OVERHEAD DISTRIBUTION

This is commonly used in rural areas.

In overhead distribution, the distributor is carried and supported above the surface of
the ground. It is ideal for long distribution distances and hence is common for
primary and secondary distribution.

The main components of an overhead distribution line are conductors, support

structures and insulators.

A. Conductors

These carry the electrical power from the substation to the consumer. The materials
generally used are copper and aluminium because of their low resistivity (copper is a
better conductor and stronger than aluminium but heavier. Aluminium is cheaper and
more readily available).

The leakage of current from one conductor to the other is prevented by the air
between the conductors since overhead conductors are usually not insulated.

Characteristics of a good conductor

- Light weight
- High tensile strength
- Low resistance/ high conductivity
- Low cost

Conductors commonly used for overhead distribution.

i) Copper conductors(expensive) – generally used in tertiary distribution

for service mains ( conductors from three phase four wire system to
households are made of copper).It is also ductile and malleable.

ii) Cadmium copper – Alloy of cadmium and copper. Cadmium increases the
tensile strength of copper. This conductor is generally used for the tertiary
distribution distributor (from power station to load station or transformer).
iii) Aluminium conductor steel reinforced (ACSR) - Commonly used for
primary and secondary distribution. It is made of galvanised steel wire core
surrounded by aluminium strands. Although ductile and malleable, it lacks
the strength of copper.
The aluminium carries current while the steel provides tensile strength for
the aluminium strands (used for long distance 33KV distribution).
B. Insulators
Basa re insulator is to carry the conductor on the overhead support structure.
An insulator should have both electrical purpose and sufficient mechanical
strength to support the conductors.
Porcelain and toughened glass are used as insulators.

Toughened glass
Toughening produces an outer skin which is resistant to mechanical damage.
- If a glass insulator cracks, its whole surface fragments, which makes it easy to
detect a faulty insulator from the ground.
- The dielectric strength of glass is much higher than that of porcelain
- Glass has a lower coefficient of thermal expansion than porcelain
- Glass is transparent to light rays hence heats up only slightly when exposed
to sunlight.
Disadvantages
- It is more expensive than porcelain
- Moisture readily condenses on the glass.

Porcelain Insulators
The porcelain used is glazed to provide a smooth surface which can be kept
relatively free from dirt and moisture.
It also undergoes vitrification i.e. pressed together i.e. pressed together to
remove pores or air spaces which would reduce the dielectric strength of the
insulator.

Types of insulators
a) Pin type

The insulator is attached to a steel bolt. The pin is secured on the cross-
arm of a pole. The conductor is carried on a groove on top of the insulator.
Pin insulators are generally used for voltages up to 33KV.See diagram
above.
b) Suspension/Disc Insulator
- Consists of disc shaped pieces of porcelain with grooves on the underside to
increase the surface area. They are fitted with metal caps on top and metal
pins underneath.
- The disc carries the conductor suspended under the insulator.
Advantages
 Each disc is designed for 11KV.The required insulation level is
determined by stringing a suitable number of discs.
 In the event of failure of one disc, only the faulty disc needs
replacement
 In the event of an increase in operating voltage, the insulation
requirements can be met by simply adding the required number of
discs rather than replacing the whole insulator.
 Mechanical stresses are reduced since the insulator is flexible.

Disadvantages

 Since the conductor is suspended, there is flexibility and therefore

there is need for a larger cross arm to avoid contact of conductors in
between support structures.

Suspension insulator

c) Strain Insulator
- These are connected at the terminations of lines or at corners where there is
change in direction of the line or in a case where there is need for high
tension whenever there is a large span e.g. across a river. See diagram over
leaf.
 d) Shackle Insulator

Also known as a D-insulator.

They are used for low voltage distribution on distribution and service mains. They
may be mounted horizontally on vertical poles.

The overhead conductor is mounted on the insulator using binding wire/strip.

C. Support Structures
These carry the conductors and insulators and are made tall to avoid access
to conductors by members of the public.
The space between two support structures is called a span.
Overhead lines are not pulled tightly between support structures but are
allowed to slack below the height of the support structures. This allows for
expansion or contraction of the conductors under different conditions. This
allowance for slack is called the sag.

Types of support structures

They are usually made of wood, concrete, or steel.
- Steel structures are strong and durable but expensive. For this reason they
are rarely used for distribution but for transmission.
- Wooden poles are more common in distribution because they are cheap and
occur naturally. They also provide extra insulation between conductors and
earth. However, they are not durable and are susceptible to termite attack.
- Concrete support structures are also commonly used in distribution. They
are durable, affordable and can be built to a required height and thickness.
Below are some examples of support structures used for distribution.
Stay Pole views

The cradle
When two or more ac carrying conductors cross each other, the
electromagnetic fields produced by the conductors may induce voltages in
each other. A cradle (wire mesh) is placed between the crossing conductors.
It acts as an electromagnetic screen. The magnetic field produced by each
conductor will induce an emf in the cradle. The cradle is earthed at the
support structures hence the induced emf is diverted to the ground hence
preventing voltage distortion in the conductors.

Shield Wire
This is usually a high tensile strength wire with a c.s.a. smaller than that of the
phase conductors. It is placed above the phase conductors and protects them
against lightning. Shield wires are grounded on the support structure such that
lightning is conducted to the general mass of earth provided that the
resistance at the foot of the structure is low. This resistance can be further
lowered by driving rods into the soil or by means of a buried conductor called
a counterpoise which runs parallel to the overhead line inside the soil.
 UNDERGROUND DISTRIBUTION

This system has cables installed under the surface of the ground. It is
commonly used in urban areas where overhead distribution is not possible
due to its visual impact.
Advantages of underground distribution:
- It is safer to members of the public since the cables are covered hence there
is no temptation to steal.
- It’s not affected by natural phenomena like lightning and heavy wind.
- It does not disturb the natural beauty of the area in which it is installed

Disadvantages of underground distribution

- It is more expensive since the conductors used require insulation and

protection against mechanical damage
- It is difficult to locate a fault
- Can easily be accidentally damaged due to excavation by workers with no
cable map of the area.

UNDERGROUND CABLES

- Cables for underground distribution should be buried not less than 500 mm
under the surface of the ground.
- They should be protected using earthenware tiles to prevent damage when
digging.
- Examples of underground cables include;
i) Polyvinyl chloride steel wire armoured cables (PVCSWA)
ii) Paper insulated lead sheathed cable (PILS)
iii) Split concentric cable
iv) Cross linked polyethylene (XPLE)

Method of Laying Cables

a) Direct Laying

A trench is dug to the desired depth and the cable is placed directly in the trench and
tiles are laid on top of the cable to protect it against damage during digging. The
trench is then covered in soil. This method requires the cable to be fully protected
against moisture.

b) Drawing in Method

The cable is drawn into a duct. The duct provides extra mechanical protection. The
cables are unlikely to be damaged by digging. It is also unlikely to be affected by
moisture. This method however, requires a flexible cable like PVCSWA cable.
 c) Solid Laying Method

Cables are laid in a duct which has a removable cover such that the cable is placed
in the duct and the cover is fixed on top to protect the cable. Non flexible cables like
the PILS cable can be used.

d) Catenary Wiring

The system consists of a high tensile strength wire which is fixed between two points
and the cable tied at va rious points along the length of the wire.

The system is used where the underground cable has to cross over a short distance
overhead e.g. between buildings.

Lighting points or fittings can be secured on the cable.

In this type of wiring, sagging may at times be unequal hence the wiring system is
used in situations where the visual impact is not of importance.

Examples: - Between buildings, where there are high roofed buildings on account of
the mounting height.

- For crossing rivers, when power cables are to supply a building over a
river.

- Crossing roads, underground cables can be damaged by heavy traffic

passing over them. Catenary wiring also prevents damage to the road during
installation and repair.

NB: Catenary wiring over a road should be at a minimum height of 5,5m. For general
purposes, it should be 5, 2 m.
DISTRIBUTION PLANT AND EQUIPMENT
A substation is a source of electrical supply for the area in which it is connected.
There are basically three types of substation i.e. indoor substation, outdoor
substation, and pole mounted substation.

The following plant is found inside a substation;

1. High Voltage Switchgear

It controls the flow of power on the high voltage side.
2. Transformer
It steps down the level of the voltage.
3. Low voltage switchgear
This controls the flow of power on the low voltage side.
4. Bus bar Chamber
It contains copper and aluminium bars on which cables can be securely
connected using lugs, bolts and nuts.
5. Isolators
This gives a visual confirmation that a substation has been disconnected.
6. Distribution Board
It divides the total load into individual circuits with each circuit having its own `
switchgear.
7. Interconnecting Cables
For making connections.
8. Metering Equipment
To measure and record circuit parameters such as voltage, current, power,
energy e.t.c.
9. Protective Equipment
Circuit breakers, fuses and relays to ensure safety.

A. INDOOR SUBSTATION
- It is generally used in urban areas usually for local substations. The primary
voltage of the transformer is supplied by an 11KV feeder which is stepped
down to a secondary voltage of 380/220V.
- The switchgear on the primary consists of oil circuit breakers. Auxiliary
equipment includes batteries and fire extinguishers. Batteries are used to
operate protective devices and for emergency lighting. The layout of an indoor
substation is shown overleaf.
Regulations pertaining to Indoor Substation

1. The transformer should be separated from switchgear by means of a brick

wall.
2. Provision should be made to drain away any oil that may leak from the
substation equipment.
3. Adequate ventilation should be provided.
4. Means of draining away excess oil should be provided when equipment
exceeds 25 litres of oil.
5. Any equipment within the building with oil that exceeds 25 litres should be
placed in a fire resistant chamber and ventilated only to the outside.
6. Cable trenches should be at least 750 mm deep.
7. Carbon dioxide fire extinguishers should be provided.
8. All doors and covers should be secured such that they can only be opened by
a key or a tool.
9. Access to the substation should only be to authorised persons only.
10. The doors to the substation should open outwards and preferably be of the
double door type.
11. Instructions for treatment of persons suffering from electric shock and injuries
such as burns should be displayed in a prominent position.
 B. OUTDOOR SUBSTATION
- These are generally used in main substations and grid switching substations
as well as substations in primary and secondary distribution.
- These substations are associated with overhead lines and because they
supply bulk supplies the equipment is very large hence it is not economical to
place them indoors. Regulations require that they be protected by a 2,44 m
high fence or that they may be closed in some other way and fitted with anti-
climb to prevent un authorised entry.

Advantages of outdoor substations;

i) Cheaper
ii) Low chances of flash-over (low chance of a fault in one part affecting other
parts)
iii) Better ventilation.

Disadvantages of outdoor substations;

i) Switching is carried out outdoors in all types of weather conditions.

ii) There is less security of equipment.
iii) There is need for periodic clearance of vegetation
iv) Equipment should be weather-proof.

C. POLE MOUNTED SUBSTATIONS

- Suitable for low ratings up to 100KVA
- They do not require much attention during operation.
- Low capital and maintenance costs.
- Mostly used for village electrification for distribution to small residential
premises as well as electrification of farms, schools and hospitals.
- They consist of an H type or square type structure at the end of an overhead
line.
- A platform is then set up at a suitable height in order to carry the transformer.
- The diagram below shows a line diagram of a pole mounted substation.
 ISOLATION AND SWITCHING
Switchgear: A device(s) which provide means of opening/closing a circuit thereby
controlling the flow of current. Switchgear is divided into four groups.

1. Switch: A non-automatic mechanical device capable of opening or closing a

circuit under normal conditions (on-load).
Switches have a quick make and break mechanism so that load may be
switched on and off without undue arcing.
2. Isolator: A non-automatic mechanical device capable of opening and closing a
circuit under no load conditions. It should have a visible contact gap or a
reliable on–off indicator.
Isolators are usually used with other forms of switchgear.
3. Contactor/Relay
This is an electromagnetic switch which opens and closes a circuit on load by
means of a push button control.
The contacts are usually closed by energising a coil which pulls a set of
moving contacts towards some fixed contacts.
It is ideal for remote and automatic control.

4. Circuit Breaker
A mechanical device capable of opening and closing a circuit under all,
including abnormal conditions.
It can be operated manually or it can operate automatically when there is a
fault.
Overcurrent protection
It is both a statutory and IEE regulation to provide overcurrent protection.

Reg 13-7 states that, when necessary to prevent danger, every installation
and circuit thereof, shall be provided with protection against overcurrent by a
device which;
a) Will operate automatically at values of current which are suitable to the
safe current rating of the circuit.
 b) Have adequate breaking capacity and, where necessary, making capacity.

An overcurrent is the current that exceeds the rated current of a circuit i.e. the
current a circuit is designed to carry.

When an overcurrent occurs, the conductors are unable to effectively dissipate the
heat generated within the cable and thus may cause the cable temperature to rise
until the cable insulation is damaged resulting in electric shock or in electric fire.

Over-currents are in three groups;

1. Transient overcurrent
This occurs for a short period of time, usually inrush current which occurs on
switching on or off circuits such as transformers, capacitors, electric motors
etc. It can be 5-7 times the rated current.
2. Sustained overload overcurrent
It is the current that exceeds the rated current in a healthy circuit.
- It is mainly due to abuse of a circuit ie using a circuit for a purpose it wasn’t
designed for.
- Indiscriminate additions to an existing circuit
- Poor design.
Sustained overcurrent can be 3-5 times the rated current.
3. Short circuit overcurrent
This results from a fault of negligible resistance between conductors.
It may be caused by an incorrect connection during installation and results in;
i) Breakdown of insulation between conductors
ii) Disconnection of cables
Shot circuit currents may be hundreds of times of the rated currents.

Characteristics of overcurrent protective devices

The device should be able to interrupt the faulty current and quickly isolate the circuit
before overcurrent causes the temperature to rise that could damage the insulation
of the conductors.

The device should;

a) Have a current rating that exceeds full load current.

b) Have a rating that should be less than that of the cable.
c) Be able to interrupt the overcurrent within a space of time short enough to
prevent damage to the circuit and circuit equipment.

Fuse

- It is the simplest form of protective device

- It consists of an element of wire with a cross-sectional area that is less than
that of the conductors
 - The element will heat up and eventually melt when a current higher than the
rating of the fuse flows through it

- Fuses are enclosed such that it is not possible to remove a fuse if there are
any live parts
- The fuse element is enclosed so that the molten wire does not spill to other
parts of the circuit

Terms associated with fuses

a) Current rating – This is the maximum current a fuse can continuously carry
without blowing or deteriorating. When choosing the current rating, the
ambient temperature is taken into consideration. For fuses that are to be used
in high temperature situations de-rating might be necessary.
b) De-rating – Reducing the fuse rating
c) Minimum fusing current- this is the minimum current which will cause the fuse
to blow within a specified time
d) Fusing factor- it is the ratio of the fusing current to the current rating of the
fuse. It is always greater than unity.

e) Applied voltage- this is the voltage declared by the manufacturer to indicate

the maximum circuit voltage in which a fuse can be used.
f) Prospective current- this is the value of current which flows in a circuit
immediately after a fuse when a short circuit occurs.
g) Breaking capacity of a fuse- it is the greatest amount of prospective current
which can be associated with a fuse.
h) Pre-arcing time – this the time taken from the instant an overcurrent occurs to
the instant an arc is initiated.
i) Arcing time – this is the time taken from the instant an arc is initiated to the
instant an arc is extinguished.
j) Operating time – it is the sum of the pre-arcing and arcing times.

Classes of fuses

Fuses are divided into four classes according to their fusing factor;

1. Class P fuses- these are fuses with a fusing factor of less than 1,25 . They
provide protection for sensitive circuits which cannot withstand even small
over currents e.g. electronic circuits
2. Class Q fuses- these are divided into two groups;
a) Class Q1 – with fusing factors between 1,25 and 1,5
 b) vvClass Q2 – with a fusing factor between 1,5 and 1,75 . These are used
in circuits which can withstand small over currents, they provide protection
against large over currents e.g. in protecting heating appliances, electric
motors etc.
3. Class R fuses- these provide back-up protection for protective devices such
as circuit breakers and overload relays. They have a fusing factor of 1,75 and
2,5 .

Generally, fusing factors less than 1,5 provide what is known as fine protection,
while fuses with a fusing factor above 1,5 provide coarse protection.

Types of fuses

1. The rewirable fuse

Also referred to as the semi-enclosed fuse

It consists of a fuse wire secured by two screw terminals. When an

overcurrent occurs the fuse element will melt.
Advantages:
- It is very cheap since only a fuse wire is replaced
- It is easy to identify a blown fuse

Disadvantages:
- The fuse wire is exposed and since it operates at high temperature, oxidation
occurs thus results in premature failure
- Exposed fuse element can cause an electric fire due to the arc produced
when the fuse operates in the presence of flammable material ( cannot be
used in fire hazard areas )
- Since the element is exposed to the environment, it is affected by ambient
temperatures as well as wind draft.
- The fuse element can be replaced by incorrect size.
- Re-wirable fuses do not guarantee operation.

2. The Cartridge fuse

- This fuse is designed to eliminate the disadvantages of the re-wirable fuse.
- The fuse element is enclosed in a glass or ceramic tube and secured by two
metallic end caps which are firmly attached to the fuse body.

Advantages
- The element is enclosed hence there is very little oxidation
- The arc produced when fuse operates is confined to the inside of the capsule
thus reduces the risk of fire
- The element is enclosed hence it will be affected to a less extent by ambient
temperature and wind drafts
- The cover of the fuse is related to its rating hence it is not possible to place a
fuse of incorrect rating in a fuse holder

Disadvantages

- It is more expensive than the re-wirable fuse

- It has low breaking capacity

3. High Breaking Capacity Fuse( HBC or HRC)

- It consists of a silver fuse element inside a tube of ceramic material with two
brass end caps. The tube is filled with non-fusible sand which extinguishes
the arc produced when the element operates. The ceramic tube is made with
thick walls in order to confine a large arc inside the tube. Usually, lugs are
used to secure the fuse in the circuit.
- Another feature is the indicating element which shows when the fuse has
blown
 Advantages
- It is very fast-acting and can discriminate between a starting surge and an
overload ( operates within 2 ms)
- It is very reliable since the element is not affected by the environment
- It has a high breaking capacity
Disadvantage
- Very expensive.

Switch-Fuse
This is a switch that incorporates a fuse, closing the switch will introduce a fuse into
the circuit.

Fuse Switch
A fuse switch is a switch whose moving part is a fuse. The circuit is closed by
connecting the fuse.

Circuit Breakers
A circuit breaker is a mechanical device which is used to open or close a circuit
safely under all, including abnormal conditions.
Circuit breakers are divided into high voltage circuit breakers and low voltage circuit
breakers.

1. High voltage circuit breakers

- These are characterised by an electromagnetic tripping coil which will open
the contacts of the circuit breaker automatically whenever the line current
exceeds the pre-set value or manually by a push button.
- The arcing associated with heavy currents in HBC circuit breakers is
sufficiently large to weld the contacts of the circuit breaker together hence all
hv circuit breakers should have an arc extinguishing mechanism.
- Hv circuit breakers are named according to the arc extinguishing method.
- An elementary circuit to show the operation of a circuit breaker is shown
below.

a) Air blast circuit breaker

- It has a moving contact which moves away from the fixed contact and it opens
a valve which releases air from a reservoir that stores air at high pressure.
- .pThe air is blown across the separating contacts at high speed, thereby
extinguishing the arc produced.
- The air reservoir is replenished by a compressor located in the substation.
- It is capable of breaking up to 40A at voltages as high as 765KV.
- It is very noisy during operation hence is not used in the CBD.

b) Sulphur Hexafluoride () circuit breaker

- Its construction is similar to the air-blast circuit breaker. However, sulphur
hexafluoride gas is used to quench the arc in place of air. SF6 gas is
colourless, odourless, non-toxic and does not pollute the environment.
- SF6 has better insulating properties than air.
- SF6 does not support combustion and hence the breaker has the same rating
as air-blast circuit breaker but smaller in size.
- More expensive due to the expensive gas.

c) Oil Circuit Breaker ( OCB )

- When the circuit breaker operates, an arc is produced. The arc dissipates its
energy into the oil. The burning oil produces gasses like CO2 and SO2.
- The gaseous products of combustion rise to the top of the circuit breaker tank.
The space where the gas is displaced is quickly covered by cool fresh oil
which cools the contacts and provides insulation.
- The carbon formed when oil burns reduces the di-electric strength of the oil
hence the oil in the tank has to be changed periodically.
 d) Vacuum Circuit Breaker
- The contacts of the circuit breaker are sealed in a vacuum chamber.
- There will be no gas ions when the circuit breaker opens and for this reason
the duration of the arc is very short.
- The circuit breaker is silent in operation and requires little maintenance.
- It has a very short operating time and is very expensive.

2. Low Voltage Circuit Breakers

These are divided into two, i.e. moulded case circuit breaker (MCCB) and the
miniature circuit breaker (MCB).

a) Moulded Case Circuit Breaker

- It is made of moulded insulating material
- It is constructed so that there is no provision for maintenance
- They are available in single pole, double pole and triple pole
- Their current ratings range from 10A to 1200A and medium voltages of up to
600V.
- The breaking capacity is 50kA
- They are capable of making, carrying and breaking currents under specified
abnormal conditions such as those of short circuits.
 Advantages: * They have a repeatable non-destructive performance,
* Safe operation under fault conditions,
* Simultaneous opening of all three phases in triple pole
breakers.
 * They disconnect automatically under overload conditions up
to 8 – 10 times the rated current,
* Quick make-and-break operation of the contacts
independent of operating personnel,
* High contact pressure.
 Disadvantage * Expensive

They have two tripping mechanisms

i) Thermal tripping mechanism

ii) Electro-magnetic tripping mechanism

This is usually for large currents such as short circuits. The mechanism
can operate faster than the thermal tripping mechanism.
Tripping is achieved by means of an electromagnetic coil which carries the
load current and provides instantaneous tripping when the current reaches
a value that is too high for the thermal tripping mechanism to provide
sufficiently rapid tripping.

b) Miniature Circuit Breaker

It is similar to the MCCB but differs only in the current carrying capacity.
An mcb offers better fire risk protection for final circuits.
Mcbs have a lower current rating ranging from 0,5A to 200a and a typical
breaking capacity of 2,5kA.
These are mostly used for domestic and commercial installations.
Discrimination
This is the ability of fuses and circuit breakers to interrupt the supply to a faulty circuit
without interfering with the source of supply to the remaining healthy circuits in the
system.
This requires that a larger fuse nearer the source of supply will remain unaffected by
fault currents which would cause a smaller device ( fuse or circuit breaker ), further
from the source of supply, to operate.
In short, discrimination is achieved by placing a protective device of lower rating and
faster operation closest to the load.
 CONSUMER’S INSTALLATION
This refers to the electrical circuits which supply electrical power the consumer’s
appliances.

1. Service Mains:

It is the incoming cable that supplies power to the installation from the local
substation or local substation or distributor.

2. Cut-out:

This is where the service mains end. It contains a service fuse or a circuit
breaker.

Its purpose is to protect the service cable from damage in the event of a fault
within the consumer’s installation.

It also allows the supply authority to disconnect supply to the premises.

3. Meter
It is used to measure and record the energy used by the consumer.

4. Consumer’s Main Switch

It is used to isolate the whole installation.
 It is located in consumer’s unit together with the DB.

5. Distribution Board (DB)

It is located as close to the service mains and meter as possible so that the
main cable to the consumer’s unit is kept short.
Its purpose is to divide the whole installation into smaller loads with each final
circuit being controlled by a suitably rated protective device.

6. Final Circuit(s)
These are circuits that are directly connected to the current using equipment
or socket outlets or any other or other points of connection of such equipment.

The rising main distribution system

 TARIFFS
A tariff is a scale of charges for the electrical energy consumed. It ensures
that all the costs of producing and delivering electrical energy are covered by
the consumer.
A good tariff is made up of two charges i.e. A fixed charge and a running
charge.
Fixed/Standing Charge
This charge covers the cost of supplying electrical energy which is
independent of the actual energy produced.
It covers expenses that are incurred by the supply authority independent of
the actual energy produced.
It covers costs such as rates, rents, and insurance, radio and car licenses,
salaries and wages for supply authority personnel, payment of other
services e.g. telephone and water bills and interest on money borrowed by
the supply authority.
The fixed charge is based on the maximum demand of the installation.

Running charge
It caters for the cost of actually generating and supplying electrical energy.
It depends on the actual amount of energy produced.
It covers costs such as :
a) Repair of or maintenance of equipment and machines.
b) Cost of the fuel e.g. coal
c) The cost of importing electrical energy
d) For profit

The running charge depends on the actual energy consumed.

Types of tariff

1. The Load Limiter

It involves a flat rate tariff i.e. a fixed charge is paid. This charge depends
on the load limit. The supply authority limits the number of appliances
which can be connected to the supply at any given time.
If this limit is exceeded, a circuit breaker interrupts supply to the
installation. The consumer is then charged based on the limit.
This tariff is independent of the energy consumed.
Advantages of the load limiter:
- Predictable electricity bill is available
- Lower capital cost since the supply authority does not have to supply metering
equipment
- Lower running cost since there is no need of a meter reader.
Disadvantages of the load limiter
- The cost of electricity is independent of the energy used hence it does not
encourage energy conservation.
- The system is prone to abuse and some consumers may bypass the limiter

2. Two-Part Tariff.
- It is made up of a fixed charge which depends on the maximum
demand and a running charge which depends on the energy consumed.
- Industrial consumers and other large commercial premises have a
maximum demand meter connected.
- For small installations i.e. domestic and commercial, a maximum
demand meter is not connected. The fixed charge is estimated based on
things such as the size of the building, the floor area, the number of
rooms, the location of the installation or is estimated based on things
such as the electrical equipment likely to be connected.
- The running charge is based on the actual energy consumed, measured
and recorded using an energy meter.

Maximum Demand Meter

- This measures the energy consumed over a short period, usually 30 minutes,
then divides the energy by the time hence the maximum demand meter
actually measures the average demand over a short period. A pointer moves
along an average demand scale during the recording period. The pointer will
push an indicator along the scale and at the end of the recording period the
pointer will return to zero leaving the indicator at the highest level.
- If, during the second recording period, the average demand increases, the
pointer will move the indicator further up the scale hence the reading of the
indicator is always the highest average power demand.

3. Block Tariff
- The units of energy consumed are divided into groups called blocks. The first
block of units is charged at a different rate from the second and third block of
units.
- For example, the supply authority may charge 25c per unit for the first 1000
units, 17c per unit for the second 1000 units and 10c per unit for all the
additional units. Such a tariff encourages the use of electrical energy.
- The tariff may also be designed in reverse to discourage the use of electricity.
 4. Off Peak Tariff
- This involves different charges for different times of the day. The charge per
unit of energy is lower during the off peak period and higher during the peak
period.
- The off-peak tariff can be effected in two ways;
i) Single energy meter method
One energy meter with two sets of dials is used and is called a white
meter.
One set of dials reads consumption during the peak period and is
charged at a higher rate while the other records during the off-peak and
is charged at a lower rate.

ii) Two Energy Meter Method

The installation is divided into two sections and these are two
consumer units (DBs).
- One DB is connected to the Off-peak energy meter and is connected to loads
that are supplied with energy during the off-peak period only and is charged at
a lower rate.
- The other DB is connected to the normal load and is supplied throughout the
off-peak and peak periods. This DB is supplied via a second energy meter
whose units are charged at a higher rate.
Diversity Factor

- It is a factor which is applied on the assumption that the whole connected load
will not be ON at the same time.
- This factor is used to determine the size of the power plant.
- It takes into consideration the fact that maximum demand of a load is not
likely to occur at the same time i.e. it is unlikely that all types of loads i.e.
domestic, industrial and commercial are connected at the same time.

Diversity factor (DF) is the ratio of the total connecting load to the load in use at any
instant i.e.

Load Factor

It is the ratio of the units of energy consumed over a period of time to the units of
energy that would be consumed if maximum demand was maintained throughout the
period.

A load factor which is high i.e. close to unity (1), reduces the maximum demand on
the consumer since it will reduce the fixed charge by reducing the size of the
generating plant.

Maximum Demand

Maximum amount of power taken from the generating power station.

Power Factor

An ac system has three types of power;

i) Apparent Power(S) – This is the total power drawn from the supply. It is
given by the product of the supply voltage and supply current.Thus:

ii) True Power/Active Power (P) – This is the power used by the load. It is
converted to other forms of energy like heat light and torque. It is
measured in watts by a wattmeter.

iii) Reactive Power (Q) – This is the power drawn by inductors and
capacitors. It is stored briefly in the magnetic field of an inductor or the
electric field of a capacitor. It is later returned to the supply when the
supply enters the negative half cycle. The units of measurement are volt-
amperes reactive (VARs).

Power factor is the ratio of the true power to the apparent Power

Inductive reactive power is said to lag the true power by 90 0. The phasor sum of true
power and reactive power is the apparent power hence the three forms of power in
an a.c. system are related by the following power triangle.
Considering the power triangle

Power factor ranges from zero to 1. An ideal circuit has a power factor of 1. A low
power factor has several disadvantages;

i) A large generating plant is required to supply large apparent power to

supply a smaller amount of true power.
ii) Switchgear and cable size is larger to carry the larger currents.
iii) Larger power losses along the cables.
iv) Larger current causes larger voltage drop along the feeder cable.

To improve the power factor of an inductive load, a capacitive load is connected in

parallel so as cancel out the effect of the inductive load.

Power factor correcting devices include;

i) Static capacitors
ii) Synchronous motors
iii) Phase advancers

Power factor correction for;

 a single phase load

 a three phase load (Balanced)

 a three phase load (Unbalanced)