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ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS :CHAPTER 1

Electrostatics : Electrostatics is the branch of physics which deals with charges at rest

ELECTRIC CHARGE : charge is that property of an object by virtue of which it apply electrostatic force
of interaction on other objects .

CHARGES ARE OF TWO TYPES

1. Positive charge
2. Negative charge

Electric charge is a scalar quantity . A proton possesses positive charge +e ,while an electron
possesses an equal negative charge –e where e = 1.6 x 10 -19 Coulomb

Electrons are responsible for charging ,if a body gain electrons then it have negative charge ,if a body
loses electrons then it have positive charge.

Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other.

POLARITY OF CHARGE

The property which differentiate between the two types of charges, is called the polarity of the
charges .

THE THREE METHODS OF CHARGING A BODY.

The three methods are:

a) Rubbing (charging by friction)

b) Conduction

c) Induction

Charging by rubbing (charging by friction)

The charging by rubbing is due to actual transfer of electrons .The cause of charging is actual transfer
of electrons from one material to the other. The insulating material with lower work function (ie in
which electrons are held less tightly in the atom ) loses electrons and becomes positively charged
and the material with high work function ( in which electrons are held more tightly in the atom)
gains electrons and becomes negatively charged.

Eg: When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, energy is provided to overcome friction between them .The
energy so provided tends to remove electrons from both the glass rod and silk. In a glass rod
,electrons are less tightly bound as compared to those in silk. As a result , electrons get removed
from glass rod and are transferred to silk. So glass rod becomes positively charged and silk acquires
an equal negative charge on gaining electrons.
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What is frictional electricity? Give an example.

Ans: The charge obtained by a body on rubbing with another body is called frictional electricity.
Example: When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, the glass rod gets positively charged and silk gets
negatively charged.

Conductors cannot be charged by rubbing but insulators can. Why?

Ans: This is because, when some charge is transferred to a conductor, it readily gets distributed over
the entire surface of the conductor. But if some charge is put on an insulator, it stays at the same
place.

Q.Is the mass of a body affected by charging?

Ans: Yes. A positively charged body loses electrons. Therefore, its mass decreases. A negatively
charged body gains electrons. So its mass increases. (Electron has a definite mass of 9.1× 10−31Kg)

The name of materials which acquires charge by rubbing

POSITIVE CHARGE NEGATIVE CHARGE

Glass rod Silk cloth

Fur Ebonite rod

Woollen cloth Ebonite rod

Woollen cloth Plastic object

Dry hair Comb

Charging by contact (conduction )

When a charged body is brought in to contact with an uncharged conductor, charge flows from the
charged body to the uncharged conductor. (The uncharged object get charged with the same
polarity due to charge transfer). This is called charging by contact.

Same polarity

Eg. When a negatively charged plastic rod is touched to the uncharged metal sphere ,the sphere gets
some charge from the rod due to the transfer of electrons from rod to sphere. If a positively
charged body is brought in contact with an uncharged body ,then electrons flow from uncharged
body to it.
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Electrostatic induction (charging by induction.)

Ans: When a charged body is brought near to an uncharged conductor (without touching), that end
of the uncharged conductor which is near to the charged body gets oppositely charged and the
farther end is charged with the same type of charge (the original object doesn’t lose any charge).
This type of charging is called charging by induction.

The temporary electrification of a conductor ,when a charged body is brought near it is called
electrostatic induction.

(i). Bring two metal spheres, A and B, supported on insulating stands, in contact as shown in Fig. a.

(ii) Bring a positively charged rod near one of the spheres; say A. The free electrons in the spheres
are attracted towards the rod. This leaves an excess of positive charge on the rear surface of sphere
B. Both kinds of charges are resided on the surfaces, as shown in Fig. b.

The left surface of sphere A, has an excess of negative charge and the right surface of sphere B, has
an excess of positive charge. However, not all of the electrons in the spheres have accumulated on
the left surface of A.

As the negative charge starts building up at the left surface of A, other electrons are repelled by
these. In a short time, equilibrium is reached under the action of force of attraction of the rod and
the force of repulsion due to the accumulated charges.
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(iii) Separate the spheres by a small distance while the glass rod is still held near sphere A, as shown
in Fig. c. the two spheres are found to be oppositely charged and attract each other.

(iv)Remove the rod. The charges on spheres rearrange themselves as shown in Fig. d.

Now, separate the spheres quite apart. The charges on them get uniformly distributed over them,
as shown in Fig. e.

In this process, the metal spheres will each be equal and oppositely charged.

INDUCED CHARGES : The two kinds of charges that appear on the two ends of the conductor due to
electrostatic induction are called induced charges.

INDUCING CHARGE: The charge present on the charging body which is used to produce electrostatic
induction is called inducing charge.

Charging by induction permanently

A conductor may be charged permanently by induction in the following steps,

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(i) To charge a conductor negatively by induction , a positively charged glass rod is brought
close to it .The near end A of the conductor becomes negatively charged , while its far
end B becomes positively charged.
(ii) Keeping the glass rod in its position ,the conductor is connected to the earth by using a
conducting wire . The electrons flow from the earth to neutralise the positive charge on
the far end of the conductor. The positive induced charge disappears. The negative
induced charge remains bound to the attractive force exerted by the positive glass rod.
(iii) The conductor is disconnected from the earth ,keeping the glass rod still in its position.
The near end of the conductor continues to hold the negative induced charge .
(iv) When the glass rod is removed ,the negative induced charge on the near end spreads
uniformly over the whole conductor .

The conductor can be positively charged by using a negatively charged ebonite rod by following
the above four steps.

Gold Leaf Electroscope

. A gold leaf electroscope consists of a vertical metal rod fixed in a box, with two thin gold leaves
attached to its end.

Electroscope is an instrument used to detect the presence of electric charge on abody.

When a charged object touches the metal knob at the top of the rod, charge flows on to the leaves.
Since both the leaves are charged by the same type of charge, they diverge due to electrostatic
repulsion. The separation between the leaves gives a rough measure of the amount of charge.
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CONDUCTORS : Those substances which allow electricity to pass through them easily are called
conductors. They have electric charges (electrons) that are comparatively free to move inside the
material.

Metals, human and animal bodies and earth are conductors.

INSULATORS : Those substances which do not allow electricity to pass through them easily are
called insulators.

Most of the non-metals like glass, porcelain, plastic, nylon, wood offer high resistance to the passage
of electricity through them.

GROUNDING OR EARTHING

The process where excess charge from a body or object goes to ground ,by touching the charge
carrying body to earth is called earthing or grounding .

Application of earthing : A protective lightning rod placed over the house attracts and directs the
lightning to the ground.

Explain the properties electric charges.

If the sizes of charged bodies are very small as compared to the distances between them, we treat
them as point charges. All the charge content of the body is assumed to be concentrated at one
point in space.

Ans: The basic properties electric charges are

1. Additive nature of charges : The total electric charge on an object is equal to the algebraic
sum of all the electric charges distributed on the different parts of the object.

If a system contains n charges q1, q2, q3, …, qn, then the total charge of the system is q = q1 + q2 +
q3 + … + qn .

Charge has magnitude but no direction. Proper signs have to be used while adding the charges in a
system.

2. Conservation of charge : It states that for an isolated system ,the net charge always
remains constant.

When there are many bodies in isolated system ,the charges get transferred from one body to
another but the net charge of the system remains same.

3. Quantization of charge: According to quantization of electric charge “in the

universe, Charges are integral multiples of a basic unit of charge denoted by e”. Thus charge
q on a body is always given by q = ± ne. where n is any integer, positive or negative.

NOTE :Electric charge of a body is quantized. This means that only

integral (1, 2, …., n) number of electrons can be transferred from
one body to the other. Charges are not transferred in fraction.
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Hence, a body possesses total charge only in integral multiples of

electric charge.
The quantisation of charge was experimentally demonstrated by Millikan’s oil drop
experiment.

Note : By convention, the charge on an electron is taken to be negative; therefore charge on an

electron is written as –e and that on a proton as +e. The fact that electric charge is always an integral
multiple of e is termed as quantization of charge.

In the International System (SI) of Units, a unit of charge is called a coulomb and is denoted by the
symbol C. In this system, the value of the basic unit of charge is e = 1.6 × 10–19 C.

BQ: Why can one ignore quantisation of electric charge when dealing with macroscopic i.e., large
scale charges?

Macroscopic bodies have charges of the order of 𝝁 𝑪 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝑪

𝒒 𝟏𝟎−𝟔
Number of elementary charges on such a body , 𝒏 = 𝒆 = 𝟏.𝟔×𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐

As charge is created by adding or removing electrons only; therefore addition or removal of a few
electrons does not cause any effect on 𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐 electronic charges, hence quantisation of
electric charge has no effect at macroscopic or large scale charges.

COULOMB’S LAW (State Coulomb’s inverse square law in electrostatics)

It states that two point charges attract or repel each other with a force which is directly
proportional to the product of the magnitudes of charges and inversely proportional to the square
of the distance between them.

 The electrostatic force between two charges is central in nature ( A force which acts along
the line joining the centres of two interacting object )
 Coulomb’s law in electrostatics holds for stationary charges
 Two charges should be point in size
DERIVATION

Consider two charges 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 separated by a distance r .

The force between the two charges

𝐹 ∝ 𝑞1 𝑞2
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1
𝐹 ∝
𝑟2
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹 ∝
𝑟2
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭=𝒌 𝒓𝟐
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 k is constant of proportionality (electrostatic force constant )

The value of k depends on the nature of medium separating the charges ,and on the system of units.

In cgs system K =1

In S.I system K= 9x 10 9 Nm2/C2

1
𝑘= where 𝜀0 is called absolute permittivity of free space.
4𝜋𝜀0

The force between two charges located in air or vacuum

𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭𝒗𝒂𝒄 =
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐

Where 𝜺𝟎 = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝑵−𝟏 𝒎−𝟐

Unit of charge

S.I unit of charge is COULOMB (C)

𝑞1 𝑞2
r = 1m , 𝑞1 = 𝑞2= 1𝐶 𝐹=𝐾 𝑟2

1×1
𝐹𝑣𝑎𝑐 = 9 × 109
12

𝐹𝑣𝑎𝑐 = 9 × 109 N

If 𝑞1 = 𝑞2 = 𝑞 , r = 1m

𝑞2
9 × 109 = 9 × 109
12

2
9 × 109
𝑞 =
9 × 109

𝑞2 = 1

𝑞 = ±1 𝐶

One Coulomb : One coulomb is that charge which repels an equal and similar charge with a force of
9x10 9 N , when placed in vacuum or air at a distance of one metre from it.
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In electrostatic c g s system

1C = 3 × 109 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 𝐶

In electromagnetic c g s system

1
1𝐶 = 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑢 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
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RELATIVE PERMITTIVITY ( DIELECTRIC CONSTANT)

The force between two charges 𝑞1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞2 located at a distance r in vacuum

𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒 𝟐
𝑭𝒗𝒂𝒄 = … . . (𝟏)
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐

Where 𝜺𝟎 -- absolute permittivity of free space .

The force between two charges 𝑞1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞2 located at a distance r in medium

𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭𝒎𝒆𝒅 = … . . (𝟐)
𝟒𝝅𝜺 𝒓𝟐

Where 𝜺 -- absolute permittivity of the medium

𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭𝒗𝒂𝒄 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐
1÷ 2 = 𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭𝒎𝒆𝒅
𝟒𝝅𝜺 𝒓𝟐

𝑭𝒗𝒂𝒄 𝜺
=
𝑭𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝜺𝟎
𝜺
The ratio 𝜺𝟎
= 𝜺𝒓 relative permittivity of the medium with respect to vacuum

𝜺
Or 𝜺𝟎
= 𝐾 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐾 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚

𝜺 𝑭𝒗𝒂𝒄
𝜺𝒓 𝑜𝑟 𝐾 = =
𝜺𝟎 𝑭𝒎𝒆𝒅

Q.Define dielectric constant of a medium

Rrelative permittivity: Relative permittivity or dielectric constant of a medium is defined as the ratio
of permittivity of medium to the permittivity of free space.

𝜺 = 𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓

𝜺 = 𝜺𝟎 𝐾
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𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭𝒎𝒆𝒅 =
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓 𝒓𝟐

or

𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭𝒎𝒆𝒅 =
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝑲 𝒓𝟐

Q. If the air medium between two charges is replaced by water, what change you expect in the
electrostatic force and why?
𝑭𝒂𝒊𝒓
𝑭𝑴𝒆𝒅 = 𝝐𝒓

The force decreases by 𝝐𝒓 times

COULOMB’S LAW OBEYS NEWTON’S THIRD LAW

Let the position vectors of charges q1 and q2 be r1 and r2 respectively.

The two charges exerts equal repulsive forces on each other

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐅12 = Force on charge q1 due to q 2

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
F21 = Force on charge q2 due to q1
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
By Coulomb’s law |𝐅 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
12 | = |F 21 | = 𝟒𝝅𝜺 𝟐
𝟎 𝒓

The two point charges q1 and q2 have been numbered 1 and 2 for convenience and the vector
leading from 1 to 2 is denoted by r21:

r21 = r2 – r1.

The vector leading from 2 to 1 is denoted by r12

r12 = r1 – r2 = – r21

To denote the direction from 1 to 2 (or from 2 to 1), we define the unit vectors:

𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
21
𝑟̂
21 =
𝑟21
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𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
12
𝑟̂
12 =
𝑟12

𝑟̂
21 = −𝑟̂
12

𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝐹21 = 𝑟̂
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝑟21 𝟐 21

𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝐹21 = − 𝑟̂
12
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝑟21 𝟐

𝐹21 = -- F12

𝐹12 = −𝐹21 𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏’𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛’𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑎𝑤.

COULOMB’S LAW IN VECTOR FORM (Write Coulomb’s law in vector form.)

Here we have two positive charges q1 and q2 kept at a distance r from each other. Since
both q1 and q2 have a positive charge they both would repel each other. Again from
Newton's Third Law, we know that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
So here when charge q1 exerts a force (action) on charge q2, the charge q2 also exerts an
equal and opposite force (reaction) on charge q1.

𝐹21 = Force on charge q2 due to q1

Here direction of force is from q1 to q2

𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝐹21 = 𝑟̂
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝑟 𝟐 21

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟21
Where 𝑟̂
21 = 𝑟
is the unit vector .

𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
21
𝐹21 =
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝑟 𝟐 𝑟

𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝐹21 = 𝑟
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝑟 𝟑 21
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Similarly So for force on charge q1 due to q2 , 𝐹12

𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝐹12 = 𝑟̂
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝑟 𝟐 12
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝐹12 = 𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝑟 𝟑 12

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟21
Where 𝑟̂
21 = 𝑟
is the unit vector .

The same way we can write the Coulomb's Law in vector form for Columbian forces between unlike
charges which are attractive in nature. Figure below gives the direction of force acting on q1and q2.

NOTE : If q1 and q2 are of the same sign (either both positive and both negative), force will be
repulsive. If q1 and q2 are of the different sign , force will be attractive.

FORCES BETWEEN MULTIPLE CHARGES: PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION (State superposition

principle.)

Principle of superposition states that when a number of charges are interacting , the total force on a
given charge is the vector sum of the individual forces exerted on the given charge by all the other
charges.

Consider n point charges q1,q2,q3…qn are distributed in space. Let us find the total force on the
charge q1 due to all other remaining charges.
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⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
If the charges q2, q3…qn exert forces 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
12 , 𝐹13 , 𝐹14 ….𝐹1𝑛 on the charge 𝑞1

The total force on charge 𝑞1 , ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐹1 = 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
12 + 𝐹13 + 𝐹14 +….𝐹1𝑛 ………(1)

Where

𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝐹12 = 𝑟̂
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝑟12 𝟐 12

𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟑
𝐹13 = 𝑟̂
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝑟13 𝟐 13

𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝒏
𝐹1𝑛 = 𝑟̂
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝑟1𝑛 𝟐 1𝑛
𝟏 𝒒 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟑 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝒏
Eq (1) becomes ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1 = [ 𝑟𝟏 𝟐 𝑟̂
12 + 𝑟̂
13 + … … . + 𝑟̂
1𝑛 ]
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 12 𝑟13 𝟐 𝑟1𝑛 𝟐

𝒏
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝒊
⃗⃗⃗1 =
𝐹 ∑ 𝟐 𝑟̂
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝑟1𝑖 1𝑖
𝒊=𝟐

Similarly the force on charge 𝒒𝟐 due to other charges

⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹2 = 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
21 + 𝐹23 + 𝐹24 +….𝐹2𝑛

𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟑 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝒏
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹2 = [ 𝟐 𝑟̂ 21 + 𝑟
̂23 + … … . + 𝑟̂ ]
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝑟21 𝑟23 𝟐 𝑟2𝑛 𝟐 2𝑛

Importance of coulomb’s law in vector form

 In vector form , Coulomb’s law show that the forces 𝐹12 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹21 are equal and opposite.

𝐹12 = −𝐹21

 From coulomb’s law in vector form ,the electrostatic force between the two charges is a
central force .It acts along the line joining the two charges.

𝐹12 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹21 are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction .

ELECTRIC FIELD
Define electric field.

It is the space around an electric charge, where an electrostatic force is experienced by another
charge.

The charge Q, which is producing the electric field, is called a source charge and the charge q, which
tests the effect of a source charge, is called a test charge.

Electric Field Intensity

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Electric field intensity at a point is defined as the force experienced by unit positive charge placed
at that point and whose direction is along the direction of force.

𝐹
𝐸= 𝑞0

Where 𝑞0 is unit positive charge and F is force.

SI unit of electric field intensity is N/C.

To determine the electric field due to a source charge ,the magnitude of test charge placed at the
observation point should vanishingly small so that it does not disturb the source charge.

𝐹
𝐸 = lim 𝑞
𝑞0→0 0

Hence electric field intensity at a point due to a source charge may be defined as the force
experienced per unit positive charge on a vanishingly small positive test charge placed at that point.

𝐹
Q Electric field intensity at a point is defined as 𝐸 = lim here what does lim imply?
𝑞0→0 𝑞0 𝑞0→0

Ans: Here 𝑞0 is the test charge which is to be placed at the point where the field is to be
determined. lim means that this test charge must be very small, otherwise it will produce
𝑞0→0
its own field so that the field at that point will be changed.

Define an electric line of force or electric field line

. Ans: It is defined as “the path along which a unit positive charge would move if it is free to do so.”

Note

Electric field is independent of test charge

Force on a charge inside the electric field 𝐹 = 𝑞0 𝐸⃗

Force on a +ve charge is in the direction of E.F

Force on a -ve charge is in a direction opposite to the direction of E.F

PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF ELECTRIC FIELD

 Help us to understand the mechanism by which two charges kept at a distance exert force
on each other.
 It gives a method to find the force experienced by one charge due to the other in terms of
the electric field produced by it . 𝐹 = 𝑞0 𝐸⃗
 15

ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A POINT CHARGE

Let q is the source charge and 𝑞0 is a test charge at P at a distance r from O

According to Coulomb’s law

𝟏 𝒒𝑞0
𝐹=
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐

Where q is the source charge and 𝑞0 is the test charge .

𝐹
𝐸⃗ =
𝑞0

𝟏 𝒒𝑞0
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓
𝟐
𝐸⃗ =
𝑞0

𝟏 𝑞 𝟏
𝐸⃗ = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 =𝑘
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎

𝟏 𝑞 𝑘𝑞
𝐸⃗ = 𝟐
𝑜𝑟 𝟐
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓 𝒓

1
𝐸⃗ ∝
𝒓𝟐

Hence the magnitude of electric field decreases inversely as the square of the distance from the
charge. Thus at equal distances from the charge q, the magnitude of its electric field E is same. The
magnitude of electric field E due to a point charge is thus same on a sphere with the point charge at
its centre; in other words, it has a spherical symmetry.

ELECCTRIC FIELD DUE A SYSTEM OF CHARGES

PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION OF ELECTRIC FIELD : It states that electric field at any point due to a
group of charges is equal to the vector sum of the electric field produced by each charge individually
at that point, when all other charges are assumed to be absent.
 16

Consider a system of charges q1, q2, q3…qn with position vectors r1, r2, r3, …rn relative to some origin
O. The electric field at a point in space due to the system of charges is defined to be the force
experienced by a unit test charge placed at that point without disturbing the original positions of
charges q1,q2,…qn .

The field at a point P denoted by position vector r

Electric field 𝐸1
𝑘𝑞1
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸1 = 𝒓̂
𝒓𝟏 𝟐 𝟏

Where 𝒓̂ 𝟏 is the unit vector in the direction fro 𝑞1 to P and 𝒓𝟏 is the distance between 𝑞1 and P.
similarly 𝐸2, , 𝐸3 , .. 𝐸𝑛 due to charge q2, q3,…qn can be calculated .

According to the superposition principle ,the total electric field at a point in space is equal to the
vector sum of individual fields present.

𝐸⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸2 + … . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑛
𝐾𝑞 𝐾𝑞2 𝐾𝑞𝑛
𝐸⃗ = 𝒓 𝟐1 𝒓̂ ̂
𝟏 + 𝒓 𝟐 𝒓 ̂
𝟐 ……+ 𝒓 𝟐 𝒓𝒏
𝟏 𝟐 𝒏

𝑛
𝑞𝑖
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑟 = 𝑘 ∑ 𝒓̂
𝒓𝒊 𝟐 𝒊
𝑖=1

ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A POSITIVE CHARGE q

 17

q >0

Longer arrows shows that the electric field has larger magnitude and smaller arrows shows the
points , where the electric field has small magnitude. For positive charge arrows will point away from
the charge.

ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A NEGATIVE CHARGE --q

q<0

For negative charge arrows will points into the charge.

ELECTRIC FIELD LINES

The electric lines of force are imaginary lines or curve drawn through a region of space so that its
tangent at any point is in the direction of the electric field vector at that point.

Properties of Electric Lines of Force or Field Lines

1. The electric lines of force are imaginary lines.

2. Electric field lines start at positive charge and end at negative charge. For an isolated single
charge electric field lines start or end at infinity.

3. In a charge free region electric field lines have no break or they are continuous
 18

4. The tangent to an electric field line at any point gives the direction of the electric field at that
point.

5. Two electric lines of force can never cross each other. If they do, then at the point of
intersection, there will be two tangents. It means there are two values of the electric field at that
point, which is not possible. Further, electric field being a vector quantity, there can be only one
resultant field at the given point, represented by one tangent at the given point for the given line
of force.

6. Electric lines of force are closer (crowded) where the electric field is stronger and the lines
spread out where the electric field is weaker.

7. In a uniform electric field, electric field lines are parallel..

8. Electric field lines do not form closed loops..

Q. Draw the electric field lines due to(a) an electric dipole (b) Two positive charges

Q. Two electric field lines never intersect. Why?

Ans: If two electric field lines intersect at a point, then there will be two directions for electric field at
that point. But this is not possible. So two electric field lines never intersect each other.

Electric Dipole

An electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite point charges q and –q, separated by a small
distance 2a. The line connecting the two charges defines a direction in space.

By convention, the direction from –q to q is said to be the direction of the dipole. The mid-point of
locations of –q and q is called the centre of the dipole.

The total charge of the electric dipole is obviously zero. This does not mean that the field of the
electric dipole is zero.

ELECTRIC DIPOLE MOMENT

Electric dipole moment is defined as the product of magnitude of one of the charges and length
of the dipole.

It is denoted by vector 𝑝 ,

What is the direction of electric dipole moment?

 19

Ans: Electric dipole moment is directed from negative charge to the positive charge (-q to +q )

The SI unit of electric dipole moment is Coulomb metre (Cm)

⃗ = 𝒒𝟐𝒂
DIPOLE MOMENT 𝒑

ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A DIPOLE ON AXIAL LINE

Q. Find the expression for the electric field strength at a point situated on the axis of an electric
dipole.

Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges –q and +q separated by a distance 2a in free space .

Let P is a point along the axis

Let OP = r

Electric field at P due to (-q ) charge

−𝑘𝑞
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 −𝑞 =
(𝐴𝑃)2

−𝑘𝑞
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸−𝑞 = … . . (1) 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 (– 𝑥)𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
(𝑟 + 𝑎)2

Electric field at P due to (+q ) charge

𝑘𝑞
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 +𝑞 =
(𝐵𝑃)2

𝑘𝑞
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸+𝑞 = … . . (2) 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 (+𝑥)𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
(𝑟 − 𝑎)2

Comparing eq (1) and (2) , eq (2) is greater than eq (1) . So the direction of resultant E.F is along
(+𝑥)𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

𝐸⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸+𝑞 + 𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
−𝑞 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 (+𝑥)𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

𝑘𝑞 𝑘𝑞
𝐸⃗ = 2
−
(𝑟 − 𝑎) (𝑟 + 𝑎)2

1 1
𝐸⃗ = 𝑘𝑞 [ 2
− ]
(𝑟 − 𝑎) (𝑟 + 𝑎)2

(𝑟 + 𝑎)2 − (𝑟 − 𝑎)2
𝐸⃗ = 𝑘𝑞 [ ]
(𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 )2
 20

𝑟 2 + 2𝑟𝑎 + 𝑎2 − [𝑟 2 − 2𝑟𝑎 + 𝑎2 ]
𝐸⃗ = 𝑘𝑞 [ ]
(𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 )2

𝑟 2 + 2𝑟𝑎 + 𝑎2 − 𝑟 2 + 2𝑟𝑎 − 𝑎2
𝐸⃗ = 𝑘𝑞 [ ]
(𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 )2

(4𝑟𝑎)
𝐸⃗ = 𝑘𝑞
(𝑟 2− 𝑎2 )2

(2𝑎𝑞)𝑘2𝑟
𝐸⃗ =
(𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 )2

Where 2𝑎𝑞 = 𝑝 𝑑𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

2𝑘𝑝𝑟
𝐸⃗ = 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 (+𝑥)𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 … . (3)
(𝑟 2− 𝑎2 )2

Special case : when dipole is very small length ie 𝑎 ≪ 𝑟 then eq (3) 𝑎2 can be neglected as
compared to 𝑟 2

2𝑘𝑝𝑟
𝐸⃗ =
(𝑟 2 )2

2𝑘𝑝𝑟
𝐸⃗ =
(𝑟)4

2𝑘𝑝
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 (+𝑥)𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝑟3

ELECTRIC FIELD ON EQUATORIAL LINE

Find the expression for the electric field strength at a point situated along the equatorial line of an
electric dipole.

Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges –q and +q separated by a distance

2a in free space .
 21

Let P is a point on equatorial line of the dipole at a distance r from the centre of the dipole

Electric field at P due to (-q ) charge

𝑘𝑞
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸−𝑞 = 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝐴
(𝐴𝑃)2

From fig : 𝐴𝑃2 = 𝐴𝑀2 + 𝑀𝑃2

𝐴𝑃2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑟 2

𝑘𝑞
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸−𝑞 = 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝐴 … . (1)
𝑎2 + 𝑟2

Electric field at P due to (+q ) charge

𝑘𝑞
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸+𝑞 = 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝑃
(𝐵𝑃)2

From fig : 𝐵𝑃2 = 𝐵𝑀2 + 𝑀𝑃2

𝐵𝑃2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑟 2
𝐾𝑞
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸+𝑞 = 𝑎2 +𝑟2 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝑃 … . (2)

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸−𝑞 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸+𝑞 have same magnitude but the direction is different. Then resolve these into two.

By using triangle law of addition of vectors,

𝐸𝑞 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸−𝑞 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 are equal and opposite so they are cancelled .

𝐸 = 𝐸−𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝐸+𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

 22

𝐸 = 2𝐸𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

By using eq (1) and (2)

𝐾𝑞
𝐸= 2 (𝑎 2 +𝑟 2 )
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 … (3)

𝐴𝑀 𝑎
From fig 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐴𝑃
= 1
(𝑎 2 + 𝑟 2 )2

(3) 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒

2𝑘𝑞 𝑎
𝐸= 1 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 (– 𝑥 )𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
(𝑎2 + 𝑟2)
(𝑎2 + 𝑟 2 )2

(2𝑎𝑞)𝑘
𝐸= 3
(𝑎2 + 𝑟 2 )2

𝐾𝑝
𝐸= 3 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 (– 𝑥 )𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 … (4)
(𝑎 2 + 𝑟 2 )2

Special case : when dipole is of very small 𝑎 ≪ 𝑟

(4) 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠

𝑘𝑝
𝐸= 3
( 𝑟 2 )2

𝑘𝑝
𝐸= 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 (– 𝑥 )𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
( 𝑟)3

TORQUE ON A DIPOLE IN UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD

Q. An electric dipole is held in an uniform electric field (1) using suitable diagram show that it does
not undergo any traslatory motion, and (ii) derive an expression for torque acting on it and specify
its direction.

(i)
 23

Consider an electric dipole of dipole moment p in a uniform external field E.

The force on charge +q is ⃗⃗⃗

𝐹1 = qE along the direction of E

The force on charge -q is ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐹2 = -qE opposite to the direction of E

⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹2 are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. So the net force on electric dipole in
⃗⃗⃗1 - 𝐹
uniform E.F is F = 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 = 0

As net force on electric dipole is zero,so dipole does not undergo any translatory motion

(ii) (VIM) Torque: The two force form a couple which tends to rotate and align the dipole along
the direction of E.F. This couple is called torque .

Torque 𝜏 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠

From fig , 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝐵𝐶

𝐵𝐶 𝐵𝐶
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝐴𝐵 = 2𝑎

𝐵𝐶 = 2𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑞𝐸

Torque 𝜏 = 𝑞𝐸 2𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Where 2𝑎𝑞 = 𝑝

Torque 𝝉 = 𝒑𝑬𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽

⃗ × ⃗⃗⃗
𝝉= 𝒑 𝑬

Thus if an electric dipole is placed in an E.F in oblique orientation ,it experiences no force but
experiences a torque. The torque on the dipole tends to align it along the direction of the E.F

What is the maximum value of torque acting on the dipole?

Ans when dipole is placed in uniform E.F , it experiences only a torque.

When 𝜃 = 90° then 𝜏 = 𝑝𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛90, 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 ie, 𝜏 = 𝑝𝐸

 24

This is the maximum value of torque

Q. At what orientations is the dipole placed in a uniform electric field in the (i) the stable
equilibrium? (ii) unstable equilibrium?

(i) stable equilibrium

When 𝜃 = 0° 𝝉 = 𝒑𝑬𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟎

then 𝜏 = 0 , 𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚 . This is the orientation of stable
equilibrium

(ii) unstable equilibrium

When 𝜃 = 180° then 𝜏 = 0 , 𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑢𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚

Q. What happens when an electric dipole is placed in a non- uniform electric field?

Ans: The dipole will have both rotational and translational motion. The rotational motion will stop,
when the dipole becomes parallel or antiparallel to the electric field.

ELECTRIC FORCE ON A DIPOLE: when the field is non uniform , the net force on electric dipole be
non zero . There will be translatory motion of the dipole.

(a) WHEN ELECTRIC FIELD PARALLEL TO DIPOLE : The dipole has a net force in the
direction of increasing field.

(b) WHEN ELECTRIC FIELD ANTIPARALLEL TO DIPOLE : The net force on the dipole is in the
direction of decreasing field

Physical Significance of Dipoles

In most molecules, the centre’s of positive charges and of negative charges lie at the same place.
Therefore, their dipole moment is zero.
 25

CO2 and CH4 are of this type of molecules. However, they develop a dipole moment when an electric
field is applied.

But in some molecules, the centres of negative charges and of positive charges do not coincide.
Therefore they have a permanent electric dipole moment, even in the absence of an electric field.
Such molecules are called polar molecules.

A water molecule, H2O, is an example of this type.

Continuous Charge Distribution

On the surface of a charged conductor, it is impractical to specify the charge distribution in terms of
the locations of the microscopic charged constituents. On a charged body of reasonable size charge
has continuous distribution .

Q. Define the three charge densities.

Linear charge density : (the Continuous Charge Distribution in one dimension )

It is the charge per unit length

𝒒
linear charge density  
𝒍

The unit of linear charge density is C/m.

Surface charge density: It is the charge per unit area

𝑞
surface charge density 𝜎 =
𝐴

The units for surface charge density are C/m2.

Volume charge density: It is the charge per unit volume

𝒒
volume charge density 𝝆 = 𝑽
.

The unit for volume charge density is C/m3.

ELECTRIC FLUX

Define electric flux

Electric flux is defined as the total number of electric field lines passing normally through a
surface.

It is denoted by ∅
 26

Electric flux through small area ds is defined as,

𝑑∅ = 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆

⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑆
The total electric flux through the surface S is given by ∅ = ∫ 𝐸.

⃗⃗⃗ 𝑆
∅ = 𝐸.

∅ = 𝐸𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (Relation between electric field intensity and electric flux )

Give the SI unit of electric flux. Ans: Nm2/C or Vm

NOTE :

AREA VECTOR

⃗⃗⃗⃗ , the arrow representing the area vector 𝑑𝑆

An area element 𝑑𝑆 is represented by the vector 𝑑𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ is
perpendicular to the area element 𝑑𝑆 . The length of the area vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑆 represents the magnitude
of the area element .𝑛̂ is a unit vector which acts normal to the surface area in the outward
direction.

Area vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑑𝑆 = 𝑑𝑆 𝑛̂

Gauss’s Theorem

Q. State and prove Gauss theorem in electrostatics.

It states that the total electric flux through a closed surface enclosing a charge is equal to
𝟏
times the magnitude of the charge enclosed .
𝜺𝟎

𝑞
∅=
𝜀0
𝑞
⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
Therefore Gauss Theorem can be expressed as ∮𝑠 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 where 𝜀0 is the absolute
𝜀0
permittivity of free space .

PROOF ( For a spherically symmetric closed surface )

 27

Consider a point electric charge q is situated at the centre of a sphere of radius r. Let 𝐸⃗ be
the E.F at any point P on the surface of the sphere.

∅ = ∮𝑠 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑆

𝑘𝑞
∅ = 4𝜋𝑟 2
𝒓𝟐
1
Where 𝑘 = 4𝜋𝜀0

1 𝑞
∅ = 4𝜋𝑟 2
4𝜋𝜀0 𝒓𝟐
𝑞
∅ = Hence Gauss theorem is proved .
𝜀0

Note : The surface chosen to calculate the surface integral is called Gaussian surface.

DEDUCE COULOMB’S LAW FROM GAUSS THEOREM

From Gauss’s law

𝑞
∅ = ∮𝑠 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑆 = 𝜀
0

Since 𝐸⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑑𝑆 are in the same direction.

𝑞
∅ = ∮𝑠 𝐸 𝑑𝑆 = 𝜀
0

𝑞
∅ = 𝐸 ∮𝑠 𝑑𝑆 = 𝜀
0

𝑞
𝐸4𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜀
0
 28

𝑞
𝐸 =
4𝜋𝑟 2 𝜀0

If a charge 𝑞0 is placed at a point where E is calculated, then

𝑞𝑞0
𝐹= 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 ′ 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑤
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

Q. What is a Gaussian surface?

Ans: An imaginary closed surface enclosing a charge is called a Gaussian surface. A Gaussian surface
can be a surface of any shape.

Applications of Gauss’s Theorem

Electric Field due to an infinitely long straight uniformly charged wire

Q. Using Gauss’s law obtain the expression for the electric field due to an infinitely long,thin,
uniformly charged straight wire of linear charge density λ C/m

Consider an infinitely long straight wire of charge density λ. We have to find the electric field at a
point P distant ‘r’ from this line charge. For this imagine a Gaussian cylinder of radius ‘r’ and length ‘l’
with the line charge as the axis.

Flux through the Gaussian surface = flux through the curved cylindrical part of the surface.

∅=∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 + ∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠

∅=∮ 𝐸⃗ 𝑑𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠0 + ∮ 𝐸⃗ 𝑑𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠90

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠

∅=∮ 𝐸⃗ 𝑑𝑠 + ∮ 𝐸⃗ 𝑑𝑠 × 0
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠
 29

∅ = 𝐸∮ 𝑑𝑠
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠

where ∮𝑠 𝑑𝑠 = 2𝜋 𝑟𝑙

∅ = 𝐸 2𝜋 𝑟𝑙 … (1)

According to Gauss theorem

𝑞
∅= … (2)
𝜀0

From (1) &(2)

𝒒
𝐸 2𝜋 𝑟𝑙 =
𝜀0

𝒒
Let 𝝀 = 𝒍

𝒒 = 𝝀𝒍

𝝀𝒍
𝐸 2𝜋 𝑟𝑙 =
𝜀0

𝝀
𝑬 =
𝟐𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓

𝟏
𝑬 ∝
𝒓

Field due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet

Q. Using Gauss’s law, prove that the E.F at a point due to a uniformly charged
infinite plane sheet is independent of the distance from it.
How is field directed if (i) the sheet is positively charged , (ii) negatively charged?
 30

Consider an infinite thin plane sheet of positive charge having a uniform surface charge densiy 𝜎 on
both the sides of the sheet.

Electric flux crossing the Gaussian surface , ∅ = 𝐸 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠

∅ = 𝐸 2𝑆 … . (1)

According to Gauss theorem

𝑞
∅= … (2)
𝜀0

Equating (1) and (2)

𝑞
𝐸 2𝑆 =
𝜀0
𝑞
𝐸 =
2𝑆𝜀0

Where 𝑞 = 𝜎𝑆

𝜎𝑆
𝐸 =
2𝑆𝜀0
𝝈
𝑬 =
𝟐𝜺𝟎

E is independent of its distance from the sheet of charge.

NOTE

In case of an infinite plane conductor having finite thickness ,the Gaussian surface will include charge
𝜎2𝑆

𝜎 2𝑆
𝐸 2𝑆 =
𝜀0
 31

𝝈
𝑬 = 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒕
𝜺𝟎

(i) If 𝝈 is positive , E points normally outwards / away from the sheet

(j) If 𝝈 is negative , E points normally inwards / towards the sheet

FIELD DUE TO A UNIFORMLY CHARGED THIN SPHERICAL SHELL

Q. Using Gauss’s law obtain the expression for the electric field due to a uniformly charged
spherical shell at point (i) outside the shell and (ii) inside the shell. Plot a graph showing the
variation of electric field with r, for r > R and r < R.

Let σ be the uniform surface charge density of a thin spherical shell of radius R.

(i)When point P lies outside the spherical shell.

∅ = ∮𝑠 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 , ∅ = 𝐸 ∮𝑠 𝑑𝑆

∅ = 𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 2 … (1)

According to Gauss theorem

𝑞
∅ = … (2)
𝜀0

For charged spherical shell q = 𝜎 𝑆

q = 𝜎4𝜋𝑅 2

𝜎4𝜋𝑅 2
∅ = … (3)
𝜀0

From (1) and (2)

𝜎4𝜋𝑅 2
𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 2 =
𝜀0

𝝈 𝑹𝟐
𝑬 =
𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐
 32

(ii) When point P lies on the surface of charged sphere ( E.F. on the shell)

Where r = R
𝝈
𝑬 =
𝜺𝟎

(iii) When point P lies inside the spherical shell (E.F.inside the shell)

The Gaussian surface through the point P will not enclose any charge

In this case the charge enclosed by the Gaussian sphere, q=0

Substituting in Gauss's theorem

𝑬 =𝟎

Thus at a point inside the charged spherical shell , electric field is zero.

NOTE :

The variation of E.F due to charged spherical shell with distance r.

Board questions

1. Use Gauss’s law to derive the expression for the electric field between two uniformly
charge parallel sheet with surface charge densities σ and−σ respectively.
 33

2. A spherical Gaussian surface encloses a charge of 8.85×10−10 C.

(a) Calculate the electric flux through the surface.
(b) How would the flux change, if the radius of the Gaussian surface is doubled and
why?
[2007,08 F]

3. Define electric flux. Write its SI unit.

A charge q is enclosed by a spherical surface of radius R. If the radius is reduced
to half, how would the electric flux through the surface changes?

4. A positive point charge (+q) is kept in the vicinity of an uncharged conduction plate.
Sketch electric field lines originating from the point on to the surface of the plate.

5. Two large parallel thin metallic plates are placed close to each other. The plates have
charges densities of opposite sign and of magnitude 2×10−12. Calculate the electric field
intensity (a) in the outer region of the plates and
(b) in the interior region between the plates.