Wing and the Training
Wing, through a chain of officers and staff. The Department of Personnel and
Administrative Reforms (DP&AR) is the nodal agency of the Government of
Mizoram for administrative reforms, redressal of public grievances relating
to the status in general and those pertaining to the state Government
agencies in particular. The Department endeavours to document and
disseminate successful good governance practices by way of audio-visual
aids, media and publications. It also takes up activities in the field of
national exchange and cooperation to promote public service reforms.18

The Department of Personnel and Administrative Reforms (DP&AR)

is the Administrative Department of the Mizoram Public Service
Commission and that of the Administrative Training Institute, Mizoram.
The Mizoram Public Service Commission (MPSC) conducts examinations
of candidates for appointment to the services in the state and to advise
the government on all matters concerned with methods of recruitment to
the civil services, the principles to be followed in making such
appointments and in effecting promotions and transfers from one service
to another and such other matters so laid out under Article 320 of the
Constitution of India. The Mizoram Public Service Commission (MPSC)
was established in 1987 and made fully functional by 1991.19 A state
level training institute was established in 1983, with the sole purpose of
catering to the training needs of various levels of employees under the

18. www.mizoram.gov.in. Accessed on 3.09.2013 / 27.02.2014.

19. www.mpsc.mizoram.gov.in. Accessed on 13.8.2013.

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government of Mizoram and to build the capacity for an efficient and
effective governance, an institute which was revamped and re-named as
the Administrative Training Institute (ATI) of the Government of Mizoram,
entrusted with the task of devising the Mizoram Training Policy, 2013 and
to conduct Refresher and Foundation Training courses to the employees of
the state government and other stakeholders within the state.20

Personnel Administration In Rural Development – Context of

Mizoram

The administration of development in the rural areas has been

faced with a dynamic task since independence and have prompted the
government to review and re-invent its techniques, its strategies and its
role of mechanism a number of times. The task for alleviation of poverty
which in effect translates to increased productivity and employment, to
end inequality in status and income, to provide the basics of civic
amenities and facilities to the rural areas on par with the urban areas, to
provide bettter medical and health standards, providing economic means,
techniques, tools and inputs in the rural areas and the assurance for
change and development through the administrative, political and
apolitical institutions has been the essence of the rural development
strategy and process in Mizoram, in line with the goals and objectives of
the nation.

Administrative machinery and the administrative dispensation of

delivering the rural development schemes and programmes for the actual
and maximum benefit of the intended population, the rural poor in the
rural areas in India, as conceptualized and framed by the Central
government has been attended to by the State of Mizoram since the
launch of its First Five Year Plan in 1950 -1951; within the concept of
“balanced growth” that India visualized in its planned development
strategies, by adopting the area development approach and the

20. www.ati.mizoram.gov.in . Accessed on 13.8.2013.

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institutional approach for rural development through the Community
Development Programme, agrarian reforms and institutions of community
Development Blocks. However, the institutional approach as introduced
during the Second Five Year Plan in the form of the Panchayati Raj – local
self- governance at the village, block and district level is however not
applicable to the State of Mizoram; the State being a scheduled tribal
area under Clause (2) of Article 244 of the Constitution and instead is
enshrined under the Lushai Hills District (Village Council) Act, 1953, an
institutional framework to democratize village administration. In effect,
the institutional bodies to undertake the mantle of delivering the rural
development programmes is vested in the grassroots-village level
administration through its Village Councils along with the association and
the functional involvement of the personnel or man-power or
functionaries for the development of the rural areas.

Rural Development and Personnel Administration at the State

Government :

Since the area of operation of Rural Development programmes and

schemes lie in the villages, the first line of interaction that the villagers or
the rural people have is the State Government and rightly so, the subject
of Rural Development is the direct responsibility of the State
Governments.21 The State governments function as per the mandate and
instructions of the Central government, the State governments do not play
much of a role in the formulation of plans, policies and programmes; the
role of the States is to perform as per the dictat of the Central government.
Policies and programmes when devised and formulated for
implementation are within no reach for review or revision, if at all the
scope for participation in the plan or programme formulation is afforded,
it may not happen at the initial stages.

21. Department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances, Government of

India, Fifteenth Report of the Second Administrative Reforms Commision, 2009.

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 The organizational set-up and the personnel are drawn on similar
lines with that of the Central Government, wherein the focal point of
rural development administration rests at the State Government
Secretariat, headed by a Secretary and a team of bureaucratic officials, to
initiate and oversee the implementation process at the village level.

The administrative operatives are further delegated to the

Directorate of Rural Development, which often functions as the apex line
department; given that this administrative level is the hub to devise the
process of implementation, to aid, guide, facilitate and supervise, by
proferring professional and technical expertise, to be augmented from the
line departments and development departments of the State Government,
normally borrowed on deputation terms. As a matter of norm and
practice, the State level functionaries for Rural Development may not be
termed as professional officials, infused with the knowledge and aptitude
to deal with a complex and yet dynamic chord of the State,which is the
subject of Rural Development.

In effect, the mechanism of delivery for rural development at the

Directorate level is similar to that of a post office, where the work load is
dispensed off in an automated mode, with the sole objective to reach a
certain slotted target and arrive at abstract figures and to plan for the
next annual perspectives.

Rural Development and Personnel Administration at the District level :

District governance is the product of a legacy inherited from the

British colonists. The establishment of an autocratic state and the central
authority, setting certain limitations upon local political power, providing
bureaucratic officials a degree of professional autonomy in the
performance of their duties while invoking a complex set of checks and
balances is the remnance of governance retained by India till date.

The district administration of rural development has been placed in

the hands of the District Rural Development Agency (DRDA) since 1980,
an agency made responsible to oversee and proffer the required guidance

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and supervision for the implementation of the rural development
programmes and schemes, headed by a senior Civil Services officer and
various other district heads of offices, dealing with the development areas,
from the sectors of agriculture, animal husbandry and veterinary,
industries, cooperation, horticulture inclusive of the financial and credit
institutions, NGOs and CBOs.22

The creation and establishment of the DRDAs is an innovation of

the Government of India, Ministry of Rural Development, constituted with
the sole purpose to bring all the concerned development sectors together
under one umbrella of an agency; registered as a society under the
Societies Registration Act and the polity to function as an autonomous
organization. This status enabled the DRDAs to operate its assigned
activities flexibly along commercial lines and to escape from the “rule of
lapse,” which is applicable to all departmental activities, whereby funds
remaining unspent by the financial year end cannot be utilized. The
element of infusing „agency‟ form of organization was with an aspiration to
help build up a cohesive and coordinated articulation of development
programmes. The DRDAs were created to constitute a mechanism for
effective delivery of the rural develoment schemes and programmes; to be
implemented with focus and clarity of purpose and commitment to the
task.

The DRDAs are visualized as a specialized and a professional body, a

central hub of knowledge and expertise in the realm of applying,
managing, assessing and redressing the rural development issues of the
localised areas and to provide the assurance of actual socio-economic
transformation in the rural areas without the tag of „officialdom or
babudom‟ nor be disrupted with the affairs of political affiliations or
political colour. The DRDAs are not the implementing agencies but are the
catalysts for enhancing the quality of implementation, effective and
judicious utilization of funds, to develop the capacity to build a

22. Government of India, Ministry of Rural Development. DRDA Guidelines, 1999.

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synergy among the different development departments, institutions and
other stake holders in the development of the rural areas; to deliver the
goods of development in an apolitical manner.

The DRDAs, since labelled to function as an autonomous agency are

to maintain a distinct and separate identity but made to function under
the Chairman of the Zila Parishad or the Deputy Commissioner, where
local governments like the PRIs cease to exist, a case in point prevalent
in Mizoram. The DRDAs of Mizoram are to support and facilitate the
Deputy Commissioner, by providing the necessary executive and technical
support in the poverty reduction efforts of the district.

Incases like Mizoram, where the Deputy Commissioner assumes the

charge of Chairman of the DRDA, it may be recognized that the
„chairmanship‟ deposes the traditional post of the Deputy Commissioner
and is to automatically assume the charge as head of the developmental
activities in the district and not as the official regulatory head of the
district. It may therefore be an apt point of discussion as to how the rural
development processes can uphold its legitimate autonomy and to enable
it to function as a professional body when it is being governed by a district
bureaucrat, the Deputy Commissioner. Certain factors may be brought to
light in this account :

1. Where regulatory functions and responsibilities concerning law and

order, elections, revenue administration, protocol duties require
strict adherence to rules and procedures at the cost of efficiency
and effectiveness, the Chairman of the DRDA is empowered to
function with operational freedom and to adopt flexible and prompt
decisions.
2. As developmental activities are enshrined with the mantra of
“growth with equity”, the institutional head of the DRDAs is meant
to be confined with the sole objective of uplifting the under-
privileged sections of the society, the poor, the down trodden, the
SCs and STs, OBCs, and minorities.

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 3. The Deputy Commissioner‟s work performance is measured in
terms of abstract reports and returns regarding regulatory functions
while the Chairman of the DRDA is meant to produce quantifiable
performance with a high degree of accountability to the people of
the rural areas, where development purposes are meant to reach.
4. With the establishment of the DRDAs, the key word is „coordination‟
and not „control‟, where the concept of roles and functions is defined
by a participatory approach and not governed by the rigidity of
hierarchy, authority and control of the system or the organization.
5. The scope and aspects of rural development is dynamic and
therefore requires manpower or personnel who has the insights,
the aptitude and the dedication to answer to the multi-faceted
problems and aspirations of the rural populace. Furthermore, the
Deputy Commissioner is liable to transfers to an administrative
department, leaving the on-going developmental activities
incompleted, to be continued by a different individual with different
sets of ideals and views; which could in effect disrupt the smooth
dispensation of the Rural Development programmes, a sector which
requires and demands „continuity‟ of operation or mobilization.

The Staffing structure of the DRDAs, as devised by the Ministry of

Rural Development, Government of India, mandates that the DRDAs must
have an „appropriate‟ staffing structure, to suit the nature of the
organization and suitable to work for the purpose that the DRDAs are
mandated to function : and for which the State governments and the
DRDAs are to formulate and maintain a „suitable‟ personnel policy.
Certain factors maybe elucidated in the context of Mizoram :23

1. Even though the DRDAs are fortified with their autonomy, the
mechanism of operations along with the establishment of its
personnel or manpower is left to the discretion of the State
machinery. Since the size and

23. Government of India, Ministry of Rural Development, DRDA Administration

Guidelines, 2002.

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 specificity of the DRDA staffing pattern or the personnel principle is
vested on the State‟s affairs and on the financial health and
stability of the State government , the DRDA personnel are prone to
be recruited, retained or retrenched as per the State government
decisions, leaving the DRDAs with minimal manpower and a
manpower without a sound personnel policy.
2. Despite the fact that the Ministry of Rural Development,
Government of India„s issuance of the DRDA Administration
Guidelines, it may have faltered in creating the DRDAs without a
uniform policy for engaging and recruiting the staff of the DRDAs.
The cases in different States differ vastly, while some States directly
recruit, others depend on personnel sought on deputation and in
some instances have constituted an „organized service‟ for the
DRDA manpower or for that matter, established a distinct „Rural
Development Service‟, a service interspersed with an assortment of
deputations from professional and specialist services of the State
government concerned. This can manifest a sense of confusion and
dissension amongst the DRDA personnel to a debilitating effect.
3. In 2002, after more than a lapse of 2 (two) decades that the DRDAs
had been made to function as the district administration of the
Rural Development process, the Ministry of Rural Development,
Government of India had sought to convey that the DRDA staff are
not to be made permanent staff and that the DRDAs are not to
resort to direct recruitment, along with setting a condition that the
DRDA employees are to be purely deputationists for specific periods
or contractual employees, while paradoxically inserting an
appeasement for the staff currently borne on the DRDAs that they
be afforded the avenue for absorption into the line departments, on
athree to five year plan of action.24 The Ministry of Rural
Development , Government of India directive had further instructed

24. Government of India, Ministry of Rural Development, Recommendation of the

Shankar Committee, 1998.

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that such staffing procedures would ensure a better choice of staff
and invoke flexibility in the staffing pattern.
As opposed to the standing instructions from the Government of
India, the State Governments had absorbed the services of forty-six
personnel of the directly recruited staff under the DRDAs of Aizawl,
Lunglei and Saiha into the State Government service under the
Rural Development Department with effect from 05.01.2009, vide
Govt of Mizoram, Rural Development Department, Notification No.
A. 14011/1/2007-RD. Dt. 10.09.2009, against the posts converted
from various technical posts vide Government of Mizoram, Rural
Development Department No. A. 11011/6/99-RD dt. 17.3.2009.
The past services of these DRDA officers and staff prior to their
absorption was made countable for pension benefits, leave and pay
only. After due absorption of their services, these DRDA staff were
„deputed‟ back to their exact posts in the DRDAs of Aizawl, Lunglei
and Saiha. These staff are currently borne on the DRDAS on
deputation or transferred to the Rural Development Directorate or
Rural Development Blocks, as junior recruits, irrespective of their
seniority in the DRDAs : all at the behest of a long drawn High
Court Judgement.25
It is further pertinent to indicate that the officers and staff drawn
thereafter 2002 have been appointed purely on contractual terms
for a period of three years, after exercise of the Agreement Deed
between the DRDA and the contract appointee(s). However, the
DRDA contract appointees have been made to function in their
contractual services for more than ten years and more, without
termination of services or regularising the services of the contract
employees under the DRDA or the Government of Mizoram.26

25. Refer Government of Mizoram, Rural Development Department Records,

2009.

26. Refer DRDA, Aizawl, Lunglei and Saiha Records, 2002- 2012.

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 It may be indicated that manpower for dispensing with rural
development is a process of activity that demands continuity and
stability in an organization and human capital cannot be relegated
to a situation that does not speak for continuity of service nor
permanence in service. It can therefore be indicated that the
mechanism of the State government may not be in keeping with the
universal principles of Personnel Administration and a sound
Human Resource Policy

4. By 01.04.1999, the Government of India, Ministry of Rural

Development had introduced the new Centrally Sponsored Scheme
for strengthening the DRDAs, on a funding pattern of 75:25 basis
between the Centre and the States, aiming to strengthen and
professionalize the agency, that is, the DRDAs. Within this scheme,
the Ministry had mandated that each DRDA is required to have the
following wings :
Self-employment Wing
Women‟s Wing
Wage employment Wing
Watershed Wing(in districts where IWDP,DPAP,DDP is in
operation)
Engineering Wing
Accounts Wing
Monitoring and Evaluation Wing
General Administration Wing

These Wings were to be headed by Project Officers for Self-

employment, Wage-employment, Watershed Wings, Assistant
Project Officers for Planning, Social Mobilisation, Credit, Technology
and Women, Assistant or Junior Engineers, Senior Accounts Officer
and separate Accounts Officer for each self-employment, wage-
employment and watershed programmes, duly assisted by

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Accountants along with a separate Accountant for IAY, with one of
the Accounts Officer to perform the role of Internal Audit. The
Monitoring Wing was also to be headed by a Project Economist to
carry out evaluation and impact studies regularly by independent
institutions or experts including NGOS and to monitor issues
relevant to poverty in the concerned districts.

In concert to the Government of India, Ministry of Rural

Development„s mandate, the State Government issued a
Notification27 for the approved staffing strength of DRDAs in
Mizoram as :

Project Director - 1 no.

Asst Project Officer (APO-M) - 1 no.
Asst Project Officer (APO-WD) - 1 no.
Asst Engineer (AE) - 1 no.
Accounts Officer (AO) - 1 no.
Junior Engineer (JE) - 1 no.
Head Assistant - 1 no.
Accounts Assistant - 1 no.
Steno-Grade III - 1 no.
UDC - 2 nos.
LDC - 5 nos.
Driver - 2 nos.
IV-Grade - 4 nos.
TOTAL - 22 nos.

The Project Director was to be appointed in accordance to the

provision of Para 4:3 of the DRDA Administration Guidelines and all
other specified posts were to be filled up by deputation or on
contract, with a disclaimer that any contract or co-terminus
employees should not be engaged beyond the retirement age fixed
by the Govt of Mizoram, i.e. 60 years. It can affirmed that the Eight

27. Refer Government of Mizoram, Rural Development Department Records, 2012.

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 Wing structure as envisaged in the DRDA Gudelines is not followed
by the State Government; the DRDAs were made to function as a
small core group and not enabled to function as an agency to
coordinate scheme implementation than being a professional body
thriving with knowledge and innovations : leading to a regressive
stage where proficient talent were no longer attracted to the
services of the DRDAs and acute shortage of staff plagueing the
agency.

5. Though there is a possibility that rural development programmes

will undergo changes in objectives and operationalizations, it
however cannot be overlooked that the personnel or manpower
within the system require a stable length of tenure of service.
6. Personnel so recruited and appointed are regularly meant to
undergo a series of trainings, workshops and seminars, at the
expense of the State governments. A personnel who has been
moulded and shaped singularly for the rural development process
through trainings and capacity building may not be labelled as
being „expendable‟. Instead, such personnel are valuable and
require constant upgrade so as to maximise and further enhance
their innate potential and attitude for the cause of rural
development. This would stand up for the ethos of „Professionalism
of the DRDA personnel‟, so propounded by the government.
7. As opposed to the government officials who are functionaries of a
bureaucracy, a profesional team of the DRDAs, backed with a sound
and stable personnel policy would be enabled to ensure the effective
and efficient administration, as the personnel would be sworn to
ownership and permanency in the DRDAs.

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Rural Development and Personnel Administration at the Block and Village
level :

Block and village administration is the decentralized state

administration, wherein the regulatory and service functions of the state
are placed in the local areas, for ease of access to the people. With the
advent of time, situations have demanded for a greater participation of the
people in policy planning and implementation process which thereby
signifies the need for an efficient functioning of the administration. As
such, the field administration constitutes the area where the policies are
translated into reality and where the programmes are implemented in
earnest. In line, the State level machinery consisting of the Ministries and
Departments establishes a large number of field offices, delegating their
powers and functions to the field officers so as to enable them to
discharge the plans and programmes. Field administration has evolved
due to historical traditions, political considerations, administrative
requirements and necessities, development imperatives and the need to
establish a deeper bond and connection with the people and the
community. The field administration undertakes a wide range of activities
associated with the life of the people and is considered to to be the pivot of
the district administration too.

With the need to allign the administrative system to the temper of a

democratic government, the First Five Year Plan had to sought to re-
organise the district administration by providing for (i) establishment for
development at the village level of an appropriate agency which derives its
authority from the village community (ii) integration of activities of various
developmental departments in block and village level and the provision of
a common extension organization (iii) linking up, in relation to all
development works, of local self-governing institutions with the
administrative agencies of the State government (iv) regional coordination
and supervision of district developmental programmes and (v)
strengthening and improvement of the machinery of the general
administration. In keeping with these principles, structural arrangement

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was effected in the field administration by the establishment of the office
of the “Block Development Officer”(BDO); to support the district
administration from the field, by discharging different functions of
revenue, general administration and development. The Block Development
Officer forms the focal point of grass root democracy, where they are in
constant touch with the people and assume the mantle of a grass roots
executive and ensuring actual delivery of development process through
the government programmes and policies. Besides the Block development
Officer, a number of subject-matter specialists function at the block level,
to initiate and implement the specified programmes for the general welfare
and uplift of the people.

The Block Development Officer‟s office is the main operational wing

of the Government for the development administration in the rural areas.
The officer is assisted by a team of staff responsible for proper and
successful execution of the development works, a team drawn from the
other development-oriented departments of Agriculture and allied
departments, Horticulture, Veterinary, Industries, to draw up plans and
schemes, obtain approval from the Block Development Committee,
District and State Level Committees for onward sanction and towards the
actual execution and implementation of such proposed activities. The
functions of the Block Deve;lopment Officer are dually advisory and
executive along with coordinating the entire schedule of development
activities in the block and village level as :

To render practical advisories on the formulation of each year‟s plan

of development within the general framework of the Central and
State Five Year Plan and the Annual Plan
Periodical review on the progress of implementation of approved
programmes of development
Recommending measures for the effective and speedy fulfilment of
schemes for the socio-economic development, local development
works, social services and village small industries

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 Promoting public participation and cooperation in development
programmes and expanding local community efforts
Assisting the development of cooperatives and Village Councils
General supervision over the works of the Village Council, in
respect of land reforms, land management and rural development in
general.

However, there have been instances wherein the block level machinery
is found to be unable to provide the correct and appropriate delivery
system. The efficacy and the authority of the Block Development Officer as
the coordinating head at the grass roots has considerably waned. There
exists cases of role conflict within the block organization, where the Block
Development Officer is tied down with other general administrative duties
and with the continual expansion of its roles and functions in line with
the needs of the new generation society, the functions to be dispensed
with have largely diversified, leaving the Block Development Officer
entrusted more as the „Block Officer‟ and disabled in discharing the
developmental roles. It has also been recognised that the loyalty of the
Extension Officers from other development departments has been divided
between the Block Development Officer and their superiors in the parent
departments, thereby affecting the cohesiveness of the block team.
Further, the Block Development Officer‟s office is being manned by a
dwindling manpower, where the minimal or absence of the specialist
experts is being observed. Insufficiency of staff to perform the multi-
pronged development activities needs address, which often defeats the
very purpose on which the administration was founded : the basic unit of
development administration and rural development administration.

Another significant aspect of the rural development administration

in India and in Mizoram is the post of the Village Level Worker (VLW). This
functionary, a ubiquitous feature in rural India today was concieved and
placed in the field by Albert Mayer, the architect of the Etawah pilot
project in 1946. The Village Level Worker is man-friday at the village level,

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providing a direct link between the people at the village level and the
service department at the block.

Mizoram, with its predominant rural fabric calls for the need to
bring about a sustained form of development for the rural areas and its
people if Mizoram is to achieve development in the true sense of the
concept. However, despite efforts, rural Mizoram has not been able to keep
pace with its urban counterpart. The reasons for this are many and
include besides others, certain historical as well as geographical
marginalization within the state itself. In recognizing the significance of
correcting these developmental differences and imbalances with the need
to accord due priority to development in the rural areas, the State has
been progressing on since independence, to address the problems of rural
development.

To complement the efforts of the Central Government, every State

has a State Rural Development Department with a mandate similar to
that of the Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, however,
confined to its state jurisdictions. At the state level, under the Mizoram
government, holding the administrative mantle is the Rural Development
Secretariat – to formulate and design working policies in the
implementation of the schemes and programmes along with the
monitoring and evaluation of the programmes. The Department of Rural
Development, Mizoram implements schemes for generation of self-
employment and wage-employment, provision of housing and minor
irrigation assets to the rural poor of Mizoram. The Department is also
mandated to provide support services and quality inputs to the rural
development implementing agencies of the DRDA Administration, training,
capacity building and research through workshops and seminars for the
efficient implementation of the programmes at hand.The major
programmes of the Rural Development Department are the Indira Awaas
Yojana (IAY), Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
(MGNREGA), the Mizoram State Rural Livelihood Programme(MZSRLM),
the Integrated Watershed Management Programme(IWMP), the Border

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Areas Development Programme (BADP) and the (BRGF) along with other
State Sponsored Schemes funded from State resources and by the North
Eastern Council (NEC), Ministry of Development of North Eastern
Region(DONER) and the Non-Lapsable Central Pool of Resources
(NLCPR).28

The Secretariat of Rural Development is the administrative

department, headed by a Secretary, supported by an Additional Secretary,
a Joint Secretary, two Deputy Secretary, two Under Secretary, two
Superintendents and ministerial and clerical staff. The Secretary, Rural
Development Department is a personnel drawn from the Indian
Administrative Service or the Central Services; the posts of Joint Secretary
to the Under Secretary are drawn from the Mizoram Civil Services and
from the Mizoram Secretariat Services, while the Superintendent is drawn
from the Mizoram Ministerial Services. The other ministerial and clerical
staff are drawn from the Mizoram Ministerial Services and interspersed
with Rural Development functionaries.

The administrative department is the nodal executing department

for Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme
(MGNREGS), Border Areas Development Fund(BADP) and the Backward
Region Grant Fund (BRGF), with special cells made functional to execute
the schemes.

The Directorate of Rural Development, Government of Mizoram is

the apex arm of the State Rural Development Department, entrusted to
oversee the execution and implementation of the Rural Development
programmes, both of the Centrally Sponsored Schemes and State
sponsored schemes. It is headed by a Director, supported by a Joint
Director, Deputy Director- three posts ( all vacant), Executive Rural
Engineer – one post, Veterinary Assistant Surgeon – one post, Assistant
Director – four posts (3 vacant), Finance and Accounts Officer – one post
Rural Planning Officer – one post ( vacant), Senior Scientific Officer – one

28. Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, Annual Report,

2011- 2012.

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 post (vacant), Assistant Rural Engineer – four posts (1 vacant),
Junior Project Officer (Horticulture) – one post, Assistant Project Officer-
one post (vacant) Horticulture Extension Officer – ten posts ( 10 vacant),
Agriculture Extension Officer – one post (vacant) Superintendent – one
post, Assistant or Accountant- thirty seven posts (20 vacant), Inspector of
Statistics – thirty three posts (14 vacant), Junior Engineer – twenty five
posts, Extension Officer (RD) – six posts (6 vacant), Extension
Officer(Sericulture) - one post (vacant), Extension Officer (Forest) – eight
posts (8 vacant), Junior Extension Officer (Vety) – twenty posts(9
vacant),Junior Extension Officer(RD) – twenty two posts (1 vacant)
Extension Officer (Industries) – eighteen posts (17 vacant), totalling to two
hundred and eighty seven posts and further supported by four hundred
and seventy four posts; manned by technical and non technical staff,
inclusive of the ministerial staff and Rural Development functionaries to
attend to the following functions within the mandate of rural development.
The functionaries under the Rural Development Department account for
three hundred and sixteen functional personnel out of the seven hundred
and seventy six sanctioned positions and posts, inclusive of the task force
at the Directorate and the Rural Development Blocks along with the forty
six staff absorbed from the District Rural Development Agencies of Aizawl,
Lunglei and Saiha; indicating a percentage of 41.5 percent discharging
their roles and functions against the total composition of the Rural
Development work force in Mizoram as :29

Establishment
Works
Planning
Accounts
Technical
Block administration

29. Directorate of Rural Development, Mizoram Records, 2013.

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 The Directorate, stationed in the capital city of Aizawl, is
responsible for overseeing the planning and formulation of various Rural
Development programmes, to ensure mobilization of activities connected
with the implementation of the Centrally Sponsored Schemes and the
State-sponsored schemes and programmes, in terms of mobilizing funds,
timely submission of reports and returns, preparation of Detailed Project
Reports, coordination of programmes and activities.

The District Rural Development Agency (DRDA) is the principal

organ at the district level that is vested with the responsibility of
supervising and monitoring the implementation of various anti-poverty
programmes. Mizoram has eight functional DRDAs in all the districts of
the state, that is, districts of Aizawl, Lunglei, Saiha, Kolasib, Mamit,
Champhai, Serchhip and Lawngtlai. Each DRDA is headed by a Project
Director, supported by Assistant Project Officer (Monitoring), Assistant
Project Officer (Women‟s Development), Assistant Engineer, Accounts
Officer, Junior Engineer, Head assistant, Stenographer Grade III, two
UDCs, five LDCs, two Drivers and four IV Grade, as per State specific
staffing norms. The post of the Project Director is however filled up from
the State Civil Services, in conformity to the provisions under Para 4.3 of
the Guidelines for DRDA Administration as prescribed by the Government
of India, Ministry of Rural Development.

For better administration and implementation of the rural

development programmes, Rural Development Block Offices are set up at
the Block level. These Rural Development Block Offices are entrusted to
oversee the smooth implementation of schemes for poverty alleviation, as
well other Centrally and State Sponsored Schemes, planning the frame
work of selection of beneficiaries, process and procedure of
implementation and monitoring at the grass roots level. At present, the
state of Mizoram has twenty six functional Rural Development Blocks.
Inclusive of the erstwhile twenty Community Development Blocks,
additional Rural Development Blocks are as :

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 1. Khawbung RD Block (20.06.1995)
2. Phullen RD Block (05.04.2001)
3. Bilkhawthlir RD Block (02.08.2004)
4. Saiha RD Block (11.11.2005)
5. Champhai RD Block (17.11.2005)
6. Bungtlang RD Block (01.03.2006) 30

The state of Mizoram has a State Institute of Rural Development

(SIRD), to impart training, workshops and seminars to rural development
functionaries, benficiaries and stake holders of the rural development
process, NGOs and CBOs, line departments, financial institutions and
other parallel functionaries involved in the rural development process
through training schedules, workshops, seminars, field trips, study tours,
to undertake research activities on rural development sectors and parallel
fields. Mizoram has one such State Institute of Rural Development
(SIRD), established in 21.08.2000, with a State Level Advisory Committee
and a Governing Body of its own and set up in Kolasib. Two Extension
Training Centres (ETC) are currently functional at Pukpui, Lunglei and at
Thingsulthliah, Aizawl.31

The mission of the such State Institute of Rural Development SIRD

is “capacity building for the transformation and upliftment of the rural
society for sustainable progress and development” and has been
effortlessly been conducting the following as :

Conducted one hundred and seventy nine training courses covering

eight thoousand seven hundred ninety four participants during
2003-2008. In 2008-2009, thirty seven courses under BRGF
covering one thousnad eight hundred and eighty one participants
were conducted.
Conducted mid-term evaluation of eighteen IWDP projects during
2003-2008 and sixteen projects during 2008-2009.

30. Rural Development, Government of Mizoram, Citizens Charter, 2010.

31. Status Report of State Institute of Rural Development, Mizoram, 2008.

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 Institutional monitoring of two CAPART projects during 2007-
2008.
Acted as nodal agency for capacity building under Backward
Region Grant Fund (BRGF).

Participants of the State Institute of Rural Development (SIRD) and the

Extension Training Centres (ETCs) training schedules during 2003-2009
are as : Government Functionaries – six hundred and eleven, PRIs and
Local govrernment –eight hundred and forty two, NGOs and CBOs – five
hundred and seventy, SHGs –six hundred and fifty four, Other Categories
–one thousand one hundred and three, totalling to three thousand eight
hundred twenty nine participants, indicating a 16 percent participation
from the government functionaries, 22 percent from PRIs and Local
government, 15 percent from the NGOs and CBOs, 17 percent from the
SHGS during the indicative years.32

As per the mandate of the Ministry of Rural Development,

Government of India, the rural development programmes are to be
consistently assessed and monitored on periodical bases. In conformity to
the mandate, the State government had established the State Level
Monitoring Cell and Internal Audit Cell (SLMC & IAC) during 1982,
headed by a Project Director and supported by a Deputy Project Director,
Statistical Officer, Accounts Officer and supporting clerical staff.

To sum it up, it maybe indicated that Personnel

Administration had had its rustic beginnings under the chieftainship
of the Mizo Chief or Lal and progressed into formal frameworks
and nstitutions with the turn of the century, more so in the rural
development administration of Mizoram. There were however scope

32. www.sirdmizoram.in. Accessed on 19.09.2013.

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for improvements in the administration and management of the rural
development personnel and functionaries of the department
concerned. (See Table 4.1, page 149)

Continued..

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Source : Directorate of Rural Development, Mizoram, 2013.

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 CHAPTER V

Planning And Management of Rural Development Programmes in

Mizoram

In the last chapter, that is, Chapter IV, we have tried to analyse the
concept of Personnel Administration in a generalised way and have
highlighted the constituents of personnel administration in India, banking
on pre-independence and post independence period, indicating the
conceptualisation of the civil services, ministries and departments and
general administrative structures and organisation. As a part of the study,
personnel administration in the context of Mizoram was also undertaken
along with an elucidation on the Personnel Administration in the Rural
Development Department, Mizoram. The present chapter discusses
planning and management of Rural Development programmes in the
context of Mizoram with highlights in the national context.

“Planning” is the preparation for action. Planning is the conscious

effort to achieve the desired ends . It is the rational method of application
of resources for the fulfillment of specific objectives. Planning has to do
with individual, collectives or cooperative effort or the endeavour to
achieve pre-concieved goals and targets. It is the rational process
characteristic of all human behaviour. It is the utilization of rational
design as contrasted with chance. Plan is a scheme, a formulation of
programmes for action : to formulate a policy or programme of action or to
devise a method for attaining a goal or a target or the action of charting
out a series of goal-oriented objectives.. Planning is therefore the process
of rational and conscious utilization of the economic resources for the
achievement of pre-determined goals, with the deployment of human and
material resources, consisting of manpower, finances, materials and
machinery. Planning is a “means” to an “end,” the conscious effort of
coordination and cooperation, with a purpose for action.1

1. R.D.Sharma, Development Administartion : Theory and Practice, 1992.

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 The concept of planning thereby encompasses the rational, dynamic
and comprehensive process to identify a specific need or requirement, the
method and system to attain the need, to specify the medium of
instrument to do the work, to devise the strategies for accomplishing the
work, to estimate the financial requirement and to identify the resources
for augmenting the required sum and amount and to anticipate the time
limit for completion of the desired need and requirement.2

The term planning has been widely defined and general definitions
have highlighted similar viewpoints. Millet defines planning as “ the
process of determining the objectives of administrative effort and of
devising the means calculated to achieve them.” According to Urwick, “
planning is fundamentally an intellectual process, a mental pre-
disposition to do things in an orderly way, to think before acting and to
act in the light of facts rather than guesses. It is the anti-thesis of
speculative tendency.” Seckler-Hudson also defined planning as “ the
process of devising a base for a course of future action.” It can therefore
be said that planning is the conscious process of selecting and developing
the best course of action to accomplish a defined objective; an exercise of
action for a defined goal.

The need for planning is more accentuated in todays world, where

every course of action in every aspect of our lives is a pre-determined and
decisive step. In fact, the growth of human knowledge and its
manifestation in the environment has increasingly accentuated the
importance of planning. Every society, every organization is steered by
the policy of the future which emanates from a set of pre-determined
plans. Every aspect of the governmental action is planned; its policies,
objectives, finances, operation of its organization, work manuals and
charters, incentive systems, pension and retirement of its personnel are
listed under the umbrella of planning. Programmes and schemes based on
well-reasoned priorities guide a nation with specificity and quality

2. Katar Singh, Rural Development : Principles, Policies and Management, 2009.

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standards, without the wastage of time, resources, both financial and
material. It is the current norm for developed and developing countries
to bear an attitude and to look ahead of the times; to determine long term
goals and arrive at priorities in the light of probable demands of varied
sectors. Drawing up and formulating plans, in the form of Five Year Plans,
to launch programmes for public expenditure and capital formation is now
the accepted norm of responsible governments.

The context and scope of planning is dynamic and broad-based in

any organization and is more intense and essential in the governance of a
country. A nation‟s development is entirely based on the administrative
prowess and mechanism for planning The process of planning within a
governmental machinery can be termed as „administrative planning‟.3

Planning undertaken by the government or administrative planning

is related to administrative policies and programmes. It seeks to provide a
broad framework for action by defining major objectives and establishing
policies for the administrative machinery to operate and execute for the
interests of the nation. Administrative planning is the process to provide
detailed shape to the plan policy; to give clarity to the set objectives and to
provide the tools and medium to reach the goals and objectives.
Administrative planning undergoes a series of phases and are categorized
as :

i) Policy Planning : Policy planning is the development of broad

general guidelines of the government. It is the basic principles by
which a government is guided and is the declaration of objectives
that a government seeks to achieve and preserve in the larger
interests of national community.
ii) Programme Planning : It is concerned with the preparation of
specific goals to be realized along with the preparation of the

3. R.D.Sharma, Op.Cit.

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 procedures to be employed by the administraative agencies,
within the framework of existing public policy. It is the detailed
plan for implementing programmes in a particular department,
by the review of the proposed programme, to determine the
volume of services involved, the financial and material resources,
the general procedures required to accomplish the set task and
the review of the organizational structure to undertake the task
of implementation.
iii) Operation Planning : It is concerned with the systematic
analysis of an authorized programme and the determination of
the detailed means of executing the objectives. Operational
planning involves the laying out of specific procedures to carry
out the task at hand, by invoking a series of time-frame,
acceleration of production and increase of output. The different
units are assigned specific functions and their performance
measured in the context of programme implementation.

Planning is a central concept amd a major process in public

administration,“of the many functions of leadership and administrative
direction, a central one is in knowing what to plan for, how to plan it and
how to carry out the plan.” As the states of today are dedicated towards a
welfare state, planning automatically takes the form of an administrative
function and a state activity in the public and governmental sector;
planning cannot be construed as merely attending to the economic and
development aspects but also encompasses a political nature in spirit,
form and content.

Planning therefore assumes the following nature :

1. Planning in any sphere of human life is initiated by the

identification of the problem(s) and their innate connection with
society in the welfare.

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 2. The determination of the community‟s objectives in dealing with
each problem or determining the ways and means to tackle the
problems as a whole.
3. The existing plans, policies, programmes and the strategies that
were employed to deal with the extant problems are to be
appraised in detail, so as to enable the organization to arrive at
an alternate solution.
4. The formulation of an alternate strategy to reach and attain the
goals and objectives and simultaneously solving the problems
according to the requirements of the community.

The parlance, „manage‟ comes from the Italian word „maneggiare‟

which means „to handle, especially tools‟, a derivative of the Latin word
„manus‟ which means „hands.‟

The French word „mesnagement‟ influenced the meaning of the

English word „“management” during the 17th and 18th centuries.4
Management, in business amd organizations is the function that
coordinates the efforts of people, to accomplish goals and objectives by
using the available resources efficiently and effectively. Management
comprises of planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing,
controlling an organization or initiative to accomplish a goal. Resourcing
encompasses the deployment and manipulation of human resources,
financial, technological, technical and natural resources. There is no
universally accepted definition for management, but, a simple traditional
definition defines it as the “ art of getting things done by others”. This
definition brings in two elements, the accomplishment of objectives and
the direction of group activities towards a particular goal. Management is
defined as the organization and coordination of the activities of an
enterprise in accordance with certain policies and in the achievement of
clearly defined objectives. Fredmund Malik defines it as “the
transformation of resources into utility”. “Management is the coordination

4. www.oxforddictionaries.com. Accessed on 13.05.2013.

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of all resources through the process of planning, organizing, directing and
controlling in order to attain stated goals”, as defined by Henry Sisk, while
Joseph Massie defines “management is that process by which cooperative
group directs actions towards common goals”.

Management involves the manipulation of the human capital of an

organization, to contribute to the success of the enterprise. This implies
„effective communication‟ in an organizational environment along with
human motivation translating into a successful progress or system
outcome. Management involves humans, communication and a positive
organizational endeavour.

Through the years, the concept of management has evolved into the
five basic functions as :

Planning : The first management function that an organization

undertakes is the process of planning. A plan is created to
accomplish the mission and the vision of the organization. The plan
must define the time component and to plan necessary resources to
fulfil the plan. Accordingly, plan of an organization is developed
together with the required personnel; method of leading people is
defined and the controlling instruments for monitoring the
realization of the plans. Planning is the executive action that
embodies the skills of anticipating, influencing and controlling the
nature and direction of change.
Organizing : It determines the range of management, type of
organizational structure, authority in the organization, ways and
means of delegating and developing lines of communication. The
organization and its sub-systems are placed under the plan, which
is created as part of the functions that is, planning. Organizing
basically involves analysis of activities to be performed for achieving
organizational objectives, grouping them into various departments
and sections, so that these can be assigned to various individuals

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 and the delegation of appropriate authority so that the assigned
work can be properly executed.
Staffing : It consists of a selection of appropriate staff for the
organization to reach a goal or goals efficiently. Staffing in an
organization is one of the most important and most valuable
resources in an organization. For this reason, good planning of
personnel policies and the corresponding execution of selection of
high quality people is increasingly considered important. Staffing
basicallly involves matching jobs with the individuals, requiring a
number of functions like manpower planning, recruitment,
selection, training and development, performance appraisal,
promotion and transfers. The responsibility for staffing rests on
the management at all levels of the organization.
Directing : It is related with instructing, guiding and inspiring the
human factor of an organization, to ahieve the organizational
objectives. Direction is a continuous process and is manifest in the
entire life of the organization. It initiates at the top level and follows
to the bottom of the hierarchy. It emphasises that a subordinate is
to be directed by one‟s superior. Direction has dual objectives; it
aims at getting things done by the subordinates and to provide the
superiors to attend to other areas which the subordinates are not
assigned to undertake.
Controlling : Control is any process that guides activity towards
some pre-determined goals. Control process tries to find out the
deviations, if any, between planned performance and the actual
performance and to suggest corrective actions whereever needed.

Management can be said to be „multi-disciplinary‟ as it integrates

the ideas and concepts taken from disciplines such as sociology,
psychology, economics, statistics, history, ecology and presents concepts
for managing organizations. Contributions to the field of management can
be expected from any discipline which deals with the human aspect. Each
organization may differ from the other and the differences may occur due

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to time, place, socio-economic cultures, therefore, the principles of
management should be applied in the light of the prevailing situations.

When the word „management‟ is invoked in an organizational

system, the word „profession‟ may perhaps be interchangeably be used
and is defined as an occupation based upon specialized intellectual study
and training, the purpose of which is to supply skilled service or advice to
others for a fee or salary. Profession is an occupation for which specialized
knowledge, skills and training are required and the use of these skills is
not meant for self-satisfaction, but these are used for the larger interests
of the society and the success of these skills is not measured in terms of
money alone, therefore, management is a profession.

It maybe indicated that the concept of planning and management is

significant in the application of rural development and its programmes.
Management of rural development programmes can be said to to be the
sole responsibility of the administrative ministry and department in the
Central government and the responsibility to effect the implementation of
the plans is further borne by the member States. It is within the scope of
planning and management that the usage of resources be carried out in
the most efficient manner through a new principle, the SPA principle; S =
Strategy – Modifications to be based on an objective and accurate
evaluation and medium term evaluation will be useful, P = Planning – In
terms of timing, expected outcome, consequent for future modifications, A
= Awareness – Of all stakeholders and parts of the administration. The
principle postulates on the coordination of policies and the essentialities
of examining the implementation and progress through participation and
information and preparatory meetings of all the stakeholders.5

In effect, it can be indicated that the context of management

encapsulates the process of Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing and
Controlling as an integrated system, where one facet of the process cannot

5. European Commission, Agriculture and Rural Development, Good Management

of Rural Development Programmes, Brussels, 2007 – 2013.

- 157 -
do without the other facet, where each facet is directly linked and inter-
related to one another. As such, the concepts of “Planning” and
“Management” are closely inter-linked and the synonymous
synchronization of one another depicts the efficiency and effectiveness of
the organization. The success of an organization depends upon the mode
and mechanism of planning along with the efficiency and effectiveness of
management. (See Figure 5.1,page 159)

Continued..

- 158 -
 FIGURE 5.1

Illustration of the Inter-Relation of Planning and Management

PLANNING

CONTROLLING ORGANISING
ORGANISING

DIRECTING STAFFING

Source : Computed, 2012.

- 159 -
 At the dawn of the new millenium, India was teeming with 260
million people who did not have access to the consumption basket
defining the poverty line, with 195 million people from the rural areas,
indicating that the Below the Poverty Line (BPL) factor accounted for 75
percent of the entire Indian population. With the closure of the Tenth Five
Year Plan (2002 -2007), after sixty years of being an independent nation,
India had been enabled to reduce the population of the poor by a long
margin; the poverty line in 1973 was estimated at 54.9 percent and
dipped to 27.5 percent in 2004, indicating that the population of the poor
hovers at a quarter of a million.6

Agricultural wage-earners, small and marginal farmers and casual

workers engaged in non-agricultural activities form the bulk of the rural
poor; wherein the low productivity levels of their land holdings, poor
educational base and lack of enterprising vocational skills has permeated
the lives of the poor. The creation of employment opportunities through a
growth-oriented approach has been recognized and has led the planning
process to focus on specific sectors which would enable the poor to
augment provisions for participation of the poor in the growth process.
The varied dimensions of poverty relating to health, education and other
basic services have been internalized in the planning process and has
caused enhanced allocations through the years, for the provision of such
activities. However, with the high incidence of poverty, the government
has felt the need to address the situation by according greater
investments in creating employment opportunities, through self-
employment, wage-employment and sustainable livelihood for the
eradication of poverty and in the quest for sustainable development.

6. Planning Commission, Government of India, Eleventh Five Year Plan, 2007-12,

Volume II, Inclusive Growth, 2007.

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 During the transient period of growth and development in the
country, the population totals of the poor has increased over the last three
decades, in states of Uttar Pradesh (including Uttaranchal), Rajasthan,
Maharashtra and Nagaland, while in some states of Haryana, Himachal
Pradesh , Orissa and Mizoram, the number of the poor population has
remained constant. Despite the static or increasing trend in some states,
the country has witnessed some changes in some states where the
number of the poor has been reduced, as in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Kerela, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, with Assam and Gujarat to a smaller
extent.

FIGURE 5.2

Percentage of People Below Poverty Line in India (1973-2004)

YEARS RURAL (IN %) URBAN (IN %) COMBINED (IN %)

1973 36.4 49 54.9

1983 45.7 40.8 44.5

1993 37.3 32.3 36

2004 28.3 25.7 27.5

Source: Planning Commission of India, 2012.

Given the chronic cycle of poverty in India, it is imperative that

reduction of poverty be addressed on a multi-pronged approach. India
comprises of a distinct geography of poverty lent by the social groups of
the SCs and STs, OBCs, minorities, weaker sections of women and
children and the below the line of poverty concentrated in the areas
inhabitated by these sections of society. In line, the Government of India
has been concentrated on this pathway to plan and manage the varied
rural development programmes as :

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Self-employment programmes :
Integrated Rural Development Programme to Swarnjayanti Gram
Swarozgar Yojana :
The Integrated Rural Development Programme ( IRDP) introduced in
1978-1979 and universalized from 02.10.1980 has sought to
provide assistance to the rural poor, in the form of subsidy and
bank credit for productive employment opportunities through
successive plan periods. Training of Rural Youth for Self
Employment (TRYSEM) , Development of Women and Children In
Rural Areas (DWCRA), Supply of Improved Toolkits to Rural
Artisans (SITRA) and the Ganga Kalyan Yojana(GKY) were
introduced as sub-programmes of the IRDP, to attend to the specific
needs of the rural populace.
Even though the scheme of IRDP and the its sub- schemes were
introduced for the rural poor, the mode of implementation was on a
„stand alone‟ basis and the benefits of the schemes were not poised
for inter-linkages: an approach which detracted its effectiveness. As
these programmes were implemented without the desired linkages,
it failed to derive what it had aspired and planned for. The
appraisal of the Ninth Plan had indicated that these sub-schemes “
presented a matrix of multiple programmes without desired
linkages”. The programme suffered from the required investments,
lack of bank credit and lack of market.
Since the impact of the IRDP along with its sub-schemes was rather
marginal and failed to cause effect self-employment opportunities in
the rural areas, the Planning Commission set up a committee to
review the self-employment and wage-employment programmes in
1997. With the recommendation of the Committee, the self-
employment schemes of IRDP, TRYSEM, DWCRA, SITRA, GKY along
with the Million Wells Scheme (MWS) were integrated, causing a
shift from the individual beneficiary approach to a group-based
appproach, which would emphasise on the identification of activity
clusters in specific areas, incorporated with trainings and market

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linkages. Eventually, IRDP and the allied programmes, inclusive of
the Million Wells Scheme were merged into a single programme
known as the Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY), as on
01.04.1999, for want of a group and participatory approach.

SGSY was conceived as a holistic programme of micro-

enterprise development with emphasis in organizing the rural poor
into Self-Help Groups through a process of capacity building,
planning of activity clusters, infrastructure support, technology,
credit and marketing linkages and to focus on key activities and on
activity cluster, to create wide spread income generating activities
through the empowering mechanism of the SHGs, where group
dynamics are to compensate for the basic weaknesses of the
individual rural poor and present them as credit worthy and
financially accountable units.

The formation of Self-Help Groups (SHGs) by itself contributes

to the empowerment and economic well-being of the poor by
improving their collective barganing position. The group formation
also emphasises on social capital and enables the poor to interact
with other social groups from a position of strength. Group
formation is the focus and strength of SGSY. The SHGS move
through various stages : social mobilisation and formation of groups
(initial phase); savings and internal lending among the members of
the group on their own, augmented by revolving fund grants from
the government and linkages with banks and other credit agencies
(second phase); obtaining micro finance (third phase) and setting up
of micro enterprises (fourth phase), involving a long gestation period
to reach maturity.
The SGSY programme‟s objectives is to mould and facilitate
the SHGs to mature into groups, to take up viable and successful
economic activitites. This process is effected through the
establishment of micro-enterprises, which caters to the specific
needs of an area. The identification of key activities and planning of

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activity clusters is an important component of SGSY with the
involvement of the PRIs, banks, micro-finance institutions, NGOs
and the district level officers of different development departments,
to work in close coordination in the preparation of a District Plan for
the economic activities under the programme.

Marketing strategy is an in-built component of the SGSY

programme too since marketing is an integral part of every self-
employment venture. Under the programme, it is envisaged that
Rural Haats or village markets be promoted at the block, district
centres and other larger towns, through the construction of
permanent spaces and pucca sheds along with the provision of
storage facilities and godowns, with transport links in the vicinity;
thereby progressing to linkages to bigger ventures through private
channels, industrial enterprises and export houses. This model was
successfully demonstrated in Andhra Pradesh, where Philips India
and Hindustan Lever had forged links with DWCRA groups for
marketing their products. Intermediate aggregate mechanisms like
producer cooperatives and marketing agencies which can facilitate
the transaction between dispersed rural producers with the
industrial enterprises and export houses is one of the core issues
that the programme aims to objectify.

SGSY seeks to promote a network of agencies, namely, the District

Rural Development Agencies(DRDAs), line departments under the
state government, banks, NGOs and the Panchayati Raj Institutions
for implementation of the programme. The programme is credit
driven and subsidy is back-ended, marking a shift in the
intervention of financial resources from that of the erstwhile IRDP;
with the credit-subsidy ratio at 3:1 and subsidy fixed at 30 percent
of the project cost subject to a maximum of ` 7500 per individual
beneficiary and 50 percent of the project cost to a maximum of `
10,000 in the case of SCs and STs. In the case of group projects, the
subsidy is 50 percent of the project cost, subject to a ceiling of `

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1.25 lakh. Funds under the programme are shared between the
Centre and the State governments in the ratio of 75:25. The
programme has in-built safeguards and concessions for the weaker
sections, insisting on 50 percent of SHGs be formed exclusively by
women and 50 percent of the benefits to flow to the SCs and STs,
along with a provision for the disabled.7

The SHG approach helps the poor to build their self-confidence

through community action, group processes and collective decision
enabled them in the identification and prioritization of their needs
and resources. This process would ultimately lead the SHGs to the
strengthening and socio-economic empowermnet of the rural poor.

The new approach to the self-employment programme, SGSY, made

significant contribution to the empowerment of the beneficiaries,
more so of the women beneficiaries. The scheme has been
successful in delivering the outcomes, in terms of of poverty
alleviation where ever capacity building and beneficiary mobilization
have been carried out. Thrift, multiple lending, participatory process
of identification and the pursuit of economic activities have ensured
success in states like Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerela
substantially.8

Since inception till the end of the Eleventh Plan period (2012), close
to 2.6 million SHGs have been formed under the programme, SGSY,
sixteen lakh SHGs have crossed the Grade-I stage, eight lakh SHGs
have passed the Grade-II stage and five lakh SHGs have taken up
economic activities. Out of the ` 25,000 crore credit flow targetted
under the programme, less than 50 percent has been achieved.

7. Ministry of Rural Development. Government of India, SGSY Guidelines, 1999.

8. Planning Commission , Government of India, SGSY Success Story Report, 2012.

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 Despite the substantial coverage of beneficiaries under the SGSY,
the coverage was considerably lower than the 2.2 million coverage
under IRDP, on an annual basis, during the Eighth Plan period
(1993-1998), prior to the scheme being re-constituted as SGSY.9

Implementation of the SGSY programme though found successful in

a few states, the majority of the states were not impacted as
envisaged. While the IRDP concentrated on individual beneficiaries
oriented on subsidy, the SGSY laid emphasis on social mobilisation
and group formation, oriented on credit linkages and back-ended
subsidy. Even though there were marked changes in the mode of
operation, the assigned institutional facilitators like the DRDAs, the
financial institutions, the involvement of the NGOs were found
wanting on a number of counts, resulting to poor mobilisation of
credit and further growth. (See Table 5.3, page 167)

9.Planning Commission SGSY Success Story Report, 2012.

Continued..

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Financial and Physical Performance under Poverty Alleviation
Programmes

Sl Years IRDP /SGSY

No

Total Total Lakh

Allocation Expenditure Families
(Centre + Swarozgaries
State)

1 2 3 4 5

Eight Plan

1 1992 – 93 662.22 693.88 20.69

2 1993 – 94 1093.43 956.65 25.39

3 1994 – 95 1098.22 1008.31 22.15

4 1995 – 96 1097.21 1077.16 20.89

5 1996 – 97 1097.21 1131.68 19.24

Total 5048.29 4867.68 108.36

Ninth Plan

1 1997-98 1133.51 1109.54 17.07

2 1998-99 1456.28 1162.28 16.77

3 1999-2000 1472.34 959.86 9.34

4 2000-2001 1332.50 1116.27 10.30

5 2001-2002 774.50 555.15 6.25

Total 6169.13 4716.17 56.92

Source : Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, 2012.

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National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM-AAJEEVIKA) :

The National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM)10 is the reformed

package programme of the Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana
(SGSY), introduced during 2011, with a mandate to reach out to all
the poor households in the country, on a phased mission. Its
mission is “to reduce poverty by enabling the poor households to
access gainful employment and skilled wage employment
opportunities, resulting in appreciable improvement in their
livelihoods on a sustainable basis through building strong grass
roots institutions of the poor.” The NRLM promotes the formation of
self-help institutions of the poor - the Self-Help Groups (SHGs) and
their federations and building their capacities to improve their
livelihoods on a sustainable basis. The NRLM-Aajeevika will work
simultaneously on five critical dimensions of rural livelihoods and
human development :

i) Strengthening the package of credit-cum-technology support

to strengthen rural livelihoods
ii) Empowering institutions of the poor that will fundamentally
alter the balance of power in rural India
iii) Facilitating the poor to compete on more equal terms in the
market so that they can derive real benefits from the new
opportunities opening up in rural India ( rather than being at
the receiving end)
iv) Inproving the quality of human development programmes
such as drinking water, sanitation and housing by making
higher private investments possible through credit
component being added to the subsidies being currently
provided

10. Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, National Rural

Livelihood Mission Manual, 2011.

- 168 -
v) Imparting the much needed skills to the rural population in
order to meet the demands of both the growing rural and
urban economies and ensuring placement of skilled workers
in appropriate jobs

The NRLM is being executed in a phased manner, specifically

keeping in mind the experience of the SGSY implementation and to
ensure quality of outcomes and to avoid spreading resources too
thin and too quickly. In each Phase, select districts and blocks will
be identified by each state for intensive implementation of the NRLM
activities. The „intensive blocks‟ that are taken up for NRLM
implementation would be provided a full complement of trained
professional staff to undertake a range of activities under the key
components of the mission :

Building institutions of the poor

Promotion of financial inclusion
Diversification and strengthening of the livelihoods of the poor
Promotion of convergence and partnerships between institutions of
the poor and the government and non-government agencies
Promotion of skills and placement support
Support for livelihoods and social innovations

The lack of quality in the earlier self-employment scheme of SGSY

outcomes had a great deal to do with the absence of high quality
professional support at the block and sub-block level for
undertaking intensive social mobilization, institution building,
capacity building, financial inclusion and promotion of multiple
livelihoods of the poor. NRLM ensures that professional support in
the exact measure is executed with the professional support costs
incurred at the block and sub-block levels be treated as costs of the
institution and capacity building and not as administrative costs. In
the phased approach to be adopted under NRLM, the block level

- 169 -
professionals will move from one block to another, after promoting
and nurturing the community institutions of the poor for a certain
period. Gradually, the trained Community Resource Persons (CRPs)
would take over the responsibility of the institutions from the
professional staff, whose costs would progressively be absorbed by
the institutions as they financially grow stronger.

The major focus of the NRLM is to develop the skills of the rural
poor , focusing more on the rural youth, both for self-employment in
micro-enterprises and job placements, given the emerging
employment opportunities in high growth sectors of
construction,textiles, hospitals, retail, security, automobile services
. The services provided by NRLM in the „jobs‟ component include (i)
mapping the demand for jobs (ii) skill development training (iii)
counselling the youth in matching their aspirations and existing set
of skills with demand (iv) placement and post-placement support.
The self-employment and micro-enterprise component defines (i)
micro-entrepreneurs and the enterprise directly nurtured by Rural
Development and Self-Employment Training Centres (RUDSETIs) (ii)
micro-entrepreneurs through apprenticeship by practising micro-
entrepreneurship (iii) working with other training partners,
including the NGOs and CBOs.

Wage Employment Programmes :

Jawahar Rozgar Yojana to the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural
Employment Guarantee Scheme :
Wage employment programmes, an important component of the
anti-poverty strategy have sought to achieve multiple objectives.
They not only provide employment opportunities during lean
agricultural seasons but also in times of floods, droughts and other
natural calamities. The schemes seek to create rural infrastructure
which support further economic activity. These wage employment
schenmes tend to regulate the market wage rates by attracting the
people to public works programmes thereby reducing the labour

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supply and pushing up the demand for labour. The first wage
employment schemes were the National Rural Employment
Programme (NREP) and the Rural Landless Employment
Guaranteee Programme (RLEGP), launched during the Sixth and
Seventh Five Year Plans.
The NREP and the RLEGP were merged in April 1989 under the
banner programme of Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY). The JRY was
launched to generate meaningful employment opportunities for the
unemplyed and the under-employed of the rural areas, through the
creation of economic infrastructure along with community and
social assets. In the initial years of launching the JRY, the
programme had in-built components akin to the Indira Awaas
Yojana (IAY) and the Million Wells Scheme. However, both the
schemes of IAY and the MWS were bifurcated into independent
schemes during 1996.
Under JRY, 73,764.83 lakh mandays of employment were generated
from 1989-1999 in the rural areas. Employment generation however
declined, partly due to paucity of fund allocations and the
increasing cost of employment generation. As per the indicative
statistics of the Government of India, it was found that a major
portion of the JRY funds were spent on roads and buildings and
that the village community found the community assets being
created were directly beneficial for them. 47 percent of the SC and
ST population benefitted from the employment generation
opportunities under JRY but statistics showed that only 45 percent
of the intended rural people were actually employed under the
scheme while reports indicated a 100 percent employment
generated to the rural unemployed and under-employed.11

A synonymous programme under the wage employment sector,

namely, the Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS) was launched by

11. Ministry of Rural Development, Government. of India. Annual Report, 2002-

2003.

- 171 -
the government on 02.10.1993, covering one thousand seven
hundred and seventy three drought-prone, desert, tribal and hilly
area blocks and later extended to all the blocks in 1997-1998. The
EAS was intended to provide employment in the form of manual
work in the lean agricultural seasons. The works taken up under
the programme were expected to lead to the creation of durable
economic and social infrastructure and address the felt needs of the
people. Taking cognizance of the on-going infrastructural items in
the village, the programme prohibited the construction of buidings
for religious purposes, monuments, memorials, welcome gates,
panchayat buildings, government office buildings and buildings for
the higher secondary schools and colleges. It also provided for
maintenance ofassets created under the scheme. Initially, the
programme was demand-driven but was later changed, with effect
from 1999, as the resources were allocated to the states based on
the incidence of poverty, thereby annulling the demand-driven
aspect in the programme. The highest point of mandays generated
under the programme was under the Eighth Plan period when
statistics portrayed 10,719.59 lakh mandays generated but however
tapered with the simultaneous tapering off of the funds because of
the watershed items under the programme being transferred to the
Integrated Wasteland Development Programme(IWDP), during the
end of the Ninth Plan period (2001-2002).12

While considering on the impact factor of the programme

implementation, the Jawahar Rozgar Yojana was revamped as the
Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana (JGSY), with effect from
01.04.1999, into a programme intended to create rural economic
infrastructure with employment generation as a secondary
objective. The programme is implementaed by the Village

12. . Annual Report, 2002 – 2003, Op.Cit.

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 Panchayats and provides for specific benefits for the SCs and STs,
the disabled and for the maintemnance of the community assets
created in the past.
Since its inception , the programme, JGSY has generated 27 crore
mandays of employment on an annual basis approximately,
indicating a marked drop from a high of 103 mandays of
employment generated under JRY, during 1993-1994. There exist
reports that there was fund inadequacy in every state, district and
village, as the available funds proved to be meagre in order to cover
every Panchayat.

The implementation of these wage employment programmes

undoubtedly provided the leeway for creation of rural community
assets and would have caused the upliftment of rural poverty to a
certain extent, but in the absence of evaluated impact factors, the
exact effect on employment and income is rather limited. Allocations
were based on a fixed criterion, that is, „resource allocation based
on incidence of poverty‟, which did not cater to the needs of the
regionally differentiated needs of the country, leading to a thin and
often inadequate spread of funds, resulting to employment being
provided for only 31 days even in the poor pockets of the country.13

Despite the sporadic cases of deviations from the programme

mandate, wage employment schemes have proved to be beneficial
to the rural poor to a certain extent. The wage employment
programmes are self-targeting in nature, since it is only the poor
who are willing to come for the labour-intensive works at the
minimum wages rates. The works taken up under the programme
have created demand for unskilled labour and raised the wage
rates, thereby protecting consumption patterns of the rural poor
during natural calamities.

13. Planning Commission, Government of India, Programme Evaluation

Organization Study, 2001.

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With the need to provide food security to the rural poor, the Food for
Work programme was launched in 2000-2001, as a component of
the EAS programme in eight notified districts of drought-affected
states of Chhatisgarh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Uttaranchal. The
programme aimed at augmenting food security through wage
employment. Foodgrains are supplied to the states, free of cost, with
the lifting of foodgrains from the Food Corporation of India (FCI)
godowns left to the state government‟s prerogative. Evaluation of the
programme implementation showed that lifting of foodgrains was
slow and failed to reach the intended rural poor at their time of
need. Against an allocation of 35.31 lakh tonnes of foodgrains
sanctioned, only 21.26 lakh tonnes were lifted by the target states
during 2000 – 2002 (January).14

By September, 2001, the government initiated a revised wage

employment programme known as the Sampoorna Gramin Rozgar
Yojana (SGRY), by merging the on-going wage employment schemes
of JGSY, EAS and Food for Work Programme. The basic aim of the
SGRY was complementary to the principles of the earlier schemes
and continued to encompass the generation of wage employment
opportunities, creation of durable economic infrastructure in the
rural areas along with the provision of food and nutrition to the
poor. The works taken up under the programme are labour-
intensive and the rural workers are paid the minimum wages, as
notified by the respective states. Payment of wages is provided
partly in cash and partly in kind that is, five kilograms of
foodgrains and the balance in cash. The Centre and the State share
the cost of the cash component in the ratio of 75:25.

14. Annual Report, 2002 – 2003, Op.Cit.

- 174 -
 Through the succession of Plan periods, a large number of
rural facilities have been built under the varied programmes of rural
development. But, due to certain elements, the rural infrastructural
items so built up have degenerated, perhaps due to faulty design
and poor construction or lack of maintenance in the initial years of
implementing the programme of SGRY. Subsequently, redressal of
the issue emerged by the specific allocation being apportioned for
maintenance of the established assets.
Wage employment programmes in India has sought to
establish itself as one of the prime movers for development of the
rural areas. These programmes have sought to provide short-term
employment to the unskilled workers in the rural areas by
providing income to poor households during periods when there
exists no opportunity of employment. In areas of high
unemployment and under-employment, these programmes have
brought succour to the poor by the transfer of income benefits and
sustaining them from the indignities of poverty worsening, more so
during lean agricultural periods. Durable assets that these
programmes have created have sought to provide second dosages of
employment benefits to the rural poor too.
The Indian Government has since 1989 introduced the
element of the much neededfocus; the workfare programmes, into
the folds of the rural masses through the launch of the Jawahar
Rozgar Yojana and has been committed to the principles of the
workfare programmes and along the way has sought to heighten its
significance through 1989-2006. With the launch of the National
Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA)15, India initiated a
radical innovation by legalizing a programme, by an Act of

15. National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005.

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Parliament. Based on the past experiences on wage employment
implementation, the NREGA was enacted to reinforce the
commitment towards livelihood security in the rural areas. The Act
was notified on 07.09.2005. The significance of the NREGA lies in
the fact that it creates a rights-based framework for wage
employment programmes and legally binds the government to
provide employment to those who seek employment; providing a
social safety net and to ensure absolute guarantee of employment.

The objective of the NREGA is to enhance the livelihood

security of the people in rural areas by guaranteeing one hundred
days of wage employment in a financial year to a rural household
whose members volunteer to do unskilled manual work. The Act
further aims at creating durable assets and strengthening the
livelihood resource base of the rural poor in areas with chronic
poverty, caused by drought, deforestation, soil erosion and to
ensure that the process of wage employment or employment
generation is on a sustainable basis. Employment under NREGA is
dependent upon the choice of the workers to apply for registration,
obtain a job card and seek employment through a written
application stating the time and duration chosen. The legal
guarantee has to be fulfilled within the prescribed time limit and
this mandate is underpinned by the provision of the unemployment
allowances too. The Act is thus designed to offer an incentive
structure to the States for providing 90 percent of the cost for
employment provided is borne by the Centre along with a
concomitant disincentive for not providing employment, if
demanded, as the States bear the double indemnity of
unemployment and the cost of unemployment allowances. While
the bygone wage employment schemes were allocation based,
NREGA has sought to be demand-supply driven. Funds from the
Centre to the States is entirely based on the demand for
employment, providing a critical leverage to the State governments

- 176 -
to meet with the employment needs of the rural poor. The delivery
system has been made accountable as it envisages an Annual
Report on the outcomes of the NREGA, to be presented to the
Central Government and laying of the papers in the Parliament and
to the State Legislature by the State governments.

Starting with two hundred districts across the country in

Phase-I during 2006-2007, NREGA was extended to additional one
hundred and thirty districts in Phase-II during 2007-2008, covering
the whole country with effect from 01.04.2008. As a district is
notified under the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, the
on-going Sampoorna Gramin Rozgar Yojana (SGRY) was
automatically merged with the NREGA and ceased to exist
therefrom.
The Central Government bears the costs of the programme as 16 :
Entire cost of wages of unskilled manual workers
75 percent of the cost of material, wages of skilled and semi-
skilled workers
Administrative expenses, as maybe determined by the Central
Government, including the salary and the allowances of the
Programme Officer and supporting staff and work site
facilities
Expenses of the National Employment Guarantee Council

The State government bears the costs of the programme as :

25 percent of the cost of material, wages of skilled and semi-

skilled workers (ratio of 60:40 is to maintained for wages of
the unskilled manual workers and the material, skilled and
semi-skilled workers‟ wages, the State government has to
bear only 25 percent of the 40 percent component, which
means a contribution of 10 percent of the expenditure.)

16. Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, NREGA

Guidelines, 2006.

- 177 -
Unemployment allowance, payable in case the State
government cannot provide wage employment on time
Administrative expenses of the State Employment
Guarantee Council
For the full optimization of the programme, the Central
Government has inserted certain principles for policy
implementation as :
Since the NREGA is a right-based programme, the
articulation of employment demand by the rural poor is a
pre-requisite, that is accentuated when the rural workers are
often illiterate and unorganized. As a means to enhance the
effectiveness of the programme, generation of awareness
among the local communities through the medium of
Information, Education and Communication (IEC) plays a
vital element, critical for enabling the poor to articulate
demand for employment. States have devised a variety of
methods for communication and invoke the social
mobilisation process which would include the preparation of
communication material on NREGA in simple language, one
day orientation of the stakeholders, convening Gram Sabhas,
using district teams for village level interactions, local
vernacular newspapers, TV and radio spots, panphlets and
brochures, local cultural forums, setting up of information
counters on market days, village information wall, fixing a
Rozgar Day in a week and establishing helplines. Full
knowledge of the rights that NREGA confers to the rural poor
remains to be the pre-requisite for attaining the goals of the
programme.
Since the Act guarantees the providence of employment
within fifteen days of demand and the instrument for
providing employment consists of unskilled manual work to
be selected from the list of permissible list of works, it has a
direct bearing that the works have to be meticulously

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planned on, as bound by the legal guarantee. A Labour
Budget, as stipulated under the Act is required to be
prepared so as to facilitate advance planning, whereby the
districts estimate their labour demand for the ensuing
financial year, by preparing an annual shelf of projects and
accounting for the estimated benefits in terms of persondays.
At the same time, planning has to ensure that the physical
targets are correctly quantified while focusing on the creation
of durable and productive assets. Display of list of works to
be taken up on the work site has been stipulated, so that the
workers know the work opportunities available in their local
areas.
The NREGA Guidelines mandate the preparation of a Five
Year District Perspective Plan, indicating the village mapping
of natural resources and social; infrastructure, identification
of gaps and works that can be taken up as per the
permissible list of works, assessment of works that are in
alignment to the needs of the locality, to identify the
livelihood base so as to enable the poor devlop themselves
for sustainable employment, other than relying on NREGA.
For this, the planning capacity of the PRIS and the district
level functionaries has to be capacitated and enabled to
provide the necessary service as required.
NREGA places a strong emphasis on vigilance and
transparency. A web enabled management information
systems (MIS), www.nrega.nic.in has been developed to place
all information in the public domain. It is meant to be a
household level database and has internal checks for
ensuring consistency and conformity to processes along with
all the critical parameters set to be met within the
programme.
Since the Act contains certain specific provisions for public
accountability, the entire process of the programme relates

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to public accountability; to following the Right to
Information (RTI) in letter and spirit, resulting to proactive
disclosure of information and a transparent social audit
process of all works in the Gram Panchayat, where civil
society organizations are to play a significant role in the
social audit processes.
The Act vests the responsibility for grievance redressal with
the Programme Officer. To ensure prompt redressal of
grievances, it is mandatory that a Grievance Redressal Cell
be set up, with a toll free helpline, where the Programme
Officer and the District Programme Coordinator (DPC) offices
review the redressal exercises on a monthly basis and that
the aggrieved persons be appraised promptly.
The administrative systems of the programme are to be
strengthened by bringing in multi-disciplinary professional
expertise in the Ministry of Rural Development so as to
provide resource support in critical areas, inter alia assisting
theMInistry in formulating and codifying standard operating
procedures for measurable outcomes, programme delivery
systems, to design appropriate MIS for monitoring the
programme outcomes and to transfer the professional
facilitation to the State governments, the district and sub-
district levels in terms of capacity building and trainings.
Trainings are to be rendered to all the stakeholders of the
programme including the functionaries, PRIs and the local
vigilance committees, without compromise on the quality.
NREGA is a rights-based programme and its effectiveness
lies in the extent to which the workers or wage seekers can
exercise their choice and assert their right to claim their
entitlements under the Act. The issues involved in
empowering the workers are in the range of enhancement of
knowledge levels, development of literacy skills, organizing
the work force and enhancing the social security levels of the

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wage seekers and to enhance their livelihood without the
requirement of seeking manual jobs, in the future.
The Act envisages on the empowerment of workers and the
creation of durable assets by the formation of strong linkages
between NREGA and other development schemes, linkages
with National Rural Health Mission (NRHM), National
Mission for Literacy and Elementary Education along with
other livelihood and infrastructure initiatives undertaken so
as to ensure basic human entitlements to the workers and to
strengthen the natural resource base of livelihood. It is
anticipated that the full potential of the works permissible
under NREGA can be fully tapped with the coordination of
other development programmes,example, watershed
development, agriculture and horticulture projects.
(See Table 5.4, page 182)

Continued..

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Table 5.4 Table 5.4

OVERVIEW OF MGNREGA PERFORMANCE, 2006-12

2009-09
2006-07 2007-09
All
(200 (330 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12
Districts
Districts) Districts)
Hereon
Households Employed
(Crore) 2.10 3.39 4.51 5.26 5.49 4.99
Person-days of
Employment
90.50 143.59 216.32 283.59 257.15 211.41
generated (Crore)
Work Provided per year to
Households who worked
(days) 43.00 42.00 48.00 54.00 47.00 42.00

Central Release ( Rs. Crore) 8,640.85 12,610.39 30,000.19 33,506.61 35,768.95 29,184.85
Total Funds Available
(including Opening
49,579.19 54,172.14 43,273.59
Balance) (Rs. Crore) 12,073.55 19,305.81 37,397.06

Budget Outlay (Rs. Crore) 11,300.00 12,000.00 30,000.00 39,100.00 40,100.00 40,100.00

Expenditure (Rs. Crore) 8,823.35 15,856.89 27,250.10 37,905.23 39,377.27 37,548.79

Average Wage per day(Rs) 65.00 75.00 84.00 90.00 100.00 117.00
Total Works taken up
(lakhs) 8.35 17.88 27.75 46.17 50.99 74.13

Works completed (lakhs) 3.87 8.22 12.14 22.59 25.90 15.01

Source : Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, 2012.

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 Rural Housing :
Indira Awaas Yojana :

Housing is a basic human need, the providence of a roof for the

shelterless is a vital asset that can be endowed on a person and
acknowledged as a right,17 that “ everyone has the right to a standard of
living adequate for the health and well-being of himself, and his family,
including food, clothing, housing.....” India had also acted in accordance,
by enthusing the principle of “housing for all‟ and that the provisons of
public housing assistance be provided to all shelterless families.18 The
National housing and Habitat Policy, 1998, stated that the ultimate goal of
the policy was to ensure “Shelter to all‟ and a better quality of life for
everyone.

Though the earliest housing programmes taken up by the

government was for rehabilitation of the refugees immediately ater the
partition of the country in 1947, the government actually started
implementing its major housing scheme of Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) from
01.01.1996.

The role of the government is confined to facilitating the use of

local, low cost, environment friendly, disaster-resistant technology and in
encouraging the construction of sanitary latrines and the smokeless
chulhas. The beneficiaries construct the houses as per their own choice of
design, technology and requirement, on a full grant of subsidy; factors
which lead to high levels of occupancy and satisfaction of the
beneficiaries, as revealed in evaluation studies.

The funds for the IAY scheme are shared between the Centre and
the State Governments in the ratio of 75:25. The Central budget is
allocated to the States based on 75 percent weightage to housing shortage

17. Article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights as adopted by the General
Assembly of the United Nations, 1948.

18. Basic Minimum Services (BMS) Programme, 1996.

- 183 -
and 25 percent to the share of the SC and ST population. To introduce
transparency, the selection of beneficiaries which was earlier done
through the Gram Sabhas is currently selected from the Permanent IAY
Waitlists. These Lists are prepared on the basis of rankings given to
families, as part of the standing BPL Census. Further, 60 percent of the
IAY funds are earmarked for the SCs and STs, 3 percent for the disabled
and 15 percent for the minorities, with houses to be sanctioned in the
name of the women beneficiary or jointly with the husband, another
indication that the gender issue or weaker section is being attended to in
toto.19

However, inadequacy of cash assistance for construction has

indicated that the houses so built are often of the poor quality, non-
fulfilment of requirements for disaster-prone areas and debt-trap on
account of the beneficiaries having to borrow funds to complete the
construction of a pucca house, despite the contribution of their labour to
a large extent. Realizing the state of affairs and the constraints posed by
the inadequate in-flow of cash assistance, the government has increased
the unit cost a number of times, resulting to the extant ceiling of grant of
assistance as : (i) Construction of House - ` 45,000 in plain areas and `
48,500 in hilly and difficult areas (ii) Upgradation of unserviceable
households - ` 15,000 in both areas (iii) in addition to the assistance
provided under IAY, an IAY beneficiary can avail a loan upto ` 20,000 per
housing unit under the Differential Rate of Interest (DRI) Scheme, at an
interest rate of 4 percent per annum (iv) Construction of sanitary latrines
and smokeless chulhas are to be undertaken as a convergence scheme, to
be funded in accordance under the Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) (v)

19. Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, Indira Awaas Yojana

Guidelines, 2010.

- 184 -
IAY has been dovetailed with the Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran
Yojana (RGGVY), so as to ensure free electricity connections to the IAY
houses.

The implementation of the IAY, through the years, has seen many
changes in anticipation for a better strategy and interventions laid down
by the government from time to time, in terms of selection of beneficiaries,
funding system, adequacy of the unit cost for construction of houses and
upgradation of unserviceable houses, structural facilities and the
provision of infrastructure, ownership issues of the IAY houses and has
been devising specific initiatives as : 20

Financial assistance provided under IAY was raised twice during the
Eleventh Plan, as on 01.04.2008; the ceiling of assistance was
raised from ` 25,000 in the plain areas and ` 27,500 for hilly and
difficult areas to that of ` 35,000 and ` 37,500 respectively and to
` 45,000 in the plain areas and ` 48,500 in the hilly and difficult
areas as on 01.04.2010. The higher assistance is also provided to
districts under the Integrated Action Plan (IAP) for select backward
and tribal districts.
The IAY funds were being directly released to the DRDAs for
further disbursement, but with the observation that there did not
exist uniformity in disbursing the amount to the beneficiaries, the
government has streamlined the process for speedy disbursement
of the funds and to speed up the physical progress of the
construction, the implementing agencies of IAY at the district level
are mandated to disburse the IAY funds directly to the beneficiaries,
by depositing in the bank accounts of the beneficiaries and Post
Offfice accounts of the beneficiaries.
To ensure transparency and fair selection of benficiaries, the State
governments are to prepare and finalize their Permanent IAY

20. Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, Eleventh Five Year Plan,
2007-12, Inclusive Growth, Volume I, 2007.

- 185 -
Waitlist in such a manner that the poorest of the poor get the top
slot in receiving the benefits under the scheme. Another significant
step undertaken by the Central Government is the introduction of
the social audit system, to ensure proper utilization of funds and to
make the system leak proof. In addition, the State governments are
charged with making the database of the IAY beneficiaries and to be
posted in public domain.

As a complementary effort, the State governments are being

urged to synchronize the IAY with their state-run housing schemes
so as to provide a wider outreach of „housing for all‟ to all the poor.
Despite the stimulation and the decision, the gap between the
supply and demand is yet a wide vacuum. The State governments
are required for added sensivity towards this sector.

The landless poor are vulnerable as they are disadvantaged by both

being shelterless and landless at the same time. There is a
provision for making available homestead sites to those rural BPL
households whose names are on the IAY premanent wait lists but
do not have a house site. ` 10,000 per homestead site is currently
provided, this funding being equally shared by the Centre and the
States. The States are also incentivised by allocating additional IAY
houses equal to the number of homestead sites provided through
any of the stipulated means- regularisation of existing occupied
lands, allotment of government land or purchase and acquisition of
land. If the amount falls short, the balance amount is contributed
by the State government. BPL families allotted land through
purchase are to the extent feasible, provided assistance for house
construction in the same year.
There have been progress made through the institutional revisions
made but has failed to catch up as desired.The drive towards
convergence with other rural infrastructure schemes has not been
up to the mark, with an average convergence of 25 percent with

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Total Sanitation Campaign, 20 percent with smokeless chulhas, 1
percent with RGGVY till date and only a few states like Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh, Kerela, Bihar, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra,
Uttar Pradesh, Sikkim have availed of the funds for purchase of
homestead land under this scheme.

Table
Table
5.5 5.5

IAY-Financial Performance during 11th Plan (2007-2012)

Total Available Fund Utilistion

Year (Rs Crore) * (Rs. Crore)

2007-2008 6,527.17 5,464.54 (83.72)

2008-2009 14,460.35 8,348.34 (57.73)

2009-2010 15,852.35 13,292.46 (83.85)

2010-2011 17,956.54 13,465.73(74.99)

2011-2012 18,982.69 12,451.12(65.59)

Source : Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, 2012.

Notes: (i) * includes Opening Balance and Centre and State Releases
(ii) Figures in the parentheses are percent utilisation to total
available fund.

(See Table 5.6, page 188)

Continued..

- 187 -
 Table 5.6
PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE OF IAY DURING 11TH PLAN
(2007-2012)

IAY HOUSES (In Lakh)

Year TARGET CONSTRUCTED
2007-2008 21.27 19.92 (93.66)

2008-2009 21.27 21.34(100.32)

2009-2010 40.52 33.85(83.55)

2010-2011 29.09 27.15(93.36)

2011-2012 27.27 22.30(81.80)

Source : Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, 2012.

Notes : Figures in the parentheses are percent achievement of the total
target.

With the gradual shift of transfering credit through financial

institutions and banks as opposed to the grant-based assistances, the
participation of the National Housing Bank (NHB), the National Bank for
Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) and Housing and Urban
Development Corporation (HUDCO) are extending support for rural
housing. The National Housing Bank is the apex financial institution for
housing in the country and runs schemes such as the Rural Housing
Fund (RHF) the Golden Jubilee Rural Housing Refinance Scheme
(GJRHRS) and the Productive Housing in Rural Areas (PHIRA). Since
2001-2002, NABARD has identified rural housing refinances as an
eligible activity and extends refinance to banks for provision of loans to
individuals and cooperative housing societies and the HUDCO supporting
the activities of the PRIs, Housing Board and Development Authorities in
their endeavour towards rural housing too.

Social Protection :
National Social Assistance Programme :

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 The Constitution of India, under Article 41 states that “ the State
shall, within the limits of its economic capacity and development, make
effective provision for securing the right to work, to education and to
public assistance in cases of unemployment, old age, sickness and
disablement, and in other cases of undeserved want”. Social protection
therefore signifies public assistance in all cases of undeserved want and in
providing human security to the poor and the destitute.
The National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP) was launched in
India by 15.08.1995, with the basic aim to providing social assistance
benefit to the rural poor, in case of old age, death of primary bread
winner and for poor women during maternity. It aims at providing a
modicum of dignity and support so as to ensure a minimum quality of life
from the community at large. It provides an opportunity to link the social
assistance package to other schemes meant for poverty alleviation and the
provision of basic needs to the poor. The NSAP is a 100 percent grant
assistance from the Central Government provided to the States and the
Union Territories, under the direct supervision of the DRDAs, in close
collaboration with the PRIs. Initially, the NSAP consisted of three
components, namely, the National Old Age Pension Scheme (NOAPS), the
National Family Benefit Scheme (NFBS) and the National Maternity
Benefit Scheme(NMBS).
Subsequently, on the recommendation of the Group of Ministers
(GoM), a new scheme was launched as the Annapurna on 01.04.2000, as
a Centrally Sponsored Scheme, to provide food security and to meet the
requirement of those senior citizens, who though eligible, have remained
uncovered under NOAPS, with an entitlement of 10 kilogram of foodgrains
per month, free of cost, to eligible beneficiaries aged sixty five years and
above.
These schemes continued to be implemented as Centrally
Sponsored Schemes and were thereon transferred as Central Assistance
for State Plans during 2002-2003, on the recommendation of the National
Development Council (NDC) and funds are now released as Additional
Central Assistance (ACA) to the States. Guidelines are issued by the

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Ministry of Rural Development at the Centre and the Ministry of Rural
Development monitors expenditures under the Additional Central
Assistance, but it is the responsibility of the State governments to identify
the beneficiaries, sanction benefits and disburse payments.
By the Eleventh Plan period , the NSAP was revised with the Indira
Gandhi National Old Age Pension Scheme (IGNOAPS), the Annapurna
Scheme and the National Family Benefit Scheme(NFBS). In February
2009, two more schemes were added under the NSAP – the Indira Gandhi
National Widow Pension Scheme (IGNWPS) and the Indira Gandhi
National Disability Pension scheme (IGNDPS), as a means to extend the
social welfare benefits to the uncovered sections of the society . Although
the quantum of the assistance is small when compared with other
schemes, these pension schemes have been described as veritable lifelines
for widows, the elderly and the disabled. The Physical and Financial
Progress of NSAP during the Eleventh Plan is given at Table 5.7, a
quantifiable measure of development given that the NSAP allocations have
increased eight-fold since 2002-2003 till the end of the Eleventh Plan
period.21

Table 5.7
NSAP Progress in the Eleventh Plan
Expenditure
Beneficiaries
Year Reported
(in lakh)
Rs. Crore
2007-08
3,110.99 128.89
2008-09
3,875.31 167.63
2009-10
4,718.83 216.06
2010-11
5,480.60 231.12
201-2012
5,121.95 253.64

Source : Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, 2012.

21. Eleventh Five Year Plan, 2007-12, Op. Cit.

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Planning And Management of Rural Development Programmes :
Mizoram Context

Since the early days of the Lushai Hills and progressing on into the
era of India‟s planned development since 1951-1952, the State of Mizoram
has been striving to reduce poverty and unemployment; aiming to walk in
line with the pace of development. From the days when the economy of
Mizoram was classed as being „static‟, Mizoram has grown into one of the
states of India with good prospects for a thriving economy.

Prior to 1972, when Mizoram was but a minor district of Assam,

funds for development of Mizoram was a paltry sum of ` 63.02 during the
First Five Year Plan (1952-56), increasing to ` 483.21 during the first
three years of the Fourth Five Year Plan (1966-70) and witnessing an
allocation of ` 6300.00 crore during the Eleventh Plan period (2007-
2012). Gradually, the state of Mizoram has witnessed growth as indicated
in the per capita income of ` 8319 in 1993-94 accelerating to an estimate
of ` 54,689 in the year 2011-12, as compared to the national per capita
income of ` 61,564 of the same period.22

The average monthly per capita expenditure (consumer expenditure)

during 2004-2005 indicated ` 778.35 in the rural areas while the urban
areas was estimated at ` 1200.51.23

As Mizoram‟s economy is predominantly rural in character, Rural

Development is sine qua non of the overall development, therefore the
resultant outcome of the rural development operatives bear a crucial
indicator on the economy of the state. Poverty alleviation has been one of
the guiding principles of planning in India

22. Department of Economics and Statistics, Government of Mizoram, Mizoram

Statistics, 2012.

23. Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India,

Survey of the 61st Round of the National Sample Survey, 2004-2005.

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and the same process has been attached to the state of Mizoram in toto.
As per the 1991 Census, the BPL population in Mizoram was clocked at
57.07 percent, decreasing to 36.09 percent during the 2001 Census and
on to 35.43 percent as recorded in the 2011 Census and the current
estimation clocking at 20.4 percent, as portrayed in the Reserve Bank of
India, 2012 Annual Report. While economic growth is an essential
component of development it needs to be reiterated that development is
not purely an economic phenomenon nor can the status indices indicate
or predict the actual development process and effects. Besides the
improvements found in the level of income and expenditure, it is a
necessity that there exist a co-related association of transformation in the
institutional, social and administrative structures and in the principles
and standard of the people and the community of a select area or State.

The major Rural Development programmes and Anti poverty

programmes and their implementation in Mizoram is in line with the set
norms as mandated by the Government of India, Ministry of Rural
Development as :

1. Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act

(MGNREGA):

The MGNREGA was started in Mizoram during the first phase of the
programme implementation. The Mizoram State Rural Employment
Guarantee Council (SEGC) is headed by the Secretary, Rural Development
Department and dually functions as the Employment Guarantee
Commissioner with an established body of functionaries at the State
Secretariat. The Project Directors of the DRDAs are entrusted the dual
charge of Programme Officers, supported by Additional Programme
Officers (APO) and supporting staff, so recruited in accordance with the
MGNREGA Guidelines. 24

24. Mizoram Mahatma Gandhi Rural Employment Guarantee Rules, 2014 .

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 As per the Government of India, Ministry of Rural Development
Guidelines for Framework for “Planning for Work and preparation of
Labour Budget” and “Work and Execution”, to be rolled into a Labour
Budget(LB), effective from the financial year 2013-14; wherein a shelf of
projects is to be prepared and prioritized after due assessment of the
quantum of work likely to be demanded and to ascertain the timing of
such demand are prerequisites for the successful implementation of
MGNREGA.
A baseline survey of job card holders is conducted in every village
and to obtain information on the seasonal demand for labour from each
job card holder and translated into a Annual Labour Budget to be
presented for approval of the Gram Sabha by second October each year.
It is experienced that this schedule of date does not give enough time to
enable completion for consolidation of the Labour Budgets and onward
submission to the Central Government by thirty first December. It has
therefore been decided to advance the date to fifteenth August of each
year. Once approved by the Gram Sabha (GS) the Annual Plan, with the
resolution of the Gram Sabha is to be submitted to the Additional
Programme Officer, who will scrutinize the Annual Plans against the
permissible works as specified in MGNREGA, collate all works within the
block and present the Plan before the Block Development Committee
(BDC) and thereon to the District Programme Coordinator (DPC) of the
programme. After approval of the Labour Budget by the District
authorities, (i) month-wise projection on number of households to be
provided (ii) persondays to be generated (iii) estimated expenditure on
works (iv) list of works to be undertaken would be disaggregated, village-
wise for data entry in the MIS, non-entry into MIS leads to consequences
where no expenditure can be booked against. The time-bound sequence of
approvals for the Labour Budgets ensures prompt coordination at
specified time periods and to translate the work priorities into actuality. It
is therefore legally imperative that there are no delays in the approval of
the development plan at any level. Delay in finalizing the development
plan will in turn affect fund release and flow of funds to the State and

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district, after adjustment of unspent balance at the close of the previous
financial year as figured in the MGNREGA Soft MIS.
At the State level, the State Rural Employment Guarantee Council
is headed by the Rural Development Minister as Chairman and the
Secretary, Rural Development Department or the State Rural Employment
Guarantee Council Commissioner as the Secretary, supported by the
dedicated MGNREGA Cell in the Mizoram Government Secretariat.
The District Rural Employment Guarantee Committee is headed by
the Deputy Commissioner as the District Programme Coordinator,
supported by the Project Director, DRDA as the District Programme
Officer (DPO). The District Programme Officer is supported by the regular
officers and staff under DRDA Administration and a dedicated staff of
Accounts Manager, Additional Programme Officer (one for each District
and one each for the Rural Development Blocks), Programme Assistants,
clerical staff, further strengthenned by the MIS Nodal Officer ( one in each
district), supported by a Computer Assistant in each Block, along with
the Engineering Cell and the Works Manager in the district and Junior
Engineers and Technical Assistant (one each in the DRDA and in each
Block).

It is a given that wherever there exists unemployment as demanded

by the volunteer workers, the State Rural Employment Guarantee Council
is to promptly disburse the “Unemployment Allowances”; of which
sanction and disbursal has not been effected till date, as the need has not
arisen, as documented in office records. However, the picture in the field
speaks a different tune, with unemployed workers not applying for the
unemployment allowances, due to reasons that the Government is
uncooperative in providing the allowances and for reasons that the
process of seeking unemployment allowances is cumbersome and entails
a long process. It may further be indicated that the State Council has
recently devised “The Mizoram Unemployment Allowance Rules 2014”
along with the “The Mizoram Payment of Delay Compensation Rules
2014”.

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 As against the salient features of the Act, wherein the wage
employment is to be provided on a „time-bound” guarantee of fifteen days,
employment is not granted within the stipulated date when demanded. As
observed from the field trips, wage employment is seldom demanded or
when demanded is not done through an application by the workers
requiring work. It has been recognized that work as proposed in the
Labour Budget is not the actual work demanded but labour of work is
only provided when funds exist, therefore, the „rights-based framework‟
may not be exercised in actual reality.
Another aspect of significance in the implementation of MGNREGA
is the component of Social Audit; to maintain transparency and
accountability with an objective to ensure public accountability in the
implementation of the projects through a public assembly where all the
details of projects are scrutinized. Social Audit under MGNREGA, in
Mizoram has been made mandatory under the “Mahatma Gandhi Rural
Employment Guarantee Audit of Scheme Rules, 2011.”

Social Audit is a vital process of public vigilance and has to be

attended with a high level of priority and that Social Audit be conducted
in a campaign mode under the charge of the District Programme
Coordinators with mandatory review of all aspects of Social Audit at
public meetings, to be held at least once in every six months. Though
Social Audit is very important and mandatory under MGNREGA, many of
the villages have not conducted Social Audits on a regular basis, as
recently reflected in the Ministry of Rural Development website. Under
Mizoram MGNREGA, the process of Social Audit has been constituted as
an autonomous body or society under “The Mizoram State Society for
Social Audit, Accountability and Transparency Rules, 2011”, headed
under a „Directorate of Social Audit- MGNREGA‟, entrusted to a Director
and supported by a Deputy Director, two State Resource Persons, one
Computer Analyst, one Programme Assistant, one Accountant and two
supporting staff, with effect from 2012; the Director‟s post is held by a

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retired State Civil Service officer and the post of Deputy Director held by a
faculty member from the State Institute of Rural Development, Mizoram.25

A pilot social audit was conducted in the Rural Development Blocks

of Tlangnuam and Thingsulthliah, Aizawl District during August 2013 -
February 2014 and the report is highlighted as : 26

Daily wages rate was less than the government approved rate
of ` 250 per day, suggestion made that the Central
government raise the bar to ` 170 per day.
During the audited period of seven months, only thirty three
days of employment had been provided.
The participation of the Gram Sabha was very low, voice of
the people had not been accounted, Labour Budget being
revised at different levels, as opposed to the programme‟s
mandate.
Works were not taken up from the Annual Action Plan, with
diversion of work items rampant, works executed were not
commensurate to the estimates and that land development
items be increased.
Advisory was issued that the Village Monitoring Cell should be
informed of any relevant information for the smooth implementation and
quality monitoring, in that copy of sanction orders be made transparent.
During 2005-06, the Government of India, Ministry of Rural Development
released a sum of ` 666.44 lakh for the implementation of MGNREGA for
the two districts of Saiha and Lawngtlai; ` 131.44 lakh and ` 535.00
lakh for both districts respectively.

25. Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, Social Audit Unit

Records, 2013.

26. Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, Social Audit Unit,

Summary Report of the Pilot Social Audit, 2013-2014.

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 During 2006-07, the implementation of MGNREGA was extended to
Champhai and Lunglei districts as second phase. The total fund released
by the Government of India during 2006-07 for the first and second
phase, that is, Saiha, Lawngtlai, Champhai and Lunglei was ` 2152.90
lakh. No State Matching Share was released. Total available funds during
2006-07 inclusive of opening balance and miscellaneous receipt was
` 2954.21 lakh, with total expenditure being ` 2031.339 lakh.
During 2007-08, implementation of MGNREGA was extended to all
the remaining districts of Mizoram, that is, Aizawl, Kolasib, Mamit and
Serchhip districts. The Government of India released ` 3398.49 lakh for
the three phases and ` 56.50 lakh each for the third phase districts for
the exclusive preparation of the Perspective Plan. It was in 2007-08 that
the State Government released its State matching share of ` 490.739 lakh
for the first and second phase districts.
During 2008-09, the actual implementation of MGNREGA, for wage
employment was put into action in all the eight districts. During this
period, ` 15562.15 lakh was released by Ministry of Rural Development
inclusive of ` 368.00 lakh as late receipt for the first and second phase
districts. State matching share of ` 1533.75 lakh was released, totaling to
` 16727.90 lakh. Total available funds inclusive of miscellaneous receipt,
unspent balance and late receipt amounted to ` 17426.305 lakh, with
total expenditure of `16455.695 lakh.
The average employment provided during 2008-09 was 73 days.
During 2009-10, the Government of India released ` 22433.83 lakh
and an additional sum of ` 5263.20 lakh as upfront release for the first
two months of 2010-11, totaling to ` 27697.03 lakh. State Matching Share
excluding that of upfront release amounted to ` 2336.93 lakh and upfront
release amounted to ` 548.267 lakh but actual release of State Matching
share amounted to ` 965.114 lakh, resulting to a shortage of ` 1920.083
lakh; resulting to discredit and non re-validation in the next financial
year. Social Audit was held in 812 villages (100 percent). Complaints
received was 37 and 36 disposed off with 3150 works taken up.

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 During 2010-11, the Central Government released ` 26866.03 lakh
with upfront release of ` 5263.20 lakh. Accounting the previous year of
outstanding balance, the State Matching Share was short of ` 1275.368
lakh. The wage rate per personday during 2010-11 till 31.01.2011 was
` 110.00 and the wage rate was revised as ` 129.00 per personday and
effected as on 01.02.2011 and actual payments made accordingly.
Households demanded wage employment during the year 2010-11 was
1,66,567 and persondays generated was ` 165.99 lakh. Average number
of days completed was 99 and households completed 100 days was
1,44,514. Social Audit was held in 619 villages, complaints received was
31 with 100 percent disposal.
During 2011-12, the revised and approved Labour Budget was
` 40605.612 lakh, out of which ` 32956.72 lakh was released by the
Central Government and State Government released ` 2411.869 lakh,
with an outstanding balance of State Matching Share amounting to
` 2298.112 lakh. Average number of days provided wage employments
was 99 days.
Physical and Financial Achievement under MGNREGA during 11th
Five Year Plan period 2005 -2012 at Appendix I. 27

2. Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) :

The genesis of IAY can be traced to the programmes of rural employment

which began in the early 1980s. Construction of houses was one of the
major activities under NREP and RLEGP, with however, no uniform policy
for rural housing in the States. While some States permitted only part of
the construction cost to be borne from NREP and RLEGP funds, the
balance was to be met by beneficiaries from their savings or loans, other
States permitted the entire construction costs to be borne from NREP and
RLEGP funds. Some States allowed construction of new

27. Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, Status Report on the

Implementaion of Centrally Sponsored Schemes, 2012.

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houses while others permitted renovation of existing houses of
beneficiaries.
IAY is a flagship scheme of Ministry of Rural Development to
provide houses to BPL families in the rural areas. The funding of IAY is
shared between the Centre and State in the ratio of 75:25. However, in the
case of North- East States, the funding pattern have been changed at a
ratio of 90:10. The financial assistance provided under IAY for
construction of a new house is ` 45,000 per unit in the plain areas and
` 48,500 in the hilly and difficult areas with effect from 01.04.2010.
To ensure transparency in the process of selection of beneficiaries
under IAY, every Gram Sabha or public meeting is required to finalize the
Permanent Waitlists from the BPL Census list so as to ensure that the
poorest of the poor are at the priority list. Mizoram is among the States
which has finalized the IAY Waitlists.
Since 1999-2000, provision for upgradation of unserviceable kutcha
houses, providing credit with subsidy, utilization of cost-effective, disaster
resistant and environment friendly technologies in rural housing,
convergence and dovetailing of IAY with Total Sanitation Campaign(TSC)
for providing sanitary latrines in the IAY houses, providing free electricity
connections through Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran Yojana (RGGVY)
has been mandated in the IAY Guidelines. It may however, be indicated
that the convergence activities have not been initiated by the State
Government till date, but rudimentary initiatives are underway, at the
behest of the Government of India, Ministry of Rural Development.
Since 1987-92 (Seventh Five Year Plan ) till 2007-12 (Eleventh Five
Year Plan), a total of 38,264 number of houses have been constructed and
upgraded under IAY.
IAY Physical Achievement-Year-wise and District-wise number of IAY
houses constructed / upgraded w.e.f. 1987-2012 is placed at Appendix –
II.28

28. Status Report on the Implementaion of Centrally Sponsored Schemes,2012,

Op. Cit.

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3. Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana and Mizoram State Rural
Livelihood Mission :

A new programme known as “Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar

Yojana” (SGSY) has been launched from April, 1999. This is a holistic
programme covering all aspects of employment such as organization of
the poor into Self Help Groups (SGHs), training, credit, technology,
infrastucture and marketing. SGSY is funded by the Centre and the
States in the ratio of 75:25. Subsidy is back-ended. Funds under SGSY is
shared by the Central and State Government at the ratio of 75:25 while it
is at the ratio of 90:10 for the State of Mizoram.

The SGSY requires a close involvement of different agencies

consisting of the banks, line departments and the NGOs under the
coordination of the DRDAs. Given that a close coordination between
different agencies is critically responsible for the successful
implementation of SGSY, the programme is to be treated as a joint
programme of all the identified agencies. To ensure such coordination,
planning from the grassroots is emphasized upon and the first level
committee, that is, the Block Level SGSY Committee, headed by the
Project Director, DRDA and representatives of all the agencies chalk out
the basic plan of the programme implementation. At the district level, the
District SGSY Committee under the Chairmanship of the Deputy
Commissioner is set up to review the progress and to suggest corrective
action for the programme, as and when required. A State Level SGSY
Committee is headed by the Secretary, Rural Development, Government of
Mizoram, to oversee the functioning and performance of SGSY. The Rural
Development Department, Government of Mizoram as the administrative
department is entirely responsible for planning, implementation,
monitoring and evaluation of the programme at the State Level.
The success of SGSY largely depends on the choice of activities,
based on the local resources, the skill and cohesiveness of the
beneficiaries and the general aptitude along with the cooperation of the

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institutional organization inclusive of the financial institutions and
banks.29
Credit Linkage under SGSY :
SGSY and the SHG world was responded to at the initial stages and
continued to thrive into the third and fourth year of its implementation in
Mizoram. However, the full impact of the programme could not be
witnessed as there were instances of the SHGs not being obliged by the
financial institutions and banks. Though there were positive cases that
were credit worthy, the banking institutions would non-concommitantly
sanction the credit portion but refrain or delay disbursal of credit amount.
This is not to relegate the banks from non- performance as there were
verily a good number of SHGs linked with credit and loans and
progressing into economically stable groups with lucrative activities. Since
inception, all the State governments have sponsoring SHGs for credit
linkages under the programme of SGSY.
As on February 2009, the Report of the Committee on “Credit
Related Issues Under SGSY”,30 had portrayed the cumulative distribution
of two hundred and forty nine SHGs with ` 174.88 lakh as credit amount
linkage in Mizoram. Out of the seven north-eastern States, Mizoram was
ranked sixth position in SHGs formed and thriving and ranking fifth in
credit linkage during the reporting years of 2004-2006.31 Parallel
statistical records of credit linkages ( in lakh) for SHGs, as depicted by the
State Level Monitoring Cell & Internal Audit Cell, Rural Development
Department, Government of Mizoram indicates the following :
2007-08 – ` 170.244
2008-09 - ` 170.85
2009-10 - ` 143.35

29. Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, SGSY Guidelines,

2003.
30. Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, Report of the
Committee on Credit Related Issues under SGSY, 2009, p.48.

31. Ibid.

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 2011-12 - ` 174.83
2012-13 - ` 98.10

As per the Government of Mizoram records in its Monthly Progress

Reports, during the span of five years,that is, 2007-2013, a total of
757.374 lakh of credit was disbursed to the SHGs under SGSY, with a
decreasing trend. There exists an uneven distribution of SHGs and credit
linkange in the State, pointing to the fact that Mizoram may not be
making headway in SGSY and in the SHG movement.

Performance of the SHGs is also reliant on the association of the

group members, moulded and nurtured by the assigned rural
development functionaries, financial institutions, the PRIs, Village
Councils, NGOs and CBOs; a process closely inter-dependent to form a
synergetic force.

Since inception up to 2011-12, a total of 2,660 SHGs and 1,611

SHGs have taken up economic activities under SGSY and assisted 1,226
BPL families in crossing the poverty line; with a mean average of 188
SHGs formed annually in Mizoram. Evaluation and impact factor has not
been undertaken by the Government on whether the amelioration of
poverty has been sustained.32 The total funds recieved under SGSY,
inclusive of funds from DWCRA amounted to ` 2880.728 lakh with effect
from, 1987-2012.

Financial achievement of SGSY and DWCRA with effect from 1987-

2012 at Appendix–III; the Physical Achievement of SGSY 1999-2012 and
the Physical Achievements and Credit Linkages under SGSY 2007 - 2012
is portrayed at Appendix - IV. 33

32. SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Consolidated Monthly Progress
Report, 2012.

33. Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, Status Report on the

Implementaion of Centrally Sponsored Schemes, 2012 .

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 The scheme of SGSY has been phased out by the Government
of India, Ministry of Rural Development and a revamped programme has
been launched with effect from, 2011, known as the National Rural
Livelihood Mission or Aajeevika, for which the Mizoram State Rural
Livelihood Mission (MZSRLM) has been established since 2011, with pilot
projects initiated in the two districts of Serchhip and Kolasib. The
MZSRLM is in its formative stages and establishing the ground work for
implementing the mission.

The “Mizoram State Rural Livelihood Mission” (MZSRLM) 34 functions

under a Governing Body which is headed by the Rural Development
Minister. The Executive Committee is headed by the Secretary, Rural
Development Department, Government of Mizoram who also has the dual
charge of State Mission Director for the State Mission Management Unit.
At the State level, the State Mission Management Unit is under the control
of the Chief Executive Officer, post of which is currently held by a retired
State Civil Service officer, supported by the Deputy Chief Executive
Officer, post held by a Rural Development Department officer and the
Chief Operating Officer, post held by a State Institute of Rural
Development faculty member, on deputation for a period of three years.
The Deputy Chief Executive Officer looks after the accounts and finances
and is supported by a State Mission Manager, Accountant and Assistant,
Deputy Executive Officer and supporting staff. The Chief Operating Officer
is in-charge of the mission operations and is supported by a team of four
State Mission Managers and five District Functional Specialists concerned
with institution building, livelihoods, skills, monitoring and evaluation
and financial inclusion.

The District Mission Management Unit is headed by the Project

Director, DRDA as the District Mission Director, supported by the team of
APO(Women‟s Development) and Account Officer, who are further
supported by the District Functional Specialists (Financial Inclusion,
Monitoring and Evaluation) and the MIS Assistant.

34. Rural Development Department, MZSRLM Human Resource Manual, Mizoram, 2013.

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 The Block Mission Management Unit is under the charge of the Block
Development Officer, acting as the Block Mission Director, supported by
a Block Mission Manager, a Cluster Coordinator, Accountant and
Assistant. The structural organization has been altered with a clear chain
of command along with infusions of new nomenclature of posts but it can
be seen that the general mandate has not changed from the institutional
structure of a regular rural development programme. With the mission
anticipated to cover a span of seven years or more, much can be
anticipated as the gestation period can make the difference or otherwise.

4. Integrated Wasteland Development Programme, Hariyali and

Integrated Watershed Management Programme :

IWDP aims at an integrated development of wasteland and degraded

lands based on village and micro watershed plan. There are fifty two IWDP
projects covering an area of 4,33,808 hectares in the State. Out of these
projects, six projects have been fore-closed and final instalments released
to thirty projects. The remaining sixteen projects are phased out after the
Eleventh Five Year Plan. Total funds recieved amounted to
` 19,187.76941 lakh with effect from 1992-2013.35

IWMP in Mizoram was started from 2009-10. The implementation of

the IWMP is headed by a State Level Nodal Agency (SLNA),which functions
from the Directorate, Rural Development Department, Mizoram, under the
charge of Director, Rural Development Department, Government of
Mizoram, who dually functions as the Chief Executive Officer of the State
Level Nodal Agency, supported by the Joint Director who functions as
Deputy Chief Executive Officer, State Level Nodal Agency and backed up
by a Junior Project Officer(JPO), a technical expert deputed from the
Department of Horticulture, Government of Mizoram and a dedicated
team of technical and professional experts who constitute the IWMP staff.

35. Status Report on the Implementaion of CSS, 2012, Op. Cit.

- 204 -
The State Level Nodal Agency staffing position as mandated by the Central
Government is being followed in toto by the Mizoram State Level Nodal
Agency. All appointments in the State Level Nodal Agency is sought on
deputation basis for the posts of Chief Executive Officer and Deputy Chief
Executive Officer and purely on contract basis with regard to the
dedicated team; with no scope of permanent employment for the hired
personnel.

The Rural Development Department has prepared the State

Perspective and Strategic Plan (SPSP). Till date, the State Level Nodal
Agency has prepared and approved thirty two Detailed Project Reports
(DPR) and seventeen Detailed Project Reports are in progress. Capacity
Buildings activities have been undertaken with 2,304 trainings conducted
at various levels (SLNA-WC level).36

The District level functions from the eight DRDAs in Mizoram,

under the DRDA Project Directors respectively heading the Watershed Cell
cum Data Centre (WCDC), comprising of thirty technical personnel and
two hundred and thirty four PIA personnel, as a dedicated team of the
programme within Mizoram.

IWMP intends to restore ecological balance by harnessing,

conserving and developing natural resources such as oil, vegetative cover
and water, while at the same time provide sustainable livelihood options
to the people residing in watershed areas, through the State Perspective
and Strategic Plan (SPSP). IWMP will cater to livelihood intervention for
landless households too. Evaluation and monitoring of the programme is
undertaken by the State Institute of Rural Development, Mizoram in
collaboration with the Mizoram University faculty members.

A total of one hundred seventy projects covering an area of 6,31,046

hectares. The IWMP is anticipated for operation upto the Fourteenth Five
Year Plan with an estimated project cost of ` 94,656.90 lakh.37

36. State Level Nodal Agency Nodal Office, Directorate of Rural Development,
Government of Mizoram Records, 2013.

37. Ibid.

- 205 -
5. Border Area Development Programme :

The BADP was implemented in Mizoram during 1993-1994,

covering four Rural Development Blocks then, along the Indo-Bangladesh
borderline. In 1997-1998, the programme was extended on the eastern
side of Mizoram bordering Myanmar. The programme has its coverage over
sixteen Rural Development Blocks of Lungsen, Bunghmun, Chawngte,
West Phaileng and Zawlnuam along the Indo-Bangladesh border and the
Rural Development Blocks of Ngopa, Khawzawl, Champhai, Khawbung,
East Lungdar, Hnahthial, Sangau, Saiha, Tuipang, Lawngtlai and
Bungtlang along the Indo-Myanmar borderlines, totalling to 12,665.09
sq.kms of international border.

The Nodal Officer for the BADP is the Director, Rural Development
Department, Mizoram and the Annual Action Plans are prepared by the
Block Development Officers at the Blocks, in the Block Development
Committee, which is then scrutinized by the Directorate of Rural
Development and Nodal Officer for onward approval of the State Level
Screening Committee under the chairmanship of the Chief Secretary,
Government of Mizoram.

The BADP is a 100 percent centrally funded programme and has the
main objective of meeting the special development needs of the people
living in remote and inaccessible areas located along the international
border, where preference and priority is given to the villages and
habitations which are closer to the international border. Villages and
habitations located within 0-20 kilometre range from the international
border is covered by the programme. The components taken up under the
Education sector are school buildings, playgrounds and pavilions, under
the Health sector are the sub-centre buildings, medical quarters, under
the Agriculture and allied sectors are irrigation channels, link road and
under the Social Welfare sector are community halls and NGO and CBO
buildings.

- 206 -
 The total funds expended during the year 2010-13 amounts to
` 10,786.73 lakh.

6. Backward Region Grant Fund :

The Backward Region Grant Fund is an untied fund that seeks to fill
up infrastructural gaps in the most backward districts of the country. In
Mizoram, it is implemented in the two southern districts of Mizoram,
namely, Lawngtlai and Saiha Districts through the funding window of (i)
Development Grant (ii) Capacity Building Grant.

(i) Development Grant : Funds under Development Grant are

utilized for filling up of infrastructural gaps in the District.
For achieving this objective, infrastructural works like
construction of inter-village roads including Internal Roads,
RCC bridges, Retaining Wall, Land Development, Irrigation,
Drinking Water Supply, Health Sub Centres, Play Fields,
Community Halls and House for Homeless Families.
(ii) Capacity Building Grant : State Institute of Rural
Development, Mizoram is the implementing agency for the two
Districts. Capacity Building and Training Grant is meant for
upgradation of knowledge and skills of elected political parties
and citizens for effective level of local governance. The fund is
utilized for training of the elected representatives in District
level, Block level and Village Councils.

The Government of Mizoram has constituted a High Powered

Committee on Backward Region Grant Fund, headed by the Chief
Secretary, Government of Mizoram, with the Secretary, Rural
Development Department, Government of Mizoram as the Member
Secretary, with members constituted by the Joint Secretary, Ministry of
Panchayati Raj, Government of India, Chief Executive Members of the
Mara, Lai, Chakma Autonomous District Councils (political heads of the
programme area in Mizoram), Secretaries of the Planning, Finance, Urban
Development, District Council Affairs, Local Administration Departments,

- 207 -
Deputy Commissioners, Director, Rural Development Department and
Deputy Secretary, Rural Development Department.

The District Nodal Officers are the Deputy Commissioners (DC) of

the respective districts. Prior to 1997, the Backward Region Grant Fund
was directly implemented by the concerned Deputy Commissioners but
the onus of responsibility was shifted to the Rural Development
Department, as the office of the Deputy Commissioner was found to be
incapable of executing the task due to insufficient manpower. However,
the execution of programmes continued under the explicit supervision of
the Deputy Commissioner concerned, by his continued chairing of the
District Level Planning and Implementation Committee, with the Project
Director, DRDA, as the official Secretary of the Committee.

The DRDAs concerned are equipped to enhance the work

operations of Backward Region Grant Fund by employing an Asst
Engineer and Junior Engineer (one each) for the technical works portion
and appointing a District MIS Nodal Officer on contract basis.

The total funds in receipt with effect from 2011-13 amounts to

` 8547.94 lakh under the Backward Region Grant Fund and ` 450.00
lakh for State Institute of Rural Development, Mizoram for utilization of
funds for capacity building and trainings.

The Mizoram Rural Development Department also executes the

State Sponsored Schemes of Social Education, the North Eastern Rural
Livelihoods Project (NERLP), the Non-Lapseable Central Pool of Resources
(NLCPR) assistances and North Eastern Council (NEC) funded projects.
The Department is also a stakeholder in the on-going flagship programme,
the New Land Use Policy. However, Rural Development Department does
not partake as an implementing department, as opposed to the
functioning of the earlier phases of New Land Use Policy, despite the fact
that the target objectives are rural development oriented.

- 208 -
Responsive Samples with reference to the process of Planning and
Management of Rural Development in Mizoram :

Given the magnitude of the Rural Development sphere, it can be

reiterated that the need for the right principles and processes in the
planning and management of Rural Development is an essential element
in Mizoram. To translate those operatives, it is required that an efficient
administrative organization be made functional and thriving as the
primary instrument for the preparation and implementation of the
development plans and programmes. The personnel under the Rural
Development Department are faced with challenges to alleviate poverty in
the rural areas and to harvest optimum results for the rural communities.
With challenges comes the problems; requiring prompt, balanced and
prudent address and redressal when required : challenges and problems
that are attended to by the manpower at hand.

The manpower recruited and retained in the Rural Development

Department, Mizoram along with the personnel of the development
departments and other cadre services forming the large constituent of
Rural Development Deparment are in the face of problems; associated
with the political insinuations and administrative limitations, often posing
as stumbling blocks in the exercise of their duties and responsibilities.

The Rural Development task force is an eclectic mix of government

servants, bureaucrats and technocrats, professionals and technical
experts, local governments with their localised set of authority and the
infusion of NGOs and CBOs; all requiring a dynamic and unique mode of
mechanism to activate the operations of planned development. It is
therefore a given that a particular set of procedures or norms cannot be
applied as a universal case, but instead requires concurrent study and
review of the system and personnel administration in a consistent and
balanced way, so as to draw out the best of practices, methods and
procedural norms to run the task of rural development in Mizoram.

- 209 -
 In taking cognizance of the varied problems and challenges faced by
the Rural Development Department functionaries and officials, one
hundred samples were taken from the different rank and grade of Rural
Development personnel, as an endeavour to gauge the exacting situation
as :

Twelve samples taken from the Administrative Department, at the

Secretariat, Rural Development Department, Government of
Mizoram, ranging from the Technical Assistants to the rank of Joint
Secretary, personnel drawn from the State Civil Services, State
Secretariat Services, Ministerial staff, Rural Development
functionaries and those employed on contract terms and Muster
Rolls.
Thirty four samples were taken from the State level machinery of
the Directorate, Rural Development Department, State Level
Monitoring Cell & Internal Audit Cell, Directorate, Social Audit
(MGNREGA) and the State Institute of Rural Development and
Extension Training Centres, ranging from the LDCs to the rank of
CEO, COO,Director and Project Directors. The survey was carried
out in a series of occasions, with each change of incumbency to a
post, so as to gain a clarified sample. The manpower consisted of
State Civil Services, State Secretariat Services, Ministerial staff,
Rural Development functionaries and those employed on contract
terms and Muster Rolls.
Thirty two samples were taken from the District level offices, that is,
the DRDAs and office of the Deputy Commissioners, ranging from
the ranks of Grade IV personnel to the highest order, the Deputy
Commissioner. The manpower consisted of the Indian
Administrative Services, State Civil Services, State Ministerial
Services, Rural Development Ministerial staff, Rural Development
functionaries and those employed on contract terms and Muster
Rolls.

- 210 -
Twenty two samples were taken from the Block level, ranging from
the Village Level Worker, Gram Sevak, Gram Sevika to the rank of
Block Development Officers, Block level officers and staff of the
development departments like Agriculture, Horticulture, Industries,
Soil Conservation. The manpower consisted of the State Civil
Services, Rural Development Ministerial staff, Rural Development
functionaries and those employed on contract terms and Muster
Rolls.(See Table 5.8, page 212)

Continued..

- 211 -
 Table 5.8
STRUCTURE OF RESPONDENTS
(RD OFFICIALS AND FUNCTIONARIES)

Variable Frequency Percentage

Age

20-30 years 22 22

30-35 years 37 37

35-40 years 35 35

40 + years 6 6

Educational Qualifications

HSLC 2 2

HSSLC 7 7

Graduate degree 23 23

Post Graduate degree 30 30

Professional/Technical Graduate degree 15 15

Professional/Technical post graduate 22 22

degree

Doctoral Degree 1 1

Length of service

0-3 years 21 21

3-5 years 14 14

5-10 years 20 20

10-15 years 9 9

15-20 years 18 18

20 + years 18 1

Source : Field Study

- 212 -
 The respondents were posed with queries on their job satisfaction
level. On being asked of the Rural Development and DRDA‟s Human
Resource Policy, 80 percent of the respondents were largely dissatisfied.
The dissatisfaction level was highest due to no or poor promotion avenues
at 60 percent, followed by 15 percent each on account of instability of
tenure and frequent or abrupt transfers, with 10 percent due to inferior
service conditions. Dissatifaction of jobs was most vocal at the District
and Block levels.

Satisfaction levels on the assignment of duties and responsibilities

were however high at 60 percent, indicating that the officials and
functionaries were immersed and dedicated to their job profiles of Rural
Development sector.

As rural development activities involve the integrated services of

other development services, thriving relationships in the work fields
is necessary. While 55 percent were satisfied with the inter-
departmental and inter-services relationship, it is evident that the
relationship is cordial at 40 percent and cooperation low at 5
percent. The non cooperation would perhaps stem from the element
of disregard at 20 percent and dispute over authority at 15 percent,
thereby resulting to 60 percent of the work force willing to leave the
Rural Development services, at any given time. (See Table 5.9, page
214)

Continued..

- 213 -
 TABLE 5.9

Job Satisfaction Level

Query Frequency Percentage

How would you rate the Excellent 0 0

HRD Policy in RD Dept
Good 20 20
/ DRDA

Not Good 80 80

If Not Good, Give No stability of tenure 15 15

reasons as
No/ poor promotion 60 60

Frequent/abrupt 15 15
transfer

Inferior service condition 10 10

Are you satisfied with Yes 60 60

the duties and
No 40 40
responsibilities assigned
to you?

Is there Satisfactory Yes 55 55

work relationship?
No 45 45

If yes, please specify Cordial 40 72

Supportive 10 18

Cooperative 5 9

If no, please specify Disregard 20 44

Dispute over authority 15 33

Non-Cooperation 5 11

Non-Coordination 5 11

Do you have plans to Yes 60 60

seek employment
No 40 40
elsewhere?

Source : Field Study

- 214 -
 The sample survey was carried out on recruitment and selection
procedures and norms of the Rural Developement Department, which
depicted 36 percent of the manpower belonging to the contract
appointment for one year, followed by 24 percent by those of contract
appointment for three years and the regular appointees against
substantive posts of the department, registering at 16 percent. It may be
pertinent to highlight that out of the 761 sanctioned positions under
Rural Development Department, only 316 posts have been filled and 382
posts rendered vacant for a considerably long period.

As the larger chunk of the work force is made up of contractual

employees, it is indicative that the rural development processes is run by
a floating work force, with minimal association and connection with the
department.

The contract employees are made to enter a „terms of agreement‟ for

a certain period, which often fluctuates, dependent on the administrative
whims. Where there exists scope of renewal of contract, the exercise is
carried out only for 60 percent of the contract employees and 30 percent
were not serviced renewal of contract (30 percent), out of which 40 percent
know that their future is not assured, as their services have not been
renewed but nonchalantly assume the contract is on similar terms and
continue to serve in their respective positions, regardless of non-renewal
of contract, while 20 percent are bemused with the situation and continue
with the contract service, with or without renewal of contract of service.

On being asked why they had knowingly entered a contractual

service with no permanency or stability of tenure, the reasons given
clocked high at 50 percent for financial necessity, 45 percent due to job
requirement, exacerbated by the need to support families and a miniscule
5 percent claiming over-age and enforced contentment.

Since the major Rural Development programmes are now being run
on mission modes, the Human Resource Policy under MGNREGA, NRLM,
IWMP are quite distinct and pronounced and on being asked of their

- 215 -
perspectives in this account, 57 percent cited the Human Resource Policy
as not good, while 12 percent regaled on the mission thrust.

Elucidate that the Human Resource policies of the current Rural

Development schemes are incongruent and run on dissimilar lines, for
example, while the policy of NRLM has probation and induction period,
MGNREGA does not, while NRLM has medical benefits, MGNREGA does
not; despite the fact that both schemes cannot be clubbed as one stream.
But, it was opined that the administrative machinery needs to review its
Human Resource policies.

As recruitment is a precursor to service conditions and onward

career growth or contract renewals, it is surprising to note that 70
percent of the employees work performance is not appraised, depicting
that 30 percent of contractee‟s service renewal was done without any form
of performance apppraisal. However, of the 25 percent attending to
Annual Performance Appraisal Report (APAR), 80 percent conveyed that
the APAR was not attended to, as it failed to speak for promotion or
otherwise in their service contract. Through the survey, it was registered
that the contract employees comprised of the best brains and that the
best brains do not have any avenue for retention in the noble job of rural
development. (See Table 5.10, page 217)

Continued..

- 216 -
 TABLE 5.10
Recruitment/Selection Procedures/Norms
Query Frequency Percentage

Regular appoinment through SPSC* 16 16

Contract appointment through DSC** 24 24

What is the nature of
your appointment
Contract for 1 year through DSC 36 36

Contract for 3 years through DSC 24 24

If on contract, is a Yes 100 0

contract agreement
signed between No 0 0
you/DRDA/GoM

Is contract renewed Yes 30

after expiry of term
No 60 60

If Yes, is it on similar Yes 30 30

terms
No 0 0

If No, what terms ar in Assumed to be on similar terms 40 40

use
Do no know what terms are in use 20 20

State reasons as to Job requirement 45 45

why you entered
service contract Financial necessity 50 50

Age factor not favouring delay of 5 5

employment

What is your Excellent 0 0

perspective of HR
policies of MGNREGA, Good 12 12
MZSLRM,IWMP
Not Good 57 57

Is work performance Yes 25 25

appraised on an
annual basis No 70 70

If Yes, whether APAR APAR 25 25

or other profoma is in
use Other Profoma 0 0

If NO, specify reason Non-Insistence by Govt/DRDA 20 20

Non promotion, no need for APAR 80 80

*SPSC – State Public Service Commission

**DSC –Departmental Selection Committee

Source : Field Study

- 217 -
 As human resources constitute the bulwark of an organization and
provides the mechanism to steer the processes in the right direction or
otherwise, the harnessing of optimal dividends for rural development lies
squarely on the manpower and personnel. In line, a good administration
aims to seek and provide a fertile land to nurture and grow and churn out
optimum production with efficiency and effectiveness. Consonant to this,
the respondents when asked whether the Government of Mizoram took
cognizance of their service conditions, 42 percent gave their dissent, 32
percent were not sure as to what the government was taking up, while 27
percent responded in the affirmative. While 44 percent thought of the
government as being understanding, 62 percent blamed it on the inaction
of the government with regard to their service conditions.

In order to view their service conditions, 89 percent had represented

their cases to their superiors and the State government, out of which 51
percent had submitted official representations while 49 percent had been
satisfied with having verbal discussions with their superiors. 80 percent
responded that the outcome level was lukewarm, with the usual official
tag that the needful would be taken up and the reason which can be
summed up can be identified from the 40 percent blaming it on the
complacency of authorities . (See Table 5.11, page 219)

Continued..

- 218 -
 Table 5. 11

Staffing Pattern

Query Frequency Percentage

Has the Govt of Mizoram taken Yes 27 27

cognizance of the
No 42 42
Rd/DRDA/Block Level Service
Condition Not sure 31 31

Understanding 12 44

If yes, what is the response

Sympathetic 11 40
level

Listens but response likewarm 4 15

Yes 89 89
Have you represented your
service condition?
No 11 11

Verbal discussions with

49 49
superiors
Representation in what form

Written to authorities 51 51

Yes 21 21
Whether representation
responded
No 79 79

Action oriented 4 19
If yes, what is outcome level
Lukewarm 17 80

Insensitivity 18 22
If No, what is outcome level
Complacency of authorities 32 40

Disregard 0 0

Apathy towards issue 4 9

If No, what is the response
level
Inaction of govt 26 62

Inaction of superiors 12 28

Source : Field Study

- 219 -
 50 percent of the respondents ranked the service benefits of Leave
and Travel and Daily Allowances as valued benefits while 16 percent
ranked medical benefits as secondary values, retirement benefits ranking
third with 12 percent and 11 percent each for the need of Employment,
Contributory Provident Funds and New Pension Scheme, with no response
on the exit plan. 42 percent of the respondents were found to be satisfied
with the service benefits provided to them while 58 percent were not.
Dissatifaction was due to the fact that there existed different measures in
different areas and different schemes and the disparity was not attended
to by the State government. The general contention was that the State
government was not proactive in doling out corporate benefits, therefore,
the confirmation on the non-existence of performance-based incentives
stands to be true. (See Table 5.12, page 221)

Continued....

- 220 -
 Table 5. 12
Service/Corporate Benefits
Query Frequency Percentage

Leave 25 25

TA/DA* 25 25

Medical 16 16

What are the service

GPF/NPS** 11 11
benefits provided?

CPF/EPF*** 11 11

Retirement 12 12

Exit Plan 0 0

Yes 42 42
Are you satisfied with
service benefites?
No 58 58

Different norms under

14 24
different schemes

Different welfare measures in

16 27
different areas/districts
If No, specify reasons
No State intervention to
13 22
correct disparity

No state intervention to
15 25
provide corporate benefit

Yes 0 0
Pay performance linked
incentive introduced
No 100 100

*Travelling Allowances/ Daily Allowances

** General Provident fund/New Pension Scheme
*** Contributory Provident Fund/ Employees Provident Fund
Source : Field Study

- 221 -
 As training and capacity building is a vital component for the
development of employees and professionals, more so in the realm of rural
development, the respondents were asked on the capacity trainings
provided to them at the initial appointment and during their service
periods. Samples indicated that 42 percent had undergone Foundation
Training, 43 percent had undergone Periodic Trainings with a dismal rate
of 15 percent having participated for In-Service trainings.

47 percent of the Rural Development man power had been imparted

trainings from the NIRD, Hyderabad and SIRD, Mizoram, 13 percent of
the trainings were scheduled by the DRDAs, 10 percent initiated by the
Government of Mizoram. An intriguing yet noteworthy trend was the 30
percent of trainings undergone by the Rural Development personnel, at
their own initiative. Upon being asked as to how many trainings the
respondents had undergone in 3 years, the highest rate was the single
attendants of training accounted at 37 percent, 29 percent having
attended training twice in 3 years, 20 percent of personnel had attended
trainings more than 3 times in three years.

It can be surmised that training and capacity building at the

govenment level needs to be taken up with added impetus and the
relegation of Rural Development employees to take up trainings at their
own initiatives is commendable. (See Table 5.13, page 223)

Continued..

- 222 -
 Table 5. 13
Training and Capacity Building

Query Frequency Percentage

Foundation
42 42
training

Type of training Periodic

43 43
imparted trainings

In-service
15 15
training

Govt of Mizora 10 10

Who schedules DRDA 13 13

trainings NIRD/SIRD 47 47

Own initiatives 30 30

Once 37 37

How many Twice 29 29

trainings have
you undergone Thrice 14 14

in 3 years More than 3

20 20
times

Source : Field Study

- 223 -
 With regard to the issue related to public and peer relationships
initiated and maintained by the Rural Development personnel, 60 percent
affirmed that they had good rapport with the public, PRIs, NGOs, CBOs
and related agencies while 40 percent confided that they were still in the
process of maintaining the required rapport.

Given that a larger percentage of the Rural Development personnel

consisted of contractual man power, it is essential that sample surveys be
conducted as to the time period when the respondents can earn the trust
of public and PRIs within a short duration in the field. 40 percent of the
respondents cited that they needed five years to earn the trust of public
and PRIs, while 37 percent required three years and a minimal 23 percent
said that they would be able to garner public trust within one year.

On being asked to rate their effectiveness and efficiency in their

work performance, it was heartening to obtain the response of 60 percent
rating themselves at 9/10, 30 percent rated themselves at 8/10, while 10
percent rated themselves as 7/10. It may however be indicated that none
of the Rural Development personnel gave themselves a rating of 10/10.

40 percent of the Rural Development personnel considered

themselves as professional experts for Rural Development services while
60 percent did not consider themselves as such.

On being further asked whether a separate administrative cadre is

required for Mizoram as is being done in other States of India, a
staggering 90 percent voiced the need for a separate administrative cadre
and a small percentage of 10 responded that status quo is enough and
were content with the present functioning.

Since the DRDAs form the district organ and the district
administration, sample was taken whether DRDAs are equipped with
sufficient man power, 38 percent responded with an affirmative while 62
percent responded that the DRDAs were being manned by a miniscule
number. With regard to their work relationship 61 percent responded that

- 224 -
they were satisfied and 39 percent were not satisfied. The reasons for
having a satisfactory work relationship accounted to 60 percent on cordial
terms, 32 percent on cooperative terms and 16 percent being supportive.
The downside was that 61 percent of the personnel who were not satisfied
reasoned to a large scale non-coordination, 20 percent on non-cooperation
and 17 percent opined on dispute over authority as being the reason for
dissatisfaction.

On being asked to rate their team working skills, 59 percent

accounted for an average rating, 26 percent rated the team working skills
as below average and only 15 percent rated their skills on team working to
be excellent. (See Table 5.14, page 226)

Continued..

- 225 -
 Table 5. 14
Public and Peer Relations
Query Frequency Percentage

Do you have good rapport with Yes 60 60

public/PRIs/NGOs/CBOs/ Related
No 40 40
Agency
Can you earn the trust of Public/PRIs 1 year 23 23
etc within a short duration in the 3 years 37 37
field, specify period 5 years 40 40
6/10 0 0
7/10 10 10
Rate your effectiveness and efficiency 8/10 30 30
9/10 60 60
10/10 0 0
Do you consider yourself a Yes 40 40
professional expert for RD services No 60 60
To professionalise RD, is a separate Not Required 0 0
Administrative Cadre required like Required 90 90
other Indian state Status quo 10 10
Yes 38 38
Is DRDA with sufficient manpower
No 62 62
Work relationship satisfactory Yes 61 61
No 39 39
Cordial 31 50
If yes, specify Supportive 10 16
Cooperative 20 32
Disregard 0 0
Dispute over
7 17
If No, specify authority
Non-cooperation 8 20
Non-coordination 24 61
Excellent 15 15
Rate your team working skills Average 59 59
Below average 26 26

Source: Field Study

- 226 -
 The respondents were further given samples to respond on issues
concerning their service and tenure conditions. 97 percent indicated that
at least 10 years plus is the ideal duration of tenure and voiced their
concerns over the 3 to 5 years of contractual tenure as per the extant
norms. With regard to the system of transfer and posting, 89 percent were
dissatisfied and 11 percent were satisfied. Dissatisfaction accounted to 51
percent citing that there existed no procedural norms in the transfer and
posting, 39 percent responded that transfer and posting were at the
behest of political interventions and 10 percent of the respondents stated
that the favourites of the authorities in power obtain the best postings
with minimal transfers.

During the course of the survey, 96 percent reiterated the urgent

necessity to create a Rural Development cadre service. The sample was
further devised on the lines of the 2002 DRDA Administration Guidelines
wherein plans for absorption of Rural Development personnel into line
departments was recommended. Banking on this Government of India,
Ministry of Rural Development recommendation, 4 percent responded that
there were plans for absorption, 17 percent responded that there were no
plans for absorption to the line department, while 79 percent were not
aware of any absorption plans. (See Table 5.15, page 228)

Continued..

- 227 -
 Table 5. 15

Service and Tenure Conditions

Query Frequency Percentage

3 years 0 0
What is the ideal
5 years 0 0
duration of tenure
10 years + 97 97

Are you satisfied with Yes 11 11

the system of transfer
and posting No 89 89

No procedural
51 51
norms

Political
If No, specify reason 39 39
interventions

Favouritism by
10 10
authority

Is creation of RD Yes 96 96
cadre service
necessary No 4 4

Yes 4 4
Are these plans for
absorbtion into line No 17 17
departments
Not aware 79 79

Does RD Department Yes 91 91

need administrative
re-organisation No 9 9

Source : Field study

- 228 -
 Given that the Rural Development processes and its management
depends on a multitude of Rural Development functionaries, the sample
was conducted to gauge motivational factor and competency. 78 percent
responded that the rate of employee motivation in Rural Development
Department, Mizoram is average, 9 percent rated employee motivation as
above average and 13 percent rated employee motivation as below
average. On being asked to prioritize the set factors within the sample, 39
percent prioritized productivity in the highest order, 28 percent with
quality as the second priority, 21 percent responded that a good
succession plan was the requirement of the day, 10 percent responded
that a good administration is founded on people relationship and a
meagre 2 percent responded for development of subordinates.

As for the motivation factors, 16 percent further prioritized the need

for an administration to provide an incentive and reward for good
performance, salary and trainings were rated as second priority with a 14
percent each, welfare and knowledge rated as third priority at 13 percent,
organizational value and performance appraisal on an annual basis was
rated at 11 percent with a rather dismal 8 percent opting for
transparency.

The respondents were further asked whether de-motivational factors

aggravated work quality, 87 percent confided in the affirmative with 13
percent replying in the negative. 43 percent of the respondents idealized
that the system of organization and service could stand to be motivational
or de-motivational, while 31 percent idealized on leadership,
communication, systems of organization and service and lack of
knowledge and experience as the prime motivational factor or de-
motivational factor. (See Table 5.16, page 230)

Continued..

- 229 -
 Table 5. 16

Motivational Factor and Competency

Query Frequency Percentage

How would you Above average 9 9
rate employee Average 78 78
motvation in RD? Below average 13 13
Productivity 39 39
Quality 28 28
What factors do Succession Plan 21 21
you prioritze? People relationship 10 10
Development of
2 2
subordinates
Knowledge 13
Training 14 14
Salary 14 14
Welfare 13 13
Prioritize the Systems 0 0
following Organisational value 11 11
motivational Transparency 8 8
factors Performance
11 11
Appraisal
Incentives/reward
for good 16 16
performance
De-motivational Yes 87 87
factors aggrevate
quality, do you No 13 13
accept
Communication 4 4
Motivational
Leadership 4 4
factors or de-
System of
motivational 43 43
organisation/service
factors that
Lack of knowledge
influence quality 14 14
and experience
of service are :
All the above 31 31

Source: Field Study

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 As a capping to the sample survey, intervention and impact factor of
Rural Development processes and its management was attended to. On
being asked whether „political will‟ is a given to bring about socio-
economic development of a State or nation, 69 percent responded that it is
the political authority and its willingness that brings about quantum
leaps in development and transformation of a society or community.

Since the essence of Rural Development is largely concentrated on

assistance packages, involving large amounts of financial resources,
whether it be provided in cash directly to the beneficiaries or through
bank accounts or postal savings accounts, the involvement of funding
itself opens free avenues for manipulation or otherwise, requiring integrity
at all levels of the administrative ladder, which is supervised by the
political head. In response to the sample drawn in this line, 42 percent of
the respondents confided of frequent arbitrary political intervention in the
Rural Development processes, 37 percent confided on infrequent arbitrary
political intervention while 21 percent rarely met with any arbitrary
political associations or interventions.

Though monitoring and evaluation of the Rural Development

programmes and schemes are being periodically undertaken by the
government through its own establishment or through consultancy firms,
it is a rational procedure that impact factors be drawn and assessed by
the immediate functionaries within the department. When asked of the
impact that Rural Development programmes had in Mizoram, 39 percent
opined that the impact factor was „strong‟, 31 percent opined as „not being
strong‟, 22 percent were „not sure of the impact‟ and 8 percent of the
respondents opined that the impact that Rural Development programmes
had was „feeble‟. However, an interesting pointer given through the
samples accounted for 43 percent labelling the impact factor purely due to
the Rural Development programmes being a means to „assuage financial
distress‟ while 28 percent each labelling the impact factor as to „providing
socio-economic stability‟ and in „providing durable assets and
infrastructure‟. Further, 33 percent intense responses labelled the impact

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factor in a way that Rural Development programme packages are „free
gifts‟, 30 percent felt that Rural Development programmes are perceived
as „provider‟ alone, 30 percent opined that political intervention is not
positive while 5 percent felt that there existed an uneven spread of
development in the rural areas.

Table 5.17

Intervention and Impact Factor of Rural Development

Query Frequency Percentage

In your opinion, is
political will a
Yes 69 69
given in the RD
processes, to bring
about the
anticipated Socio-
economic No 31 31
development of the
nation state?
Have you been Frequently 42 42
faced by any Sometimes 37 37
arbitrary political
intervention in the Rarely 21 21
RD processes?
Strong 39 39
What is the impact Not Strong 31 31
of RD in Mizoram Feeble 8 8
Not sure 22 22
Provides socio-
11 28
economic stability
Provides durable
If strong, specify aset & 11 28
infrastructure
Assuages financial
17 43
distress
Uneven spread of
2 5
development
RD perceived as
provider & not 12 30
If not facilitator
strong/feeble, RD programmes
specify packages are free 13 33
gifts
Political
intervention is not 12 30
positive
Source : Field Study

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 As planning is the “means” to secure an end, the wholesome
process of coordination and acting on the means to reach the target and
objective is the process of management. Planning and management are
closely inter-related and are critical elements in the growth of a country.
Without proper planning and management, a country‟s resources of
manpower, finances, material and machines cannot lead to economic
development. A nation with enough capital, manpower and other natural
resources can still be a poor nation if it does have the proper system of
planning or the effective management to combine and coordinate the
resources. In the context of rural development, the process of
decentralised planning and management had taken its first steps with the
Third Five Year Plan, instilling the reconstruction of the Blocks and the
Districts along with Block level planning and has progressed on to an
intensive decentralised participatory mode, not only at the planning stage
but throughout the management process through the medium of Gram
Sabha and further strengthened with the medium of social audit;
providing the assurance of decentralised administration with
transparency and accountability at the village, block and district levels.

As a summary, we may mention that India has had a chequered

history in rural development. We have tried to study the role of planning
and management in the implementation of rural development
programmes, prior to the nation gaining Independence with added focus
on the post Independence days, highlighting on the intricacies and the
mechanism of the governmental role and the roles that the rural
development functionaries have been applying in their regimen and
whether that is translated into success or otherwise. We have also tried to
study the application of the planning and management process in the
development of the rural areas of Mizoram.

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 CHAPTER – VI

Problems and Challenges in the Implementation of Rural

Development Programmes

In the fifth chapter, we have tried to present a theoretical analysis of

the roles and process of planning and management in the context of rural
development of Mizoram and whether the techniques and dosages in
application are cause effecting the actual growth and development of the
rural people and the rural poor. The present chapter discusses on the
ingrained and persistent problems and challenges in the execution of
rural development programmes through the Centrally Sponsored Schemes
and the State Sponsored Schemes. The present chapter is also focused on
the study to understand the delivery mechanism of development and anti
poverty packages.

The planning and management of rural development programmes

and packages are significant tasks since the dawn of civilisation and
require concerted effort and a coordination of aspirations with that of
realisation of tasks in convergence with different sets of tasks in the
political, administrative, executive, professional and specialised fields. The
planning and management component, for devising, formulating and
deciding on the best possible strategy and process to deliver the task for
improving and ameliorating the living standards of the rural poor has
been proven to be a complex and difficult task; mooting consistent reviews
through evaluation and assessment studies and researches and resulting
to reconstitution and revamping of the established strategies and
processes.

Problems And Challenges of Rural Development Programmes In India

The existing operatives for the effective and efficient implementation

of the Rural Development programme revolves around the administrative
aspects to a large extent. Since every Rural Development programme

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emanates as Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS), planned and idealized
from the Government of India or in the Planning Commission of India, the
entire mechanism of planning and the mode of implementation at the
grassroots level is structurally devised at a level which often may not
account for the multifarious distinctions of a particular locality area of the
country. India‟s commitment to planned development has been reflecting
the Government‟s initiatives to improve the socio-economic conditions of
the masses and the parallel affirmation of the role of the Government in
bringing about a certain level of outcome through a variety of social,
economic and institutional means.

But given the chronic and multi-dimensional nature of poverty in

India, the need to address and re-address ameliorative mechanisms for
alleviating poverty cannot be underestimated nor undermined, for which
the Government of India has been exercising a whole gamut of Centrally
Sponsored Schemes for the welfare of the rural poor. The planning and
implementation of the said Rural Development programmes have caused
to provide succour to the rural poor and at a greater proportion have
enabled the rural masses and the community in general a chance to rise
above their poverty levels and attain a certain level of quality of life.
Through the decades of operating and managing the Rural Development
schemes and programmes, India has been faced with a number of
challenges and problems as :

The poor are geographically concentrated in India. The poor are

concentrated in the rural areas where their means of sustenance is
basically through the sector of agriculture. Without effective
agricultural services and land reforms, the rural poor remain poor
in their traditional livelihoods and are left without any means for
reduction of poverty. Despite the infusion of finances and other
resources provided to the agriculture and allied sectors through
multiple assistance programmes, the constant burgeoning of
population in the rural areas along with the fact that the intended
programmes often do not reach the poor have been identified as the

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detracting elements in the implementation of rural development
programmes.
The poor have been dependant on casual labour and poverty levels
have been made even more chronic by the dependency on waged
labour. It has been found through various studies that casual
labour and waged labour have no doubt brought about remedy for
the instant moment of hunger and deprivity but constrained the
rural poor and the rural people at large from realizing a sustained
form of livelihood and eventually bringing about the desired changes
and transforming their socio-economic lives for the better. In the
true sense of development, the rural poor have not been introduced
to a better quality of life, altering their socio-economic standards
and a general well-being and have instead been reduced to their
regualr fares and therefore their status cannot be assumed to be
developed through wage employment alone. The poor have been
made to subsist and rely for the scanty sustenance of the 100 days
of wage employment, that too, if they are fortunate to gain the
numbered days of waged employments and has constrained them
from leading a life better from that of the sub-standard lives that
they lead.
The Government has formulated, provided and facilitated the poor
through multiple programmes and projects through the many
decades but results have depicted that the system procedure needs
an over-haul. The rural poor need to be enabled to increase their
income, by way of diversifying their livelihood activities and wean
them away from the traditional means of agriculture and the
transfer for reliance on non-farm sources of activities. Such
transformations can be addressed through the process of social
mobilization by the formation of SHGs, progressing into federations
and onto cooperatives, supported with ample and timely endorsed
credit linkages, bearing nominal and uniform rate of interests from
the financial institutions, leading to a diversified and enhanced form
of activity and the onward progression above the poverty line and

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socio-economic stability. With such social mobilization processes
already making their forays into the world of the rural poor through
SGSY and Aajeevika, the brunt of the responsibility will however lie
in the nature and mode of delivering the medium meant for the
development of the rural areas; a task which will bear a long
gestation period and will in turn require administrative will and
tenacity.
The poor need a safety net to pull them out from the quagmire of
deprivation and homelessness. Provision of shelter and homestead
alongwith the required land to build on the shelter and homestead
is the primary step to do away with poverty, as the shelterless poor
will be enabled to diversify one‟s activity and to increase one‟s
income when a homestead is in place.
The area of operation lies in the battle field, so is the case with the
execution of rural development programmes. It is the assigned role
and duty of the Central Government to formulate and devise
schemes for the rural areas but the actual implementation,
monitoring and evaluation lies in the hands of the State
governments : a state of condition enshrined in the Constitution of
India; that all the major components of Rural Development is the
direct and sole responsibility of the State Governments while the
Central Government‟s prerogative is defined for formulation of
plans, to provide the required leadership to effect the programmes
and to provide the necessary funds. It is therefore, required that
identification of roles be properly made between the Central and
State governments in the strategy and process of rural development.
With the introduction of the Community Development Programmes
since 1952, India has been mobilizing revenue to facilitate the
operatives of the Plan schemes without employing a proper system
of regulatory administration for such tasks and its role has been
warped and ill-defined at times. Funds have been apportioned into
the rural development programmes as a matter of course and
without any medium of regulation nor a process of monitoring of

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 dividends against the release of funds. To compound the problem,
the implementing agencies and departments are assigned as the
medium to apply the required checks and balances, possibly
opening wide the avenue for red tapism and nepotism in the
discharge of developmental roles and functions.
Public bureaucracy being manned by generalists are often
associated and entrusted with a whole gamut of departments and
subjects and not merely confined to the developmental needs of the
people and the locale. Even if the public officials so assigned for the
job do possess the aptitude and the dedication for development
activities; the objectivity of the bureaucratic performances may need
assessment and re-thought.

Besides the foregoing challenges and predominant problems

existing in the rural areas, the synonymous yet significant challenges and
problems being faced in the planning and management processes of the
Rural Development programmes and schemes will however be focused in
the light of the current scenario, that is, on the major rural development
programmes of wage employment, self employment, rural housing issues
and the DRDA Administration scheme :

Wage Employment – Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment

Guarantee Act :

Since 1989, workfare programmes have been launched under

Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY) and outreach of similar programmes has
witnessed its culmination into a rights-based and demand driven
MGNREGA in 2005 and actual implementation in 2006-07. MGNREGA,
an entitlement programme in its early years of inception saw a time of
hope and progress with millions of workers finding employment at the
MGNREGA work sites. As per the Annual Report 2012-13, Ministry of
Rural Development, Government of Inida, since its inception, MGNREGA
has disbursed ` 1,29,000 crore as wage payments to rural households,
1348 crore persondays of employment generated which means that on an

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average 5 crore households has been provided with employment every
year since 2008. Since the beginning of the programme, total number of
works taken up account to 146 lakh persondays, the inclusion of the SC
and STs has accounted to 51 percent, women have accounted for 47
percent of the total persondays generated, which is well above the
mandatory 33 percent as required by the Act. As recorded in the Annual
Report 2012-13, the average wage per personday has gone up by 81
percent since inception of the scheme, with state level variations.

Despite the indications of the Government of India Annual Report,

2012-13, the possible and ingrained challenges are manifest as :

i) A non-lapseable Central Employment Guarantee Fund has

been set up to ensure that the availability of funds match
with the seasonal working demands, a similar set-up made
available in all the MGNREGA districts, with dedicated
accounts for funds and the proposals for funding to be
adapted to as per guidelines. The funds are to be released on
the basis of demand for employment, clearly projecting the
annual requirement of funds based on an estimation of
labour demand in the Labour Budget, after an exhaustive and
comprehensive appraisal for both financial and physical
indicators of outcomes.
However, the estimation of labour demand in the Labour
Budget may not always be commensurate to the actual needs
of the workers in need of wage employment and there is
always the possibility of under-calculation or over-calculation
of the demand for labour.

ii) The financial health of both the Central Government and the
State Government are to work in a sychronised mode. Even if
the Central funds attend to the labour demands on a 100
percent basis, the actual delivery of labour demand is yet not
accounted for unless and until the State Government

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 promptly dispenses with its State matching share, thereby
ensuring that the work demanded can be translated into
wages within the prescribed 15 days of demand for work. In
effect, the current ratio of 75:25 of the Central and State
matching share may need to be re visited, taking into account
the financial health and stability of each and every State
Government.

iii) Since there has to be a detailed report on the financial and

physical outcomes on the programme; to track current trends
of employment generation, the system of monitoring of funds
spent has to be deployed efficiently. Mere submission of the
financial and physical reports on employment generation may
not ensure that the actual demands of the unemployed have
been met since there could be random cases where
employment is provided „not on demand‟ but only when funds
are in position; thereby defeating the mandate of the
programme as a demand driven workfare programme.

iv) MGNREGA being a right-based statute, its effectiveness lies in

the scope and extent to which wage seekers can exercise their
choice and assert their rights to claim their entitlements
under the Act. This would in effect ensure the empowerment
of the wage seekers by way of enhancement of knowledge
levels, increasing the literacy skills so that they can grasp and
understand their rights and priviledges under the Act and as
a generality enhance the social security levels of the workers
by opening saving accounts and onward thrift and small
savings and inclusion of the workers for life and health
insurrance schemes. Given the mandate, it may not be a
smooth task to enhance the afore stated levels of knowledge,
literacy, social security skills as the task involves an inter-

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 disciplinary and professionalized system of delivery
mechanism, which could be absent in the field.

v) MGNREGA derives its mandate by the empowerment of

workers and creation of durable assets linked with other
development programmes. Linkages with other development
programmes like National Rural Health Mission (NRHM),
National Mission for Literacy and Elementary Education and
other livelihood and infrastructure initiatives are needed to
ensure basic human entitlement to the workers and to
strengthen the natural resource base of livelihood. Tapping of
the full potential of the development programmes and
coordinating the activities towards the MGNREGA mandate
may in practice be a far-reaching effort. Initiatives to dovetail
the programme with income generation projects so as to
enable the worker to move from wage employment to self-
employment on a sustainable basis would pose to be a
challenge in itself as the system of mechanism may not be in
sync.
vi) In order to garner transparency, MGNREGA has instituted
electronic muster and measurement system, e-master
verification to be used by field functionaries with all the
related information of job seekers loaded therein so as to
facilitate online updation and to the MGNREGA website : with
the hope that this system would weed out bogus muster roll
and ensure that proper work is done for the money spent by
the Governmant and to help in arresting various distortions
in programme implementation like delay of payments, benami
wage seekers, fake measurment and work duplicacy. The
management system for transparency in itself is a novel
concept but a concept which demands dedicated levels of
effort and integrity on the part of the field functionaries, a
mechanism of e-governance which is yet to flourish in a

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 developing nation like India and the constraint more
compounded in the interior villages of the nation.
vii) Since MGNREGA has taken a universalised concept to provide
wage employment to the 300 million poor of India, the size
and proportion of the multi-disciplinary professional expertise
to provide resource support in all the areas of the programme
can be categorised as critical and plays a significant role in
the programme implementation. Another critical issue is to
strengthen the administrative systems dealing with
MGNREGA, with more accentuation on the training and
capacity building of different stakeholders within the
programme. However, the challenge lies in devising the
appropriate content of training and capacity building and the
accurate schedule of trainings at different stages to the
different target groups which will be able to translate into a
pro-wage employment mind-set and mechanism. Studies have
revealed that the apex training and research institutions like
the NIRD and the SIRDs have initiated such training
programmes on a war-footing scale but the actual reality
remains to be a trickling effect.

Since inception and into the initial years of operation, MGNREGA

witnessed a time of “hope and progress” for the unemployed wage seekers
inclusive of women who were provided a privileged status. Unskilled and
semi-skilled casual labourers, who constituted the main brunt of the
rural poor were enabled to earn income on their own, at the minimum
wages rates. The rural development mechanism with its general populist
schemes needed to shoulder the rights-based responsibilities by re-
educating the local government, PRIs, rural development functionaries
and stakeholders to revamp their initiatives. Alongside, a host of
institutional and technological innovations, inclusive of social audits to
Management Information Systems (MIS) were introduced, with a promise
to alter the livelihood of the rural poor in India. But, due to the pervasive

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and perceived challenges, MGNREGA and its implementation has proved
otherwise, as research and studies have evinced.

According to the Public Evaluation of Entitlement Programmes

(PEEP) Survey1 conducted during May-June 2013, covering the states of
Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and
Uttar Pradesh on MGNREGA, the employment levels have been seen to
have sharply declined and expenditure fell from nearly 0.6 percent of GDP
in 2009-10 to 0.3 percent in 2012-13. The PEEP Study reveals that there
were long delays in wage payment accounting to the reduction of the real
value of MGNREGA employment for rural workers. Other entitlements
such as basic worksite entitlements and facilities and the unemployment
allowances continue to be denied to the vast majority of the demand wage
workers. MGNREGA worksites were few and far between, people‟s
awareness of their entitlements did not seem to be higher than what was
found five years earlier. The PEEP Study indicates that only Tamil Nadu
and Chhatisgarh had sustained the programme‟s initial momentum. The
PEEP survey further indicates that only 8 percent had actually done 100
days of work in 2011-13 while 92 percent of the wage seekers were not
given the stipulated number of employment nor were they paid on time;
which shows that there is an enormous unmet demand for work under
MGNREGA. The helplessness of the rural workers has become a hurdle for
the MGNREGA. While the entire operations of the scheme is to provide the
people their work entitlements that they can demand as a matter of right,
to work on demand, be paid the minimum wages within a defined time
period of 15 days, be provided subsistence in the form of „unemployment
allowances‟ when demanded work is not made available and be provided
compensation is seemingly a far-fetched ideal of the programme as
portrayed in a number of studies. However, the revival of MGNREGA to
work in tandem with its mandate would no doubt require firm and
positive action to address the multiple roots of the fall-out : inconsistent

1. Outlook Weekly Newsmagazine of 23.03.2014/ http://butkt.com/1fRN35w)

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and sub standard medium of Information Education and Communication,
deluded labour demands, delayed wage payments, stagnation of real
wages, non-provision of workers‟ entitlements, the machinations of the
technocrats at work and lack of accountability of the functionaries.

Self-employment – Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana – National Rural

Livelihood Mission or Aajeevika :

The SGSY is a programme based on group dynamics known as the

SHGs, where the groups will take up income generating activities leading
to credit worthiness and culminating to financially accountable groups.
The system of grading the SHGs has been stipulated to act as an acid test,
the successful passing of which would enable the groups to progress on to
the higher stages of gaining the incentive of capital subsidy assistance
which would in turn augment self-employment oriented livelihood
opportunities and the added realization of higher dividends through the
process of thrift and credit, multiple internal lending with low rates of
interests has been a success in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu
and Kerela.

Through the years of its implementation, there have been a number

of challenges and problems as :

The programme is subsidy driven and studies have proved that the
poor simply focus on the subsidy portion and utilize it as an
incentive alone, despite the conditions to avail of it being distinctly
clear. It would however be an arduous task to identify the exact
stage or time period as to when the subsidy is to be provided to the
SHGs and to calculate the correct flow of subsidy grants. Even
though the current mode of implementation had been arrived at
from the change-over made by the government from that of provider
to that of facilitator, it is a difficult proposition to identify the apt
process of facilitating the assistance packages.
The programme is infused with credit linkage, to be augmented
from the financial institutions and banks after the SHGs reach a

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particular stage when they are credit ready. However, after more
than a decade of its launch, the credit achievement , in terms of the
total volume and rate of credit flow has been note-worthy only in a
few states while some states have witnessed stunted growth of the
SHGs after they were linked with credit. Therefore, the intervention
of credit financing to the SHGs has proved to make or unmake the
groups and its continuance in the realm of the SHG movement is a
factor requiring a revisit.
The SGSY Special Projects were simultaneously introduced with the
general scheme of SGSY, to be used as a mechanism to harbour
innovative and alternate means of reducing poverty in a larger and
accelerated capacity. Given the attractive proposal of a larger share
of subsidy, the Special Projects would be executed but left to
asunder without any means of proper monitoring to ensure the
desired end-result. Out of the 231 Special Projects under SGSY,
only 29 projects have been completed, the impact study of which is
not on record. This would perhaps be able to portray the imagery of
providing shares of subsidy prior to the groups‟ maturity.
Since the implementation of SGSY consisted of a lengthy and
continuous process to gain completion and maturity of the SHGs,
the programme required a large coterie of manpower to run the
processes. The obvious shortage of manpower in the areas of
providing professional support by way of nurturing and guiding the
SHGs was evident in almost every state. To compound such
constraints, the district rural development organ, the DRDA was
often found to be in a contentious situation, faced with the
persistent problem of not being fortified enough to shoulder such
contingencies. The current administrative set-up postulated by the
Government of India, Ministry of Rural Development in its DRDA
Administration Guidelines, 2002, grudgingly had to concede that
the DRDA personnel were not geared to take up such a complex role
of “facilitator” for the SHG movement. Inspite of the chameleon-like
changes continually infused by the Central Government in its

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 execution of schemes and programmes, it may not be right to put
the blame on its established organization or agency but instead
may need to focus on the Human Relations Policy effected through
its operations, the strength of its body manpower, the competency
of its staff along with the job satisfaction level of the personnel
within the body agency: an all important factor which has not been
accounted for; for all its worth and the commensurate dividends
that this aspect could or would have enabled in the mechanism of
rural development.
SGSY being a programme based on group dynamism, there were in-
built mechanisms to nurture the SHGs to develop into thriving
groups and to grow into federations; a federation of SHGs were
anticipated to be empowered with better bargaining powers and to
channelise their economic activities, possibly into business houses.
Despite such endeavours, the growth of SHGs into viable
federations constitute only a small number but it is pertinent to
indicate that the small number of SHG federations have made
sterling advancements in the business world and literally altered
the lives of the rural poor and rural livelihood in general.

Rural Housing – Indira Awaas Yojana :

Since the dawn of civilization, housing has been regarded as a basic

human need and the essentialities of the human necessity have been
transferred through the national rural housing programme, the IAY since
1996.

The on-going assistances for construction and upgradation of

houses of the rural poor had made headway and provided millions
of houses to the shelterless and even the landless. The role of the
state was merely confined to that of listing out the ideals of an IAY
house to be fitted with sanitary latrines, smokeless chulhas, the
incorporation of cost-efficient, environment-friendly technologies
but without any stipulation nor facilitation for the providence of

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 such elements and such in-built mechanisms remained to be
merely idealistic guidelines given to the implementing agencies.
The funds had earlier been released in staggered instalments,
dependent on the progress of the construction and certain other
essential stipulations, but this mechanism was later revised and
took a turn to releasing the assistances directly to the beneficiaries
as 100 percent grant assistance, without any credit portion and
with the liberty to construct the houses as per their likes and the
involvement of their voluntary labour.
As a means to garner an accurate target of IAY, the state had
instituted the IAY Permanent Wait List, based on the scores given
to the rural families as per the extant BPL Census; with the sole
objective of bringing about transparency in the housing grant
assistances. However, the efficacy of the permanent lists may need
re-examination; as the poverty level of a particular family or families
maybe transient over a minimum period of a 1-2 years, given the
magnitude of multiple development packages launched in duplicity,
opening wide the corridors for second rounds of duplicity by way of
receiving IAY grant assistances, once entered in the permanent
waitlists. Therefore, there arises the need to identify the loopholes in
the present arrangement.
Ownership of the IAY house has necessarily been given to the
female beneficiary. But given the patriachal system of the Indian
society, the rights of ownership may stand questionable in times of
marriage or divorce, even though the concept to render privileges to
the female gender is note-worthy and commendable.

District Rural Development Administration Scheme :

The DRDAs had been instituted as the principal organ of the district
rural development administration in 1980, to oversee and supervise the
implementation of the Rural Development anti-poverty programmes under
the Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India. But through the
years, the novelty and the practical requirement of the DRDAs have been

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likened into a debatable issue in that the district agency is not the apt
organization to dispense with the load of administration of rural
development in the district, more so, in the face of operating the multiple
new generation schemes and the need to effficiently manage the inflow of
funds to be utilized in diversified ways and methods : despite the fact that
the DRDAs have all along been labelled as a professional agency; capable
to tender and deliver professional facilitation and advisories, as and when
the need calls for.

In order to sustain the delivery mechanism that is the DRDA, the

Central Government has incessantly enthused the need to revamp and re-
constitute the agency through various sittings of high powered
committees. Efforts to re-structure the DRDAs in line with the growing
responsibilities and different roles to play, the Ministry of Rural
Development had introduced the DRDA Administration Scheme and set
broad frame-works to rejuvenate the life of the DRDAs in 2002. But the
initiative has yet proved to be rather an off-set for the agency, rendering
its activities as being expendable, even to the extent of labeling its body of
manpower as being inept and destined for winding up.

However, the challenge lies in the fact that the so called new
generation schemes cannot function without a set or sets of manpower
and the need to cull out a fresh set of personnel and groom them into a
body of professionals is nevertheless going to be a daunting task, with
excessive finances to be incurred in the run-in for development. Or would
the rejuvenation and re-orientation of the DRDA as a befitting district
organ of the rural development processes be classified as an irresolute
solution or otherwise remains to be seen in the future span of years.

The challenges pertinent to the DRDA Administration Scheme have

been a problem for the Ministry of Rural Development and had activated
the stance to conduct an evaluation study, which was taken up by the
Development and Research Services Private Limited, New Delhi. Findings
of the study are summarised as :

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The 8 wing structure postulated in the Guidelines of 2002 is not
followed by the states. This has rendered the DRDAs to become
mere agencies for coordinating rural development schemes rather
than being a specialized agency. Similar situation prevails even in
DRDAs merged with the Zila Parishad.
Due to the non conformity of the staffing pattern mandated by the
Guidelines, DRDAs are faced with acute shortage of staffs and
whatever staff in position often do not make the desired
specialization. Variation in service conditions, lack of benefits and
unwillingness of line departments to be posted on deputation has
aggravated the situation.
Since DRDA staff are to be fully equiped with the latest knowledge
and technology, fortification of their skills through trainings is a
must. However, the content and frequency of trainings are found to
be inadequate to attend to the roll-out of new generation
programmes with full understanding and commitment.
The funding pattern under DRDA Administration Scheme varies
from state to state and is often found to be incapable of catering to
the increase of pay and allowances of DRDA staff. The provision of
enhancing the allocations annually @ 5 percent has been sporadic
and found to be inadequate to meet the requirement of the DRDAs.
There is large scale preponderence of the generalist staff manning
the DRDAs which often defeats the very purpose in which DRDA
has been established. The administration of the DRDAs has over the
years been ineffective due to the bureaucratic style of functioning
rendered by the generalist staff.
The absence of the career prospects for the DRDA officials and staff
alongwith a large number of vacancies, more so in the professional
line has demoralized the work force and rendered the agency
disparate and dysfunctional at times.

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Problems And Challenges In Mizoram

After the British left Mizoram and with the subsequent

Independence of India from colonialism, the State of Mizoram adapted and
adhered to the administration of the Indian Government. Stagnant in its
economy, Mizoram was drawn into the general picture of Independent
India and the initial Community Development Programme was also
brought to cover the State in 1952-53. Coverage of the Community
Development Programme and other development plans were basically out
of the full reach of the Mizo people as they were made to be satisfied with
the meagre plan fundings eked out by the Assam Government, under
which Mizoram was but a small District Council. The problems faced by
the Mizo Hills continued to be unabated with the rise of insurgency in
1966, leaving the land incapable of mobilizing development and for that
matter what little developments existed continued to be ravaged and
demolished during the insurgency years. Even though Mizoram
subsequently earned the status of Union Territory and Statehood, the
after-effects of a stagnant economy remained to be compelling factors of
under-development when compared with other states of India.

Despite the hobbling economy, the State of Mizoram has been moving
simultaneously with the developmental pace of the nation. About 60
percent of the population of Mizoram depends upon agriculture and allied
sector and through the years, the share of agriculture and allied sector
has constituted the focal point of rural development. By the Eleventh Plan
period, the agriculture sector has averaged at 14 percent, with only 20
percent of the demand for the staple rice being met by the State and only
32 percent of the cultivated area under jhum cultivation. As per the
Economic Survey of Mizoram 2012-13, a total of 1,42,8600 tonnes of rice
was lifted by the State government from the Food Corporation of India.
Mizoram is yet struggling in the industrial development sector which was
started in the late 1990s and is still classed as a „no industry zone‟. While
the state‟s power demand is estimated at 107.0 MW, the State‟s own
generation is only 29.35 MW. The receipt from the State‟s own resources

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has increased by ` 67.66 crore in 2010-11 as compared to the receipt of
2009-2010. The State economy–GSDP is projected to grow at about 9
percent during 2012-13 while the national economy–GDP is projected to
grow at 6.2 percent during 2011-12. The per capita income of Mizoram for
the year 2010-11 is estimated at ` 48,591 crore as against ` 42,715 of
2009-10. Per capita income for the year 2011-12 is estimated at ` 54,689
as compared to the national per capita income of ` 61,564. Out of 50.4
percent of the rural population in Mizoram, the extant BPL percentage
ranges at 20.4 percent as per the Reserve Bank of India 2012 Annual
Report (SECC based on 2011 Population Totals is being currently
finalized) as opposed to the 57.07 percentage of BPL Census of the 1991
Census.

From once being tagged as a static economy, Mizoram is moving

towards development, shifting the focus to community development on a
participatory approach while fostering and motivating peoples initiatives
in its endeavour for planned development, with the government playing
the role of facilitator through extension and nucleus funding – in
consonance to the Government of India goals and objectives, accentuated
more in the areas of Rural Development sector.

Through the years, the pace of development in the rural areas of

Mizoram has been alligned with the Centrally Sponsored Schemes
under the Government of India, Ministry of Rural Development
along with a number of State Sponsored Schemes and flagship
programmes of the State government. Every initiative under the
Central Government and the State government has been
conceptualised with an approach meant to transform the social and
economic life of the villages. Programmes and schemes have been
enabled to provide coverage to the intended rural areas of which
majority of the dividends have seeped into the lives of the rural
community and brought about a certain amount of transformation
in the quality of their livelihood, as can be evinced from the lowering
of the BPL percentage in the state. But, the mere change of BPL

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percentage is not a strong indicator to make a ruling that rural
develoment processes have been a catalyst for development and
have cause effected a metamorphosis in the socio-economic life of
the rural masses. The absence of democratically elected local
government along with participatory planning and paucity of
financial and physical resources in the state has been detrimental
from allowing the state to make headway in the area of development
of the villages.
The strategies and programmes have been expanding in the field of
rural development, assigning due importance to the provision of
basic minimum needs like housing, sanitation, drinking water and
rural connectivity and progressing on to the entitlement
programmes of self employment and wage employment issues.
Simultaneously, regeneration of natural resources have also gained
importance, for which wasteland development and watershed
development programmes have been making a gradual shift of focus
on the rural poor and less on agriculture per se. Further the scope
and coverage embraced the critical sectors related to a holistic rural
development – pointing towards economic development, social
development, human development and infrastructural development;
packaged into different schemes and programmes along with the
much required element of convergence between the varied schemes
and programmes. The MGNREGA, SGSY, MZRLM, PMGSY, NRHM,
SSA, RGGVY and other schemes stand testimony to the efforts of
the State government.
Given the magnitude of the rural development programmes
and schemes with the need to coordinate and converge with
different sectoral developmental packages, the role and functions
that the State government as an implementing agency is required to
play, assumes a complex task. Besides the enormity of the task at
hand, Mizoram is plagued by financial instability and constrained to
participate fully in the delivery mechanism; in the right proportion
and in the right time. A glaring instance lies in the fact that the

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State government has been faltering in providing the state matching
shares of 25 percent and 10 percent too, drastically hampering the
smooth operation of the rural development programmes.
In the recent years, Mizoram has witnessed a paradigm shift in the
process of development where the community at large is focused
towards the realization of the ideals of right-based and entitlement
development programmes. Right to work is currently being effected
through MGNREGA as a demand entitlement; right to livelihood and
the right to social security is being moved through the MZRLM;
right to food security is being mooted for implementation while the
right to education has been partially realized. In the context of
Mizoram, there exists two programmes concurrently underway, that
is, the operationalisation of MGNREGA and MZRLM which focuses
on wage employment and self employment through livelihood
mission. In line, rural development therefore means the all round
integrated development of the rural areas stressing on the closure of
the existing divides in the rural community, in terms of bridging the
spatial divide between the rural,semi-urban and urban areas, in
bridging the social divides of caste and community, inclusive of
gender, and in bridging the economic divide and to do away with the
age old connotations of the „haves‟ and the „have-nots‟, the „cans‟
and the „can-nots‟; all to be delivered through the mechanism of an
entitlement-rights-based prerogative : for which the State
government is to geared up in readiness with sound financial health
and a sound delivery mechanism through a competent and
professionalized administrative system to attend to the said
programmes on mission mode.
In order to address the challenges, a wholesome approach needs to
be applied and followed in prioritizing the developmental targets and
goals and to assure development of the intended through the
absolute provision of rights based initiatives to be followed in toto
along with the provision of a uniform standard and quality of
services and facilities, to be acquired through ones own entitlement.

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In order to ascertain holistic development involving the optimum
realization of potential and the full engagement of the local
resources, it is required that the state level authorities focus on
reducing the differentials existing within the village, the block, the
district and the state machinery itself. To exact quality and parity in
the development activities, it is essential that added impetus be
given to reducing the uncertainties and the vulnerabilities and
instead effect a robust development action plan.
The administrative and organizational structure existing in the
present frame of rural development institution under the
Government of Mizoram is without a proper chain of command. The
administrative machinery is situated at the helm of the
Government Secretariat where plan formulations, principles of plan
implementation, monitoring and evaluation are to be devised and
the mechanism to set right the proceedures lie within their domain
but it is rather a paradoxical situation that the administrative
department at the Secretariat level undertakes implementation
activities of the major schemes like MGNREGA, BADP, BRGF,
supported with a specialized and dedicated cell for each of the given
programmes.
The Directorate of Rural Development is at the same time alligned
as a state level organisation with functions assigned to formulate
the plans and policies of rural development, supervise and oversee
the implementation of programmes, preparation of allocation of
funds for a limited number of programmes, prepare proposals and
sanction of fund releases for a limited number of programmes,
consolidate the prepared reports and returns as received from the
DRDAs and block level offices, monitor the grants-in-aid and attend
to the general administration and direction and to coordinate with
the administrative government and the Ministry of Rural
Development in generality. The Directorate of Rural Development,
Mizoram, functions within limited roles and responsibilities; where
it does not have direct administrative control over the district

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administration, that is, the DRDAs, but where the BDOs and the
block level, village levels are directly accountable to the Directorate
indicating that the block and village levels are required to report in
a three way process by reporting to the District administration
separately and the need to report to the Directorate for certain
issues and part ways to the administrative department, the Rural
Development Secretariat for certain activities and programmes;
indicating that there exists no defined allocation of business, with
no proper devolution of power within the different levels of
machinery, with no proper set of accountability and reporting;
thereby opening undue avenues for administrative loopholes and
organizational disarray.
While it is a given that the DRDAs are an autonomous body
and are supposed to be outside the bureaucratic and political
influences, the present administrative structure and functions
where the Directorate of Rural Development has no direct
association or linkages through administrative supervision leaves
the administration of rural development in a haphazard way; giving
the freeway to district administration while limiting the roles and
functions of the Directorate of Rural Development, with no standard
line of communication and command. At the same time, the block
and village level are not made accountable to the district organ, the
DRDAs, but are directly under the administrative charge of the
Directorate of Rural Development; again an indication that there is
poor coordination and administrative conflict between the vital
stages and levels of administration of rural development in
Mizoram.
Rural Development programmes when taken as a whole constitute
action oriented and development oriented targets but when taken as
a singular development plan, each programme is encapsulated
within a confined area of development, without any means of
association and outreach for the co-existence of one or the other.
Though these programmes always bear the stipulated insertions for

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convergence of programmes, actual reality in the field of
implementation portrays a different picture altogether. Funding
from the ex-chequer of India has been provided in substantial
proportions, with the expenditure and utilization mechanism spelt
out with clarity but the reality in delivering grant assistances,
subsidy, subsidy assistances bear a different tune and often does
not reach the intended lot; an issue which has persisted on from the
beginning of the Community Development Programme to the days of
MGNREGA. It is therefore necessary to chanelize the rural
development propaganda and its operatives through a commited
and collective agenda for the improvement and transformation of
the rural poor.
As a means to turn around the developmental pace in a positive
manner, the actual implementation of a democratic local
government in the form of Panchayat or for that matter in the case
of Mizoram, the Village Councils, need to be encouraged and be
given their democratic rights and privileges in turning the wheels of
change and development; through the bottom-up planning and
management system, a system which has been propagated since the
Third Five Year Plan. Real and positive development cannot be
effected with clarity and depth while the institution to implement
the programmes in the field are made to exist in a virtual state. In
essence, there is an urgent requirement for a smooth collaboration
and affinity between the administrative mechanism and political
will.
Since the objectives of rural development are targetted not merely to
financial or physical perspectives but directly attuned to the needs
and aspirations of a human being, the administrative mechanism to
deliver the action plan of development needs to objectify its efforts,
by way of professionalizing the delivery mechanism through a
specialized body of personnel. With this primary objective of
churning out a body of manpower with different specializations
required for attending to the multi-dimensional programmes of rural

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development, it is anticipated that the general processes will
effectively enhance the quality of implementation of anti poverty
programmes. This team of professionals and technical experts for
the effective delivery of rural development process is to be further
supported by the effective coordination of the line departments,
consisting of technical experts, the bank and financial institutions,
which are manned by banking, financial professionals and the final
tie up with the PRIs and the local government, as well as the
involvement of the technical institutions : building an aggregate
work-force for the comprehensive effort to be effected for the
gathering of best practices, updated knowledge and technology
applicable to the rural areas and the infusion of available resources
required for poverty reduction and amelioration of the poor and
facilitation for a transformed quality of life.
Rural Development as a process has been characterized by a set of
procedures, rules and techniques, guidelines and instructions and
has often failed to derive its desired end-results through the efficient
organization of human resources. In order to obtain the set goals
and objectives within a planned development, the significance of the
task force responsible to handle the projects and plans cannot be
over-emphasised. Social and political assumptions which have led
to studies on the subject have identified the need to form a
conglomerate of responsible and committed task-force, to seek the
purpose of an action and to render the operation with a result-
oriented exit plan.
In the context of rural development, similar principles need to
be applied in order to support participatory planning and
implementation processes : a process of action which needs to work
in a cohesive force and effort, so as to achieve and attain the desired
end-result. A successful organization with the best of plans and
objectives may dwindle if the task-force at hand are not amenable to
dispense their roles and responsibilities effectively and efficiently
while an upcoming organization may thrive and succeed within a

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short time, if the manpower delivers the best of services in all
effectiveness and efficiency. This principle on personnel
administration has been propounded and propagated by Elton
Mayo, the founder of the Human Relations Movement and known
for his industrial research including the Hawthorne Studies (1930s).
The research he conducted indicated the importance of groups in
affecting the behaviour of individuals at work, where the norms of
cooperation and higher output were established because of a feeling
of importance, while physical conditions or financial incentives had
little motivational value; wherein the people will form work-groups
and can be used by the management to benefit the organization.
Elton Mayo concluded that people‟s work performance is dependant
on both social issues and job contentment; that an individual
worker cannot be treated in isolation and must be seen as members
of a cohesive group; that informal or unofficial groups formed at
work has a strong influence on the behaviour of those workers in a
group; that managers must be aware of these social needs and cater
to them so as to ensure that employees collaborate with the official
organization rather than work against it; by motivating the work-
force with good inter-personal and leadership skills and that
monetary incentives and good working conditions are less important
to the individual than the need to belong to a cohort of like-minded
individuals and employees working towards a common goal.
Through Elton Mayo‟s Human Relations Movement, the principle of
standardisation and cooperation enabled the guarantee for the
highest form of work output from a team. Mayo‟s experiments
concluded that workers who have the ability to impact their working
conditions and work requirements are more satisfied with their
positions and that a cooperative and a feeling of being part of a
cohesive group were more important to productivity. The research
also found that people work best when they can have a two-way
communication with their leaders and when leaders communicate
and share informmation freely, as part of a cohesive decision-

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 making process. The human relations movement is seen as a
precursor of the modern human resource function. Before the
human relations movement, workers were typically seen as
replaceable cogs in the organizational system. The introduction and
application of the human relations movement effected a general
atmosphere of satisfaction amongst the workers and motivated
them into productive workers.
Real time challenges have however been manifest in the rural
development scheme of work; where high-end productivity is
expected of the task-force, that is, the rural development
functionaries, without the probability of job satisfaction,
compounded with the atmosphere of being expendable and
replaceable; would leave the rural development personnel
unattached to their jobs and disenchanted with the rural
development mechanism and process in general. Since the start of
the Community Development Programme till date, the Central
Government and the State governments have not attached due
regard to the development of a dedicated work-force nor motivated
to be productive assets. Uniform or standard personnel
administration or the establishment of a uniform staffing pattern
has not been evolved in a sustained manner. Whatever minimal
staff recruited and retained in the rural development campaign have
been constantly placed under scrutiny and subjected to recurrent
reviews with regard to their efficacy in the system. A live testimony
of the fact lies in the consistent discussions held with regard to the
status and functioning of the DRDAs, the rural development district
organ or district administration for rural development. Till date,
thirteen Government of India Committees have had extensive and
intensive discourses on the same isssue since 1973, deliberating on
the Human Resource Policy of the district organ alone 2 : an action

2. Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, Report of the Committee on

Restructuring of DRDA, 2012.

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 which is yet to be made concrete but has rendered the rural
development work-force to question the nation‟s Terms of Reference
on the Human Resource Policy within the ambit of rural
development.

The concept of rural development, as an alternative strategy for an

over-all development has become a world-wide currency in both the
advanced and backward nations and has caught on during the last five
decades. Every state policy or programme has a direct or indirect bearing
on the rural sector and the issues addressed on the rural development
phenomenon are focused in organizing the human and natural resources
designed to provide a solution to the perennial problems of poverty and
deprivation of the rural people, with a concentrated attention to raise their
living conditions for the better. Despite the endeavour and the struggle to
raise the rural poor from the quagmire of socio-economic stagnancy, the
rural development strategy (ies) pursued and adopted have somewhat and
somehow failed to attend to the issue, wherein the entire mechanism has
been found to be inapppropriate, irrelevant to the environment and needs
of the people and even to the extent of being misdirected and misplaced :
a process which would require and mandate a series of recurrent acid
tests all over again.

As a summary, it may be indicated that the delivery of the anti-

poverty packages has been implemented along the formal lines outlined by
the apex machinery, that is, the Central Government and has had a long
history where rural development has not been able to reach the desired
end-result. We have tried to study the organizational and institutional
challenges and problems in the management of rural development within
Mizoram and how the State government is grappling with the situation.

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 CHAPTER VII

Conclusion

The previous chapter is an indepth elucidation on the problems and

challenges of rural development programmes in India and Mizoram with
added focus. The previous chapter, that is, Chapter VI also discusses the
rural development administration of Mizoram in relation to our field study
conducted for the purpose of data collection and analysis. Within the field
study, we have discussed the perceptions of the rural development
functionaries, of different rank and grade in the Rural Development
Department, Mizoram. In line, we have presented the different and varied
responses of the rural development functionaries themselves, with regard
to the rural development administration and the synonymous personnel
administration involved therein, for the effective and efficient delivery of
rural development programmes in Mizoram. In this chapter, we present
the concluding observations of the entire study, in two parts. The first
part presents the summary of all the previous chapters and the second
part would present the research findings, banking on the research
questions along with the presentation of the concluding observations and
suggestions for the improvement of rural development administration in
Mizoram.

Part I

Banking on the dictat of Mahatma Gandhi, “ If the villages perishes,

India will perish too. It will be no more India. Her own mission in the
world will get lost. The revival of the village is possible only when it is no
more exploited,” the socio-economic fabric of India in general and of
Mizoram in a larger and concentrated perspective has undergone a sea
change. Despite a number of interventions initiated by the government,
social institutions, financial institutions, NGOs and CBOs, yet, a large
number of the rural people do not have adequate income, employment
opportunities fall short of demand, associated with illiteracy, complacency
and ignorance, where the land resources and ecology is degraded with

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inadequate infrastructural facilities to cope with the rising demands of an
increasing rural population all add up for the dedicated application of
rural development and to sustain the campaign to revive the villages and
nurture them into attaining a standard quality of life is the mission of
rural development in India and Mizoram as a State. Though man cannot
overcome all the limitations that the environment imposes upon him, it is
a task sworn to him to attempt and modify the limitations and attend to
the possible solutions in the general interest and welfare of the rural
people. The present study has been taken up to probe into the actual
realities of the rural development processes in Mizoram and as to how the
rural development functionaries and personnel are alligned in their
commitment for the upliftment of the poor in Mizoram.

The study has been based on a normative emperical data through a

system of controlled and critical investigation. The research, is in effect, a
blueprint of principles and policies, ideologies, methods and techniques to
identify and attend to the loopholes and persistent lacunae in the rural
development process and to prescribe suggestions and measures for the
best possible practices and principles. Through the research study,
contemporary literature on rural development perspectives has been
extensively studied and analyzed in line with the research probabilities
and for its subsequent outcome.

The research study has been formulated and designed within seven
chapters. The first chapter, that is, Introduction, deals with the scope and
significance of rural development and the intervention processes that are
present in the current scenario of Mizoram. The research is with a focus
to the extent of significance and impact that the extant Human Resource
policy and the existing rural development personnel or manpower have on
the successful or unsuccessful implementation of the rural development
programmes in the rural areas of Mizoram. The study is an attempt to
highlight the coordination or the negative effect that the rural
development personnel have in the application of their roles and functions
in the rural development mechanism of Mizoram. Social scientists,

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academicians, social debates and political slogans have been deliberating
on the planning and implementation processes of rural development in
general through a number of decades but a focused study on the singular
but pluralistic intervention of the human resources has not been
deliberated nor research studies conducted on this particular area; an
area which undoubtedly plays a significant part in the rural development
planning, implementation and monitoring aspects.

The second chapter is a study on the general concepts of rural

development in a universalized medium followed by the scenario of rural
development administration within the realm and part of public
administration. The study has elucidated on the history of rural
development in India; the planning and devising of rural development
programmes and schemes in consonance with the general welfare and
interest of the rural people; and the institutional and organizational
arrangements for rural development programmes, starting from the
introduction of the Community Development Programme in the early
1950s till the transition into MGNREGA. The study focuses on the multi-
dimensional and multi-hued rural development programmes and
packages; the consistent morphing of the government from that of the
provider to that of the facilitator; and the changeover of the rural
development programmes from once being grant assistances to that of
subsidy assistances and credit inclusion and the change over from a 100
percent assistance programme to that of a law based and right based
entitlement programmes.

The third chapter is an indepth study on the historical background

of Mizoram starting from the days when the Mizos were labelled as
warriors, complacent with the traditional village life and basic agrarian
livelihood and the slow transition of a competitive economy and the
intervention of the rural development services in the lives of the rural
community of Mizoram. The chapter also elucidates on the background of
rural development in Mizoram and on the details of rural development
administration rendered by the State government; with a focused study on

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the organizational and administrative arrangements and functions of the
rural development personnel under the Community Development
Department and thereafter under the Rural Development Department of
today.

The fourth chapter deals with the concept of Personnel

Administration in general and on the scope and extent that Personnel
Administration has within the realm of development administration in
general. Within this chapter, the study highlights the system of Personnel
Administration in India during British colonialism and post-colonial state
of an Independent India followed by the institutional and organizational
framework of Personnel Administration in the State of Mizoram,
highlighting the administrative development of different governmental
departments alongwith their respective allocation of business. During the
course of the present study, it has been observed that rural development
administration in the State depends upon the structure, nature and
working of personnel administration. The Department of Rural
Development receives the personnel and organizational set-up from the
State administration. Other subordinate and allied institutions and
agencies like the Directorate of Rural Development, the State Level
Monitoring Cell and Internal Audit Cell, the District Rural Development
Agencies, the State Institute of Rural Development and the Rural
Development Blocks also perform their tasks and responsibilities in
accordance with their personnel administration.

The fifth chapter is a study on the general concept of planning and

management in an organization, highlighting the principles of an effective
and efficient planning and management process in different situations.
There is also discussion on the ideals of planning and management in the
rural development perspective. It is within this chapter that the role of
planning and management of rural development programmes in the
context of India has been deliberated upon extensively, emphasising on
the utilization of funds, the mechanism of the implementing agencies; and
the related functionaries with an analytical assesment of the targets and

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goals of rural development programmes. The chapter highlights the role
of planning and management in the context of Mizoram, broadly focusing
on the mechanism of operating the rural development programmes,
inclusive of the significant but rather virtual state of a functional human
resource mechanism as an intervening capacity for the implementation of
rural development programmes in the State of Mizoram. There is an
analysis of their efficacy in the context of rural development processes.

Within the sixth chapter, the study has tried to discuss the
intricacies of the ingrained problems and challenges of rural development
programmes in India. It has dealt with the institutional and
administrative aspects, the organisational aspects inclusive of the relevant
problems and challenges being faced in the human resources domain
including that of challenges and problems in the execution of the rural
development programmes. Similar focus has been attached to the
challenges and problems pertinent within Mizoram, associated with the
issues of Personnel Administration which point towards the issues
relation to the implementation of the rural development programmes. It
may be pointed out that the study can be connected to Elton Mayo‟s
perspective of the Human Relations Movement; a Human Resource
principle popular till date. As such, the research study has brought to
light the existing and exact picture of the application of Human Resource
policy among the rural development personnel of Mizoram. It has tried to
indicate its relevance within the ambit of rural development in Mizoram.

Part II

During the course of the present study, we have tried to find out the
answers to our set of research questions along with the presentation of
the major research findings and discussions that have been derived from
the study.

The first question taken up was made pertinent as to what the

Human Resource Policy in the Rural Development Department in general
is and with regard to extant Human Resource principle in the district

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organ of rural development, that is, the DRDA of Mizoram. During the
course of the study, a positive and clear finding was that there existed no
defined Human Resource Policy nor principle administered by the Rural
Department Department, Government of Mizoram and whatever policy in
use is not conducive for the general application of human resource
development. Human Resource Policy or policies has not been framed nor
devised in concerted consideration for the human capital that constitutes
the work force of rural development in Mizoram. Whatever principles in
vogue has been found to be incongruent and inconsistent to that of a
thriving and an amenable Human Resource Policy; which would normally
be focused in delivering the best of an action-oriented mechanism, an
operative that is required for the process of rural development.

The Rural Development Department, Mizoram is constituted of a

manpower consisting of generalists, technocrats and specialists drawn on
deputation from development departments and a larger pool of manpower
consisting of the Rural Development Department functionaries, drawn
from regular and contractual appointments. The make-up of manpower
in the Rural Development Department is to be a conglomeration of such
generalists, technocrats, specialists and professionals as the very nature
of rural development calls for such an infusion of expertise. However,
through the course of the study, it has been found that there exists no
equilibrium on the nature of drawing and retaining the different sets of
expertise and professionalism; when a generalist drawn from the State
Civil Services or the Indian Administrative System is appointed at the
helm of the administrative structure or at the decision making level, the
appointments are invariably done without any competency mapping nor
any standard scrutiny for the person‟s affinity and amenability toward the
subject of rural development. Though there exists minimal cases of
abiding with such standards of scrutiny and references, majority of the
cases are appointments effected from the pool of political affiliations and
administrative favouritism. As for the technocrats and specialists drawn
on deputation from the development departments, it has been realized

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that majority of the deputationists are often not willing to tread on
uncharted waters, where their administrative authority is often
overshadowed and belittled by the small percentage of generalists and
technocrats; giving rise to conflict of authority and the ensuing
demoralization in the execution of work. As such, Rural Development
Department, Mizoram has not been forthcoming in appointing
deputationists from the development departments and whatever
deputationists appointed in the Rural Development Department are often
personnel shunned out by their parent departments due to inefficiency or
other cause factors, resulting to Rural Development Department hosting
inept and unwilling specialists in its organization. The study has thus
proved that the authoritative level who are assigned to devise and
formulate the plans and policies and the implementation procedures and
techniques are not inclined to select and retain the best personnel,
incongenial for an efficient working environment in the operation to
develop the rural poor and the rural areas..

The study has also been able to unearth the fact that there exists a
separate class of officials in the Rural Development Department of
Mizoram, which is constituted by a sizable number of group „A‟ officers
and group „B‟, „C‟ and “D‟ officials and staff appointed on regular basis
and belonging to the Department proper along with contractual
appointees making a large taskforce; appointed for a short tenure of one
year and in some three years and existing cases where contract
appointees are languishing with indefinite service conditions for more
than ten years but without any service security. It may also be indicated
that out the officials appointed on regular basis in the Department, only
0.6 percent make up for the group “A‟ grade and rank, thereby implying
that there is very little scope of decision-making authority from amongst
the regular appointees of the Department and point to the fact that Rural
Development Department, Mizoram is being run by a floating team of
personnel, with little or no allegiance to the Rural Development
perspectives or to the larger interests of the rural poor in Mizoram. The

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study has established that the administrators for Rural Development
cannot be a brigand pool of human resources but a pool constituted from
a team of dedicated and competent professionals and specialists, therefore
“recommending the creation of an administrative pool or pool of
administrators for Rural Development”.1

The study has discovered that the number of manpower in Rural

Development Department of Mizoram is on the decline from the initial
days of its establishment. Out the 761 sanctioned posts in the
department, 382 are currently vacant which accounts to 50.3 percent
vacancy. Within establishment of the Directorate of Rural Development
Department, Mizoram, there are 179 sanctioned posts, out of which 116
posts are filled up and 63 remaining vacant, accounting to a 65 percent
vacancy which also indicates that there are many unmanned posts in the
Rural Development Blocks where the brunt of the rural development
workload exists; a clear indicator that there exists insufficient manpower
in the Rural Development Blocks, which could subsequently render the
delivery of Rural Development as incomplete and wanting on many
counts.

This would indicate the apathy of the State government in not

according due credit to the Rural Development processes by refraining
from filling up the vacancies and executing the Rural Development
programmes without adequate manpower; which is not to mention of the
need for competence and effectiveness; an essential professional
requirement in the rural development field, which deals extensively with
the human factor..

The structural organization is irregular with no defined chain of

command in the entire set-up of the department and a glaring absence of
assigned delegation of powers between the state level administrative
machinery, that is, between the Administrative department at the

1. R.D. Sharma, Development Administration; Theory and Practice, 1992, p. 353.

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Secretariat, the Directorate, Rural Development, the State Level
Monitoring Cell & internal Audit Cell, the DRDAs and the Block level
officers. An efficient administrative organization is the primary instrument
for the preparation and implementation of plan and programmes. While
the organizational set-up at the State level is to guide, supervise and
monitor the implementation of the rural development programmes as an
apex level machinery, the administrative department at the Secretariat,
Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram is directly
associated with the implementation of the major Rural Development
programmes like MGNREGA and other parallel programmes of BADP and
BRGF. A paradoxical strain of administrative procedure currently existing
within Rural Development Department, Mizoram in that the Director,
Rural Development has been appointed as Nodal Officer for the major
rural development programmes but the actual executive implementation
is undertaken by the Secretariat Administrative Department. Such
administrative mechanisms have opened the leeway for duplicity in
administration; where one area of the administration is not working
adjunctly with the other and and could indicate a regressive
administrative stance where the Directorate is not enabled to function as
a Directorate ought to. However, in some cases, it has been found that the
Directorate has been charged to oversee and supervise the
implementation of certain Rural Development programmes, again causing
a two-pronged delivery mechanism arising from the Secretariat
Administrative Department and another from the Directorate of Rural
Development, often leaving the district organ, the DRDAs and the Rural
Development Blocks in disparate situations.

As per general administrative procedures and norms, the

Directorate of Rural Development is responsible for overseeing and
coordinating the implementation of the various rural development
programmes : with the sole objective for amelioration of the rural poor and
to ensure the development of the rural areas under the administrative
supervision of the State government or the Rural Development Secretariat.

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However, the study has found that the situation is not in conformity to
the general administrative norms and procedures. Such departure from
established procedures and norms may not bode well for an effecient
personnel administration; wanting on standards of uniformity and
definition.

Simultaneously, the Directorate of Rural Development is seen to

function as a general post office with menial roles and functions as;
consolidating plan proposals, consolidation of fund requirement
proposals, augmenting of State matching shares, consolidation of reports
and returns as received from the DRDAs and the onward furnishing of the
same to the Ministry of Rural Development; without any means of
objectivity and subjectivity in the implementation of the programmes. The
study has identified that the Directorate of Rural Development can be
rendered to the likeness of a white elephant, unless an administrative
reorganization comes to the rescue. This in essence translates to the fact
that the rural development process and its mechanism is disconnected
and indisposed to deliver the right kind of operatives: elements which
may not derive development of the rural poor in a balanced and effective
way.

As the Rural Development Department, Mizoram does not follow

the PRI system and is dependant on the traditional Village Councils
formed during the District Council period, it has automatically banked on
the institution of the DRDAs, as the district organ and is in effect the
district administrative office under Rural Development Department. But
with the DRDAs afforded an autonomy of its own as mandated by the
Central Government, it is apparent that the Department does not
recognize the DRDAs as the district office as there is no allignment or
hierarchical connection between the district or DRDA admininstration and
the Directorate administration : where the DRDAs are not answerable to
the Directorate of Rural Development and when the Directorate is not
delegated nor empowered to coordinate the function of the DRDAs. The
element of disconnect is again evident where the Block Development

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Officers at the block level are not directly answerable to the Project
Director, DRDA but are instead directly accountable to the Director of
Rural Development and the Chairman, DRDA or Deputy Commissioner of
the district. Reports and returns from the block and village levels are
despatched in a multi-pronged manner, as certain issues are pertinent for
reportage to the DRDAs while some are meant exclusively for the
Directorate and some reports and returns are directly despatched to the
Administrative Secretariat : portraying a picture where the grassroots level
institutions and the block level organizations relinquish precious time in
relaying to three different quarters. The present system of administration
portrays a disorganized and dubious chain of authority leading to chaos
and inefficiency in the delivery of rural development activities. The study
has thereby concluded that Rural Development Department, Mizoram
requires an urgent review of its structural and institutional organization.

The second question which has made the study pertinent is in

respect of the conditions of services available, training facilities and other
incentives for the personnel in the Department of Rural Development,
Mizoram. Through the course of the study, it has been identified that the
nature of appointment against regular substantive positions of the
Department is dissimilar and whatever Ministry of Rural Development
instructions have percolated in these aspects is not taken into due
consideration and not attended to promptly and has caused a lot of
discontent amongst the workforce as :

The rural development functionaries appointed against the posts

sanctioned under the Rural Development Department proper are
regular appointments bearing all the attributes of a government
servant and are afforded the service benefits in accordance.
Some rural development functionaries are against appointments
made initially in the DRDAs of Aizawl, Lunglei and Saiha districts
against the sanctioned posts conveyed by the Government of India,
Ministry of Rural Development and onward approval of the
sanctioned posts by the State government. These functionaries have

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been appointed on regular terms in the respective DRDAs and had
been functioning without any security of service nor service
benefits; some employees had rendered services for more than
twenty years, without any service benefits, in terms of promotion or
career progression nor service security nor in terms of retirement or
death. The poor service conditions of these DRDA employees
ricocheted the Ministry of Rural Development to review and
recommend the DRDA service conditions and had recommended
that they be absorbed into the line departments, as per the
recomendations of the Shankar Committee, 1998 and that the said
issue be settled within a span of 3-4 years, that is, by 2002-03.
Regardless of the standing instruction of the Ministry of Rural
Development, Government of India, the issue was dispensed off
after a legal judgement, resulting to the absorption of the DRDA
employees into the regular services of Rural Development
Department, Government of Mizoram, during 2009; without
recognizing the number of service years and the DRDA employees
allotted a junior inter-se-seniority. Currently, these employees have
been transferred to far flung areas of the Rural Development Blocks
while some few have been posted to the DRDAs on deputation.
Some functionaries of Rural Development Department and the
DRDAs have been appointed on contract for one year, three years
and have continued to serve in that capacity for more than ten
years in some cases, despite non-renewal of their contract
agreement by the State government as their services have not been
terminated. These category of functionaries do not have any
permanence in service nor do they have any service security nor do
they attend to any performance appraisal formats nor are they given
any form of incentives for their role performance in the way of
nation building.
Some functionaries of Rural Development Department have been
appointed on contract for a period of one year under the mission
mode programmes of MGNREGA, NRLM and IWMP, with induction

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 and probation periods slated as four months and in some for one
year; indicating inconsistency in the appointment procedures. The
functionaries are provided with travelling allowances and daily
allowances and leave, while medical allowances have been made
available only under MZSRLM and unavailable for other appointees
under different programmes; with no accomodation facilities and no
service security provided in the form of provident funds, again an
exception under MZSRLM.

The recruitment and selection of the rural development

functionaries is at variance; the distinctions are due to the executive
instructions being without clarity from the Government of India, Ministry
of Rural Development and the action or inaction of the authorities of the
State government, coupled with an inadequate understanding of the
situation leading to the non recognition of the poor service conditions of
its functinaries, as evinced in the sample surveys of the respondents
during the research study. It is upon the organization to ensure that it
provides a modicum of service assurances, if not service security to a
taskforce it requires and a service for which the organization is
dependant on. It is therefore the responsibility of the State government to
seek the ways and means to provide a defined and wholesome Human
Resource Policy and to develop a satisfied corp of task force, to lead and
transform the mandate of rural development into a thriving rural
communitization in Mizoram.

During the course of the study, it has also been observed that the
Rural Development Department has not been providing a schedule of
trainings or capacity building programmes to its personnel, with just 42
percent having attended foundation and basic trainings and another 43
percent attending periodic trainings and a meagre 15 percent attended in-
service trainings, with 37 percent having attended any kind of training for
just once. Given that the rural development programmes bear a multi-
dimensional character and have evolved into different essences through
the decades of planned development in India, it is a given that the

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personnel within the organization are to be armed and fortified with the
latest tools and techniques and to work in tandem with the updated
information and knowledge, so as to cull out the best possible medium for
an effective and efficient dispensation of services; an element which is all
the more required for application in the field of rural development. The
study has further evinced that 30 percent of the personnel have been
attending training and capacity building programmes out of their own
initiatives, which shows that the existing manpower are aware of the
training needs and have duly taken the prerogative to attend the trainings
on their own accord. It may also be pertinent to point out that the Rural
Development Department, a department of more than three decades old is
without a training division or section to cater to the training needs of its
personnel, besides the State Institute of Rural Development, Mizoram,
which was established only in 2001.

The Human Resource principles of the Rural Development

Department, Mizoram has been found to be lacking in providing any form
of service incentives based on performance or service benefits, leaving a
task force of seven hundred and sixty one, without any motivational value
factor. One senior official had even commented on this issue that high
performance in the department does not translate into any form of
recognition nor converts to added incentives nor any form of service
promotion or security; therefore, the option remaining is to while away
one‟s time just enough to get your pay package, an indicator pointing to
the state of discontent amongst the rural development functionaries of
Mizoram. If the personnel who form the workforce are not greeted with
any form of motivation, productivity can be compromised and leave the
rural development phenomenon into despair.

The study, with reference to the third research question pertains as

to what role has political will played in the rural development process in
Mizoram and how the political interventions have affected the socio-
economic development of the state; in terms of development of the rural
areas and how the insinuations of the political machinery has been

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swaying the developmental pace and in how the political heads manning
the Department of Rural Development have been a deterrent or a
facilitator to promote the cause of the poor and the general well being of
the rural areas in Mizoram. Recent administrative reforms and campaigns
for reorganization have been capitalizing on the need for transparency and
the alignment of e-governance in the administrative machinery within
every department. In consonance to this move for reforms, it has been
indicated that the administrative officers who function under a political
head are required to play the balancing act and to provide the equilibrium
between the arbitrary intervention of the political machinery into the
workings of the administration poised for development of the state; a
factor which demands a great depth of integrity from the administrative
officials so as to be able to guide and sensitize the political machinery and
the political head into steering the developmental pace with full optimum.

However, the study has revealed that there has been a high
frequency of arbitrary political intervention ranging at 42 percent, 37
percent confiding of some arbitrary political intervention in their work
sphere. During the course of the study, it has been recognized that there
is no system for insulation of officials from the undesirable political
interventions and that the officials had been functioning on an automated
mode according to the whims and fancies of the political heads in power.
This in effect gravitates to a situation where the officials are not enabled
to function with integrity and accountability. Administration in any
governmental area must become accountable and transparent in
delivering results along with a conscious effort to establish the political
will and allign the authority that they wield with the principles of integrity
and accountability. While it may be politically correct to comply to the
wishes of the political machinery, it is important that the officials who
man the administrative rural development machinery always stand firm to
ensure objectivity and fairness so that the intended outcome will benefit
the society it is meant for : a principle of administration required in the

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application of rural development and in assuaging rural poverty as a
priority of the nation.

In respect of the fourth research question which banks on what is

the impact of rural development in Mizoram; the study has found that the
impact of the rural development phenomenon, its strategies and processes
have not been strong in changing and developing the lives of the rural
poor nor has the medium of transformation provided the required growth
and development in rural Mizoram. The rural development functionaries
who have close grassroots level connection are of the opinion that
whatever rural development programmes being implemented are received
as „free gifts‟ by the rural population and the rural development
programmes are perceived as mediums to assuage their financial distress,
relaying the fact that rural development and its activities are construed as
a means for the salvation of the rural poor in their time of necessity and
abject deprivation, which is in contrast to the ethos and principles by
which and for which the programmes and schemes had been formulated
upon. Another issue indicating the impact factor is the perception that the
rural population still rely on the notion of the government‟s role as a
„provider‟ for their bread basket and cannot seem to embrace the fact that
the rural development programmes have taken a different tune and stance
where they, the rural poor, are to identify their innate resources and to
diversify those resources and to hone it into viable economic activities or
as a means to translate those programmes for their socio-economic uplift.
The rural poor refuse to acknowledge that their involvement is amply
required in the rural development implementation and that the
government is to simply render the services by invoking the role of a
„facilitator‟; instilling the picture that there yet exists much to be done in
informing, educating and communicating the all important aspects and
facets of rural development to the rural population of Mizoram.

The study has however been able to identify that the rural
population are somewhat satisfied that the rural development
programmes which have been reaching out to them have provided a

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modicum of socio-economic stability in their lives and that certain
schemes has been delivering assets and infrastructure for the rural
community, but the level of dissatisfaction in the creation of „sustained‟
and „durable‟ assets and infrastructure is a cause for concern in that the
„creation of a sustainable and durable assets‟ has been sub-standard in a
majority of work items and quality has been compromised. The study has
also been able to reveal that arbitrary political intervention exists in
programmes where rural community assets and infrastructural items are
taken up for construction and is often the cause for the lending of
disproportionate and incommensurate acitivities and works. There is also
discontent in the fact that there is an uneven spread of development,
where a neighbouring village is wont to be awash with receipt of grant
assistances while the other village is left with scanty developmental
outreaches if the local government or the Village Council is not in cohorts
with the existing political mantle.

When the environ of rural development strategy is concerned with

the wholesome achievement of realistic variables required for the rural
population, it is essential to develop practical and workable objectives and
to identify and propagate the forces and factors that militiate against it.
Despite the financial expenses and the operations for social and economic
development in Mizoram, the rural development strategy and its
processes adopted and pursued have been found to be inappropriate and
inadequate to the environment and to the needs of the people; often
opening up the possibility of the rural development programmes being
misdirected at times.

After discussing the research questions and the responses and after
duly presenting the concluding observations after completing the present
study, we now present some suggestions and indications which can
provide constructive changes in the rural development administration of
Mizoram and in the context of effecting a wholesome and defined Human
Resource principle for the personnel or functionaries of the Rural
Development Department in Mizoram.

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 Any organization, whether government or corporate or private is
dependent on its support unit of human capital, without which its goals
and targets cannot be attained. The successful growth of an organization
is in effect dictated by the efficient and effective dispensation of the
responsibilities and functions of the personnel within it. In order to create
and gather the required resources of the organization, it is tantamount
that Human Resource principles are conducive to attract and retain the
its personnel. Likewise, the Rural Development administration of Mizoram
may benefit by formulating a standard and uniform Human Resource
Policy; to provide the required professionalism and specialized functions
that is in sync with the dynamic and complex activities of rural
development of Mizoram as :

The Rural Development administration may head hunt and recruit a

team of professionals and specialists in the field of rural development and
its related domain subjects. The professional positions may be of
permanent nature; a cadre selected through the normal recruitment
process to facilitate gaining from experience and to inculcate long term
stake among the professionals and the recruitment made by the State
government may follow the regular procedure of recruitment. However,
continuance of such staff would be allowed only after performance
assessment on the basis of clear indicators to be developed for the
purpose. However, if there exists the need for contract or consultancy
arrangements, minor modifications could be made. The selection process
may attend to the suggested criteria as:

i) To be able to give professional advice to departments,

implementing anti-poverty schemes at the state and district
level.
ii) To commission surveys and studies for anlayzing poverty in the
district.
iii) To have deep knowledge and skills for analysing data and survey
reports
iv) To bring practitioner‟s perspective in executing tasks.

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 v) To look at all issues from the lens of the poor.

Funds for employment of the professional staff would be fully

funded by the Government of India, through a specific Centrally
Sponsored Scheme or funds apportioned from the existing Centrally
Sponsored Schemes by utilizing the administrative cost of schemes viz.
MGNREGA, PMGSY, TSC, IWMP, NSAP or in allowing 5 percent of the
SGSY allocation as administrative costs till intensive phase of NRLM
becomes operational in all districts and in allowing 3 percent of the IAY
allocation as administrative costs.

The professional staff would be guaranteed to continue for at least

three Plan periods. All recruited staff have to undergo an intensive
induction cum immersion programme ranging from 6 months to 1 year.
The induction programme may be centrally designed and hosted by
reputed national level academic and training institutions. The Rural
Development Department, Government of Mizoram in consultation with
the Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, could steer the
said induction cum training programme for all new recruits of state,
district, block and village level professional units of the State.

There has to be a structured Human Resource Policy for managing

the new cadre of professionals. The compensation structure has to be
competitive at least at par with what is available in reputed organisations
and agencies functioning in the development sector. Special allowances
may have to be provided to those working in difficult areas as defined from
time to time.

In addition to consolidated monthly pay, adequate provision for

insurance, self-learning, communications, pension should also be made
available. Further, provision for periodic performance linked increment
should also be kept in the range of 5 percent of total pay and allowances.

The professional team would be supported by interns sourced from

the academic fields; in terms of students and research scholars. These

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interns would be post graduates from any of the development disciplines
or graduates from professional courses – either fresh or having upto two
years experience. They could be hired for a maximum of three years and
one person placed in each block. The young interns would primarily work
as social animators and field level monitors besides facilitating
preparation of village level anti-poverty plans and their implementation.

Support staff as required, like assistants, pantry help and drivers,

may be posted by the State government on deputation following a rigorous
merit based, and open selection process. The posts may be determined by
the State government subject to the condition that Government of India
financial support for these posts would be limited to 30 percent of the
expenditure on professional positions. For supporting the district level set-
up the State government may put in place a Block level arrangment for
performing the functions of coordinated planning and monitoring and this
could be in the form of team of officers concerned.

As any successful Human Resource Policy stands for, continuity of

service and permanence of service is required to boost the level of
confidence and satisfaction. In this perspective, it is suggested that the
professional team that would make up the Rural Development
administrative cadre be guaranteed service continuation untill the extant
retirement age that the Government of India stipulates, which currently
is 60 years of age. But given the nature of work in rural development
which implies a distinct strain of work ethos dictated by the type and
number of programmes, the turn over of personnel or manpower has to be
taken into consideration with regard to the increasing ages and increase
of experience and knowledge in the field of rural development; the worth
of the personnel in question may not be classed as expendable but rather
be accomodated and nurtured through a process of „succession plans‟, to
provide promotional avenues as per government or corporate norms. At
the same time, the „need for specialization‟ as propounded by the First
Administrative Reforms Commission had recognised this element as
having become one of the diversified functions needed by the government;

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a requirement which is all the more needed in the area ofrural
development. The Administrative Reforms Commission has recommended
for a method of selection for the senior management posts in functional
areas and non-functional areas : a factor which would favour the
sucession plans within the administrative cadre of Rural Development
Department too, portraying an indication that the growth factor through
succession plans is of the right order.

The State government is required to set up a wide mandate and

prepare a blueprint for reorganizing the rural development system and
mechanism so as to garner a proactive, responsive, sustainable and an
effective and efficient Rural Development administrative set up. With the
realization observed from the study that the Rural Development
Department, Government of Mizoram is functioning sub-optimally and
that the rural development programmes have not always yielded the
desired results, it is suggested that an administrative reorganisation of the
Rural Development Department, Mizoram be initiated on an urgent basis.
There is a need to recognize the dynamic and complex challenges of rural
development administration in its diverse areas of activities which require
the input of different domain expertise along with the much desired
experience required for delivering the programmes.

It needs to revamp and reconstitute the administrative structure by

setting up a separate and distinct Rural Development administration,
rather a Rural Development Administrative Cadre, which will be singulary
focused on the principles of Rural Development and its implementation :
where the manpower to run the rural development processes will be
drawn exclusively from the diverse domain that is required for running
the delivery mechanism. As it has been the standing mandate of the
Government of India, Ministry of Rural Development to professionalize the
manpower within the rural development processes, the existing
procedures and practices for utilizing their services may need to be altered
so that they can have the freedom and the ease to work, without any
conflict of authority in the work environment.

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 As per the recommendation of the Government of India, Ministry of
Rural Development of January 2012, a permanent cadre is to be selected
through the normal recruitment process of the State government so as to
facilitate maximum gain from experience and to inculcate long term stake
among the professionals. However given the leanings of the State
government, it may not be a feasible situation where Rural Development
Department with its mandate and magnitude of resources be run by a
fleet of Rural Development functionaries without the intervention and
involvement of the State Civil Services manpower. In this line, it suggested
that selection for recruitment or induction into the Rural Development
Services be given a wide advertisement by inviting willing departmental
officers belonging to the development departments inclusive of the State
Civil Services cadre so as to enable them to join the Rural Development
Administrative cadre. It is anticipated that such State level set-up will
invoke a thriving environ for building up the professionalism that is
required in rural development and to foster the conditions of
cooperativeness and cohesiveness in the work sphere; which would in
turn help to do away with the pervasive cloud of conflict of authority and
correct the imbalance in the exercise of power as is the case in the current
scenario and as indicated in the study.

Rural Development as a process has been continuously evolving

and taking different forms of avatar which has a simultaneous
requirement for a concentrated and consistent dose of trainings and
capacity building or capacity development – both for induction and
foundation and in-service trainings. Training and capacity building is
necessary in the rural development perspective as the different schematic
programmes and its application in the field is all together a different
mechanism and requires a constant update of one‟s knowledge and
technology and also to utilize the medium of training and capacity
building as a source of re-sustenance and motivation for the fresh recruits
and those serving alike. The Report on Public Administration by A.D
Gorwala (1951) highlighted that proper recruitment and training go hand

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in hand to constitute an adequate organisation and method set-up. It has
also recommended an induction training to equip an employee with the
necessary knowledge and skills to perform duties, followed by trainings at
designated intervals to refresh one‟s knowledge and to keep in touch with
the new developments and that a Director of Training be appointed, to
closely monitor all aspect of training. The First Administrative Reforms
Commission also emphasises that training should prepare the employee
not only for performing the present job but also for shouldering higher
responsibilities and to stay primed for meeting challenges in the future
career span.

Accordingly, it is suggested that greater levels of emphasis be

attached to the training and capacity development needs of the personnel
under Rural Development Department, Mizoram and to seek and give due
concert to the best practised Human Resource principles existing in the
present conditions and in conformity to the extant recommendations of
theAdministrative Reforms Commission, while recognizing the distinct
nature that rural development revolves around in and to devise such
training and capacity building schedules in consonance. It is further
suggested that the State Institute of Rural Development, Mizoram and the
two Extension Training Centres at Thingsulthliah and Pukpui, Lunglei be
fortified with sufficient faculty members, armed with different
specializations pertinent to rural development and to provide similar
service conditions within the proposed Administrative Cadre of Rural
Development. It may also be anticipated that the State institute of Rural
Development, Mizoram faculty members be provided with a state-of-the-
art Institute so as to enable them to house and to conduct world class
trainings, seminars, workshops, debates along with research activities. It
may also be ensured that the faculty members are not utilized for services
other than which is pertinent to the Institute. As a means to garner the
best of training and research facilities, it is suggested that the National
Institute of Rural Development, Hyderabad directly coordinate with the
State institute of Rural development, Mizoram; in the transfer of domain

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knowledge and technology, sharing of research findings and to work in
collaborative missions within the rural development perspectives, at a
heightened level.

As has been identified in the study, the service conditions of the

contract employees in the district organ, the DRDAs of Mizoram may need
to be taken up with concern since a large number of the young
professionals have been made dysfunctional with the introduction of the
new generation programmes and schemes. The services of these
professionals have not been terminated but are paradoxically not assigned
duties related to their specialization, while they are willing to provide
active and participatory service in the rural development campaign, they
have been branded to be ill-suited and redundant for the current
scenario, after rendering service for 5-10 years in the district
administration of Rural Development, despite the fact that they had been
appointed as professionals and specialists in their respective positions.
However, with the recent turn of events indicating a possible closure of
the DRDAs in the wake of the Zila Parishad‟s existence under the PRI, the
services of these personnel has been on shaking ground. Even though the
stand of the Ministry of Rural Development is not incorrect in their views
on the DRDA Staffing Pattern, it is suggested that the Rural Development
Department, Mizoram pursue the issue by factoring on the exemption of
Mizoram as mandated by the 73rd Amendment of the Constitution. Unless
and until there are extraordinary conditions in the Constitution of India or
unless and until the Government of Mizoram introduces a different set of
local self-government institutions other than the existing Village Councils,
the continuance of the DRDA as the district organ,or the district
administration of the Rural Development Department in Mizoram remains
to be a debatable issue. This in effect would translate to the fact that the
personnel who are in the rolls of the DRDAs be utilized in their full
capacities so that their domain expertise which has been enhanced
through years of experience can be effectively applied to the rural
development activities and its programmes. It is further suggested that

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the services of these young professionals of the DRDAs be absorbed into
the proposed Rural Development Administrative cadre; with defined career
advancements, service continuty and security. It may not be a rational
step to disband such professionals and specialists, without any causative
reason pointing towards inefficiency or otherwise, a problem that could
be compounded since the DRDA functionaries are serving the State
without any form of performance appraisal, an indicator to adjudge one‟s
performance of work.

During the study, it has been highlighted that the new generation
schemes are stipulated to have their own dedicated working teams or cells
on programme-wise basis; personnel to be recruited and selected on
contract basis for a period of one year, subject to possible extension of
service. It has been recognized that with the influx of these new
generation contract employees, the credibility and worth of the previously
recruited contract employees under the DRDAs has practically
diminished; they are not assigned duties or responsibilities pertinent to
their specializations and are attending office merely for the sake of
attendance. This clearly shows that the State Government has not
considered the efficacy of recruiting new contract employees nor has it
considered the financial implications of paying for the services of
unutilized staff. In order to set right the situation, it is suggested that the
contract employees appointed under the DRDA Administration Scheme
and those who had rendered more than ten years of service be fully
utilized for the new generation programmes along with the insistence for
a refresher course to allign them for their tasks ahead and simultaneously
absorbing them into the proposed Rural Development Administrative
cadre : so as to provide added motivation, incentive and security of
service. Though there is likelihood that a few contract employees of
DRDA may not be sufficient to handle the task of the new generation
programmes, it is suggested that supplementary staff dedicated to a
particular programme may be recruited in addition but on a minimal
number. This would help circumvent the added financial requirements

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needed to support a large team of contract employees who at best have no
inclination to render service for more than 2-3 years and which would
only compound the problem in implementation of rural devdelopment
programmes, as in-vacuum.

There is a need to render considered attention in the roles and

functions of the Deputy Commissioner as the functional head of the
district administration with core functions on land and revenue
administration, maintenance of law and order, public distribution and
civil supplies, excise, transport, cencus, protocol, disaster management
and general management of the district along with its responsibilities to
spearhead and coordinate developmental administration with various
district development department, institutions and agencies, NGOs and
CBOs. Pertinent to the rural development aspects, the Deputy
Commissioner heads the developmental activities in the district by
coordinating and approving the Annual Action Plans of the district and is
a clear case that the implementation of rural development is one of the
primary duties of the district head. However, with the diversified roles and
functions of the Deputy Commissioner, it has been observed that its office
has not been able to provide the coordination that is required. It is
therefore suggested that the district administration under the charge of
Deputy Commissioner be modernized for an effective and efficient
compliance machinery; in consonance to the Fifteenth Report of the
Administrative Reforms Commission, 2009. Or can modernization attend
to the malaise of the rural poor and or is modernity that the rural people
require, when all they need is development of potential in the rural locale;
a task which may be a daunting proposition from a modernized office.

Within the ambit of the district administration, the roles and

responsibilities of the Project Director, DRDA may need to be reinforced
with wider implications of empowerment in the district administration
pertaining to rural development and to enable the Project Director in
upholding the autonomy and apolitical nature of the DRDA and to be able
to discharge its duty without any scope for political intervention; which

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would be in tandem with the principles that had christened the DRDAs. In
a State like Mizoram where the PRIs are non functional, it is all the more
necessary, in fact, a need of the hour that the rural development
phenomenon and its strategy be left under the whole-sole supervision and
guidance of the Project Director, DRDA, in the district level. It is further
suggested that the post of the Project Director be elevated to a rank and
grade which will be able to command a distinct level of authority and
enabled to draw resolute coordination amongst the district heads of the
development departments, that is, from the District Agriculture Officer,
the District Veterinary Officer, the District Soil and Conservation Officer,
the District Horticulture Officer, the District Industries Officer and the
like. In the absence of the PRI in Mizoram and in the eventuality of a
possible retrenchment of the DRDAs by the Government of India, Ministry
of Rural Development, as reflected in the Report of the Committee on
Restructuring of DRDA, 2012 and in anticipation for the promulgamation
of a better organizational arrangement, it is suggested that the
synonymous post of Project Director, DRDA be entrusted with full
empowerment and functionality equivalent to that of Chairman, Zila
Parishad or redesignation of the Deputy Commissioner as the Chief
Executive Officer and the equivalent of the Project Director as the Chief
Operating Officer, to head the Rural Development district administration.
It is further suggested that such arrangments be made accountable to the
Director of Rural Development Department, Mizoram, indicating a defined
chain of command and direction, without an iota of diluting the autonomy
that the DRDAs are enshrined upon. The personnel to man the post of
Project Director, DRDA may be drawn from the IAS or State Civil Services
but appointments made after due scrutiny of their competency and
forbearance with the aspects of rural development; in terms of their
educational qualifications being relevant to rural development; their past
experiences and performances in the rural development activities and
their practical connections and liaison with the rural development world.
However, in the best interests for the development of the rural areas and
the rural poor, the post of Project Director, DRDA may be manned from

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within the proposed Rural Development Administrative Cadre; a
professional with rural development-orientation and experience and a pro-
poor attitude.

Likewise, the office of the Block Development Officer currently

being manned by junior grade officers of the State Civil Service, if it were
to continue, it is suggested that the post be manned not by junior officers
but by senior grade officers, given the responsibility and level of
accountability that the post demands. However, with the Block
Development Officer posts being held by the Mizoram Civil Service officers,
it has been recognized that the tenure of posting is not well defined and
the officers posted to the said posts are often liable for abrupt transfers
within a short span of 2-3 years, where there has also been cases of
officers being transferred by the second year of their posting; posing an
inevitable yet disrupted and inconducive atmosphere and situation in the
implementation of the rural development processes, which require
continuity and consistency of operation. It is thererfore suggested that
senior State Civil Service officers when posted as Block Development
Officers be appointed through judicious selection and assigned to the job
for at least five years. But were the proposed Rural Development
Administrative Cadre to materialize within the State government
administration and with the anticipation of it being channelized into
action, it would be in the best interests of the Rural Development
phenomenon and its programme implementation that such crucial posts
be manned by professionals and experts from within the system per se;
that the internal professionals of the Rural Development Department
would be able to provide continuity and consistency in the delivery
mechanism as opposed to officers having to learn the basics of rural
development or to re-learn the new infusions of rural development
Guidelines, instructions, mandate and with the insecurity that the rural
population would be harbouring in having to confide and associate with
an officer scheduled and posted for a few years. It is therefore suggested
that Rural Development Department of Mizoram take considered

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viewpoints and seek the best practices of other States in the governance of
rural development. In this regard, the particulars of Organisation,
Functions and Duties under the Department of Rural Development,
Government of Nagaland and the Rural Management and Development
Department, Government of Sikkim, may be considered as Terms of
References.

As rural development is confined for the upliftment of the rural

areas and in particular is a strategy and process to assure the well being
of the rural poor, the planning and management of the RD packages
emanates in a decentralized format, where the participatory grassroots
level planning and its management is undertaken by the Gram Sabha at
the village level. In Mizoram, grassroot level planning is undertaken by the
Village Councils, who are an elected body but are not over and above the
insinuations of bipartisan party politics, thereby opening a freeway for
arbitrary political intervention and may sometimes stand to transgress the
grassroots democratic functions as mandated under the 73rd Amendment
of the Constitution, even though not Mizoram is not encapsulated under
it. In this aspect, it is suggested that Rural Development Department,
Mizoram review and reconsider the devolution of self-governance through
the utilization of social capital wherein the rural population-villagers will
have autonomy in expressing their needs and requirements and in
charting out the pathways and the means to secure their desired goals
and targets for the general welfare and transformation of their socio-
economic lives; as a decentralized community self-governance. The Rural
Development Department, Nagaland‟s introduction of the Village
Development Boards (VDBs) since 1980 and its perceptible
instrumentation in ushering decentralized village self-governance, by
communitising rural development delivery schemes is an example worth
replicating and it is suggested that Rural Development Department,
Mizoram take rational and prudent steps to devise such institutions based
with traditional, social and economic demands and participation of the
Mizo rural society.

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 When the system is entrenched with questions on functional
efficiency, a system over-haul ought to be the immediate stance. The
intervention capacity of a large number of genuine Non governmental
Organizations are being currently seen to be forming the support base for
a constitutional change and to vest power in the hands of the people and
such instances can be seen and testified in the national scenario and have
proved to be successful guiding forces holding the mantle of rural
development. Likewise, it is suggested that the Government of Mizoram
seek out avenues to engage proven Non Governmental Orgaizations and
Social Community Organizations bearing good track records in the States
of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala or the State Government of
Mizoram could seek the proven services of such organizations already in
active domain and working in liaison with the Ministry of Rural
Development, that is, the services of PRADAN for instance. However, given
the geographical and cultural distinctions that govern the Mizo society
and community, it would be favourable to engage the services of local non
governmental organizations related to rural development, that is,
Community Development and Action Research (CDAR), Aizawl and other
bodies or agencies.

Based on the experience of executing the rural development

programmes in Mizoram with regard to the budgetary allocations and
fiscal management, the Rural Development Department of Mizoram has
been seen to falter in this regard; in that the State Government has not
been prompt in sanctioning the State Matching Shares, whether it be a
percentage of 25 or 10 against the ratio of 100, there has often been
lapses and delays in sanctioning its due share and delayed sanctions for
six months or more, which invariably affects the full disbursal of grant
assistances and subsidy for the rural poor; with the project
implementation hampered due to untimely supply of financial resources.
Such inadequacies have sometimes even relegated the Rural Development
Department, Mizoram to have caused lapses, resulting to fund cuts from
the subsequent years allocation; indisposing the privileges of the rural

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poor. The State Government needs to attend to the financial shortages
under Rural Development with renewed consideration and to take steps in
ensuring that adequate funds are allocated for the Rural Development
programmes and projects, finalized and approved for in the State Budget.
The practice of allocating funds on adhoc basis, without any assurance of
translation into monied reality has often brought on-going projects to an
abrupt halt. Such unsound financial planning and management resulting
to undue results could cause discontent to the rural development
functionaries and have in turn affected the confidence that the rural poor
have been reposing on the State Government; indicating a case of failure
in implementation of programmes and projects. It is suggested that the
State Government prioritize Rural Development Department acitivities by
timely allocation of sufficient funds meant for accelerating the
development of the rural areas, in consonance to the mandate of the
Central government.

The rural sector of Mizoram needs to be primed for rural re-

organization through a set of localized and decentralized form of
government, facilitated by a dedicated and motivated team of
professionals and specialists, to render a viable system of accountability
and transparency in governance, forged with personal responsibility, skill
development and innovations, replication of the best practices from
national and international portals, along with the infusion of principles
favouring the local conditions and the rural community. Inspite of the
multi-faceted problems and challenges encountered by the state in its
endeavour to discharge its roles and responsibilities for the development
of the villages and its citizenry, there exists apppreciable achievements
that Rural Development of Mizoram as a department has attained through
the years.The body of task force comprising of a multi-disciplinary sector
in the rural development assignment are focused and bear the appropriate
attitudes to derive the manpower for delivering a proficient and effective
mechanism for the noble mission of rural development in Mizoram. It is
of considered view point that the personnel of Rural Development,

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Mizoram be afforded a concrete and humane Human Resource Policy and
framework by the State Government, in the near future.

- 292 -
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Poverty Alleviation, Dhaka, 1992.
Second Administrative Reforms Commission, 15th Report, 2009.
SIRD, Mizoram Annual Report 2007-2008, 2010-2011.
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), Meeting
the Challenge, Report of the Independent South Asian Comission on
Poverty, 1992.
Tenth Five Year Plan (2002–2007) State Plans, Trends, Concern &
Strategies, Planning Commission, Government of India.
The World Bank, World Development Report, Oxford, New York,
1990.
UNDP Country Project Document for India, 2013-2017.
UNDP: India: Rural Poverty Report, 2009.
UNDP: UNDP in India: Results from 2010, Empowered Lives.
Resilient Nations, UNDP India, 2011.
Union Budget & Economic Survey, Ministry of Finance, Government
of India, New Delhi, 2008,2013.
World Bank, World Development Reports on Jobs, 2013 World
Bank.

NEWSPAPERS AND NEWS MAGAZINES

IIPA Newsletters, New Delhi.

India Today, Noida,NCR Delhi.
NIRD Newsletters, Hyderabad.
Outlook, New Delhi.
The Hindu, New Delhi.

- 302 -
 The Telegraph, Kolkata.
The Times of India, New Delhi.
The Week, New Delhi.
Vanglaini, Aizawl.
Zozam Times, Aizawl.

WEB SOURCES

www.rural.nic.in
drd.nic.in
mizoram.nic.in
www.mizoram.gov.in
http://mizorural.nic.in/planningcommission.nic.in
www.nird.org.in
www.mpsc.mizoram.gov.in
www.ati.mizoram.gov.in
sirdmizoram.in
aajeevika.gov.in
mizonerega.nic.in
www.in.undp.org/mdg
www.indiabudget.nic,in
www.yojana.gov.in
econmictimes.indiatimes.com
yojana.gov.in
incometaxindia.gov.in/cbdt/Org.asp
nagard.nic.in
nagaland.nic.in/functionaries/departments/main.htm
arc.gov.in
darpg.gov.in/darpgwebsite_cms
mrunal.org/2012/01/q-ijpa-journals-from-iipa-are.html
www.iipa.com/
www.iipa.org.in/

- 303 -
www.govtempdiary.com/dopt-orders
Persmin.gov.in/dopt.asp
Data.worldbank.org/
www.worldbank.org/a/country/india
www.unicef.org/india/
www.unicef.org
www.finmin.nic.in/
www.indianeconomicjournal.org/
www.ierdse.org/

- 304 -
 APPENDIX I - 1 a
MGNREGA – District wise and year wise fund released to the various Districts in Mizoram since inception
2005 – 2006 to 2011 – 2012

(Rs. in lakhs)

S/ YEAR NAME OF DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY

n Aizawl Champhai Saiha Lawgtlai Kolasib Lunglei Mamit Serchhip Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
2 2005 – 06 - - 131.44 535.00 - - - - 666.44
3 2006 – 07 - 228.00 628.08 1168.82 - 128.00 - - 2152.90
4 2007 – 08 56.50 1135.51 520.00 616.80 56.50 900.18 65.50 65.50 3398.49
5 2008 – 09 1611.82 3078.01 1871.00 2724.68 526.21 4238.15 538.91 973.37 15562.15
6 2009 – 10 4969.71 2874.34 1580.52 2992.52 2364.47 3639.26 2332.79 1626.22 22433.83
7 2010 – 11 3561.12 3726.07 2453.74 3508.37 2711.11 5698.81 3188.24 2018.57 26866.06
8 2011 – 12 4290.94 4950.45 2525.77 5172.35 3577.18 6284.98 3558.98 2596.07 32956.72
9 Total fund released by GOI
since inception till 2011 - 14490.09 15992.38 9710.55 16718.54 9235.47 20943.38 9675.42 7270.73 104036.56
2012

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

- 305 -
 APPENDIX I - 1 b
S/ NAME OF DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY
n Aizawl Champhai Saiha Lawngtlai Kolasib Lunglei Mamit Serchhip Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
STATE GOVERNMENT
10 2005 – 06 - - - - - - - - -
11 2006 – 07 - - - - - - - - -
12 2007 – 08 - 112.101 72.158 227.912 - 78.568 - - 490.739
13 2008 - 09 161.175 282.094 217.10 238.35 52.617 439.02 53.894 89.50 1533.75
14 2009 - 10 179.28 131.13 61.268 126.452 96.735 221.55 79.758 68.947 965.114
15 2010 – 11 527.12 416.344 261.40 303.691 337.894 638.093 286.763 258.035 2929.34
2011 - 2012 282.683 324.192 197.983 492.051 187.715 512.581 301.162 113.502 2411.869
16 Total fund relaesed by
State Govt. Since
1150.258 1265.861 809.909 1388.456 674.961 1789.812 721.577 529.978 8330.812
inception till 2011 –
2012
17 Total fund released by 112367.37
15640.348 17258.241 10520.459 18106.996 9910.431 22733.192 10396.997 7800.708
Central & State (9+16) 2
18 Outstanding Balance
of State share to be
released during 2012 -
334.684 357.871 158.651 314.221 276.086 364.599 277.884 214.116 2298.112
2013 against Central
released for the
previous years

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

- 306 -
 APPENDIX I - 1 c
MGNREGA – District wise and year wise Total fund released to the various Districts in Mizoram since inception
2005 – 2006 to 2011 – 2012 (Rs. in lakhs)
S/n YEAR NAME OF DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY
Aizawl Champhai Saiha Lawgtlai Kolasib Lunglei Mamit Serchhip Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 GOVERNMENT OF INDIA + STATE GOVERNMENT
2 2005 – 06 - - 131.44 535.00 - - - - 666.44
3 2006 – 07 - 228.00 628.08 1168.82 - 128.00 - - 2152.90
4 2007 – 08 56.5 1247.611 592.158 844.712 56.5 978.748 56.5 56.5 3889.229
5 2008 – 09 1772.995 3360.104 2088.1 2963.03 578.827 4677.17 592.804 1062.87 17095.9
6 2009 – 10 5148.99 3005.47 1641.788 3118.972 2461.205 3914.81 2412.548 1695.161 23398.94
7 2010 – 11 4088.24 4142.414 2715.14 3812.061 3049.004 6236.903 3475.003 2276.605 29795.37
8 2011 – 12 4573.623 5274.642 2723.753 5664.401 3764.895 6797.561 3860.142 2709.572 35368.589
9 Total fund released by GOI
ans the State since inception 15640.35 17258.24 10520.46 18107 9910.431 22733.19 10397 7800.708 112367.372
till 2011 – 2012
District wise and year wise Total fund released to the various Districts in Mizoram during 11th Five Year Plan
2007 – 2008 to 2011 – 2012
S/n YEAR NAME OF DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY
Aizawl Champhai Saiha Lawgtlai Kolasib Lunglei Mamit Serchhip Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 GOVERNMENT OF INDIA + STATE GOVERNMENT
2 2007 – 08 56.5 1247.611 592.158 844.712 56.5 978.748 56.5 56.5 3889.229
3 2008 – 09 1772.995 3360.104 2088.1 2963.03 578.827 4677.17 592.804 1062.87 17095.9
4 2009 – 10 5148.99 3005.47 1641.788 3118.972 2461.205 3914.81 2412.548 1695.161 23398.94
5 2010 – 11 4088.24 4142.414 2715.14 3812.061 3049.004 6236.903 3475.003 2276.605 29795.37
6 2011 – 12 4573.623 5274.642 2723.753 5664.401 3764.895 6797.561 3860.142 2709.572 35368.589
7 Total fund released by GOI
ans the State during 11th Plan 15640.35 17030.24 9760.939 16403.18 9910.431 22605.19 10397 7800.708 109548.03
2007 – 2012
Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government. of Mizoram, 2012

- 307 -
APPENDIX I - 1 d
PERSONDAYS GENERATED SINCE INCEPTION 2005 – 2006 TO 2011 – 2012
(In Lakhs)

S/n YEAR NAME OF DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY

Aizawl Champhai Saiha Lawgtlai Kolasib Lunglei Mamit Serchhip Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 2005 – 06 - - - - - - - - -
2 2006 – 07 - - 7.29 0.56 - - - - 7.85
3 2007 – 08 0 10.44 3.4 15.67 0 2.02 0 0 31.53
4 2008 – 09 13.53 24.695 11.795 22.33 4.609 36.023 4.7 8.136 125.818
5 2009 – 10 36.99 24.90 11.72 23.74 17.82 27.04 15.62 12.5 170.33
6 2010 – 11 23.978 26.321 12.965 22.247 18.903 31.821 17.154 12.602 165.99
7 2011 – 12 24.477 26.704 12.531 24.417 17.760 33.338 18.051 13.050 170.328
8 TOTAL PERSONDAYS
GENERATED (2006 – 98.975 113.06 59.701 108.964 59.092 130.242 55.525 46.288 671.846
2012)

PERSONDAYS GENERATED DURING 11th FIVE YEAR PLAN 2007 – 2008 TO 2011 – 2012

(In Lakhs)
S/n YEAR NAME OF DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY
Aizawl Champhai Saiha Lawgtlai Kolasib Lunglei Mamit Serchhip Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 2007 – 08 0 10.44 3.4 15.67 0 2.02 0 0 31.53
2 2008 – 09 13.53 24.695 11.795 22.33 4.609 36.023 4.7 8.136 125.818
3 2009 – 10 36.99 24.90 11.72 23.74 17.82 27.04 15.62 12.5 170.33
4 2010 – 11 23.978 26.321 12.965 22.247 18.903 31.821 17.154 12.602 165.99
5 2011 – 12 24.477 26.704 12.531 24.417 17.760 33.338 18.051 13.050 170.328
TOTAL PERSONDAYS
GENERATED DURING 11th 98.975 113.06 52.411 108.404 59.092 130.242 55.525 46.288 663.996
PLAN (2007 – 2012)

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government. of Mizoram,2012

2012.

- 308 -
APPENDIX I - 1 e
ACHIEVEMENTS DURING 11th FIVE YEAR PLAN (2007 – 2008 TO 2011 – 2012)
District-wise fund released during 11th Five Year plan to the various Districts in Mizoram is as below :
(Rs. in lakhs)

S/ YEAR NAME OF DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY

n Aizawl Champhai Saiha Lawgtlai Kolasib Lunglei Mamit Serchhip Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
2 2007 – 08 56.50 1135.51 520.00 616.80 56.50 900.18 56.50 56.50 3398.49
3 2008 – 09 1611.82 3078.01 1871.00 2724.68 526.21 4238.15 538.91 973.37 15562.15
4 2009 – 10 4696.71 2874.34 1580.52 2992.52 2364.47 3693.26 2332.79 1626.22 22433.83
5 2010 – 11 3561.12 3726.07 2453.74 3508.37 2711.11 5698.81 3188.24 2018.57 26866.03
6 2011 – 12 4290.94 4950.45 2525.77 5172.35 3577.18 6284.98 3558.98 2596.07 32956.72
Total fund released by
7 GOI during 11th Five 14490.09 15764.38 8951.03 15014.72 9235.47 20815.38 9675.42 7270.73 101217.22
Year Plan ( 2007 – 2012)
8 STATE GOVERNMENT
9 2007 – 08 - 112.101 72.158 227.912 - 78.568 - - 490.739
10 2008 – 09 161.175 282.094 217.10 238.35 52.617 439.02 53.894 89.50 1533.75
11 2009 – 10 179.28 131.13 61.268 126.452 96.735 221.55 79.758 68.941 965.114
12 2010 – 11 527.12 416.344 261.40 303.691 337.894 538.093 286.763 258.035 2629.34
13 2011 – 12 282.683 324.192 197.983 492.051 187.715 512.581 301.162 113.502 2411.869
14 Total fund released by
State Govt since
1150.258 1265.861 809.989 1388.456 674.961 1789.812 721.577 529.978 8330.812
inception till 2011 -
2012
15 Total fund released by
Central & State during 15640.348 17030.241 9760.989 16403.176 9910.431 22605.192 10396.997 7800.708 109548.032
11th Plan (2007 – 2012)

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government. of Mizoram, 2012.

- 309 -
APPENDIX I - 1 f

PHYSICAL ACHIEVEMENT DURING 11Th FIVE YEAR PLAN 2007 – 2012

PERSONDAYS GENERATED DURING 11th PLAN 2007 – 08 to 2011- 2012
(Rs. in lakhs)

S/ YEAR NAME OF DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY

n Aizawl Champhai Saiha Lawgtlai Kolasib Lunglei Mamit Serchhip Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 2007 – 08 0 10.44 3.4 15.67 0 2.02 0 0 31.53
2 2008 – 09 13.53 24.695 11.795 22.33 4.609 36.023 4.7 8.136 125.818
3 2009 – 10 36.99 24.90 11.72 23.74 17.82 27.04 15.62 12.5 170.33
4 2010 – 11 23.978 26.321 12.965 22.247 18.903 31.821 17.154 12.602 165.99
5 2011 – 12 24.477 26.704 12.531 24.417 17.760 33.338 18.051 12.050 170.328
TOTAL PERSONDAYS
GENERATED DURING 11th 98.975 113.06 52.411 108.404 59.092 130.242 55.525 46.288 663.996
PLAN (2007 – 2012)

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government. of Mizoram, 2012.

- 310 -
APPENDIX-II
IAY PHYSICAL ACHIEVEMENT

(NUMBER OF HOUSES CONSTRUCTED/UPGRADED)

YEAR-WISE & DISTRICT-WISE NUMBER OF HOUSES CONSTRUCTRED/UPGRADED DURING 7TH PLAN : 1987-1992
(In Numbers)
Sl No. YEAR NAME OF DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY
Aizawl Champhai Saiha Lawngtlai Kolasib Lunglei Mamit Serchhip Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 1987-1988 26 - 9 - - 22 - - 57
2 1988-1989 42 - 8 - - 14 - - 64
3 1989-1990 70 - 16 - - 18 - - 104
4 1990-1991 1008 - 124 - - 132 - - 1264
5 1991-1992 155 - 41 - - 60 - - 256
6 Total 1301 198 246 1745
YEAR-WISE & DISTRICT-WISE NUMBER OF HOUSES CONSTRUCTRED/UPGRADED DURING 8TH PLAN : 1992-1997
(In Numbers)
Sl No. YEAR NAME OF DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY
Aizawl Champhai Saiha Lawngtlai Kolasib Lunglei Mamit Serchhip Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 1992-1993 145 - 38 - - 41 - - 224
2 1993-1994 117 - 56 - - 65 - - 238
3 1994-1995 154 - 71 - - 27 - - 252
4 1995-1996 227 - 10 - - 182 - - 419
5 1996-1997 250 - 87 - - 77 - - 369
6 Total 848 262 392 1502

Note: Till the year 1995-1996, there was no separate allocation/fund released for IAY as IAY was part of RLEGP/JRY. Certain
amount was set aside for IAY and no separate allocation was made till then.

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government. of Mizoram, 2012.

- 311 -
APPENDIX-II – 1 a

YEAR-WISE & DISTRICT-WISE NUMBER OF HOUSES CONSTRUCTRED/UPGRADED DURING 9TH PLAN : 1997-2002
(In Numbers)
Sl No. YEAR NAME OF DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY
Aizawl Champhai Saiha Lawngtlai Kolasib Lunglei Mamit Serchhip Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 1997-1998 182 - 64 - - 56 - - 302
2 1998-1999 316 - 103 - - 100 - - 519
3 1999-2000 835 - 437 - - 523 - - 1795
4 2000-2001 1000 - 674 - - 616 - - 2290
5 2001-2002 268 190 120 138 83 208 175 93 1275
6 Total 2601 190 1398 138 83 1503 175 93 6181

YEAR-WISE & DISTRICT-WISE NUMBER OF HOUSES CONSTRUCTRED/UPGRADED DURING 10TH PLAN : 2002-2007
(In Numbers)
Sl No. YEAR NAME OF DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY
Aizawl Champhai Saiha Lawngtlai Kolasib Lunglei Mamit Serchhip Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 2002-2003 200 251 96 95 72 311 173 87 1285
2 2003-2004 427 283 217 245 135 426 298 153 2154
3 2004-2005 203 323 212 209 123 436 269 139 1914
4 2005-2006 329 241 222 475 138 444 153 100 2102
5 2006-2007 245 184 222 494 136 402 336 78 2097
6 Total 1404 1282 969 1488 604 2019 1229 557 9552

Note : IAY was de-linked from JRY and made an independent scheme with effect from 1 st January 1996.

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government. of Mizoram, 2012.

- 312 -
APPENDIX-II – 1 b
YEAR-WISE & DISTRICT-WISE NUMBER OF HOUSES CONSTRUCTRED/UPGRADED DURING 11TH PLAN : 2007-2012
(In Numbers)
Sl No. YEAR NAME OF DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY
Aizawl Champhai Saiha Lawngtlai Kolasib Lunglei Mamit Serchhip Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 2007-2008 210 210 230 665 144 560 653 57 2729
2 2008-2009 495 525 544 1423 337 1093 440 149 5006
3 2009-2010 361 561 466 1269 321 716 440 97 4231
4 2010-2011 481 525 329 721 326 979 595 135 4091
5 2011-2012 394 371 265 668 257 779 382 111 3227
6 Total 1941 2192 1834 4746 1385 4127 2510 549 19284

YEAR-WISE & DISTRICT-WISE NUMBER OF HOUSES CONSTRUCTRED/UPGRADED DURING -7TH -11TH PLAN : 1987-2012
(In Numbers)
Sl No. YEAR NAME OF DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY
Aizawl Champhai Saiha Lawngtlai Kolasib Lunglei Mamit Serchhip Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 7TH PLAN 1987- 1301 198 246 1745
1992
2 8 PLAN 1992-
TH 848 262 392 1502
1997
3 9TH PLAN 1997- 2601 190 1398 138 83 1503 175 93 6181
2002
4 10 PLAN 2002-
TH 1404 1282 969 1488 604 2019 1229 557 9552
2007
5 11TH PLAN 2007- 1941 2192 1834 4746 1385 4127 2510 549 19284
2012
6 Total Houses
constructed since
8095 3664 4661 6372 2072 8287 3914 1199 38264
7th Plan to 11th
Plan

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government. of Mizoram, 2012.

- 313 -
APPENDIX-III

FINANCIAL ACHIEVEMENT OF SGSY AND DWCRA

(Rs in lakhs)
Sl YEAR NAME OF DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY
No. Aizawl Champhai Saiha Lawngtlai Kolasib Lunglei Mamit Serchhip Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 7 PLAN 1987-1992
TH A new programme known as “Swamjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana” (SGSY) has been launched from April
2 8TH PLAN 1992-1997 1999 only and therefore no achievement was made till April 1999.
3 9TH PLAN 1997-2002 83.103 22.8 39.82 16.27 9.693 49.264 21.143 11.41 253.503
4 10TH PLAN 2002-2007 161.257 125.61 60.02 76.096 55.436 138.424 74.141 55.729 746.713
5 11TH PLAN 2007-2012 421.7 308.298 120.952 265.33 133.032 316.285 179.085 135.83 1880.512
6 Total fund released by
Govt. of India during 7th to 666.06 456.708 220.792 357.696 198.161 503.973 274.369 202.969 2880.728
11th Plan

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

- 314 -
APPENDIX –IV
PHYSICAL ACHIEVEMENT OF SGSY

Sl No. YEAR NAME OF DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY

Aizawl Champhai Saiha Lawngtlai Kolasib Lunglei Mamit Serchhip Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 Number of SHGCs
formed since inception 435 391 257 328 200 381 331 337 2660
till 2011-2012
2 Number of SHGs that
have passed Grade-I
since inception till
265 273 224 328 147 253 196 283 1969
2011-2012
3 Number of SHGs that
have passed Grade-II
since inception till
170 195 185 139 82 142 95 185 1193
2011-2012
4 Number of SHGs that
have taken up Economic
Activities after Grade-I 265 273 219 139 147 170 141 251 1605
since inception till
2011-2012
5 Number of SHGs that
have taken up Economic
Activities after Grade-II 170 195 185 139 82 126 46 243 1186
since inception till
2011-2012
6 Number of women SHGs
Formed since inception 405 190 48 46 85 247 301 289 1611
till 2011-2012
7 Number of BPL families
that have crossed the 51 - 984 103 - - 88 - 1226
poverty line
8 Number of Members of
SHGs Assisted for 410 1486 300 160 50 270 210 28 2914
Economics Activities

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

- 315 -
APPENDIX – IV – 1 a
Physical Achievements & Credit Linkages under SGSY - 2007 - 2008

Self-Help Groups(SHGs)

State: MIZORAM
Year: 2007-2008 Upto Month:March (Numbers)
No. of SHgs that No. of SHgs that
No. of SHGs No. of SHGs that have Taken up No. of Women
have passed have passed No. of
Formed Eco-Activities SHGs Formed
Grade I Grade II Women SHGs No. of BPL
No. of SHgs
After Grade-I After Grade-II that have Families
During that have During During During
S.No. Name of Till During During taken up that have
the defunct the the the
The District Month Total Total Total the the Total Eco- crossed the
Current since Current Current Total Total Current
Since Since Since Since Activities poverty
year upto inception year upto year upto Since Current Since Current year upto during the line
1.4.99 1.4.99 1.4.99 year upto year upto 1.4.99
the the the 1.4.99 1.4.99 the year
month month month the the month
month month
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1. AIZAWL 03 367 8 7 220 0 120 0 220 0 120 0 290 0 290 50
CHAMPHAI 03 285 30 5 87 17 140 54 87 17 140 70 170 18 102 20
2.

3. SAIHA 03 154 60 10 28 6 60 56 28 6 60 56 30 10 2 4

4. KOLASIB 03 134 24 13 97 20 50 11 97 20 50 11 58 18 17 0

5. LAWNGTLAI 03 114 35 22 114 20 55 14 55 14 0 0 8 1 1 0

6. LUNGLEI 03 25 25 0 15 15 10 10 15 15 15 10 25 25 25 50

7. MAMIT 03 318 23 0 255 38 208 14 224 0 204 10 286 0 7 76

8. SERCHHIP 03 322 24 95 201 33 130 25 220 5 100 0 281 6 15 95

Total 1719 229 152 1017 149 773 184 946 77 689 157 1148 78 459 295

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government. of Mizoram, 2012.

- 316 -
APPENDIX – IV – 1 b
Self-Help Groups and individual Swarozgaris - Assistance provided for pursuing Economic Activities

State: MIZORAM
Year: 2007-2008 (Numbers)
No. of Members of SHGs Assisted for Economic Activities No. of Individual Swarozgaris Assisted for Economic Activities
S.No. Name of District Till Month
Total SC ST Minorities Women Disabled Total SC ST Minorities Women Disabled

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

1. AIZAWL 03 3600 0 3600 0 2925 20 17 0 17 0 5 0

2. CHAMPHAI 03 264 0 264 0 79 0 19 0 19 0 4 0

3. SAIHA 03 315 0 315 0 29 2 0 0 0 0 0 0

4. KOLASIB 03 333 0 333 0 209 8 0 0 0 0 0 0

5. LAWNGTLAI 03 140 0 140 140 20 2 52 0 52 52 9 2

6. LUNGLEI 03 258 0 250 0 250 8 32 0 51 0 30 2

7. MAMIT (AIZ-W) 03 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 2 0 3 0

8. SERCHIPP (AIZ-S) 03 220 0 220 0 170 3 0 0 0 0 0 0

Total 5130 0 5122 140 3682 43 125 0 141 52 51 4

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government. of Mizoram, 2012.

- 317 -
APPENDIX – IV – 1 c

Swaranjayanti Gram Swarozar Yojana

District - Wise Subsidy and Credit Disbursed upto the Month March
Self - Help Groups and Individual Swarozgaris
State: MIZORAM
Year: 2007-2008 (Rs. in Lakhs)

Credit Disbursed to Subsidy Disbursed to

Sl. No. Name of the District Till Month
SHGs Individual Swarozgaris Total SHGs Individual Swarozgaris Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. AIZAWL 03 22 0 22 39.6 0 39.6

2. CHAMPHAI 03 0 0 0 8.066 1.9 9.966

3. SAIHA 03 0 0 0 6 0 6

4. KOLASIB 03 26.73 0 26.73 11 0 11

5. LAWNGTLAI 03 14 5.2 19.2 14 5.2 19.2

6. LUNGLEI 03 15.5 4 19.5 22.2 5.1 27.3

7. MAMIT (AIZ-W) 03 0 0.5 0.5 0 0 0

8. SERCHIPP (AIZ-S) 03 0 0 0 9 0 9

Total 78.23 9.7 87.93 109.866 12.2 122.066

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

- 318 -
APPENDIX – IV – 1 d

Swaranjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana

District - Wise Subsidy and Credit Disbursed upto the Month
To the weaker Section
State: MIZORAM
Year: 2007-2008 (Rs. in Lakhs)

Credit and Subsidy Disbursed to Weaker Sections

S.No. Name of the District Till Month SC ST Minorities Women Disabled

Credit Subsidy Total Credit Subsidy Total Credit Subsidy Total Credit Subsidy Total Credit Subsidy Total

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1. AIZAWL 03 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2. CHAMPHAI 03 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3. SAIHA 03 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4. KOLASIB 03 0 0 0 26.73 11 37.73 0 0 0 13.5 8 21.5 0 0 0
5. LAWNGTLAI 03 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6. LUNGLEI 03 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7. MAMIT (AIZ-W) 03 0 0 0 1 0.5 1.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
8. SERCHIPP (AIZ-S) 03 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Total 0 0 0 27.73 11.5 39.23 0 0 0 13.5 8 21.5 0 0 0

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

- 319 -
 APPENDIX – IV – 1 e

Swaranjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana

District - Wise Subsidy and Credit Disbursed for Revolving Fund and No. of SHGs provided with Revolving Fund
Self - Help Groups
State: MIZORAM
Year: 2007-2008 (Rs. in Lakhs)

S.No. Name of the District Till Month No. of SHGs provided with Revolving Fund Cash - Credit Disbursed Subsidy Disbursed

1 2 3 4 5 6
1. AIZAWL 03 0 0 0
2. CHAMPHAI 03 19 0 8.066
3. SAIHA 03 0 0 0
4. KOLASIB 03 0 0 0
5. LAWNGTLAI 03 14 14 14
6. LUNGLEI 03 25 15.5 22.2
7. MAMIT (AIZ-W) 03 0 0 0
8. SERCHIPP (AIZ-S) 03 0 0 0

Total 58 29.5 44.266

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

- 320 -
 APPENDIX – IV – 1 f
District-Wise Loan Applications Pending with Banks upto the month

State:MIZORAM
Year: 2007-2008 (Numbers)

Name of Till Applications From SHGs Applications From Individual Swarozgaris

S.No
District Month No. of Loan No. of No. of No. of Loan No. of No. of
No. of Loan No. of No. of Loan No. of
Applications Application Application Applications Application Application
Sanctioned Loans Sanctioned Loans
Submitted to Pending in Rejected by Submitted to Pending in Rejected by
by Banks Disbursed by Banks Disbursed
Banks Banks Banks Banks Banks Banks
1. AIZAWL 03 71 22 22 29 0 1 0 0 1 0
2. CHAMPHAI 03 22 0 0 22 0 42 0 0 42 0
3. SAIHA 03 55 55 55 2 0 0 0 0 0 0
4. KOLASIB 03 27 39 39 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5. LAWNGTLAI 03 14 14 14 0 0 52 52 52 0 0
6. LUNGLEI 03 25 19 19 6 0 51 41 41 10 0
7. MAMIT 03 0 0 0 0 0 5 5 5 0 0
8. SERCHHIP 03 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Total 229 149 149 59 0 151 98 98 53 0

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

- 321 -
APPENDIX – IV – 1 g

Swaranjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana

District and Bank - wise Credit Disbursed upto the month: March
State: MIZORAM
Year: 2007-2008 (Rs. in Lakhs)

No. of SGSY Commitee

Credit Disbursed By No. of Meetings held of the
Meetings held
Name of the Till Total By
Sl.No. Regional Other, if All Banks District Level
District Month Commercial Cooperative State District Block State Level Bankers Block Level Bankers
Rural any Bankers
banks Banks Level Level Level Committe(SLBC) Committe(BLBC)
Banks banks Committe(DLBC)
1. AIZAWL 03 3.2 0 10.314 0 13.514 0 0 0 0 0 0
2. CHAMPHAI 03 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 8 0 0 0
3. SAIHA 03 2 10 16 0 28 0 0 0 0 0 0
4. KOLASIB 03 0 0 32.23 0 32.23 0 0 0 0 0 0
5. LAWNGTLAI 03 0 55 15 0 70 0 3 3 0 0 0
6. LUNGLEI 03 6 6.5 7 0 19.5 0 1 2 0 1 2
7. MAMIT 03 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
8. SERCHHIP 03 3 2 1 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0

Total 14.2 73.5 82.544 0 170.244 0 7 13 0 1 2

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

- 322 -
APPENDIX – IV – 2 a
Physical Achievements & Credit Linkages under SGSY - 2008 – 2009

Self-Help Groups(SHGs)

State: MIZORAM

Year: 2008-2009 Upto Month:March (Numbers)

No. of SHgs that No. of SHgs that

No. of SHGs No. of SHGs that have Taken up No. of Women
have passed have passed No. of
Formed Eco-Activities SHGs Formed
Grade I Grade II Women SHGs No. of BPL
No. of SHgs
After Grade-I After Grade-II that have Families
During that have During During During
Name of Till During During taken up that have
S.No. the defunct the the the
The District Month Total Total Total the the Total Eco- crossed the
Current since Current Current Total Total Current
Since Activities poverty
year upto inception Since year upto Since year upto Since Current Since Current Since year upto
1.4.99 1.4.99 1.4.99 year upto year upto 1.4.99 during the line
the the the 1.4.99 1.4.99 the year
month month month the the month
month month
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1. AIZAWL 03 409 42 7 340 120 159 39 340 120 159 39 400 110 110 50
CHAMPHAI 03 309 80 6 121 62 160 28 121 62 160 28 192 46 42 48
2.

3. KOLASIB 03 159 4 13 109 23 58 13 111 15 60 9 76 2 11 0

4. LAWNGTLAI 03 169 58 58 169 58 72 21 169 58 72 21 16 6 1 0
5. LUNGLEI 03 220 28 18 92 12 128 16 81 17 41 3 200 20 20 100
MAMIT (AIZ-
6. 03 297 4 85 296 36 226 22 222 36 123 16 290 4 4 82
W)
7. SAIHA 03 188 34 0 71 11 37 9 60 0 28 0 32 2 0 0
SERCHIPP
8. 03 322 24 80 250 28 157 27 227 7 227 7 281 13 13 0
(AIZ-S)

Total 2073 274 267 1448 350 997 175 1331 315 870 123 1487 203 201 280

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

- 323 -
APPENDIX – IV –2 b

Self-Help Groups and individual Swarozgaris - Assistance provided for pursuing Economic Activities

State: MIZORAM
Year: 2008-2009 (Numbers)

No. of Members of SHGs Assisted for Economic Activities No. of Individual Swarozgaris Assisted for Economic Activities
S.No. Name of District Till Month
Total SC ST Minorities Women Disabled Total SC ST Minorities Women Disabled

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

1. AIZAWL 03 4900 0 4900 0 4880 0 8 0 8 0 8 0

2. CHAMPHAI 03 690 0 690 0 252 11 30 0 30 0 13 1
3. KOLASIB 03 0 0 40 0 30 8 0 0 0 0 0 0
4. LAWNGTLAI 03 210 0 210 0 60 10 113 0 113 0 25 8
5. LUNGLEI 03 230 0 230 0 200 8 58 0 58 0 37 5
6. MAMIT (AIZ-W) 03 160 0 160 0 150 0 34 0 34 0 30 0
7. SAIHA 03 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
8. SERCHIPP (AIZ-S) 03 2270 0 2270 0 1080 0 45 0 45 0 45 0
Total 8460 0 8500 0 6652 37 288 0 288 0 158 14

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

- 324 -
APPENDIX – IV –2 c
Swaranjayanti Gram Swarozar Yojana
District - Wise Subsidy and Credit Disbursed upto the Month March
Self - Help Groups and Individual Swarozgaris

State: MIZORAM
Year: 2008-2009 (Rs. in Lakhs)

Credit Disbursed to Subsidy Disbursed to

Sl. No. Name of the District Till Month
SHGs Individual Swarozgaris Total SHGs Individual Swarozgaris Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. AIZAWL 03 62 7.5 69.5 30.007 0.2 30.207
2. CHAMPHAI 03 12 1.2 13.2 28 3 31
3. KOLASIB 03 20.2 0 20.2 13.2 0 13.2
4. LAWNGTLAI 03 21 11.3 32.3 21 11.3 32.3
5. LUNGLEI 03 17 2 19 23 5.8 28.8
6. MAMIT (AIZ-W) 03 10.1 5.4 15.5 15.421 4.457 19.878
7. SAIHA 03 0 0.2 0.2 0 9 9
8. SERCHIPP (AIZ-S) 03 8.4 1.55 9.95 7 5.16 12.16

Total 150.7 29.15 179.85 137.628 38.917 176.545

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

- 325 -
 APPENDIX – IV –2 d
Swaranjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana
District - Wise Subsidy and Credit Disbursed upto the Month
To the weaker Section

State: MIZORAM
Year: 2008-2009 (Rs. in Lakhs)

Credit and Subsidy Disbursed to Weaker Sections

S.No. Name of the District Till Month SC ST Minorities Women Disabled
Credit Subsidy Total Credit Subsidy Total Credit Subsidy Total Credit Subsidy Total Credit Subsidy Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1. AIZAWL 03 0 0 0 69.5 30.207 99.707 0 0 0 62.55 27.79 90.34 0 0 0
2. CHAMPHAI 03 0 0 0 13.2 31 44.2 0 0 0 5.1 14.3 19.4 0.1 0.1 0.2
3. KOLASIB 03 0 0 0 22.75 13.2 35.95 0 0 0 17.25 9 26.25 0.25 0.1 0.35
4. LAWNGTLAI 03 0 0 0 21 21 32.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5. LUNGLEI 03 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6. MAMIT (AIZ-W) 03 0 0 0 3.612 3.614 7.226 0 0 0 2 2 4 0 0 0
7. SAIHA 03 0 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.2 0 0
8. SERCHIPP (AIZ-S) 03 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Total 0 0 0 130.062 108.021 219.383 0 0 0 86.9 53.09 139.99 0.55 0.2 0.55

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

- 326 -
APPENDIX – IV –2 e
Swaranjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana
District - Wise Subsidy and Credit Disbursed for Revolving Fund and No. of SHGs provided with Revolving Fund
Self - Help Groups

State: MIZORAM
Year: 2008-2009 (Rs. in Lakhs)

S.No. Name of the District Till Month No. of SHGs provided with Revolving Fund Cash - Credit Disbursed Subsidy Disbursed
1 2 3 4 5 6
1. AIZAWL 03 0 0 0
2. CHAMPHAI 03 0 0 0
3. KOLASIB 03 26 4 2.6
4. LAWNGTLAI 03 0 0 0
5. LUNGLEI 03 23 17 23
6. MAMIT (AIZ-W) 03 0 0 0
7. SAIHA 03 0 0 0
8. SERCHIPP (AIZ-S) 03 27 7 4

Total 76 28 29.6

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

- 327 -
APPENDIX – IV –2 f
District-Wise Loan Applications Pending with Banks upto the month

State:MIZORAM
Year: 2008-2009 (Numbers)

Applications From SHGs Applications From Individual Swarozgaris

No. of Application Pending No. of Application Pending
in Banks in Banks
More More
Till No. of Loan No. of No. of Than No. of No. of Loan No. of No. of Than No. of
S.N Name of Less One More Less One More
Mo Application Loan Loans Applicatio Application Loan Loans Applicatio
o District Than And Than Than And Than
nth s Submitted Sanctione Disburse Tota n Rejected s Submitted Sanctione Disburse Tota n Rejected
to Banks d by Banks d One Less Six by Banks to Banks d by Banks d One Less Six by Banks
l l
Mont Than Mont Mont Than Mont
h Six h h Six h
Month Month
s s
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
1 AIZAWL 03 93 65 65 0 18 10 28 0 8 5 5 0 3 10 13 0
2 CHAMPHAI 03 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 KOLASIB 03 28 28 28 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4 LAWNGTLAI 03 21 21 21 10 11 0 21 0 113 113 113 30 83 0 113 0
5 LUNGLEI 03 23 17 17 6 0 0 6 0 58 20 20 38 0 0 38 0
MAMIT
6 03 35 35 35 0 0 0 0 0 30 30 30 0 0 0 0 0
(AIZ-W)
7 SAIHA 03 9 0 0 0 0 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 0
SERCHIPP
8 03 7 4 4 3 0 0 3 0 14 10 10 2 2 0 4 0
(AIZ-S)

Total 216 170 170 19 29 19 67 0 223 178 178 70 88 19 177 0

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

- 328 -
APPENDIX – IV –2 g

Swaranjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana

District and Bank - wise Credit Disbursed upto the month: March
State: MIZORAM
Year: 2008-2009 (Rs. in Lakhs)

No. of SGSY Commitee

Credit Disbursed By No. of Meetings held of the
Total By Meetings held
Name of the Till
Sl.No. Regional Other, if All District Level
District Month Commercial Cooperative State District Block State Level Bankers Block Level Bankers
Rural any Banks Bankers
banks Banks Level Level Level Committe(SLBC) Committe(BLBC)
Banks banks Committe(DLBC)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
1. AIZAWL 07 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2. CHAMPHAI 03 0 7 6.2 0 13.2 1 3 8 1 2 6
3. KOLASIB 03 0 0 23 0 23 0 0 0 0 0 0
4. LAWNGTLAI 03 0 15.7 16.6 0 32.3 0 1 2 0 0 0
5. LUNGLEI 03 6 6 7 0 19 0 1 1 0 2 1
6. MAMIT 03 0 0 13.5 2 15.5 0 5 5 0 5 5
7. SAIHA 03 2 7 0 0 9 0 1 1 0 0 0
SERCHIPP
8. 03 0 9.95 0 0 9.95 0 0 2 0 1 0
(AIZ-S)

Total 8 45.65 66.3 2 121.95 1 11 19 1 10 12

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

- 329 -
APPENDIX – IV –3 a
Physical Achievements & Credit Linkages under SGSY - 2009 – 2010

Self-Help Groups(SHGs)
State: MIZORAM
Year: 2009-2010 Upto Month:March (Numbers)

No. of SHgs that No. of SHgs that

No. of SHGs No. of SHGs that have Taken up No. of Women
have passed have passed No. of
Formed Eco-Activities SHGs Formed
Grade I Grade II Women SHGs No. of BPL
No. of SHgs
After Grade-I After Grade-II that have Families
During that have During During During
Name of Till During During taken up that have
S.No. the defunct the the the
The District Month Total Total Total the the Total Eco- crossed the
Current since Current Current Total Total Current
Since Activities poverty
year upto inception Since year upto Since year upto Since Current Since Current Since year upto
1.4.99 1.4.99 1.4.99 year upto year upto 1.4.99 during the line
the the the 1.4.99 1.4.99 the year
month month month the the month
month month
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1. AIZAWL 03 409 10 7 240 120 159 120 240 120 159 120 400 110 15 50
2. CHAMPHAI 03 356 28 18 165 68 119 32 165 68 119 32 181 10 14 35
3. KOLASIB 03 188 20 13 143 20 72 10 143 18 71 9 76 2 2 0
4. LAWNGTLAI 03 235 53 50 235 53 96 19 96 19 96 19 21 5 5 0
5. LUNGLEI 03 248 35 25 144 69 123 35 93 12 67 14 203 25 16 28
MAMIT (AIZ-
6. 03 302 189 113 180 49 69 25 140 2 45 4 298 18 6 82
W)
7. SAIHA 03 200 16 15 84 40 75 10 63 20 130 31 43 8 7 35
SERCHIPP
8. 03 327 5 108 255 21 161 4 232 19 227 19 281 4 14 0
(AIZ-S)

Total 2265 356 349 1446 440 874 255 1172 278 914 248 1503 182 79 230

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

- 330 -
APPENDIX – IV –3 b

Self-Help Groups and individual Swarozgaris - Assistance provided for pursuing Economic Activities

State: MIZORAM
Year: 2009-2010 (Numbers)
No. of Members of SHGs Assisted for Economic Activities No. of Individual Swarozgaris Assisted for Economic Activities
S.No. Name of District Till Month
Total SC ST Minorities Women Disabled Total SC ST Minorities Women Disabled
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
1. AIZAWL 03 1650 0 1650 0 1550 0 8 0 8 0 8 0
2. CHAMPHAI 03 920 0 920 0 350 22 23 0 23 0 16 2
3. KOLASIB 03 113 0 113 0 93 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4. LAWNGTLAI 03 190 0 190 0 60 8 190 0 190 0 35 5
5. LUNGLEI 03 300 0 300 0 280 10 20 0 20 0 12 5
6. MAMIT (AIZ-W) 03 172 0 172 30 550 30 182 0 182 15 160 7
7. SAIHA 03 704 1 701 2 250 10 33 1 31 1 10 11
8. SERCHIPP (AIZ-S) 03 370 0 370 0 158 0 34 0 34 0 11 0
Total 4419 1 4416 32 3291 80 490 1 488 16 252 30

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

- 331 -
APPENDIX – IV –3 c
Swaranjayanti Gram Swarozar Yojana
District - Wise Subsidy and Credit Disbursed upto the Month May
Self - Help Groups and Individual Swarozgaris

State: MIZORAM
Year: 2009-2010 (Rs. in Lakhs)

Credit Disbursed to Subsidy Disbursed to

Sl. No. Name of the District Till Month
SHGs Individual Swarozgaris Total SHGs Individual Swarozgaris Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. AIZAWL 03 0 0 0 42.01 0.2 42.21
2. CHAMPHAI 03 18.75 1.8 20.55 32 2.3 34.3
3. KOLASIB 03 14 0 14 18 0 18
4. LAWNGTLAI 03 19 10.9 29.9 19 10.9 29.9
5. LUNGLEI 03 23 4 27 35 3.4 38.4
6. MAMIT (AIZ-W) 03 17.5 5.5 23 20 5 25
7. SAIHA 03 4.3 0 4.3 10 9.42 19.42
8. SERCHIPP (AIZ-S) 03 18.4 6.2 24.6 17.9 1.1 19

Total 114.95 28.4 143.35 193.91 32.32 226.23

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

- 332 -
APPENDIX – IV –3 d
Swaranjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana
District - Wise Subsidy and Credit Disbursed upto the Month
To the weaker Section

State: MIZORAM
Year: 2009-2010 (Rs. in Lakhs)

Credit and Subsidy Disbursed to Weaker Sections

S.No. Name of the District Till Month SC ST Minorities Women Disabled
Credit Subsidy Total Credit Subsidy Total Credit Subsidy Total Credit Subsidy Total Credit Subsidy Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1. AIZAWL 03 0 0 0 0 42.21 42.21 0 0 0 0 25.33 25.33 0 0 0
2. CHAMPHAI 03 0 0 0 20.55 34.3 54.85 0 0 0 6 13.6 19.6 0.1 0.2 0.3
3. KOLASIB 03 0 0 0 14 18 32 0 0 0 12 16 28 0 0 0
4. LAWNGTLAI 03 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5. LUNGLEI 03 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6. MAMIT (AIZ-W) 03 0 0 0 23 24.5 47.5 0 0 0 20 18 38 1 1.2 2.2
7. SAIHA 03 0 0.2 0.2 4.3 7.75 12.05 0 0 0 0 2.25 2.25 0 0 0
8. SERCHIPP (AIZ-S) 03 0 0 0 24.6 19 43.6 0 0 0 20 14 34 0 0 0

Total 0 0.2 0.2 86.45 145.76 232.21 0 0 0 58 89.18 147.18 1.1 1.4 2.5

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

- 333 -
 APPENDIX – IV –3 e

Swaranjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana

District - Wise Subsidy and Credit Disbursed for Revolving Fund and No. of SHGs provided with Revolving Fund
Self - Help Groups
State: MIZORAM
Year: 2009-2010 (Rs. in Lakhs)

S.No. Name of the District Till Month No. of SHGs provided with Revolving Fund Cash - Credit Disbursed Subsidy Disbursed
1 2 3 4 5 6
1. AIZAWL 03 7.6 0 42.21
2. CHAMPHAI 03 0 0 0
3. KOLASIB 03 0 0 0
4. LAWNGTLAI 03 0 0 0
5. LUNGLEI 03 38 27 38.4
6. MAMIT (AIZ-W) 03 0 0 0
7. SAIHA 03 0 0 0
8. SERCHIPP (AIZ-S) 03 28 6.5 17.9

Total 73.6 33.5 98.51

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

- 334 -
APPENDIX – IV –3 f
District-Wise Loan Applications Pending with Banks upto the month
State:MIZORAM
Year: 2009-2010 (Numbers)

Applications From SHGs Applications From Individual Swarozgaris

No. of Application Pending in No. of Application Pending in
Banks Banks
No. of
More Loan More
Name of Till No. of Loan Than No. of Than No. of
S.No No. of Loan No. of Applicat No. of Loan No. of
District Month Applications Sanctioned Loans Less One More Application
ions Sanctioned Loans Less One More Application
Submitted to Rejected by Rejected by
by Banks Disbursed Than And Than
Total Submitt by Banks Disbursed Than And Than
Total
Banks One Less Six Banks One Less Six Banks
ed to
Month Than Month Banks Month Than Month
Six Six
Months Months
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
1 AIZAWL 03 93 65 65 28 36 29 93 0 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 0
2 CHAMPHAI 03 69 56 56 0 13 0 13 0 23 18 18 0 5 0 5 0
3 KOLASIB 03 28 15 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4 LAWNGTLAI 03 19 19 19 0 0 0 0 0 101 101 101 0 0 0 0 0
5 LUNGLEI 03 28 22 22 0 6 0 6 0 15 11 11 0 4 0 4 0
MAMIT (AIZ-
6 03 20 7 7 0 0 0 0 0 45 22 22 0 0 0 0 0
W)
7 SAIHA 03 82 7 4 0 4 0 4 78 33 0 0 0 0 0 0 33
SERCHIPP
8 03 34 12 12 15 7 0 22 0 27 11 11 14 2 0 16 0
(AIZ-S)

Total 373 203 200 43 66 29 138 78 246 165 165 14 11 0 25 33

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

- 335 -
APPENDIX – IV –3 g

Swaranjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana

District and Bank - wise Credit Disbursed upto the month: March
State: MIZORAM
Year: 2009-2010 (Rs. in Lakhs)

No. of SGSY Commitee

Credit Disbursed By No. of Meetings held of the
Total By Meetings held
Name of the Till
Sl.No. Regional Other, if All District Level
District Month Commercial Cooperative State District Block State Level Bankers Block Level Bankers
Rural any Banks Bankers
banks Banks Level Level Level Committe(SLBC) Committe(BLBC)
Banks banks Committe(DLBC)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
1. AIZAWL 03 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 3 1 1 1
2. CHAMPHAI 03 0 4.4 20.32 0 24.72 0 2 2 0 1 1
3. KOLASIB 03 3 0 14.25 2 19.25 0 0 0 0 0 0
4. LAWNGTLAI 03 0 14.5 14.5 0 29 0 1 2 0 0 0
5. LUNGLEI 03 10 8 9 0 27 0 0 0 1 2 0
6. MAMIT 02 2.9 0 0 0 2.9 0 2 2 0 1 1
7. SAIHA 03 1.8 0 2.5 0 4.3 1 1 2 2 4 1
SERCHIPP
8. 03 0 0 24.6 0 24.6 0 1 0 0 1 0
(AIZ-S)

Total 17.7 26.9 85.17 2 131.77 1 9 11 4 10 4

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

- 336 -
APPENDIX – IV – 4 a
Physical Achievements & Credit Linkages under SGSY - 2010 - 2011

Self-Help Groups(SHGs)
State: MIZORAM
Year: 2010-2011 Upto Month:March (Numbers)
No. of SHgs that No. of SHgs that
No. of SHGs No. of SHGs that have Taken up Eco- No. of Women
have passed have passed No. of
Formed Activities SHGs Formed No. of BPL
No. of Grade I Grade II Women
Families
SHgs that After Grade-I After Grade-II SHGs that
Name of During During During During that have
Till have During During have taken
S.No. The the the the the crossed
Month Total defunct Total Total the the Total up Eco-
District Current Current Current Total Total Current the
Since since Since Since Current Current Since Activities
year year year Since Since year poverty
1.4.99 inception 1.4.99 1.4.99 year year 1.4.99 during the
upto the upto the upto the 1.4.99 1.4.99 upto the line
upto the upto the year
month month month month
month month
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

1. AIZAWL 03 435 16 7 265 170 170 49 265 170 170 49 405 197 98 105
2. CHAMPHAI 03 381 25 28 226 61 165 46 226 61 165 46 186 8 26 52
3. KOLASIB 03 193 15 21 146 11 75 9 146 13 77 9 76 1 4 40
4. LAWNGTLAI 03 292 70 67 292 70 123 27 123 27 123 27 28 7 7 -
5. LUNGLEI 03 271 15 35 213 59 158 36 105 65 87 39 228 9 19 -
6. MAMIT 03 314 12 113 232 81 160 50 188 60 75 35 314 12 21 130
7. SAIHA 03 239 31 15 104 40 113 20 104 31 113 3 46 3 3 200
8. SERCHHIP 03 327 - 108 271 6 169 7 239 3 227 - 289 8 10 -
Total 2452 184 394 1749 498 1133 244 1396 430 1037 208 1572 245 188 527

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

- 337 -
APPENDIX – IV – 4 b

Self-Help Groups and individual Swarozgaris - Assistance provided for pursuing Economic Activities
State: MIZORAM
Year: 2010-2011 (Numbers)
No. of Members of SHGs Assisted for Economic Activities No. of Individual Swarozgaris Assisted for Economic Activities
S.No. Name of District Till Month
Total SC ST Minorities Women Disabled Total SC ST Minorities Women Disabled
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
1. AIZAWL 03 1020 - 1020 - 816 5 15 - 15 - 10 1
2. CHAMPHAI 03 1295 - 1295 - 325 16 53 - 53 - 24 8
3. KOLASIB 03 - - - - - - - - - - - -
4. LAWNGTLAI 03 270 - 160 - 70 12 111 - 111 - 52 14
5. LUNGLEI 03 440 - 440 - 300 4 45 - 45 - 40 -
6. MAMIT (AIZ-W) 03 70 - 70 4 40 2 31 - 30 3 21 2
7. SAIHA 03 644 3 340 1 197 13 25 - 9 - 5 11
8. SERCHIPP (AIZ-S) 03 160 - 160 - - - 23 - 23 - 17 -
Total 3899 3 3485 5 1748 52 303 0 286 3 169 36

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

- 338 -
APPENDIX – IV – 4 c

Swaranjayanti Gram Swarozar Yojana

District - Wise Subsidy and Credit Disbursed upto the Month March
Self - Help Groups and Individual Swarozgaris

State: MIZORAM
Year: 2010-2011 (Rs. in Lakhs)

Credit Disbursed to Subsidy Disbursed to

Sl. No. Name of the District Till Month
SHGs Individual Swarozgaris Total SHGs Individual Swarozgaris Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. AIZAWL 03 39.20 1.00 40.20 48.59 1.00 49.59
2. CHAMPHAI 03 28.00 2.60 30.60 46.00 5.30 51.30
3. KOLASIB 03 24.00 2.95 26.95 22.0 0.9 22.9
4. LAWNGTLAI 03 27.00 11.10 38.10 27.0 11.10 38.10
5. LUNGLEI 03 29.00 3.30 32.30 44.00 4.50 48.50
6. MAMIT (AIZ-W) 03 - - - 21 3 24.00
7. SAIHA 03 2.6 0.18 2.78 16 2.1 18.1
8. SERCHIPP (AIZ-S) 03 1.60 2.30 3.90 14.00 - 14.00
Total 151.40 23.43 174.83 238.59 27.90 266.49

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

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APPENDIX – IV – 4 d

Swaranjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana

District - Wise Subsidy and Credit Disbursed upto the Month
To the weaker Section
State: MIZORAM
Year: 2010-2011 (Rs. in Lakhs)

Credit and Subsidy Disbursed to Weaker Sections

S.No. Name of the District Till Month SC ST Minorities Women Disabled
Credit Subsidy Total Credit Subsidy Total Credit Subsidy Total Credit Subsidy Total Credit Subsidy Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

1. AIZAWL 03 - - - 39.20 49.59 73.79 - - - 31.00 40.00 71 1.25 1.25 2.50

2. CHAMPHAI 03 - - - 30.60 51.30 81.90 - - - 1.30 2.40 3.70 0.30 0.80 1.10
3. KOLASIB 03 - - - 24 22.00 46.00 - - - 14.00 14 28 - - -
4. LAWNGTLAI 03 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
5. LUNGLEI 03 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
6. MAMIT (AIZ-W) 03 - - - - 1.30 1.30 - - - - 1 1 - 0.2 0.2
7. SAIHA 03 - - - 2.78 16.00 18.78 - 0.01 0.01 3.5 7.6 11.1 0.3 1 1.3
8. SERCHIPP (AIZ-S) 03 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Total 0 0 0 96.58 140.19 226.77 0 0.01 0.01 49.80 65.00 114.80 1.85 3.25 5.10

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

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APPENDIX – IV – 4 e
Swaranjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana
District - Wise Subsidy and Credit Disbursed for Revolving Fund and No. of SHGs provided with Revolving Fund
Self - Help Groups

State: MIZORAM
Year: 2010-2011 (Rs. in Lakhs)

S.No. Name of the District Till Month No. of SHGs provided with Revolving Fund Cash - Credit Disbursed Subsidy Disbursed
1 2 3 4 5 6

1. AIZAWL 03 170 39.20 49.59

2. CHAMPHAI 03 61 2.90 6.10
3. KOLASIB 03 12 1.75 1.2
4. LAWNGTLAI 03 27 - 27.0
5. LUNGLEI 03 88 29.00 48.50
6. MAMIT (AIZ-W) 03 - - -
7. SAIHA 03 5.4 6.59 10.25
8. SERCHIPP (AIZ-S) 03 16 - 14
Total 379.40 79.44 156.64

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

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 APPENDIX – IV – 4 f

District-Wise Loan Applications Pending with Banks upto the month

State:MIZORAM
Year: 2010-2011 (Numbers)

Applications From SHGs Applications From Individual Swarozgaris

No. of Application Pending in No. of Application Pending in
Banks Banks
No. of
No. of No. of
Loan No. of
Loan More No. of No. of More Applica
Name of Till No. of Loan No. of Applicati Loan
S.No Applicatio Than Application Loans Than tion
Sanctioned Loans Less More ons Sanction
District Month ns One And Rejected by Disburse Less One And More Rejecte
by Banks Disbursed Than Than Submitte ed by Than Than
Submitted Less Total Banks d Less Total d by
One Six d to Banks One Six
to Banks Than Than Banks
Month Month Banks Month Month
Six Six
Months Months

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
1 AIZAWL 03 219 131 131 - - - 88 - 15 13 13 - - - 2 -
2 CHAMPHAI 03 107 43 43 - - - 64 - 53 26 26 - - - 27 -
3 KOLASIB 03 34 27 27 - - 5 5 - 9 8 8 - - 1 1 -
4 LAWNGTLAI 03 27 27 27 - - - - - 111 111 111 - - - - -
5 LUNGLEI 03 44 29 29 15 - - 15 - 45 33 33 12 12 - 12 -
6 MAMIT 03 12 3 3 - 6 3 9 - 12 6 6 - - 3 6 -
7 SAIHA 03 71 54 14 4 10 54 68 3 71 54 14 4 4 54 210 3
8 SERCHHIP 03 30 - - 13 - - 13 - 23 - - - 11 - 11 -
Total 544 314 274 32 16 62 262 3 339 251 211 211 27 57 269 3

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

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APPENDIX – IV – 4 g

Swaranjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana

District and Bank - wise Credit Disbursed upto the month: March
State: MIZORAM
Year: 2010-2011 (Rs. in Lakhs)

No. of SGSY Commitee

Credit Disbursed By No. of Meetings held of the
Meetings held
Name of the Till Total By
Sl.No. Regional Other, if State Level District Level Block Level
District Month Commercial Cooperative All Banks State District Block
Rural any Bankers Bankers Bankers
banks Banks Level Level Level
Banks banks Committe(SLBC) Committe(DLBC) Committe(BLBC)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

1. AIZAWL 03 - - - - - - 3 3 3 2 2
2. CHAMPHAI 03 - 14.00 19.50 - 33.50 2 5 6 1 1 1
3. KOLASIB 03 - - 27.3 - 27.3 - - - - - -
4. LAWNGTLAI 03 - 19.05 19.05 - 38.10 2 3 4 - - -
5. LUNGLEI 03 - - 28.10 14.20 42.30 - 2 2 1 2 -
6. MAMIT 03 0.12 - 9.00 - 9.12 - 2 1 - - -
7. SAIHA 03 1.89 1.80 2.9 0 6.59 2 1 2 1 1 1
8. SERCHHIP 03 - - 17.90 - 17.90 - 1 - - 1 -
Total 2.01 34.85 123.75 14.20 174.81 6 17 18 6 7 4

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

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APPENDIX – IV – 5 a
Physical Achievements & Credit Linkages under SGSY - 2010 - 2011

Self-Help Groups(SHGs)
State: MIZORAM
Year: 2011-2012 Upto Month: March, 2012 (Numbers)
No. of SHgs that No. of SHgs that
No. of SHGs No. of SHGs that have Taken up No. of Women
have passed have passed No. of
Formed Eco-Activities SHGs Formed
No. of Grade I Grade II Women
No. of BPL
SHgs that After Grade-I After Grade-II SHGs that
Name of During During During During Families that
have During During have taken
S.No. The Till Month the the the the have crossed
Total defunct Total Total the the Total up Eco-
District Current Current Current Total Total Current Activities the poverty
Since since Since Since Current Current Since
year year year Since Since year line
1.4.99 inception 1.4.99 1.4.99 year year 1.4.99 during the
upto the upto the upto the 1.4.99 1.4.99 upto the year
month month month upto the upto the month
month month
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

1. AIZAWL March/2012 435 38 7 265 30 170 21 265 30 170 21 405 - 21 -

2. CHAMPHAI March/2012 391 10 43 273 47 195 30 273 47 195 30 190 4 35 51
3. KOLASIB March/2012 200 16 35 147 12 82 9 147 5 82 6 85 4 4 -
4. LAWNGTLAI March/2012 328 45 73 328 45 139 16 139 16 139 16 46 15 7 103
5. LUNGLEI March/2012 381 15 40 253 26 142 14 170 6 126 9 247 13 23 -
6. MAMIT March/2012 331 17 135 196 58 95 30 141 7 46 11 301 14 11 88
7. SAIHA March/2012 257 3 15 224 5 185 4 219 7 185 4 48 2 48 984
8. SERCHHIP March/2012 337 - 108 283 - 185 1 251 - 243 1 289 - - -
Total 2660 144 456 1969 223 1193 125 1605 118 1186 98 1611 52 149 1226

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

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 APPENDIX – IV – 5 b
Self-Help Groups and individual Swarozgaris - Assistance provided for pursuing Economic Activities
State: MIZORAM
Year: 2011-2012 (Numbers)
No. of Members of SHGs Assisted for Economic Activities No. of Individual Swarozgaris Assisted for Economic Activities
Name of
S.No. Till Month
District
Total SC ST Minorities Women Disabled Total SC ST Minorities Women Disabled

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
1. AIZAWL March/2012 410 - 410 - 246 5 23 - 23 - 13 -
2. CHAMPHAI March/2012 1486 - 1486 - 532 12 34 - 34 - 13 1
3. KOLASIB March/2012 50 - 50 - 18 - - - - - - -
4. LAWNGTLAI March/2012 160 - 160 160 70 15 89 - 89 89 32 9
5. LUNGLEI March/2012 270 - 270 - 230 - 50 - 50 - 40 -
6. MAMIT March/2012 210 - 210 - 180 10 33 - 33 - 30 5
7. SAIHA March/2012 300 - 300 - 160 2 12 - 12 - 10 2
8. SERCHHIP March/2012 28 - 28 - - - 22 - 22 - 14 -
Total 2914 - 2914 160 1436 44 263 - 263 89 152 17

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

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 APPENDIX – IV – 5 c

Swaranjayanti Gram Swarozar Yojana

District - Wise Subsidy and Credit Disbursed upto the Month : March, 2012
Self - Help Groups and Individual Swarozgaris

State: MIZORAM
Year: 2011-2012 (Rs. in Lakhs)

Credit Disbursed to Subsidy Disbursed to

Sl. No. Name of the District Till Month
SHGs Individual Swarozgaris Total SHGs Individual Swarozgaris Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. AIZAWL March/2012 20.20 - 1.50 35.00 - 20.00
2. CHAMPHAI March/2012 17.00 1.60 18.60 30.00 3.40 33.40
3. KOLASIB March/2012 12.00 3.00 15.00 18.00 1.10 19.10
4. LAWNGTLAI March/2012 18.60 8.90 24.90 18.60 8.90 27.50
5. LUNGLEI March/2012 15.00 2.60 17.60 27.00 5.00 32.00
6. MAMIT March/2012 10.00 1.00 11.00 16.70 1.50 17.12
7. SAIHA March/2012 5.00 1.10 6.10 7.10 1.46 8.56
8. SERCHHIP March/2012 1.20 2.20 3.40 16.00 - 16.00
Total 99.00 20.40 98.10 168.40 21.36 173.68

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

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APPENDIX – IV – 5 d
Swaranjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana
District - Wise Subsidy and Credit Disbursed upto the Month : March/2012
To the weaker Section

State: MIZORAM
Year: 2011-2012 (Rs. in Lakhs)

Credit and Subsidy Disbursed to Weaker Sections

Name of the
S.No. Till Month SC ST Minorities Women Disabled
District
Credit Subsidy Total Credit Subsidy Total Credit Subsidy Total Credit Subsidy Total Credit Subsidy Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

1. AIZAWL March/2012 - - - 20.20 35.00 55.20 - - - 10.92 12.00 22.92 - - -

2. CHAMPHAI March/2012 - - - 18.60 33.40 52.00 - - - 0.50 1.70 2.20 - 0.10 0.10
3. KOLASIB March/2012 - - - 12.00 18.00 30.00 - - - 8.00 8.00 16.00 - - -
4. LAWNGTLAI March/2012 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
5. LUNGLEI March/2012 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
6. MAMIT March/2012 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
7. SAIHA March/2012 - - - 6.10 8.56 14.66 - - - 4.2 5.9 10.1 0.2 0.2 0.4
8. SERCHHIP March/2012 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Total - - - 56.90 94.96 151.86 - - - 23.62 27.60 51.22 0.2 0.3 0.5

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

- 347 -
APPENDIX – IV – 5 e

Swaranjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana

District - Wise Subsidy and Credit Disbursed for Revolving Fund and No. of SHGs provided with Revolving Fund
Self - Help Groups

State: MIZORAM

Year: 2011-2012 (Rs. in Lakhs)

S.No. Name of the District Till Month No. of SHGs provided with Revolving Fund Cash - Credit Disbursed Subsidy Disbursed
1 2 3 4 5 6

1. AIZAWL March/2012 71 18.20 35.00

2. CHAMPHAI March/2012 47.00 1.90 4.70
3. KOLASIB March/2012 - 2.00 -
4. LAWNGTLAI March/2012 18.60 18.60 18.60
5. LUNGLEI March/2012 56 - -
6. MAMIT March/2012 18.00 10.00 16.70
7. SAIHA March/2012 24 6.10 8.56
8. SERCHIP March/2012 12 - 16
Total 246.60 56.80 99.56

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

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APPENDIX – IV – 5 f

District-Wise Loan Applications Pending with Banks upto the month : March/2012
State:MIZORAM
Year: 2011-2012 (Numbers)

Applications From SHGs Applications From Individual Swarozgaris

No. of Application Pending in No. of Application Pending in
Banks Banks
No. of No. of
Loan No. of More No. of Loan More No. of
Name of Applicat Loan No. of Than Applicatio Applicati No. of Loan No. of Than Applicati
S.No Till Month Less One More Less One More
District ions Sanctio Loans n ons Sanctioned Loans on
Submitt ned by Disbursed Than And Than Rejected Submitt by Banks Disbursed Than And Than
Total Total Rejected
ed to Banks One Less Six by Banks ed to One Less Six by Banks
Banks Month Than Month Banks Month Than Month
Six Six
Months Months
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

1 AIZAWL March/2012 41 13 13 - - - 28 - - - - - - - - -
2 CHAMPHAI March/2012 77 28 28 - - - 49 - 34 16 16 - - - 18 -
3 KOLASIB March/2012 24 18 18 - 6 1 7 - 12 12 12 - - - 2 -
4 LAWNGTLAI March/2012 16 16 16 - - - - - 89 89 89 - - - - -
5 LUNGLEI March/2012 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
6 MAMIT March/2012 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
7 SAIHA March/2012 29 27 26 1 - - 1 1 16 15 10 - - - 10 1
8 SERCHIP March/2012 28 - 27 1 - - - - 22 - 22 - - - - -
Total 215 102 128 2 6 1 85 1 173 132 149 - - - 30 1

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

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 APPENDIX – IV – 5 g
Swaranjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana
District and Bank - wise Credit Disbursed upto the month: March/2012

State: MIZORAM

Year: 2011-2012 (Rs. in Lakhs)

No. of SGSY
Credit Disbursed By Commitee Meetings No. of Meetings held of the
Name of the Total By held
Sl.No. Till Month
District Regional Other, All Banks State Level District Level Block Level
Commercial Cooperative State District Block
Rural if any Bankers Bankers Bankers
banks Banks Level Level Level
Banks banks Committe(SLBC) Committe(DLBC) Committe(BLBC)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

1. AIZAWL March/2012 - - - - - - 1 1 1 1 1
2. CHAMPHAI March/2012 - 4.70 15.80 - 20.50 1 3 8 1 1 1
3. KOLASIB March/2012 - - 23.3 - - - - - - - -
4. LAWNGTLAI March/2012 - 53 53 - 105 - - - - - -
5. LUNGLEI March/2012 - - - - - - - - - - -
6. MAMIT March/2012 - - - - - - - - - - -
7. SAIHA March/2012 2.5 10.5 35.0 - 48.0 1 1 2 1 1 -
8. SERCHIP March/2012 - - 19.40 - - - 3 - - - -
Total 2.5 68.20 146.50 - 173.50 2 8 11 3 3 2

Source : SLMC & IAC, Rural Development Department, Government of Mizoram, 2012.

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Appendix - V

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

NOTE : Contents of the Interview Schedule is strictly a means to gather information and
for the collection of data alone and is to be held with confidentiality; no information will
be construed in the disinterest of oneself or the other.

RESPONDENTS : RURAL DEVELOPMENT OFFICIALS/FUNCTIONARIES

EMPLOYEE NAME :

DESIGNATION :

PLACE OF POSTING :

1. How would you define your work ?

2. What would you describe as the most challenging thing in your job ?

3. What is the most enjoyable part of your work ?

4. How would you rate the Human Resource policy in RD/DRDA ?

Excellent / Good/ Not Good
If Not Good, give reason as : (i) No stability of tenure/ service

(ii) Poor promotion avenu

(iii) Frequent / abrupt transfers

(iv) Inferior service conditions

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5. What is the nature of your appointment ?
Regular appointment through State Public Service Commission
Regular appointment through Departmental Selection Committee
Contract appointment through Departmental Selection Committee
Contract for 1 year
Contract for 3 years
Contract for 5 years

6. Is there probation period in your service/ contract ?

Yes
No

7. If on Contract, is a Contract Agreement signed between you and the DRDA and
Govt of Mizoram ?
Yes / No
If Yes, is contract renewed after expiry term ?
If Yes, is it on similar terms ?
If No, what terms are in use : (i) Assumed to be on similar terms
(ii) Do not know what terms are in use

8. State the reasons as to why you entered the work contract, knowing full well that
you do not have consistency of service : (i) Job requirement
(ii) Financial necessity
(iii) Age factor not favouring delay for
seeking employment

9. What are the service benefits provided ?

Leave
TA/DA
Medical
GPF/NPS
CPF/EPF
Retirement

10. Are you satisfied with the serviice benefits ?

Yes
No

11. If No, specify reasons.

Different norms under different schemes
Different welfare measures in different areas/ districts

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 No State intervention to correct disparity
No State intervention to provide corporate benefits

12. Any performance – linked incentives introduced ?

Yes
No

13. How long have you worked in your present capacity in the Rural Development
sphere?
0-3 years/ 3-5 years/ 5 – 10 years / 10 – 15 years/ 15 – 20 years/ 20 years
plus

14. What age group are you in at this time of interview ?

25 – 30 / 30 – 35 / 35 – 40 / 40 plus

15. Do you have plans to seek employment elsewhere?

Yes / No

If No, pl specify : (i) Satisfied with service

(ii) Not inclined
(iii) Overaged

If Yes, pl specify: (i) No service retention

(ii) In-stability of service
(iii) Choice for better job avenues, of permanent nature

16. Has the Govt of Mizoram taken cognizance of the District/DRDA /Block level
service condition ?
Yes / No / Not sure

If Yes, what is the response level : (i) Understanding

(ii) Sympathetic
(iii) Listens but lukewarm

If No, what is the response level : (i) Disregard

(ii) Apathy towards the issue
(iii) Inaction of the superiors
(iv) Inaction of the government

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17. Have you represented your service conditions ?
Yes
No

18. Representation , in what form?

Verbal discussion with superiors
Written representation to the authorities

19. Whether representations responded to ?

Yes/No

If Yes, what is the response level : (i) Action-oriented

(ii) Lukewarm

If No, what is the response level :

(i) Inadequate understanding of situation
(ii) Insensitivity to poor service
(iii) Complacency of authorities

20. Is creation of Rural Development cadre service necessary ?

Yes /No

21. Are there plans for absorption into the line departments ?
Yes / No / Not aware

22. Is work performance appraised on an annual basis ?

Yes / No

If Yes, whether Annual Performance Appraisal Report (APAR) or other

proforma is in use.

Yes/ No

If No, specify reasons : (i) Non-insistence by Govt/ DRDA

(ii) No promotion, no need for APAR

23. What type of trainings have you been imparted ?

Foundation training
Periodic trainings
In-service Training
Number/frequency of trainings

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24. Who schedules trainings?
Govt of Mizoram / DRDA / NIRD/SIRD/ own initiative ?

25. How many trainings have you undergone in 3 years ?

Once/Twice/ Thrice, More than 3 times

26. Are you satisfied with the duties and responsibilities assigned to you ?
Yes / No

27. Do you have good rapport with the public / PRIs / NGOs/ CBOs/ related agencies
/ institutions ?
Yes / No

28. Can you earn the trust of public/PRIs etc within a short duration in the field,
specify period ?
1 year / 3 years / 5 years

29. Rate your effectiveness and efficiency in the work field/rural areas.

6/10
7/10
8/10
9/10
10/10

30. Do you consider yourself a professional expert for Rural Development services?
Yes / No

31. To professionalize Rural Development, is a separate administrative cadre required

like other states of India
(i) Not required
(ii) Required
(iii) Status quo

32. Is DRDA with sufficient manpower ?

Yes / No

If No, is it due to : (i) Longstanding vacancies

(ii) Vacancies of any duration disrupt work
(iii) No sanctioned posts
(iv) Transfer of staff elsewhere, without substitution /
alternative

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33. Is work relationship satisfactory?
Yes / No

If Yes, pl specify (i) Cordial

(ii) Supportive
(iii) Cooperative

If No, pl specify (i) Disregard

(ii) Dispute over authority
(iii) Non-cooperation
(iv) Non-coordination

34. How would you rate your team working skills ?

Above average / Average / Below Average.

35. How would you rate employee motivation in the Rural Development Department ?
Above average / Average / Below average.

36. What factors do you prioritize ?

Productivity
Quality
Succession plan
People relationship
Development of subordinates

37. Prioritize the following motivational factors.

Knowledge
Training
Salary
Welfare
Systems
Organizational value
Transparency
Performance Appraisal
Incentives / rewards for good performance

38. De-motivational factors aggravate quality, do you accept ?

Yes/No

39. Motivational factors or de-motivational factors that influence quality of service are:
Communication
Leadership
Systems of organization/service
- 356 -
 Lack of knowledge and experience
All of the above

40. What would be the ideal duration of tenure in a particular place of posting ?
3 years/ 5 years / 10 years +

41. Are you satisfied with the system of transfer and posting ?
Yes / No

If No, pl specify reasons : (i) No procedural norms

(ii) Political intervention
(iii) Favouritism by authoriries

42. Does Rural Development Department need administrative re-organization ?

Yes/ No

If Yes, give suggestions

43. What is your perspective of the HR policy of MGNREGA, MZSRLM, IWMP ?

Excellent / Good / Not good

44. Do you think that the engagement of fresh blood through contractual assignments
alone is amenable for effective operation of the MGNREGA, MZSRLM, IWMP etc?

Yes/No

If Yes, pl state reasons : (i) Modern and updated knowledge

(ii) Energetic disposition
(iii) Motivated with first time job

If No, pl state reasons (i) No experience

(ii) Instability
(iii) Non-attachment
(iv) Non-asset for organization

45. In your opinion, is political will a given in the Rural Development processes, to
bring about the anticipated socio-economic development of the nation/ state ?
Yes / No

- 357 -
 46. Have been faced by any arbitrary political intervention in the Rural Development
processes?

Frequently/ Sometimes/ Rarely

47. What is the impact of Rural Development in Mizoram ?

Strong
Not strong
Feeble
Not sure

48. If strong, specify :

Provides socio-economic welfare measures
Provides assets and infrastructure
Assuages financial distress

49. If Not strong/ feeble, specify :

Uneven spread of development
RD perceived as assistance provider & not facilitator
RD programme packages seen as freebies
Political intervention is not positive

50. What would be the best practises that Rural Development Department, Mizoram
need to take up for a wholesome development of the rural poor/areas. Highlight.

Supervised A questionnaire framed by

By Lalthanchami Sailo, PhD Scholar,
Professor Srinibas Pathi RegnNo : MZU/PhD/152/31.05.2007 dt. 17.05.2012
Public Administration Department Public Administration Department
Mizoram University Mizoram University

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