FORENSIC

PHOTOGRAPHY
LYEN CAREL T. GARCIA
TOP 1
CLE JUNE 2022
 TABLE OF SPECIFICATION
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY
The registered criminologist can perform the competencies under the following sub-
topics:
• Explain the scientific and technical principles of forensic photography
• Identify the types of photography and their application to law enforcement operations e.g.
surveillance, crime scene, etc.
• Identify the types of photography and their application to law enforcement operations e.g.
surveillance, crime scene, etc.
• Process photographic exhibits i.e. fingerprint, ballistic, questioned documents, etc.
• Examine the legal aspects of photographic evidence, write forensic findings in a format
generally accepted by the scientific community and in a language clear to the court of law
 DEFINITION OF PHOTOGRAPHY:
LITERAL DEFINITION

Derived from the Greek word “Phos” or “Photos”

which means “light” and “Grapho” means “Writing” or
“Graphia” meaning “to Draw”.

The word was first used by the scientist Sir John F.W.
Herschel in 1839.

It is a method of recording images by the action of

light, or related radiation, on a sensitive material
MODERN DEFINITION:

Photography is an art of science which deals with the

reproduction of images through the action of light, upon sensitized
materials, with the aid of a camera and its accessories and the
chemical processes involved therein.
TECHNICAL DEFINITION:

Photography defined as any means for the chemical, thermal,

electrical or electronic recording of the images of scenes or objects
formed by some type of radiant energy including gamma rays. X rays,
ultra violet rays, visible light and infrared rays.
 PHOTOGRAPH PICTURE
Is the mechanical and chemical result Is a generic term is refers to all kinds of
of Photography. formed image
An image that can only be a product of
photography
 POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY AND FORENSIC
PHOTOGRAPHY

POLICE FORENSIC
PHOTOGRAPHY PHOTOGRAPHY
an art or science which deals an art or science of
with the study of the principles photographically documenting
of photography, the a crime scene and evidence for
preparation of photographic laboratory examination and
evidence, and its application to analysis for purpose of court
police work. trial
 USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION
Personal Identification is considered to be the first application of
photography in police work
Alphonse Bertillion was the first police who utilized photography
in police work as a supplementary identification in his Anthropometry
system

FOR COMMUNICATION
Photograph is considered to be one of the most universal
methods of communication considering that no other language can
be known universally than photograph.
FOR RECORD PURPOSES
Considered to be the utmost used of photography in police work

FOR PRESERVATION
Crime scene and other physical evidence requires photograph for
preservation purposes. Crime scene cannot be retain as is for a long
period of time but through photograph the initial condition of the scene of
the crime can be preserved properly.
FOR DISCOVERING AND PROVING
Photography can extend human vision in discovering and proving
things such as

a. The use of magnification

• Photomicrography
• Photomicrography/Macrophotography
• Microphotography
• Telephotography

b. Used of artificial light such as x-ray, ultra-violet and infra-red rays

to show something which may not be visible with the aid of human
eye alone.
FOR COURT EXHIBITS
Almost all evidence presented in court before formally be accepted
requires that they satisfy the basic requirements for admissibility which
is relevancy and competency. A question of relevancy is usually proved
by proving the origin of the evidence and its relation to the case and this
is usually supplemented by photograph of the evidence giving reference
as to where it came from.
Evidence presented in court once accepted became known as
Exhibit. Either Exhibit 1,2,3 etc. for the defense or Exhibit A, B, C etc for
the prosecution.
CRIME PREVENTION
With the used of video camera (hidden camera) and other advanced
photographic equipment crimes are being detected more easily and even to
the extent of preventing them from initially occurring.

POLICE TRAINING
Modern facilities are now being used as instructional material not only
in police training as well as in other agencies.

REPRODUCING AND COPYING

With the use of photography any number of reproduction of the
evidence can be made those giving unlimited opportunity for its examination
and even allow other experts or person to examine the specimen without
compromising the original.
 SPECIAL USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY
INFRARED PHOTOGRAPHY
Recording images formed by infrared radiation. It can penetrate haze that
scatters the waves of visible light.
USES IN LAW ENFORCEMENT

• Questioned documents
- Even crossed-out words or writings on a charred piece of paper can be
read if photographs of them are taken with infrared rays.
• Aerial photography
- Infrared photography can enhance the contrast of the terrain
• Surveillance photography
• Detection of gunshot-powder burns, stains and irregularities in cloth
• Detection of certain types of secret writings
• It can differentiate inks, dyes, and pigments that appears visually the same
• Fabrics that appear to be similar but have been dyed differently can be
identified by infrared
• It may also reveal the contents of sealed envelopes
• It is also valuable in detecting stains on cloth, including blood stains that are
not visible to the eye; and
• Powder residues surrounding bullet holes in cloth, even when the fabric is
dark in color or bloodstained, may be made visible by infrared
ULTRAVIOLET PHOTOGRAPHY
Art or process of photographing or recording UNSEEN objects by
means of ultra violet light.

USES IN LAW ENFORCEMENT

• Try ultraviolet photography after visible light techniques and infrared

light techniques fail (questioned documents, etc.).
• Fingerprints on multicolored surfaces
• Body secretions such as urine, semen and perspiration often glow
when illuminated by ultraviolet light
• Money and other valuables can be dusted or marked to identify thief's.
• Photographing “invisible ink”.
X-RAY PHOTOGRAPHY
Widely used in medicine, industry and
science. It is quite different from ordinary
photography. Xrays are invisible
electromagnetic waves.

MUG-SHOT PHOTOGRAPHY
Use for personal identification which is
the first use of photography in police work.
(Alphonse Bertillon is the Father of Mug shot
photography).

TELEPHOTOGRAPHY
Is the process of taking photograph of a
far object with the aid of a long focus and
Telephoto lens.
PHOTOMICROGRAPHY
Taking a magnified photograph of small
object through attaching a camera to the ocular
of a compound microscope so as to show a
minute details of the physical evidence.

PHOTOMACROGRAPHY/MACROPHOTOGRAPHY
Taking a magnified (enlarged) photograph
of small object by attaching an extended tube
lens (macro lens) to the camera.

MICROPHOTOGRAPHY/ MICRO-FILMING
Is the process of reducing into a small
strips of film a scenario. It is first used in
filmmaking
 PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOGRAPHY
• A photograph is the mechanical and chemical result of photography.
• To produce a photograph, light is needed aside from sensitized materials.
• Lights reflected or radiated by a subject must reach sensitized material inside a camera.
• The amount of light on the sensitized material after exposure is not immediately visible to
the eyes.
• To make the formed image visible, it must undergo the development process(chemical
process).
• The visual effect that results from the chemical processing is dependent on the quantity
and quality of the exposing light.
• More light will yield an opaque or black shade on the sensitized material after development.
• If the light is too little, it will produce a transparent or white shade.
• The exclusion of all other lights to be recorded on the sensitized material inside the light-
tight box (camera) is controlled by the lens.
 ESSENTIALS OF PHOTOGRAPHY
LIGHT
is an electromagnetic energy that travels in a form of a wave with the speed of 186, 000
miles per second.
CAMERA
a light tight box designed to block unwanted or unnecessary light from reaching the
sensitized material.
LENS
is the light gathering mechanism of the camera that collect the reflected light coming from the
object to form the image.
SENSITIZED MATERIAL
composed of a highly sensitized chemical compound which is capable of being transformed
into an image through the action of light and with some chemical processes. ( Film and Photo Paper).
CHEMICAL PROCESS
is the process necessary for reducing silver halides into a form so as a latent image and a
positive image be made resulting to what we called Photograph.
 LIGHT
THEORIES/NATURE OF LIGHT

THE WAVE THEORY (CHRISTIAN HUYGENS)

It is the theory that was transcribed from
the motion of the water that if we observe a piece
of log floating in the ocean and with the force of
the air would naturally will make the log move up
and down.

CORPUSCULAR THEORY (NEWTON)

This later opposed the wave theory stating
that light has its effect by the motion of very small
particles such as electrons(c)
MODIFIED WAVE /ELECTROMAGNETIC
THEORY (MAXWELL AND HERTZ)
All these theories are still considered
to be of little lacking that law enforcement
need not to be very focus on this but rather
go along with the accepted conclusion that
light is a form of energy, which is
electromagnetic in form.

QUANTUM THEORY (ALBERT EINSTEIN)

Electrons attached to a metal can
absorb specific light, thus have the energy
to escape (Sparks)
 LIGHT

• Light is defined as an electromagnetic energy with the speed of 186,00

miles per second.
• The speed of light, measured in a vacuum is 299, 792.5 km/sec
(approximately 186,281 miles/sec)
• Light wavelength is the distance measured between two (2) successive
crest or through of wave and it is expressed in either Millimicron
(nanometer) or Angstrom.
• Millimicron is the units of light wavelength which is equivalent to one-
millionth part of a millimeter
• Angstrom is relatively smaller for it has an equivalent measurement of
ten (10) millionth part of a millimeter
 TYPES OF LIGHT
LIGHTS CAN LARGELY BE CLASSIFIED INTO VISIBLE AND INVISIBLE
LIGHT.

VISIBLE LIGHT
Is the type of light that produces different sensation when reach the
human eye. It is the type of light, which is capable of exciting the retina of
the human eye.

INVISIBLE LIGHT
Lights in which their wavelength are either too short or too long to
excite the retina of the human eye i.e. X-ray, Ultra-violet and Infra-red lights.
 PHOTOGRAPHIC RAYS/ELECTROMAGNETIC
SPECTRUM
X-RAY
Light with the wavelength between .01 to 30 millimicrons. It is produced by
passing an electric current through a special type of vacuum tube. It was incidentally
discovered by Conrad Welhelm Roentgen. This type of light works in the principle of
shadow photography.
ULTRA-VIOLET RAY (BEFORE THE VIOLET)
Radiation having a wavelength of 30 to 400 nanometers designed to photograph
fingerprints in multi colored background, documents that are altered, decipherment of erase
writing and developing invisible writing. It is commercially known as “black Light”.
VISIBLE LIGHT
It refers to the type of radiation having a wavelength of 400 to 700 millimicrons
designed for ordinary photographing purposes
INFRA-RED (BEYOND THE RED)
Considered as the photographic rays with the longest wavelength ranging from 700
to 1000 millimicrons. It is designed to take photograph of over-written documents,
obliterated writing, and charred documents or for black out photography. It is sometimes
referred to as heat rays).
 ISAAC NEWTON IN 1666 proved that the light which men see as
white light is actually a mixture of all colors of the spectrum. This is
produced when we allow light to hit a glass prism (Sharp Edge of the
Glass).
 COLORS OF LIGHT FOUND IN VISIBLE
SPECTRUM
PRIMARY COLORS NEURTRAL COLORS
BLUE GRAY
GREEN WHITE
RED BLACK

SECONDARY COLORS WHITE – PRESENCE OF ALL

CYAN COLOR

YELLOW BLACK – ABSENCE OF ALL

COLORS
MAGENTA
 PAINTED OBJECTS do not produce their own light, they reflect light, when objects
look red, because it is reflecting only red light to our eyes. To do this, it absorbed the other
primary colors in the white light it is reflecting. It absorbed green and blue and reflects red.
 MEDIUMS OF LIGHT
TRANSPARENT OBJECTS – mediums that
merely slow down the speed of light but allow to
pass freely in other respects, transmit 90% or
more of the incident light.

TRANSLUCENT OBJECTS – mediums that

allow light to pass through it in such a way that
the outline of the source of light is not clearly
visible, transmit 50% or less of the incident light.

OPAQUE OBJECTS – A medium that divert or

absorb light, but does not allow lights to pass
though, they absorb most of the light while
reflecting some of it
 Once light hits a certain medium, its action can be
characterized as either:
REFLECTED, TRANSMITTED OR ABSORBED
(RAT)

REFLECTED once the light hits a mirror and it

bounce back

ABSORBED when the light hits a dark colored object

and prevents it from either bouncing or passing
through.

TRANSMITTED when the light hits a transparent

glass which would allow the light to pass through its
medium
 MANNER OF BENDING OF LIGHT
• REFLECTION – the rebounding or
the deflection of light as it hits the
surface

• REFRACTION – bending of light

when passing from one medium to
another

• DIFFRACTION – bending of light

when it strikes the edge of an opaque
object.
 LIGHT SOURCE
NATURAL LIGHT
Are those light which come to existence without the intervention of
man e.i. Sunlight, moonlight and starlight.

TYPES:

• BRIGHT SUNLIGHT
• HAZY SUNLIGHT
• DULL SUNLIGHT
 BRIGHT SUNLIGHT
Object in an open space casts a deep and uniform shadow and the object
appears glossy.
 HAZY SUNLIGHT
Object in an open space casts a transparent or bluish shadow.
This is due to thin clouds that cover the sun.
 DULL SUNLIGHT
Object in an open space cast no shadow due to thick clouds
covering the sun.

CLOUDY BRIGHT - objects in open space cast no shadow but objects at

far distance are clearly visible.
CLOUDY DULL - objects in open space cast not shadow and visibility of
distant objects are already limited.
ARTIFICIAL LIGHT
Otherwise known as man-made light e.g. fluorescent bulb,
incandescent bulb and photoflood lamp.

CONTINUOUS RADIATION

PHOTOFLOOD LAMP
Is likewise known as Reflectorized light or Spot light. It is a
light with a reflector at the back which focus the light to the object
the common wattages of this lamp is 500 watts.
 FLUORESCENT LAMP
Are tube lamps in which the walls are
coated with fluorescent powders with both
ends is mounted with a holder that serves as
the reflector. This is commonly used by
everybody more than it is used in
photographing.

INCANDESCENT BULB
Are bulb with a wire filament
connecting two wires which sustain the
electrical charge that produces the light.
Everybody likewise commonly uses this
although it is more expensive in terms of
electrical consumptions.
INFRA-RED LAMP
ULTRA-VIOLET LAMP
 SHORT DURATION TYPE
FLASH BULB
Are chemical lamps, as it generate lights by
the rapid combination of metal in oxygen. The bulb can
be used only once as the bulb is busted when fired
electrically. There are thin filaments inside the bulb with
two electrical contacts. When the current flows through
the filament, it becomes incandescent and ignites the
explosive primer that ignites the aluminum foil that
burns, giving flash of tense light.
ELECTRONIC FLASH
Produces light by an instantaneous electrical in
charges between two electrodes in a gas filled glass
bulbs. The electrical energy for the discharge is kept in
capacitor or condenser. It usually ranges from 1/300
second and 1/5000 second, and because of this, subject
in fast motion can be arrested or stopped in the
photographs.
CONCURRENT LIGHT
Light that is scattered

COHERENT LIGHT
Light that is aligned as LASER LIGHT
“Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation”

HOLOGRAM
The formation of image through the use of laser light

DENNIS GABOR - who invented the hologram, explained

his discovery in simple terms in this article published in 1948
 CAMERA
Is a light tight box with light gathering device and a means of blocking
unwanted or unnecessary light from reaching the sensitized material
Basically, camera can produce image with its four-(4) basic parts such:

• LIGHT TIGHT BOX

• LENS
• FILM HOLDER (HOLDER OF SENSITIZED MATERIAL)
• SHUTTER

*All other accessory of any camera merely makes picture taking easier, faster
and convenient for the operator and is called ACCESSORY.
 ESSENTIAL PARTS OF A CAMERA
1. LIGHT TIGHT BOX – a box designed to keep light out and serve as a frame
to hold other parts.
2. LENS – designed to collect or to focus the reflected light from an object to
form an image on the film.
3. SHUTTER – designed to control the time during which the light reaches the
film
4. FILM HOLDER (HOLDER OF THE SENSITIZED MATERIAL) – located at
the opposite side of the lens designed to hold firmly the sensitized material to
prevent the formation of the multiple or blurred image
5. VIEW FINDER – designed to determine the field of view of the camera or the
extent of the coverage of the given lens
 OTHER PARTS OF A CAMERA
VIEWING SYSTEM
Is that part of the camera which provides the means of showing to
the photographer the entire scene coverage that can be recorded in
the sensitized material.

FILM ADVANCER (FILM ADVANCE LEVER OR KNOB)

Designed to transfer the exposed film to the other side or to the
take up spool and the unexposed film will be the opposite side of the lens
for another exposure.
 SHUTTER SPEED

Is that part of the camera which regulates the time exposure of the film
thus, affecting the amount of light reaching the sensitized material. It is
usually expressed in a fraction of a second.
1/1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/15 1/30 1/60 1/125 1/250 1/500
etc.

• The speed number in the left is always two times powerful in terms of light
gathering than that of the right number
• Slow shutter speeds are basically used for low light while fast shutter speeds
are used in bright lighting conditions.
• You have to control both shutter speed and lens opening to achieve correct
exposure.
Using a fast shutter speed the
photographer can stop or “freeze” the
action of a person provided that
necessary adjustment on the lens
opening be made in order to maintain
normal exposure
 TYPES OF SHUTTER
BETWEEN THE LENS OR CENTRAL SHUTTER
A type of shutter that is usually located between the elements
of the lens made of metal leaves and its action starts from the
center toward the side, and then closes back to the center.

FOCAL PLANE SHUTTER

Located near the focal plane or the sensitized material, this
type of shutter is usually made of cloth curtain, its action starts on
one side and closes to the opposite side.

Camera shutters often include one or two other settings for

making very long exposures:
B (FOR BULB ) - keep the shutter open as long as the shutter
release is held.
T (FOR TIME) - keep the shutter open until the shutter release is
pressed again.
 LENS APERTURE
The ratio between the diameter of the whole lens in relation to the
focal length of the lens. It is the light gathering power of the lens.
Otherwise known as lens opening or relative aperture and it is
expressed in F-number.

f 2.8 f-4 f-5.6 f-8 f-11 f-16

Diaphragm - a device made of thin overlapping metal leaves within a

lens or camera which can be adjusted to specific apertures of f-stops to
control the amount of light that strikes the film.
 The lower the f-number, the bigger the lens opening and the bigger the lens
opening the greater the volume of air that will passed through the lens and reach
the sensitized material.
If the objective of a photographer is obtain the widest possible coverage of
the lens in which objects are all sharp, It will be advisable to used a smaller lens
opening.
Depth of Field – It is the remoteness or
distance measured from the nearest to the
farthest object in apparent sharp focus
when the lens set of focus is at a particular
distance.

Depth of Focus – It is the distance toward

and away from the film that the lens can be
moved at a given f-value and the object still
appears in focus

Hyperfocal Distance – The nearest

distance at which a lens is focused with a
given diaphragm opening, which will give
the maximum depth of field.
FOCUSING
Is that mechanism of a camera designed to control the degree of
sharpness of the object to be photograph. It is usually obtained by estimating
the distance from the camera and that of the object that will make a sharp or
clear image.

TYPES OF FOCUSING DEVICE:

RANGE FINDER (e.g. viewfinder, instamatic camera and 35mm cameras)

COINCIDENCE otherwise known as superimposed image focusing. In this

type of focusing a single object will appeared double once the object is not in
focus, but moving the focusing adjustment this double image will coincide or
superimposed to form a single object.

SPLIT IMAGE FOCUSING on the other hand will show an image in split or two
parts once the object in not in focus once the two parts of the image has been
united then the object is already focused
GROUND GLASS (e.g. twin-lens reflex camera and digital camera)
This is observed from the viewing system of the camera, once the
object is not in focused the object will be viewed to be blurred and will
turn sharp and clear once adjusted. It is focused directly observing the
image formed at the ground glass screen, placed behind the taking lens.

SCALE BED/FOCUSING SCALE (e.g. press and view camera, and

Polaroid Evidence
Camera)
Estimating the distance of the object and adjusting the camera
control based on his estimation do this.
 CAMERA ACCESSORIES
TRIPOD – a stand consisting three legs and
mounting head for a camera; used to support
and stabilize the camera

CABLE-RELEASE – a cable with a button or

plunger attached to a camera to prevent
accidental movement and eliminate camera
shake.

FLASH UNIT – an artificial source

synchronized with the opening and closing of
the shutter to emit a brief but very bright burst
illumination to a scene
LIGHT METER – a device used in
determining the intensity of light that strikes
the subjects and affects the film
EXTENSION TUBE – a tube inserted
between the lens and camera body to
provide increased magnification for
macrophotography.

CAMERA GRIP – a device used to hold the

camera firmly so as to prevent vibration or
movement

LENS HOOD – a plastic, metal ir rubber

device that attaches to the front of a lens to
shield it from extraneous light and eliminate
reflection that might destroy the image cast
by objects especially when the light is
coming from the top or side portion of the
camera.
 SIMILARITY OF A CAMERA TO THE
HUMAN EYE

• Eyeball- Camera body

• Eyelid- Shutter
• Lens – Camera lens
• Iris- Diaphragm
• Pupil- Aperture
• Retina- Film/film holder
 TYPES OF THE CAMERA
VIEW FINDER TYPE – it is considered as the
smallest and the simplest type of camera. Its view
finder framed the objects that will be recorded on
the film.
SINGLE LENS REFLEX CAMERA – it is a type of
camera best suited for police work due to its
interchangeability of the lens. The best way to
determine the entire coverage of the camera is to
look directly behind lens of the camera. These
types of camera will eliminate the parallax error.

TWIN LENS REFLEX CAMERA – A type of

camera with dual lens, one for focusing and the
other for forming the image.

VIEW OR PRESS TYPE – is considered the

biggest and expensive type of camera, used for
movie making. A large format camera. Sometimes
even called a “studio camera”
PINHOLE CAMERA
Consist of a box with a small hole in one of
its side.

FIXED FOCUS CAMERA

The most basic of all camera, have a non-
adjustable lens. Most model have a single
diaphragm setting and only one or two shutter
setting.

POINT AND SHOOT CAMERA

Have many automatic features that make
them easy to use. Electronic devices inside the
camera automatically adjust the focus, set the light
exposure and advance and rewind the film.
DIGITAL CAMERA
A camera that takes video or still
photographs, or both, digitally by recording
images on light sensitive sensor (not film). a
type of camera that is electronic and does not
require light sensitive materials (film) for
recording images, it either uses a memory card,
disc (hard disc, floppy or compact disc) as
storage.
35MM CAMERA
Any class of cameras designed to use
35-mm film, the same film used in commercial
motion picture production.
FOLDING CAMERA
Lens and shutter mounted to camera
body by means of accordion-pleated bellows,
which can be folded into camera for ease of
carrying.
 LENS
An essential part of the camera
which is used to focus the light coming from
the subject, it is mainly responsible for the
sharpness of the image formed through
which light passes during exposure.

A medium or system which converge

or diverge light rays passing through it to
form an image.

DANIEL BARBARO
First to introduce the use of lens in
the camera
 CLASSIFICATION OF LENSES
1. ACCORDING TO THE TYPE OF IMAGE TO BE PRODUCED
• POSITIVE OR CONVEX LENS (CONVERGING LENS) Characterized
by the fact that it is thicker at the center and thinner at the side which is
capable of bending the light together and forms the image inversely.
(ZOOM IN)

• NEGATIVE OR CONCAVE LENS (DIVERGING LENS) Characterized

by the fact that it is thinner at the center and thicker at the side and
forms the virtual image on the same side of the lens. (ZOOM OUT)
 INHERRRENT LENS DEFECTS
ABERRATION
Is the failure of light rays to focus properly after they pass through a lens or reflect from a
mirror. Proper focus occurs when the light rays cross one another at single point.
ABERRATION also defined as an optical imperfection responsible for image distortion.

SPHERICAL ABERRATION
Inability of the lens to focus light passing the side of the lens producing an image that is
sharp in the center and blurred at the side.
COMA (Also known as lateral aberration)
Inability of the lens to focus light that travels straight or lateral, thus making it blurred
while the light reaching the lens oblique is the one the is transmitted sharp. it is a lens
defect in which the rays enter the lens obliquely
POSITIVE COMA – A kind of lens coma results in a star image near the outer edges
of the viewing filed seeming to have comet – style tail scattering radially towards its optical
axis (center)
NEGATIVE COMA – Scattering radially away from its optical axis
The term Coma was coined 1733 by French mathematician Alexis Clairaut ( 1713
– 1765 ).
CURVATURE OF FIELD
The relation of the images of the different point are incorrect with respect to one
another. (Circular dome like image)

DISTORTION
Is a defect in shape not in sharpness. It can either be Pincushion or Barrel
Distortion
PINCUSHION – there is straight lines near the edges of the frame bow toward
the center of frame. The curving is inward
BARREL – straight lines near the edges of the frame bow outward from the
center. The curving is outward
CHROMATIC ABERRATION
Inability of the lens to bring
photographic rays of different wave lengths
to the same focus.
Is the failure of different colored light
rays to focus after passing through a lens,
focusing of light of different colors at different
points resulting in a blurred image. This is
the most difficult lens aberration to correct.

FLARES
Condition of the lens producing
multiple images. Flare is non-image forming
light. Reduces contrast and color saturation.
Flare is caused by very bright subject areas
and produces internal reflections in the lens.
ASTIGMATISM
Is a form of lens defects in which the horizontal and vertical
axis are not equally magnified. Inability of the lens to focus both
horizontal and vertical lines.

CHROMATIC DIFFERENCE OF MAGNIFICATION

The inability of the lens to produce images sizes of object
with different color.
 CLASSIFICATION OF LENS ACCORDING TO
DEGREE OF CORRECTIONS
MENISCUS LENS
Lens that has no correction.
RAPID RECTILINEAR LENS(AKA APLANAT)
Lens corrected of distortion. It was introduced by John Henry Dallmeyer in 1866
ANASTIGMAT/ANASTIGMATIC LENS
Correcting astigmatism
ACHROMATIC/ACHROMAT LENS
Correcting chromatic aberration
APOCHROMATIC/APOCHROMAT LENS
Correcting both astigmatism and chromatic aberration
PROCESS LENS
A super-corrected lens for astigmatism. It has a better color correction and has the ability to
produce the best definition of image in the photographs.

FIXED FOCUS LENS

A lens use in all fixed focus camera. Basically, it has a short focal length and greater depth
of field.
 FOCAL LENGTH
The distance between the lens and the film plane when the lens is
focused on infinity.
Focal length controls magnification (the size of the image formed by the
lens). A lens is also described in terms of its view angle, the mount of the image
shown on the film.
Focal lengths are usually specified in millimeters (mm), but older lenses
marked in centimeter (cm) and inches are still to be found.
 CLASSIFICATION OF LENSES ACCORDING TO
ITS FOCAL LENGTH
WIDE ANGLE OR SHORT FOCUS
With focal length not longer than the diagonal
half of the negative. Useful in taking photograph at
short distance with wider area coverage.

NORMAL OR MEDIUM FOCUS

With focal length approximately equal but not
longer than twice the diagonal half of the negative.
LONG OR TELEPHOTO LENS
With focal length longer than twice the
diagonal half of the negative. Best used in long
distance photographing but with narrow area
coverage.

MACRO LENS
Lens with the ability to focus from infinity to
extremely closely, allowing it to capture images of
tiny objects in frame-filling, larger than life sizes.
Sometimes called “Close-up” lenses.
FISHEYE LENS – Describes an extreme wide-
angle lens that has an angle of view exceeding
100° - sometimes more than 180° - and that
renders a scene as highly distorted.

VARIABLE FOCUS LENS – A zoom lens – one in

which focal length is variable. Elements inside a
variable focus lens shift their positions, enabling
the lens to change its focal length – in effect,
providing one lens that has many focal lengths
 FILTERS
Homogeneous medium (plastic or glass) which absorbs and transmits different light
rays passing through it. Its basic purpose is to subtract (control) light rays of varying
wavelengths.
TYPES OF FILTERS
CORRECTION FILTERS – used to change the response of the film so that all colors are
recorded at approximately the relative brightness values by the eye.
CONTRAST FILTERS – used to change the relative brightness so that two colors which
would otherwise be recorded as nearly the same will have decidedly different brightness
in the picture.
HAZE FILTER – used to eliminate or reduce the effect of serial haze.
NEUTRAL DENSITY FILTER – used for recording the amount of light transmitted without
changing the color value.
POLARIZING FILTER – used to reduce or eliminate too much reflections on highly
reflective surfaces such as newly painted object which has high glossiness.
 SENSITIZED MATERIAL

It refers to the film and photographic paper that basically composed of emulsion
containing Silver Halides suspended in gelatin and coated on a transparent or reflective
support.
 PARTS OF FILM
STRUCTURE OF WHITE AND BLACK FILM

TOP COATING (TOP LAYER) – scratch resistant coating also called gelatin coating, an
over coating composed of a thin transparent layer of a hard gelatin which help protect the
silver halide emulsion from scratches and abrasions. The hard gelatin, which is derived
from cows, contains SULFUR. The SULFUR is very much compatible with silver halides.

EMULSION LAYER – SILVER SALT + GELATIN – A layer composed of silver compounds

which are light sensitive and halogens (such as bromide, chloride and iodide bromide in
fast film emulsion). A silver compound when combined with a halogen becomes SILVER
HALIDE. Silver Halides are rare compound that are responsible in forming the so called
the LATENT IMAGE in the photographic film.

FILM BASE – commonly made of cellulose or other material such as paper, plastic, or glass,
which supports the emulsion layer and is coated with a non-curling antihalation backing.

ANTIHALATION BACKING – a black dye applied on the rare surface of the film. Its function
is to absorb light that may penetrate the emulsion thus making the image sharper
since it suppresses double image. It prevents halo formation in the photograph. The black
dye is removed during processing by one of the chemicals in the developer. Its second
function is to control the film from curling inwards. (Towards the emulsion surface).
STRUCTURE OF COLOR FILM

TOP LAYER – sensitive to blue light only, green and red light passes through it without
exposing the color halide.
EMULSION LAYER

BLUE FILTER
YELLOW FILTER – CAREY LEA silver suspended in gelatin, it is coated between the top
and second layer to absorb any penetrating blue light but allowing green and red light to
pass through.
GREEN FILTER – a layer that is orthochromatic, the layer sensitive to blue light (which can
not reach it) and green, but not to red light pass on to the bottom of the emulsion layer.
RED FILTER – a panchromatic layer, sensitive to blue (which can’t reach it) and red. It is
also sensitive to green light but to a slight degree that is insignificant.

FILM BASE – Plastic film base

ANTIHALATION BACKING / COATING

 TYPES OF FILM
ACCORDING TO USE
BLACK AND WHITE FILM
Usually represented by a prefix or a suffix
“Pan” or “Ortho” and generally used in black and white
photography.
EXAMPLE : Ortholith film, Tri X-Pan and Pan X-plus.

COLORED FILM
Can be divided into two:
Negative type - having names ending in color
reversal type - having names ending in chrome

X – RAY FILM – films that are sensitive to X- radiations

ACCORDING TO LIGHT SENSITIVITY

FAST FILM – contains numerous number of large grains of silver halides that usually
develop in groups; film that are very sensitive to light.

SLOW FILM – film that require longer period to completely expose their emulsion to light;
film with fine grains of silver halides.
ACCORDING TO SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY
is the responsiveness of the film emulsion to the
different wavelength of the light course.

BLUE – SENSITIVE FILM

Sensitive to U.V. light and Blue Color.

ORTHOCHROMATIC FILM
Sensitive to U.V. Light up to the green. ( popular in the
marker as KODALITH FILM)

PANCHROMATIC FILM
Sensitive to U.V. Light up to red (sensitive to all colors
of the visible light)

INFRA-RED FILM
Sensitive to all colors and to infra-red light.
 FILM SPEED (EMULSION SPEED)
This refers to the degree of sensitivity of the film to light.
ASA (AMERICAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION)
This is expressed in arithmetic value system. The bigger the number the more
sensitive the film is.
ASA 10, 20 , 30 , 40,50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1000
Note: A film with an arithmetical value of 400 is four times as fast as one with a speed
of 100

DIN ( DEUTCHE INDUSTRE NORMEN)

Expressed in Logarithmic value system. The bigger the number the more sensitive
the film is.
Din 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33 etc.

Note: In this system, an increase of 3 degree doubles the sensitivity of the film.
ISO (INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ORGANIZATION)
Expressed as combination of ASA and DIN rating.

1. ISO – 25 – slowest speed that natural condition will permit, for best color and sharpness.
2. ISO – 100 to ISO – 200 – for general purpose
3. ISO – 100 – slow speed film; needs sufficient light and low shutter speed; has fine grains
of silver halides; produce sharp image.
4. ISO – 200 – twice as fast and as sensitive as ISO – 100; has large grains; produce large
sharp image.
5. ISO – 400 – for dim light or with moving subject
6. ISO – 1000 and up – for extremely low light conditions or for fast moving objects
 PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER

It is that sensitized material that will record the visible image in the final development and
become the photograph.
 TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS
ACCORDING TO EMULSION USED (SILVER HALIDES CONTENT)

SILVER CHLORIDE PAPER

Used for contact printing, the size of the positive print is the same as the size of the
negative used. Sensitivity to light is low and give blue-black tones when properly developed.

SILVER BROMIDE PAPER

Used projection, printing and enlarging process. This is one of the most ideal photo
paper used for police photography. Will give a black tone when properly developed.

SILVER CHLOROBROMIDE PAPER

Used both for projection and contact printing. Slow emulsion

VARIABLE CONTRACT PAPER

Combines the contrast range in one paper it uses a special chlorobromide emulsion
that produces varying contrast responses upon exposure to different colors of light.
 ADVANTAGES OF PROJECTION PRINTING
The main advantage of enlarging over contact printing is that large
prints can be made, but there are several other important advantages.
THE ADVANTAGES OF PROJECTION PRINTING ARE AS FOLLOWS:

DODGING = is the process of eliminating unwanted portion of the

negative during enlarging.
CROPPING = is the process of omitting an object during the process of
enlarging and printing.
VIGNETTING = is the gradual fading of the image towards the side
through skillful adjustment on the dodging board.
DYE TONING = is the process designed in changing the color tone of the
photograph.
BURNING-IN = refers to additional exposure on a desired portion of the
negative used for purposes of making a balance exposure.
ACCORDING TO PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

WEIGHT

1. LIGHT WEIGHT = designed for high flexibility and when paper

thickness is not of consideration. Intended for purposes, which involves
folding.
2. SINGLE WEIGHT = papers used for small prints or which are need to
be mounted on solid and fine details necessary in the production. Used
in ordinary photographic purposes.
3. DOUBLE WEIGHT = generally used for large prints because they
stand up under rough treatment.
 SURFACE TEXTURE

1. GLOSSY PAPER =designed for fine details and brilliant image formation.

2. SEMI-MATE PAPER = obscure the fine details

3. ROUGH PAPERS = used for large prints or where breath rather than detail is
necessary.

COLOR

1. WHITE = better used in police photography.

2. CREAM = preferred for pictorial effect, portraits, landscape or when warmth

effect is desired.

3. BUFF PAPERS = prepare for tone prints

 ACCORDING TO CONTRAST (GRADE)

1. VELOX NO. 0 = used for printing extremely contrast negative or extremely exposed
film.

2. VELOX NO. 1 = used for high contrast negative (over exposed film)

3. VELOX NO. 2 = used for normal exposed film

4. VELOX NO. 3 = used for negative with weak contrast (under exposed)

5. VELOX NO. 4 = used to provide sufficient contrast to compensate for very thin or
weak negatives. It is useful imprinting which high contrast is desired.

6. VELOX NO. 5 = for flat negative that are unprintable.

 CHEMICAL PROCESS
The process of making the latent image visible and
permanent.

FILM

1. DEVELOPMENT
Is the process necessary for reducing
the silver halides to form the image.

ELON, HYDROQUINONE = used as main

developing agents
DEKTOL (1-1/2 min.)
D 76 (5 to 6 min.) Ideal
UNIVERSAL (1 to 2 min)
FIXING (20 TO 30 min)
CHEMICALS:
REDUCERS
PRESERVATIVE (SODIUM SULFITE)
ACCELERATOR (SODIUM CARBONATE)
RESTRAINERS (POTASSIUM BROMIDE)
2. STOP BATH
Normally composed of water with little amount of dilute acetic acid that serves as a
means to prevent contamination between the developer and the acid fixer

3. FIXATION (20 to 30 min)

Is the process by which all unexposed silver halides are dissolved or removed from
the emulsion surface and making the image more permanent.
DISSOLVING AGENT (HYPO/SODIUM THIOSULFATE) – main fixing agent
NEURTRALIZER – ACETIC/BORIC ACID
PRESERVATIVE – SODIUM SULPHATE
HARDENER – POTASSIUM ALUM

4. WASHING
RUNNING WATER
 ENLARGING

• The following are the steps in enlarging:

• Preparation of the darkroom, chemicals and the
enlarger
• Put off white light , switch on red light
• Place the negative in the negative holder with the
dull side of the negative facing down
• Insert the negative holder intro enlarger
• Switch on the enlarger’ light
• Adjust the easel to the desired size of the
photograph
• Focus the lens of the enlarger
• Switch off the light of the enlarger
• Insert the photographic paper in the easel the
shiny side facing up
• Make the exposure
• Immerse the exposed photographic paper in the
developer. The usual developing time for normally
exposed paper is about 1 to ½ min.
• Transfer the developed print in the stop bath for
about 30 seconds
• Place the prints in the acid fixer. The fixing time is
about to 30 min.
• Wash the print in running water for about 20 to 30
min
• Drying
• Mounting
 DIGITAL CAMERA

The principal attraction with the digital cameras is the immediacy of the results.
As soon as the image is taken, the shot can be viewed instantly on screen as well
as on the computer or TV screen.
There is no processing stage, the image can be printed at home using a standard
desktop printer or professionally using photographic paper and the memory can be re-used.
Digital cameras can vary in terms of the number of pixels or the individual elements
used by the imaging sensor.
More pixels mean higher resolution. The higher the resolution, the bigger the file
size.
 TWO TYPES OF DIGITAL CAMERA

THOSE WITH FIXED MEMORY

- has a limited number of image it can capture.
- the use will be forced the image or transfer it to the computer.

THOSE WITH REMOVABLE MEMORY

- it allows the user to load or replace a variety of storage cards in much the
same fashion as film is exposed and replaced.
 OTHER FEATURES OF A DIGITAL CAMERA

• Images taken can be viewed in the computer and can easily be printed
for hard copies.
• A Liquid Crystal Device (LCD) monitor
• Flash unit
• Zoom lens capability
• Sound Recording
• Removable lens
 CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY
A photograph of the crime scene is a factual reproduction and accurate
record of the crime scene because it captures TIME, SPACE AND EVENT. A
photograph is capable of catching and preserving the:
SPACE - the WHERE of the crime (Locus Criminis)
TIME – the WHEN of the crime
EVENT – the WHAT of the crime – what is the nature or character of the
crime?
 POLICE PHOTOGRAPHER

Is the one who is tasked to take photographs of crime scene,

suspects, witnesses or any physical evidence found at the crime scene,
bring them to the laboratory for processing, recording and filing.
 PURPOSE OF CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY

• To record the original scene and areas;

• To record the initial appearance of physical evidence;
• Provide investigators the permanent record of the scene for future use;
• Used for court trials and hearings.

Two general classifications of crime scene photography:

• OUTDOOR PHOTOGRAPHY
• INDOOR PHOTOGRAPHY
DIFFERENT VIEWS IN PHOTOGRAPHING THE
CRIME SCENE
GENERAL/LONG RANGE VIEW
• Taking an over-all view of the scene of the crime. It shows direction and location of
the crime scene.

MEDIUM VIEW
• Is the taking of the photograph of the scene of the crime by dividing it into section.
Showing the 4 angles of the crime scene including the possible entrance and exit
point of the suspect.
• Pinpointing a specific object of evidence or significant segment of the crime scene
• This view will best view the nature of the crime.
CLOSE-UP VIEW
• Is the taking of individual photograph of the evidence at the scene
of the crime. It is design to show the details of the crime.

EXTREME CLOSE-UP VIEW

• Used to show the extent damage on the subject.
• Commonly designed in laboratory photographing using some
magnification such as Photomacrography and photomicrography.
• Used to show the extent damage on the subject.
 PHOTOGRAPHING EVIDENCE

• For foot or shoe impression, the imprints of shoes, foot, slippers or sandals
are often found at or near crime scenes. Before and after reproductions are
made by plasters cast or dental stone, the impressions should be
photographed.
• In murder and homicide cases, it is necessary to photograph in detail the
pattern and color of bloodstains. The location area and tapering of the stains
may indicate the positions and action of the assailant or the victim
• Conduct mug-shot photography to the victim/s and suspects while undergoing
paraffin casting.
• Photograph other physical evidence submitted to the laboratory before
examination such as suspected drugs, chemicals, explosive substances and
others.
• For firearms identification, conduct macrophotography on the serial
numbers, nomenclature and other small part of the firearm/s
submitted as evidence before the actual examination of the firearm
examiner.
• For fingerprint identification, fine grain panchromatic fil of medium
contrast, along with some high contrast panchromatic film, may be
used to photograph latent prints.
• When photographing black powdered latent prints in colored objects,
the photographer must take the colored background appear as light
as possible in order to provide the greatest possible contrast with the
black fingerprint
• When photographing visible latent print found on glass, it must be
photographed before and after applying powder on it.
• Dusted and lifted latent prints have been lifted should be
photographed as soon as possible.
• To photograph the cadaver from head to foot, stand as high as
you can on it, then shoot straight down on the subject and try to
avoid shooting from any angle other than vertical.
• Conduct close-up photographs on the entrance and exit wounds
as well as other external wound inflicted on or suffered by the
victims
• Genital organ should be covered before taking photographs
during post-mortem examination
 LEGAL FOUNDATION OF PHOTOGRAPHIC
EVIDENCE:
FOR BLACK AND WHITE PHOTOGRAPHY

1859 – Daguerreotype was use in civil case, LUEO VS US (regarding the

authenticity of photographs in comparing signatures)

1874 – In criminal case introducing photograph as identification evidence,

UNDERZOOK VS. COMMONWEALTH
 FOR COLORED PHOTOGRAPHS

1943 – CIVIL LITIGATIONS GREEN VS. CITY COUNTY OF DENVER

COLORADO, involving spoiled meat in violation of health ordinance prohibiting
the sale of putrid meat to the public.

1960 – In criminal case, STATE VS. CONTE, showing the graphic wound of the
victim
THE BEST EVIDENCE RULE AND PHOTOGRAPH

Photograph is not a legal substitute for the object or article itself, as

Evidence. Nevertheless, all physical evidence should be photographed.
A photograph of revolver will not be accepted as evidence in court. The
weapon itself must be brought to court – this is an essence of the BEST
EVIDENCE RULE.
 The court recognizes that certain evidence cannot be brought to
the court. Building or roads are examples. Other evidence change
quickly. Vehicles using passing on it will quickly destroy skid marks on the
highway. Wounds and bruises as evidence of injury will heal and
disappear before the case comes to trial.

Such nature or kind of evidence can be preserved by

PHOTOGRAPHY and introduced in court as EVIDENCE.
 ADMISSIBILITY OF PHOTOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE
ELEMENTS OF A PHOTOGRAPH TO BE ADMISSIBLE IN COURT

1. FAITHFUL REPRESENTATION OR ACCURATE REPRESENTATION OF THE ORIGINAL

OBJECT OR SUBJECT
The photograph must be free from distortion and must not misrepresent the scene or
object. Faithful representation means the same likeness as the original or as seen by the naked
eye. What is required by law is the likeness of the original. (In the case of the City of Manila
vs. Cabangis, 10 Phil, 151)

2. RELEVANCE

3. MATERIAL

4. COMPETENT

5. NO INFLAMMATORY CONTENT/UNBIASED
 CATEGORIZING PHOTOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE

The following information should be recorded in the photographer's note:

Location's address, date and time
Type of incident & objects photographed
Type of film used and number of
Type of camera used
exposure
Name of investigator on-case/photographer
Names of victims and witnesses
Chain of custody
Weather condition
 THE PHOTOGRAPHER IN COURT

• In testifying, his purpose should be to EXPLAIN not to defend his

PHOTOGRAPH. His replies to queries should be directly responsive at all
times.
• If he does not understand the question, he should request for
clarification.
• When the nature of the question requires that he consult his notes, he
should request permission from the judge.
 WHO MAY VERIFY PHOTOGRAPH

• The better practice is to show the accuracy of the photograph by

photographer who took them.

• Any person having sufficient knowledge of the subject to say that the
photograph is faithful representation thereof.
 HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY

1700
Camera Obscura
➢ The forerunner of modern camera.

1782
Johann Schulze
➢ A German Doctor, made the discovery that sunlight would blacken chalk that has
been treated with a solution of silver nitrate.
➢ His discovery led to the development of film and become a basis of modern
photography that lights affect certain silver compounds.

1800
William Herschel
➢ Most encyclopedias and physics books credit the great British astronomer Sir William
Herschel with the discovery of infrared radiation in 1800.
1826
Joseph Nicéphore Niépce.
➢ French inventor
➢ He made the first successful invention of photograph by capturing an image in a metal
plate coated with an asphalt compound exposed with light and placed in a solution that
brought out the picture and dissolved the unexposed portion thereby fixing the image.
➢ Produce the first permanent photographic image on a summer day in 1826.
➢ In 1829, he became partner of Louis Mande Daguerre, a French theatrical designer.
But before they successfully finish a developing process, Niepce died.
➢ The photographic image was with a camera obscura.

Alhazen (Ibn Al-Haytham)

➢ He invented the first pinhole camera, also known as the Camera Obscura.
1839
Louis Daguerre (Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre)
➢ He revealed a successful process of developing which gains wide acceptance.
➢ Developed a more convenient and effective method of photography, naming it
after himself the Daguerreotype
➢ The Daguerreotype was the first commercially successful photographic process.
➢ Daguerre was able to reduce exposure time to less than 30 minutes and keep the
image from disappearing afterwards
Daguerreotype created a lasting image, one that would not change if exposed to light
Henry Fox Talbot (William Henry Fox Talbot)
➢ The inventor of the first negative from which multiple positive prints
➢ He perfected this paper-negative process and called it a Calotype, Greek for
beautiful picture.
➢ He invented the Mouse Trap Camera.
➢ The Author of Calo or Talo System
The calotype, introduced in 1841; a negative-positive process using a paper negative.

Abel Niepce de Sain-Victor

➢ Cousin of Joseph Niepce, was originally famous in photography for having
developed photographic negatives made of albumen on glass.

Louis Deserie Blanquart-Evart

➢ Introduced a printing paper coated with albumen (egg white) as binding medium.
1851
Frederick Scott Archer
➢ An English Chemist, introduced the wet collodion process to hold the silver
compounds on glass which results in a much faster reaction of light.

1877
William Abney
➢ An English photo-chemist, gave practical directions for manufacturing emulsions.
➢ Invented copper bromide-silver nitrate intensifications. In 1880, he introduced
hydroquinone as a developer

1880`s
George Eastman
➢ Founder of the Eastman Kodak Company in Rochester, New York.
➢ He introduced the flexible roll-up film and later a hand-held roll-up film camera. A camera
that is easy to carry and use. The company also offered service for processing of film which
makes it for amateur photographer not to think of how to process them. This marks the
popularity of photography as a hobby.
1947
➢ Edwin Howard Land, an American scientist developed the instant film and his
“Polaroid Land Camera”. In just a matter of second, image is readily formed in an
instant film after shoot has been made.
 -END-
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