Aetcman11-248 PD

BY ORDER OF THE COMMANDER AIR EDUCATION AND TRAINING
AIR EDUCATION AND TRAINING COMMAND MANUAL 11-248

COMMAND
17 AUGUST 2016
Flying Operations
T-6 PRIMARY FLYING
COMPLIANCE WITH THIS PUBLICATION IS MANDATORY
ACCESSIBILITY: Publications and forms are available on the e-Publishing website at

www.e-publishing.af.mil for downloading or ordering.
RELEASABILITY: There are no releasability restrictions on this publication.
OPR: HQ AETC/A3VU Certified by: HQ USAF/A3V

(Lt Col Jim E. Martin)
Pages: 278
This instruction implements AFPD 11-2, Aircraft Rules and Procedures, and supports AFI 11-
202, Volume 3, General Flight Rules. Along with local procedures, this instruction prescribes
standard procedures to be used by all aircrew operating Air Force T-6 aircraft. The
MAJCOM/A3 is waiver authority for this instruction unless specified elsewhere. File a copy of
all approved waivers with this instruction. This AFI applies to all Regular Air Force and Air
Force Reserve Command pilots and all Air National Guard associate instructor pilots flying the
T-6A. Attachment 1 contains a glossary of references and supporting information used in this
publication.
Forward unit supplements to HQ AETC/A3V for coordination prior to publication. Submit

suggested improvements to this publication via AF Form 847, Recommendation for Change of
Publication, through command Stan/Eval channels to AETC/A3VO.
This publication requires the collection and or maintenance of information protected by Title 5
United States Code (USC) Section 552a, The Privacy Act of 1974. The authorities to collect or
maintain the records prescribed in the publication are 37 USC § 301a, Incentive Pay; Public Law
(PL) 92-204, Appropriation Act for 1973; PL 93-570 § 715, Appropriation Act for 1974; PL 93-
294, Aviation Career Incentive Act of 1974; Executive Order 9397, Numbering System for
Federal Accounts Relating to Individual Persons, as amended; Department of Defense (DoD)
Directive 7730.57, Aviation Career Incentive Act and Required Annual Report; and AFI 11-401,
Aviation Management. The applicable SORN, F011 AF XO A, Aviation Resource Management
System (ARMS), is available at:
2 AETCMAN11-248 17 AUGUST 2016
http://dpcld.defense.gov/Privacy/SORNsIndex/tabid/5915/Category/11159/department-of-
the-air-force.aspx
Ensure that all records created as a result of processes prescribed in this publication are
maintained in accordance with Air Force Manual (AFMAN) 33-363, Management of Records,
and disposed of in accordance with the Air Force Records Disposition Schedule (RDS) located in
the Air Force Records Information Management System (AFRIMS).
The authorities to waive wing/unit level requirements in this publication are identified with a
Tier (“T-0, T-1, T-2, T-3”) number following the compliance statement. See AFI 33-360,
Publications and Forms Management, for a description of the authorities associated with the Tier
numbers. Submit requests for waivers through the chain of command to the appropriate Tier
waiver approval authority, or alternately, to the publication OPR for non-tiered compliance
items.
The use of the name or mark of any specific manufacturer, commercial product, commodity, or
service in this publication does not imply endorsement by the Air Force.
Chapter 1— GENERAL INFORMATION 14
1.1. General. ................................................................................................................... 14
1.2. Using This Manual.................................................................................................. 14
1.3. Introduction............................................................................................................. 14
1.4. Safety. ..................................................................................................................... 14
1.5. Flight Discipline. .................................................................................................... 15
1.6. Checklist Discipline. ............................................................................................... 15
1.7. Single-engine Mentality. ......................................................................................... 16
1.8. Cockpit/Crew Resource Management (CRM). ....................................................... 16
1.9. Risk Management. .................................................................................................. 17
1.10. Mission Preparation. ............................................................................................... 17
1.11. Fuel Considerations. ............................................................................................... 19
1.12. Mission Briefing. .................................................................................................... 19
1.13. Debrief. ................................................................................................................... 19
1.14. Tandem Seat Challenges. ........................................................................................ 20
1.15. Transfer of Aircraft and Systems Control. .............................................................. 20
1.16. Clearing................................................................................................................... 21
AETCMAN11-248 17 AUGUST 2016 3
Figure 1.1. Clock Positions. ...................................................................................................... 23
Figure 1.2. FCP Canopy Code, Elevation. ................................................................................ 24
Figure 1.3. FCP Canopy Code, Azimuth................................................................................... 25
1.17. Radio Procedures. ................................................................................................... 26
1.18. GPS Usage. ............................................................................................................. 27
1.19. Emergency Procedures............................................................................................ 27
1.20. Tabletop and Standup EPs. ..................................................................................... 29
Figure 1.4. A-A-B-C-D-E-F Method of Accomplishing Practice EPs. ..................................... 31
Chapter 2— BASIC T-6 FLIGHT PRINCIPLES 32
2.1. Introduction............................................................................................................. 32
2.2. Control Effects. ....................................................................................................... 32
Figure 2.1. Control Axes. .......................................................................................................... 32
2.3. Use of Controls. ...................................................................................................... 32
Table 2.1. General T-6 Airspeeds and Power Settings. ........................................................... 33
2.4. Trim. ....................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 2.2. Trim Tab Locations. ............................................................................................... 34
2.5. Coordination. .......................................................................................................... 35
2.6. Power and Torque Effects....................................................................................... 35
Figure 2.3. Slipstream Effect..................................................................................................... 36
Figure 2.4. P-Factor................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 2.5. Torque. .................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 2.6. Gyroscopic Effects. ................................................................................................. 38
2.7. Composite Flight..................................................................................................... 38
2.8. Basic Instrument Flight. .......................................................................................... 39
2.9. Straight-and-level Flight (Figure 2.7.). ................................................................... 39
Figure 2.7. Straight-and-level Flight. ........................................................................................ 40
2.10. Turns. ...................................................................................................................... 41
2.11. Adverse Yaw........................................................................................................... 42
2.12. Coordinated and Uncoordinated Flight. .................................................................. 42

Figure 2.8. Coordinated and Uncoordinated Flight. .................................................................. 43
Chapter 3— GROUND OPERATIONS 44
3.1. Introduction............................................................................................................. 44
3.2. Preflight Check. ...................................................................................................... 44
3.3. Seating Position in the Aircraft. .............................................................................. 45
3.4. Cockpit Organization. ............................................................................................. 45
3.5. Interior Inspection. .................................................................................................. 45
3.6. Engine Start............................................................................................................. 45
3.7. OBOGS Check. ....................................................................................................... 45
3.9. Taxi. ........................................................................................................................ 46
3.10. Overspeed Governor Check. ................................................................................... 47
3.11. Before Takeoff and Lineup Checks. ....................................................................... 47
3.12. After Landing. ......................................................................................................... 47
3.13. Full Stop and (or) Taxi Back. ................................................................................. 47
3.14. Engine Shutdown and Before Leaving Aircraft. ..................................................... 47
3.15. Postflight Inspection. .............................................................................................. 48
3.16. Abnormal Procedures. ............................................................................................ 48
Chapter 4— TAKEOFF, CLIMB, AND LEVEL OFF 49
4.1. Introduction............................................................................................................. 49
4.2. Lineup Check. ......................................................................................................... 49
4.3. Takeoff. ................................................................................................................... 49
Figure 4.1. FCP Takeoff Pitch Attitude. ................................................................................... 51
4.4. Crosswind Takeoff. ................................................................................................. 51
Figure 4.2. Skipping on Takeoff. .............................................................................................. 52
4.5. After Becoming Airborne. ...................................................................................... 52
4.6. After Becoming Airborne (Crosswind). ................................................................. 52
Figure 4.3. Crabbing Into Crosswind After Takeoff. ................................................................ 53

4.8. Turns After Takeoff. ............................................................................................... 53
4.9. Climbs. .................................................................................................................... 53
Chapter 5— TRAFFIC PATTERNS AND LANDINGS 55
5.1. Introduction............................................................................................................. 55
5.2. Letdown and Traffic Entry...................................................................................... 55
5.3. Aircraft Configuration. ........................................................................................... 55
5.4. Overhead Pattern and Landing................................................................................ 57
Figure 5.1. Normal Traffic Pattern. ........................................................................................... 57
Table 5.1. Overhead Pattern Parameters. ................................................................................. 57
5.5. Initial. ...................................................................................................................... 59
5.6. Break. ...................................................................................................................... 59
5.7. Inside or Closed Downwind.................................................................................... 60
5.8. Perch and Final Turn............................................................................................... 61
Figure 5.2. Perch Point Reference. ............................................................................................ 61
5.9. Final. ....................................................................................................................... 63
5.10. Straight-in Approach............................................................................................... 63
5.11. Normal landing. ...................................................................................................... 64
5.12. Touch-and-go landing. ............................................................................................ 67
5.13. Closed Traffic (Closed Pull-up) (Figure 5.3.). ........................................................ 67
Figure 5.3. Closed Pull-up......................................................................................................... 68
5.14. Abnormal Pattern Procedures. ................................................................................ 69
5.15. Go-around. .............................................................................................................. 69
5.16. Final Irregularities................................................................................................... 70
5.17. Landing Irregularities. ............................................................................................ 71
5.18. Emergency Landing Patterns (ELP). ...................................................................... 74
Figure 5.4. Forced Landing ORM 3-2-1. .................................................................................. 76
Figure 5.5. GPS Use During HAPL/ELPs. ............................................................................... 81
Figure 5.6. Emergency Landing Pattern (Typical). ................................................................... 83
Table 5.2. Checkpoints for ELP. .............................................................................................. 83

Chapter 6— CONTACT 90
6.1. Introduction............................................................................................................. 90
6.2. Checks..................................................................................................................... 90
6.3. Maneuvering at Increased G Loading. .................................................................... 90
6.4. Area Orientation (Figure 6.1.). ............................................................................... 92
Figure 6.1. Area Orientation. .................................................................................................... 93
6.5. Energy Management. .............................................................................................. 94
6.6. Power-on Stalls. ...................................................................................................... 95
6.7. ELP Stalls. .............................................................................................................. 96
6.8. Traffic Pattern Stalls. .............................................................................................. 97
6.9. Secondary Stall. ...................................................................................................... 99
6.10. Slow Flight.............................................................................................................. 99
6.11. Stability Demonstration. ......................................................................................... 101
6.12. Inadvertent Departure from Controlled Flight. ....................................................... 102
6.13. Intentional Spin Entry (Emphasizing Departure Recognition and Recovery). ....... 102
6.14. Intentional Spin Entry (Emphasizing Near Steady State Spin Recognition and
Recovery). ................................................................................................................ 103
6.15. Contact Recoveries from Abnormal Flight. ............................................................ 104
Figure 6.2. Nose-high Recovery. .............................................................................................. 105
Figure 6.3. Nose-low Recovery................................................................................................. 106
6.16. Aerobatics. .............................................................................................................. 106
Table 6.1. Summary of Entry Airspeeds and Power Settings for Aerobatics. ......................... 107
6.17. Aileron .................................................................................................................... 107
Figure 6.4. Aileron Roll. ........................................................................................................... 108
6.18. Lazy Eight (Figure 6.5.). ......................................................................................... 108
Figure 6.5. Lazy Eight. .............................................................................................................. 109
6.19. Barrel Roll (Figure 6.6). ......................................................................................... 110
Figure 6.6. Barrel Roll............................................................................................................... 111
6.20. Loop (Figure 6.7.). .................................................................................................. 112

Figure 6.7. Loop. ....................................................................................................................... 113
6.21. Immelmann (Figure 6.8.). ....................................................................................... 114
Figure 6.8. Immelmann. ............................................................................................................ 114
6.22. Split-S (Figure 6.9.). ............................................................................................... 115
Figure 6.9. Split-S. .................................................................................................................... 115
6.23. Cuban Eight (Figure 6.10.). .................................................................................... 116
Figure 6.10. Cuban Eight. ........................................................................................................... 117
6.24. Cloverleaf (Figure 6.11.)......................................................................................... 117
Figure 6.11. Cloverleaf................................................................................................................ 118
6.25. Chandelle (Figure 6.12.). ........................................................................................ 119
Figure 6.12. Chandelle. ............................................................................................................... 119
Chapter 7— INSTRUMENT FLYING 121
7.1. Introduction............................................................................................................. 121
7.2. RCP Instrument Procedures. ................................................................................... 121
7.3. Use of Vision-Restricting Device (VRD). .............................................................. 121
7.4. EFIS and GPS Display Options. ............................................................................. 121
7.5. Task Management. .................................................................................................. 121
7.6. Cockpit Organization. ............................................................................................. 121
7.7. Control and Performance Concept. ......................................................................... 122
Table 7.1. Common Instrument Pitch and Power Settings. ..................................................... 122
7.8. Instrument Flight Maneuvers. ................................................................................. 123
7.9. Turns and Turns To Headings................................................................................. 123
7.10. Airspeed Changes. .................................................................................................. 123
7.11. Constant Airspeed Climbs and Descents. ............................................................... 124
7.12. Constant Rate Climbs and Descents. ...................................................................... 124
7.13. Instrument Slow Flight. .......................................................................................... 124
7.14. Steep Turns. ............................................................................................................ 125
7.15. Vertical-S. ............................................................................................................... 125
7.16. Confidence Maneuvers. .......................................................................................... 125

7.17. Unusual Attitude Recoveries. ................................................................................. 126
7.18. Spatial Disorientation Demonstrations. .................................................................. 127
7.19. Application of Instrument Flight Maneuvers. ......................................................... 128
7.20. Instrument Takeoff (ITO) and Climb. .................................................................... 128
7.21. Level Off. ................................................................................................................ 128
7.22. Instrument Departures............................................................................................. 129
7.23. Course Intercepts. ................................................................................................... 129
Figure 7.1. Inbound Course Intercepts. ..................................................................................... 131
Figure 7.2. Outbound Course Intercepts (Away from the Station). .......................................... 132
7.24. Arc and Radial Intercepts........................................................................................ 133
7.25. Fix-to-fix. ................................................................................................................ 133
7.26. In-flight Checks. ..................................................................................................... 134
Figure 7.3. Fix-to-fix Example. ................................................................................................. 135
Figure 7.4. Visualize the HSI. ................................................................................................... 136
7.27. Holding. .................................................................................................................. 138
7.28. Penetration Approach. ............................................................................................ 138
7.29. Enroute Descents. ................................................................................................... 138
Figure 7.5. EADI Descent Calculation. ..................................................................................... 140
7.30. Final Approach. ...................................................................................................... 140
7.31. Transition to Landing.............................................................................................. 141
7.32. Circling Approach................................................................................................... 142
7.33. Missed Approach. ................................................................................................... 143
7.34. Climbout. ................................................................................................................ 143
Chapter 8— NAVIGATION 144
Section 8A— General 144
8.1. Introduction............................................................................................................. 144
8.2. General .................................................................................................................... 144
8.3. Mission Analysis..................................................................................................... 144

8.5. Task Management and (or) Cockpit Organization.................................................. 145
8.6. Ground Ops. ............................................................................................................ 145
Section 8B— IFR Navigation 146
8.7. Introduction............................................................................................................. 146
8.9. Route Planning. ....................................................................................................... 146
Figure 8.1. AF Form 70 Example. ............................................................................................ 148
8.10. Ground Ops. ............................................................................................................ 148
8.11. Departure. ............................................................................................................... 149
8.12. Enroute. ................................................................................................................... 149
8.13. Arrival. .................................................................................................................... 150
Figure 8.2. Typical IFR Navigation Flight. ............................................................................... 150
Section 8C— VFR Navigation 150
8.14. Introduction............................................................................................................. 150
8.16. Route Planning. ....................................................................................................... 151
8.17. VFR Departure. ....................................................................................................... 152
8.18. Flying the Route...................................................................................................... 152
Section 8D— Low-Level VFR Navigation 153
8.20. Introduction............................................................................................................. 153
8.22. Scheduling and Filing. ............................................................................................ 155
8.23. Briefing. .................................................................................................................. 155
8.24. Flying the Route...................................................................................................... 155
Chapter 9— TWO-SHIP FORMATION 159
Section 9A— General 159
9.1. Introduction............................................................................................................. 159

Section 9B— Formation Missions 159
9.2. Introduction............................................................................................................. 159
9.3. Responsibilities. ...................................................................................................... 159
9.4. Visual Signals. ........................................................................................................ 164
9.5. In-flight Checks. ..................................................................................................... 164
9.6. Fuel and G Awareness. ........................................................................................... 165
9.7. FENCE Check......................................................................................................... 165
9.8. Battle Damage (BD) Check. ................................................................................... 165
9.10. Mission Briefing. .................................................................................................... 166
9.11. G-awareness Exercise. ............................................................................................ 167
9.12. KIO and Terminate Procedures. ............................................................................. 167
9.13. Lost Wingman Procedures. ..................................................................................... 168
9.14. Practice Lost Wingman Procedures. ....................................................................... 169
9.15. Formation Breakout. ............................................................................................... 169
9.16. Lost Sight Procedures. ............................................................................................ 170
9.17. Lead Changes.......................................................................................................... 170
9.18. Speed Brake Exercise. ............................................................................................ 171
Section 9C— Maneuvering Fundamentals 172
9.19. Introduction............................................................................................................. 172
Figure 9.1. HCA and AA. ......................................................................................................... 172
Figure 9.2. AA........................................................................................................................... 173
Figure 9.3. 30 and 45 AA. ......................................................................................................... 173
Figure 9.4. Lift and Velocity Vectors........................................................................................ 174
Figure 9.5. POM. ....................................................................................................................... 174
Figure 9.6. Lead Pursuit. ........................................................................................................... 175
Figure 9.7. Pure Pursuit. ............................................................................................................ 176
Figure 9.8. Lag Pursuit. ............................................................................................................. 177
Figure 9.9. Lag Pursuit - Continued. ......................................................................................... 178

Figure 9.10. Aircraft 3/9 Line. .................................................................................................... 179
Figure 9.11. High Yo-Yo. ........................................................................................................... 180
Figure 9.12. Quarter Plane. ......................................................................................................... 181
Figure 9.13. Low Yo-Yo. ............................................................................................................ 181
Section 9D— Formation Fundamentals 181
9.20. Introduction............................................................................................................. 181
Figure 9.14. Fingertip Turn-into and Turn-away Positions......................................................... 182
Figure 9.15. Fingertip Spacing References. ................................................................................ 183
9.21. Route Formation. .................................................................................................... 183
Figure 9.16. Route. ...................................................................................................................... 185
9.22. Crossunder (Figure 9.17.). ...................................................................................... 185
Figure 9.17. Crossunder. ............................................................................................................. 186
9.23. Echelon Turn (Figure 9.18.).................................................................................... 186
Figure 9.18. Echelon Turn........................................................................................................... 187
9.24. Reforms................................................................................................................... 187
9.25. Rejoins. ................................................................................................................... 188
9.26. Overshoots. ............................................................................................................. 190
Figure 9.19. Overshoot. ............................................................................................................... 191
9.27. Fighting Wing. ........................................................................................................ 191
Figure 9.20. Fighting Wing Cone................................................................................................ 191
9.28. Chase....................................................................................................................... 192
Section 9E— Mission Execution 192
9.29. Introduction............................................................................................................. 192
9.30. Ground Ops. ............................................................................................................ 192
9.31. Formation Departures (Figure 9.21.). ..................................................................... 193
Figure 9.21. Formation Takeoff. ................................................................................................. 193
9.32. Wing Work Exercise (WW Ex). ............................................................................. 196
Table 9.1. T-6 WW Ex Training Levels and Parameters. ........................................................ 196
9.33. Close Trail Exercise (Figure 9.22.). ........................................................................ 198

Figure 9.22. Close Trail............................................................................................................... 198
9.34. Pitchout. .................................................................................................................. 199
9.35. Take Spacing........................................................................................................... 199
Table 9.2. Summary of Formation Position Descriptions, References, and Flight Control
Inputs. ...................................................................................................................... 200
Section 9F— T-6 Extended Trail and Preparatory Exercise Procedures 201
9.36. General. ................................................................................................................... 201
9.37. Range Estimation. Table 9.3. .................................................................................. 201
Table 9.3. Range Estimation. ................................................................................................... 201
9.38. Blind Exercise. ........................................................................................................ 201
Figure 9.23. Blind Exercise. ........................................................................................................ 203
Figure 9.24. High Aspect Rejoin Technique. .............................................................................. 204
9.39. Extended Trail (ET). ............................................................................................... 204
Table 9.4. ET Exercise Training Levels and Parameters. ........................................................ 205
Section 9G— Formation Recoveries 208
9.40. Objective. ................................................................................................................ 208
Figure 9.25. Stacked Level on Final. .......................................................................................... 210
Section 9H— Abnormal Procedures 211
9.41. Introduction............................................................................................................. 211
9.42. Formation Takeoff Abnormalities. ......................................................................... 211
9.43. Airborne Emergencies (General). ........................................................................... 212
9.44. Engine Problems. .................................................................................................... 213
9.45. Physiological Incident............................................................................................. 213
9.46. Bird Strike. .............................................................................................................. 213
9.47. Midair Collision. ..................................................................................................... 213
9.48. Spatial Disorientation. ............................................................................................ 213
9.49. Aircraft Strobe Lights. ............................................................................................ 213
9.50. Icing. ....................................................................................................................... 213
9.51. NORDO. ................................................................................................................. 213

9.52. Ejection. .................................................................................................................. 214
Chapter 10— NIGHT FLYING 215
10.1. Introduction............................................................................................................. 215
10.2. Briefing. .................................................................................................................. 215
10.3. Night Flying Techniques......................................................................................... 215
10.4. Inspections and Checks. .......................................................................................... 215
10.5. Taxiing. ................................................................................................................... 215
10.6. Takeoff. ................................................................................................................... 216
10.7. Optical Illusions. ..................................................................................................... 216
10.8. Spatial Disorientation. ............................................................................................ 216
10.9. Area Orientation. .................................................................................................... 216
10.10. Unusual Attitudes. .................................................................................................. 216
10.11. Night VFR............................................................................................................... 216
10.12. Night Overhead Patterns. ........................................................................................ 217
10.13. Night Landings. ...................................................................................................... 217
Attachment 1— GLOSSARY OF REFERENCES AND SUPPORTING INFORMATION 218
Attachment 2— THREE- AND FOUR-SHIP FORMATIONS 224
Attachment 3— ENJJPT FORMATION PROCEDURES 239
Attachment 4— AHC PROGRAM 267

Chapter 1
GENERAL INFORMATION
1.1. General.
1.1.1. This manual provides the necessary procedures to safely and effectively employ the T-
6. It provides the basis for development of the necessary physical skills and mental aptitude
required to fly the aircraft. The skills developed in the T-6 are applicable to flying any
military aircraft and provide the foundation for all follow-on flying training.
1.1.2. TO 1T-6A-1 contains detailed instructions for inspections, checks, and procedures. It
also provides detailed information on aircraft systems and systems operation. The TO and
this publication complement each other.
1.2. Using This Manual. In general, this manual is organized in an order that parallels the
training flow in pilot training. The first five chapters cover topics applicable to every sortie, and
the second five chapters cover topics by category of flight. While each chapter builds on skills
and concepts introduced in previous chapters, the initial phase of training requires mastery of all
concepts and skills introduced in chapters 1 through 6. During subsequent stages of training,
study centers on specific category chapters. Regular review of previous material is required.
1.3. Introduction. The concepts in Chapter 1 apply to every kind of sortie flown in the T-6,
and many are universally applicable to flight in every type of military aircraft. Full
understanding of these general concepts is developed through study and flying experience;
therefore, regular review of this chapter is required.
1.4. Safety. Safety is a critical component of successful mission accomplishment on every
sortie. The safety mindset of each crew member is a key part in the overall safety of any flying
operation. Each individual is responsible for minimizing risk to the people and assets under his
or her control and identifying potential safety hazards.
1.4.1. Ground Safety. The flight line is an extremely busy environment. Moving aircraft,
support equipment, and emergency vehicles create a hazardous environment. Extra diligence
is required to prevent a tragic event.
1.4.1.1. Stay clear of the aircraft danger areas as depicted in TO 1T-6A-1, Section 2
(prop areas and/or the jet exhaust of running aircraft).
1.4.1.2. Secure loose items prior to entering the flight line to prevent foreign object
damage (FOD).
1.4.1.3. Maintain constant watch for moving vehicles.
1.4.2. Flying Safety. Once airborne, safety assumes a more dynamic character. For
example, a converging aircraft may unexpectedly appear, or a malfunction can cause
distractions during a critical phase of flight. Safe operation requires an aggressive disposition
toward gaining and maintaining situational awareness (SA). According to AFI 11-290,
Cockpit/Crew Resource Management Training Program, SA is an “aircrew member’s
continuous perception of self and aircraft in relation to the dynamic environment of flight,
threats, and mission, and the ability to forecast, then execute, tasks based upon that
perception.” Methods to maintain SA include:
1.4.2.1. Clearing the airspace.
1.4.2.2. Monitoring aircraft systems.
1.4.2.3. Establishing and maintaining an emergency recovery plan before an emergency
occurs.
1.5. Flight Discipline. Flight discipline is at the core of every flying operation. Maintaining the
highest standards of integrity, professional military pilots must adhere to the spirit and intent of
governing guidelines while executing the mission in the presence of temptation to do otherwise.
1.5.1. Flight discipline begins with mission preparation. Know the rules and procedures,
study the profile, ensure crew rest requirements are met, and show up prepared to fly. One
unprepared crewmember can jeopardize the mission.
1.5.2. Flight discipline continues with the briefing. Be on time, be ready to discuss the
mission, and (or) be ready to brief. Ensure all questions are answered and mission
requirements are understood.
1.5.3. Flight discipline is demonstrated in the air by executing the mission as briefed
according to governing guidelines, from engine start to engine shutdown.
1.5.4. Flight discipline should be evaluated and specifically addressed during every mission
debrief.
1.6. Checklist Discipline. TO 1T-6A-1CL, The Pilot’s Abbreviated Flight Crew Checklist, is a
condensed version of TO 1T-6A-1. The omission of a checklist item could lead to a dangerous
situation. Therefore, positively confirm completion of all checklists regardless of how they are
accomplished (for example, memory aid, mnemonic, approved unit-developed checklist [UDC]
or flight crew checklist). One technique to ensure accomplishment of every step is to execute a
few items from memory; then reference the checklist page to verify completion. Further
guidance on checklist use follows:
1.6.1. UDCs may be published to further condense many of the checklists used during
ground and flight operations. UDCs often include multiple checklists on a single sheet that
can be conveniently referenced without having to manipulate the flight crew checklist. UDCs
are commonly color coded for easy identification of steps that need to be highlighted for easy
reference.
1.6.2. It is not necessary to refer to the checklist during critical phases of flight.
1.6.3. There will be only one pilot actively controlling the aircraft at any point in time. This
pilot is referred to in the rest of this manual as the pilot flying (PF). The PF is responsible for
completion of all checklists.
1.6.4. Checklist items marked “(BOTH)” must be completed in both the front cockpit (FCP)
and rear cockpit (RCP) (if occupied). The PF will initiate a “(BOTH)” checklist item by
challenging the pilot not flying (PNF). A “(BOTH)” item is not complete until a proper
response is received from the PNF. The use of this method of accomplishment is why
“(BOTH)” items are often referred to as “challenge and response” items.
1.6.5. Once started, attempt to complete checklists without interruption. If interrupted, or if it

is discovered that an item was omitted, good techniques to get back on track include
restarting at the first step of the checklist or restarting two to three steps prior to the missed or
interrupted checklist step. Do not start a new checklist until completing the previous one.
1.6.6. Throughout your flying career many checklists and required items are memorized
through mnemonics or standardized phrases. The purposes of these are to help you remember
what needs to be done at a specific time. One caution is that you do not give lip service to
performing a checklist when using a standardized phrase or mnemonic. You must perform
the checklist item or required check.
1.7. Single-engine Mentality. The T-6 engine has an excellent record of reliability, but the
potential for engine loss deserves special consideration. Two options exist for engine failure:
ejection or recovery to a suitable airfield. Emergency landing pattern (ELP) practice increases
the chances of successful recovery; however, the aircraft is fitted with a highly capable and
proven ejection seat that should be used if there is any doubt about safe recovery. Special single-
engine considerations include:
1.7.1. Maintain extra vigilance and a conservative response to unusual engine indications.
With unusual engine indications, recover to a suitable airfield.
1.7.2. Maintain awareness of nearest suitable emergency airfields during all phases of flight.
1.7.3. Do not shut down the engine in flight if it is producing useable thrust unless it is
confirmed to be on fire or is vibrating excessively with indications of impending failure.
1.7.4. Set a minimum ejection altitude when immediate ejection is not warranted. This
altitude is based on energy level (altitude and airspeed), configuration, and position relative
to a suitable emergency airfield.
1.7.5. Determine if engine restarts should be attempted. Consider the time delay and altitude
lost between restart initiation and usable torque, the risk of fire, the presence of FOD and
whether or not the engine is seized. (Often referred to as “fire, FOD, or frozen”.)
1.8. Cockpit/Crew Resource Management (CRM).
1.8.1. The following topics are covered in detail in AFI 11-290; however, a simplified
explanation of the concepts is sufficient for the early stages of flying training. The CRM
program is designed to develop aircrew skills in recognizing and responding to the conditions
that lead to aircrew error. While flying, CRM is the effective use of all available resources to
safely and efficiently accomplish mission objectives. CRM centers on the following six
skills:
1.8.1.1. Communication. Communication is the sharing of information with others to
cause action. Communications may direct, inform, question, or persuade.
1.8.1.2. Crew/Flight Coordination. Proper coordination includes crew/flight integrity
and wingman consideration. Crew/Flight integrity requires the utilization of all members
of a flight to accomplish the mission. Wingman consideration requires flight members to
recognize each other’s limitations and plan or act accordingly.
1.8.1.3. Mission Analysis. Includes pre-mission analysis and planning, briefing, and
post mission debrief.
1.8.1.4. Risk Management. Logic-based, common sense approach to decision making

is based on human, material, and environmental factors. The goal is to match risk to the
mission, not completely eliminate risk.
1.8.1.5. Situational Awareness. SA is the continuous perception of self and aircraft in
relation to the dynamic environment of flight, threats, and mission. It also includes the
ability to forecast, then execute tasks based upon that perception.
1.8.1.6. Task Management. Task management is the ability to establish priorities and
alter a course of action based on new information. It includes management of automation,
effective use of available resources, checklist discipline, and compliance with standard
operating procedures.
1.8.2. CRM is designed to focus aircrew members on agencies, procedures, and resources
available to enable mission success. To do this, locally developed CRM checklists describe
behaviors to reinforce and others to avoid. A CRM topic will be included in the mission
brief; it should be tailored to specific mission requirements or conditions; and it will be
evaluated during the debrief.
1.9. Risk Management. Flying has inherent risks. RM is the process used to identify and
reduce the risks of flying to an acceptable level. Locally developed RM processes balance
training benefit and risk. Risk can often be minimized by mission changes that do not negatively
impact training. Typical RM assessments include analysis in the following general categories:
1.9.1. Environmental conditions (for example, weather, bird status, index of thermal stress).
1.9.2. Mission profile (for example, formation, visual flight rules (VFR), low level, use of
uncontrolled airfields).
1.9.3. Pilot factors (for example, experience level, fatigue, currency).
1.10. Mission Preparation. Mission success is directly related to mission preparation. Flying
time is limited and solid preparation maximizes the effectiveness of limited airborne time.
Mission preparation consists of the following four areas:
1.10.1. General Study. Study in general areas builds a foundation of knowledge for pilot
training, other formal training courses, and operational missions. Some topics such as the
flight manual are aircraft specific and other topics such as local area procedures are location
specific. Areas of study including instrument rules and procedures (AFMAN 11-217,
Volumes 1 and 2, Instrument Flight Procedures, and AFI 11-202, Volume 3), weather,
aerodynamics, flight information publications (FLIP), and navigation, are generic because
they apply to any aircraft, at any location, flying any type of mission. General study is a
continuous process that is an integral part of a successful career in military aviation.
1.10.2. Mission Selection. Preparation can be focused only after a specific mission is
identified. In formal training courses, a syllabus normally determines missions. However, in
many cases, syllabi provide a basic framework, and missions are tailored to individual
training needs and requirements by reviewing the student grade book or training folder. In
the formal pilot training environment, mission selection consists of objective setting and then
profile selection. Objectives focus training to specific areas that must be accomplished to
make the mission successful. The profile is the exact list of maneuvers performed on a
particular sortie. Consider the following when setting objectives:
1.10.2.1. The overall mission objective should give the big picture. What must occur for
the sortie to be successful? These objectives are usually pulled from the syllabus in a
formal training course.
1.10.2.2. Training objectives are specific and help determine success in relation to the
syllabus, course training standards, continuation training requirements, etc. A valid
objective is realistic, achievable, and measurable.
1.10.3. Mission-specific Study. Study in areas specifically related to the mission. This
includes general study areas that are specifically related to the mission (for example, study of
AFMAN 11-217, Volume 1, before an instrument training sortie). Mission-specific areas
include, but are not limited to, operational restrictions (for type of sortie), initial approach
plate (IAP) review, local area procedures (for that sortie), maneuver review, and daily study
topics (for example, emergency procedure [EP] of the day).
1.10.3.1. Chair-flying. Specific study also includes chair-flying. This is an in-depth,
mental rehearsal of the sortie. It is visualization of specific maneuvers and techniques,
and mental review of checklists and specific tasks. Review individual maneuvers, in
appropriate sections of the flight manual and this manual, before each sortie. Study
should focus on the primary mission, but some time must be devoted to possible alternate
missions.
1.10.3.1.1. To properly chair-fly, visualize each aspect of the sortie. When initially
learning to fly, this should include all aspects of the mission to include preflight
planning, stepping, pre-flighting life support equipment, ground operations, etc. Step
through each phase of flight in sequence and visualize each action, switch position,
and radio call. As you progress through the sortie in this manner, you will identify
points during the sortie which require additional study. As experience is gained,
chair-flying may only include new events or maneuvers, task intensive phases of
flight, or events which have not been recently practiced. Though time consuming,
properly chair-flying each sortie will pay dividends as training progresses and
throughout your flying career.
1.10.4. Mission Analysis. The previous facets of mission preparation generally prepare the
pilot for the mission, but there are tasks that must be accomplished to execute the specific
mission on a specific day. Mission analysis includes all the tasks that turn the plan into
reality. The following list includes many of the mission analysis steps:
1.10.4.1. Check notices to airmen (NOTAM), weather, and operations (ops) notes.
1.10.4.2. Sign off go/no-go (items that must be accomplished before flying).
1.10.4.2.1. Review flight crew information file (FCIF).
1.10.4.2.2. Review squadron or pilot read files.
1.10.4.3. Attend mass brief (some formal programs brief the entire class before
individual mission briefings occur).
1.10.4.4. Check aircraft sign out data, local profile, call sign, etc.
1.10.4.5. Schedule or reserve airspace (limited special use airspace, low-level military
training route [MTR], etc.).
1.10.4.6. Check bird hazard models.

1.10.4.7. Call destination if flying to an airfield other than the home airfield.
1.10.4.8. Review local restrictions (ramp freeze, construction, etc.).
1.10.4.9. Prepare briefing (briefing board, EP of the day, etc.).
1.10.4.10. Compute takeoff and landing data (TOLD).
1.10.4.11. Compute or check weight and balance.
1.10.4.12. Plan fuel, select route, file a flight plan.
1.11. Fuel Considerations. Unlike many operational and training aircraft, the T-6 is not fuel
limited on most training sorties. Generally, syllabus directives, not available fuel, determine the
duration of most sorties; however, regular fuel checks are still required and are an important part
of each mission.
1.11.1. Bingo, joker, and normal recovery fuels are defined in AFI 11-2T-6, Volume 3, T-6
Operations Procedures.
1.11.2. AFI 11-202, Volume 3, defines fuel requirements for all sorties.
1.11.3. Bingo fuel is briefed on every mission. Joker fuel is briefed and set at preplanned
transition points in the sortie, if applicable. A mission may require several joker fuels or none
at all.
1.11.4. If bingo fuel is reached, recovery should be initiated to arrive at the intended
destination with required fuel reserves. On most T-6 syllabus training sorties, recovery is
normally initiated prior to reaching bingo fuel due to sortie duration limitations.
1.11.5. Mission priorities and flight conditions may change while airborne (for example,
area assignment, weather conditions, alternate airfield requirements, etc.). The aircraft
commander (AC) of a single-ship mission or the flight lead (FL) of a formation may adjust
joker and (or) bingo fuels during flight to accommodate mission conditions.
1.12. Mission Briefing. The AC or FL may or may not be the actual briefer, but in every case
will ensure that each mission is thoroughly briefed and debriefed.
1.12.1. Briefings set the tone for all missions. All crewmembers will be on time, prepared,
and in possession of all required material and information. Complete all preflight
administrative tasks (such as checking the weather and the NOTAMs) before the briefing.
1.12.2. As a minimum, locally established briefing guides will cover all required items.
Discuss formal special interest items during all briefings.
1.12.3. Other crewmembers or formation members will be prepared to assist the AC or FL.
1.12.4. The briefing should focus on how to successfully accomplish the established
objectives.
1.13. Debrief. The purpose of the debrief is to determine if mission objectives were achieved.
From both administrative and tactical perspectives, the AC should:
1.13.1. Cover what went right or wrong, root causes of errors, and how to improve
subsequent missions.
1.13.2. Address all questions, concerns, and address disagreements.

1.13.3. Debrief by objective, examining how well each objective was achieved.
1.13.4. Summarize the mission with emphasis on major learning points and considerations
for improvement of deficient areas on future missions.
1.14. Tandem Seat Challenges. Limited visibility of the crewmember in the other cockpit
makes it difficult to judge intentions, anticipate actions, and verify aircraft systems
configuration. Verbal communication must compensate for the lack of intercockpit visibility.
Most functions are controllable from either cockpit; however, some items can only be
manipulated or directly checked in the front cockpit. To reduce the potential adverse impact of
tandem seating:
1.14.1. Know which systems are controlled from the FCP or RCP, and how to monitor
systems which can only be monitored or controlled from the opposite cockpit through verbal
or visual coordination:
1.14.1.1. Activation of the auxiliary battery - FCP.
1.14.1.2. Manual fuel balance left/right (L/R) switch - FCP.
1.14.1.3. Environmental control system controls - FCP.
1.14.1.4. Parking brake position - FCP.
1.14.1.5. Emergency gear extension - FCP.
1.14.1.6. Power Management Unit (PMU)- FCP.
1.14.1.7. Firewall Shutoff Handle – FCP.
1.14.1.8. Gust Lock – FCP.
1.14.1.9. Interseat sequencing system (ISS) - RCP.
1.14.1.10. Interphone Hot/Cold mic switch – RCP.
1.14.2. Know which systems, although controlled from the FCP, can be checked from the
RCP and how:
1.14.2.1. Check bleed air inflow by pressing the G-suit test button.
1.14.2.2. Confirm on board oxygen-generating system (OBOGS) is operating by
momentarily turning off supply lever.
1.14.2.3. Confirm defog operation by sound or temperature of the defog outlet valves
along the canopy rail.
1.14.2.4. Confirm external light operation (on the ground) by looking for reflections
from adjacent aircraft or other surfaces.
1.14.3. Consider FCP pilot landing if RCP visibility is severely compromised.
1.14.4. Ensure all crewmembers thoroughly understand transfer of aircraft and (or) systems
control.
1.15. Transfer of Aircraft and Systems Control. Only one pilot at a time can fly the aircraft.
It is vital for flight safety to clearly establish who is the PF and who is the PNF as fatal accidents
have occurred when two pilots attempted to fly the aircraft simultaneously. The PF is responsible
for checklist completion and systems operation; however, the PF may task the PNF to operate
systems. Due to the importance of proper transfer of aircraft control, the following rules apply:
1.15.1. Transfer of aircraft control:
1.15.1.1. The PF relinquishing control says, “You have the aircraft.”
1.15.1.2. The PNF assumes control and says, “I have the aircraft,” and noticeably shakes
the control stick.
1.15.1.3. The order may be reversed as the AC always retains the authority to take
aircraft control when required. The order of transfer is less important than each
crewmember executing his or her role according to the procedures listed.
1.15.1.4. If the AC, as the PNF, says “I have the aircraft” and noticeably shakes the
control stick, the PF must immediately relinquish control of the aircraft, and say “You
have the aircraft.” This is an example of how the order is reversed, but the roles continue
to be executed.
1.15.1.5. Using the exact words is critical to establish proper habit patterns that enhance
swift, unambiguous transfer of aircraft control. Do not use other words such as “it” or
“jet” in lieu of the term “aircraft” as they can be misunderstood, misheard, and create
confusion.
1.15.2. In the event of intercom failure, the PF signals the desire to relinquish aircraft control
by smoothly pushing the rudder pedals in a back-and-forth motion, and the PNF assumes
control by vigorously shaking the control stick. The pilot relinquishing control raises both
hands in the air for the other pilot to see either directly from the RCP or using mirrors from
the FCP.
1.15.3. Never relinquish control of the aircraft until the other pilot has positively assumed
control of the aircraft (shaken the control stick).
1.15.4. Do not hesitate to relinquish control when directed by the AC.
1.15.5. Immediately query the other crewmember in case of confusion.
1.15.6. The tandem seating setup of T-6 systems can be confusing if not managed properly.
It is crucial to coordinate systems use to avoid inadvertent inputs. Systems that require crew
coordination include: canopy, radio management unit (RMU), global positioning system
(GPS), and electronic flight instrument system (EFIS) configuration. The PF controls all of
the systems of the aircraft unless a transfer of that system has been clearly communicated
between the crewmembers. The PNF should also communicate when transferring control of
the system back to the PF.
1.16. Clearing. Each crewmember is responsible for collision avoidance regardless of rank,
experience, or cockpit position, whether operating under instrument flight rules (IFR) or VFR.
The three primary tools for clearing in the T-6 are eyes, radios, and the Traffic Advisory System
(TAS). In addition, air traffic control (ATC) shares aircraft separation responsibility with the
pilot and provides separation between IFR and participating VFR aircraft operating in controlled
airspace. Pilots have the responsibility to clear the aircraft in all directions, and although the use
of radar monitoring, assigned areas, or ATC separation can assist in ensuring clearance, it does
not relieve pilots of the responsibility. The following principles apply to clearing regardless of
flight conditions:
1.16.1. Visual detection is the most important factor in clearing for other aircraft. The
following methods can help the pilot see other aircraft:
1.16.1.1. Visual Scanning. Search an area with an arc of approximately 20-30 degrees
at a time and focus on a distant point (cloud, ground reference, etc.) within the arc for 3-5
seconds. After cross-checking instruments in the cockpit, it is necessary to refocus on a
distant point because the eye will naturally focus at a distance of about 18 inches.
1.16.1.2. Heading Changes. When on a collision course, another aircraft appears
stationary in the canopy and is difficult to see. The eye most readily detects line of sight
(LOS) motion. Slight heading changes can create the relative movement required for
detection of the other aircraft. This method is most effective when ATC or TAS provides
traffic alerts for aircraft that are not acquired visually.
1.16.1.3. Wing Flashes. When an aircraft is known to be close but not visually
acquired, a wing flash or rock can create the necessary movement for detection.
1.16.1.4. Radios and TAS. Position reports and TAS range or position information can
help narrow visual clearing efforts to specific quadrants. Prioritize but do not channelize
as the accuracy of the information provided can vary depending on specific conditions
and capabilities. Knowledge of local area traffic can also cue crewmembers to the most
likely areas of potential conflict.
1.16.2. If the PNF sees a hazard, point it out to the PF, indicate left or right, a clock position,
and relationship to the horizon (high, level, or low). For example, “traffic, right 2 o’clock
low, 2 miles, tracking right to left.” See Figure 1.1, Figure 1.2, and Figure 1.3 for canopy
code references.
Figure 1.1. Clock Positions.

Figure 1.2. FCP Canopy Code, Elevation.

Figure 1.3. FCP Canopy Code, Azimuth.
1.16.3. If time is critical and collision is imminent, the PNF should take control of the
aircraft and avoid the hazard. Ensure the intended flight path is well clear of other aircraft
(500 feet minimum).
1.16.4. Be aware of the restrictions to visibility created by the canopy bows.
1.16.5. Use clearing turns when warranted to clear blind spots beneath the aircraft fuselage
and wings, especially in training areas. Clearing turns can consist of turns that include high
bank angles or turns of approximately 90 degrees off the established heading.
1.16.6. Local traffic patterns present the greatest collision potential. To reduce risk, military
and civilian traffic patterns utilize standard procedures. While visual scans are vital in this
environment, pattern procedures, including proper radio calls, are the primary means of
deconfliction. The following can improve clearing in the pattern:
1.16.6.1. Knowledge of Choke Points in the Pattern. Military: 90-to-initial, VFR
entry, closed downwind, high-to-low key, and the perch point. Civilian: pattern entry,
downwind, and final.
1.16.6.2. Proper Setting of the TAS. Selection of a smaller range improves usability of
TAS information in the pattern. Consider using the “above” function of the TAS when in
a climb and the “below” function when in level flight or descent. This will increase the
displayed detection envelope and thus provide better traffic awareness as compared to
keeping the system in its “normal” function.
1.16.6.3. Compliance with Mandatory Radio Transmissions. They serve as position
reports essential to pattern deconfliction. Likewise, other aircraft’s radio transmissions
help visually acquire aircraft in the pattern (commonly referred to as “clearing on the
radios”).
1.17. Radio Procedures. The PF is responsible for all radio calls. The PNF may transmit
without transfer of aircraft control; however, the PF must be notified (see paragraph 1.15.6).
Exception: instructors may immediately correct improper radio calls without first notifying the
student. Radio procedures, definitions, and guidance are contained in the following publications:
AETCI 11-204, Runway Supervisory Unit (RSU) Operations; AFMAN 11-217, Volume 1; FAA
Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM); FLIP, Flight Information Handbook; and individual
wing and (or) squadron instructions. Although these publications do not cover all situations,
pilots should attempt to use standard phraseology as much as practical. Standard terminology
minimizes radio congestion and facilitates effective communication.
1.17.1. Clarity. The single most important factor in pilot-controller communications is
comprehension. Voicing what is required correctly through standard phraseology is
paramount. Use of nonstandard and improvised phrasing, while common, only contributes to
miscommunication and should be minimized. Nonstandard phraseology contributes to
misunderstood clearances and aircraft mishaps. When uncertain of the meaning of standard
phrases used by controlling agencies, clarify with plain language.
1.17.2. Brevity. Brevity is second only to clarity. Every second you are talking on the radio
is a second that is unavailable to the controllers or other pilots. Provide controllers with the
information needed, nothing more, nothing less, in the format expected. Likewise, do not
omit needed information that may require the controller to query you for the missing
information as this also wastes air time.
1.17.2.1. Do not depress the microphone button during other transmissions. Anticipate
other party’s replies to ATC and (or) pilot transmissions and do not interrupt. Try to
avoid transmitting when another aircraft is in a critical phase of flight (for example, in the
flare).
1.17.2.2. Whenever possible, format radio calls as follows: agency calling, call sign,
location, and request. For example, “San Antonio Approach, Texan 10, Area 8 low,
request Auger low ILS with bravo.”
1.17.2.3. Adding verbiage that is not required clutters the radio frequency. Avoid
meaningless phrases such as “with you,” “checking in,” “with a flash,” “at this time,” “be
advised,” on congested frequencies. Provide the controllers with the information needed
simply and clearly in the format expected. Nonstandard radio calls take more time to
understand.
1.17.2.4. Include all required information in calls to ATC to prevent the requirement for
additional ATC queries. When making a detailed request, however, avoid confusion and
frequency congestion by first getting the controller’s attention (for example, “Del Rio
Approach, Texan 10, request”). After the controller acknowledges, state the request.
1.18. GPS Usage. GPS usage is introduced early in primary training. It is used in conjunction
with very high frequency omnidirectional range station (VOR) and distance measuring
equipment (DME) information in a building block approach to navigation and area orientation.
Using the GPS can offer a simple solution to area orientation and navigation in the early stages
of training allowing the focus to be on learning to fly an Air Force aircraft.
1.19. Emergency Procedures. Three basic rules apply to all emergency procedures: (1)
maintain aircraft control, (2) analyze the situation and take proper action, and (3) land as soon as
conditions permit. If the aircraft cannot be recovered safely, ejection may be the only option.
1.19.1. Maintain Aircraft Control. In any abnormal or emergency situation it is imperative
to “fly the aircraft first!” The PF flies the aircraft until the AC directs otherwise. Maintain
an aircraft attitude that allows for an appropriate response to the emergency situation. Set
power and trim to help maintain control. Aircraft control may include the initial turn and (or)
climb to a recovery airfield. In the contact phase, this may involve a contact recovery or out-
of-control flight (OCF) recovery. In low-level navigation, it may involve starting a climb to
the top of the route. In formation, it may involve calling knock it off (KIO) and taking the
number 1 position. A memory aid to help prioritize pilot action, that is applicable in normal
and emergency situations, is, “Aviate, Navigate, Communicate.”
1.19.2. Analyze the Situation and Take Proper Action. Indications of a problem include
aircraft performance, engine instrument readings, or the cockpit warning system (CWS). If
dual, confirm suspect indications with the other crewmember. If the master warning/master
caution light is illuminated, look at the panel before resetting the system by pushing the light
to turn it off. Consider all indications when diagnosing the problem. Proper actions are
dependent on the correct analysis and careful consideration of the circumstances. In many
cases, the proper actions are clear, however, alternate courses of action may exist depending
on the nature of the emergency, flight conditions, and pilot proficiency. Pilot actions may
include:
1.19.2.1. Critical Actions. Boldface procedures are committed to memory and must be
performed immediately to prevent aggravation of the emergency. Sufficient time may not
exist to reference the checklist. After critical steps are performed, the checklist is
referenced for noncritical cleanup steps. Additional noncritical checklists may be
required for successful recovery.
1.19.2.2. Noncritical Actions. These checklist steps contribute to an orderly sequence

of events and improve the chances for successful recovery. Warnings, cautions, and notes
in the checklist must also be reviewed during checklist execution.
1.19.2.3. Communication with the Supervisor of Flying (SOF), Top-3 or Operations
Supervisor, or Runway Supervisory Unit (RSU) Crew. These experts can read
checklists, reference the flight manual, contact the aircraft manufacturer, check
calculations, identify potential chase ships (airborne aircraft than can rejoin on a
distressed aircraft to help with analysis and recovery), or offer advice on course of action
and recovery plans.
1.19.2.4. Communication with ATC. ATC can help identify suitable recovery airfields,
find required frequencies, aid navigation with vectors, alert emergency response assets,
identify hazardous weather, or help find a chase ship.
1.19.2.5. Evaluation of Possible Recovery Airfields. The initial airfield selected may
not always be the best. Changes to energy state may eliminate or expand airfield options.
Additional research, once initial actions are complete, may identify a better option (based
on weather, runway available, emergency response available, etc.).
1.19.2.6. Request for Chase Ship. Chase ships can be a tremendous asset during
emergency situations. They can lead aircraft with instrument malfunctions through
weather, provide assistance similar to ground-based experts, clear for task saturated
emergency aircraft, or handle communications with ATC. See AFI 11-2T-6, Volume 3
for chase ship restrictions.
1.19.2.7. Review of Approach/Landing and Post-landing Actions with Other
Crewmember or Ground-based Agencies. Crew coordination is essential for
successful recovery and incident-free emergency termination. Clear communication with
ground-based agencies is necessary to coordinate contingencies such as possible runway
closure.
1.19.3. Flight Manual Landing Recommendations.
1.19.3.1. Land as soon as possible. A landing should be accomplished at the nearest
suitable landing area considering severity of emergency, weather conditions, field
facilities, ambient lighting, and command guidance. The TO-1T-6A-1 dictates that an
emergency will be declared.
1.19.3.2. Land as soon as conditions permit (determined by nature of emergency and
sound judgment).
1.19.3.3. Land as soon as practical. Emergency conditions are less urgent. The mission
should be terminated; however, the degree of emergency is such that an immediate
landing may not be necessary.
1.19.4. CRM in an Emergency. A successful conclusion to any emergency results from
thorough systems knowledge, sound judgment, and effective CRM. Several resources are
available to aid successful recovery.
1.19.4.1. Inside the Cockpit. The AC determines who flies the aircraft, based on pilot
workload and the experience level and ability of both pilots. The PNF can read the
checklist, monitor systems, provide advice, and maintain SA on the nearest suitable
landing field. The flight crew checklist, in-flight guide, flight information handbook, or
other FLIP can contain useful information.
1.19.4.2. Outside the Cockpit. Outside help can be essential whether dual or solo
during an emergency. ATC agencies can alert emergency services and provide traffic
priority. The SOF, Top-3 or operations supervisor, or RSU crew can provide assistance
with checklists, recommend courses of action, and monitor the situation. A chase ship can
provide inspection of aircraft areas which cannot be seen from either cockpit.
1.19.5. Ejection. If abandoning the aircraft becomes necessary, the AC will use the
command “BAILOUT, BAILOUT, BAILOUT!” as the final directive. If time and
conditions permit, discuss and accomplish ejection procedures with the other crewmember,
using the term “ejection” rather than “bailout.” In critical situations, do not delay an ejection
waiting for the “BAILOUT” command, and do not delay an ejection once the command is
given.
1.20. Tabletop and Standup EPs.
1.20.1. The purpose of tabletop EPs is to expose student pilots to as many different
emergency situations as possible on the ground before they are faced with actually handling
one while airborne. Standup EPs provide the same exposure; however, they have the added
pressure of performing while people are watching over your decisions. This added pressure
simulates the stress of an actual airborne emergency.
1.20.2. The objective of tabletop and standup EPs is to exercise your knowledge and
available resources to formulate and execute a plan to get you safely on the ground. All the
same principles outlined in paragraph 1.19. apply to these practice situations.
1.20.3. Though there can be many techniques used to solve most problems, the use of the
mnemonic A-A-B-C-D-E-F (Figure 1.4.) will help put the basic EP principles into logical
steps.
1.20.3.1. A —Aircraft Control. “Maintain aircraft control” dictates that you continue
to fly the aircraft and get to a stable flight condition that allows you time to analyze the
situation. In the contact phase, this may involve a contact recovery or out-of-control
flight (OCF) recovery. In low-level navigation, it may involve starting a climb to the top
of the route. In formation, it may involve calling knock it off (KIO) and taking the
number 1 position. During this step, describe how you will use the control stick, rudder,
and power control level (PCL) to achieve a stabilized flight condition.
1.20.3.2. A —Analyze the Situation.
1.20.3.2.1. During this phase of the practice situation, time stands still because your
eyes and brain work a lot faster in the aircraft than you can talk when asking
questions about the status of different systems on the aircraft. At this point in time,
ask your IP questions about the aircraft.
1.20.3.2.2. Acronyms can help you analyze the situation. A common one is a
FEVER check for engine problems:
1.20.3.2.2.1. F stands for fluctuating fuel flow. A properly working engine, at a
constant PCL setting should not have fuel flow jumping around more than 10
pounds per hour (PPH).
1.20.3.2.2.2. E stands for excessive interstage-turbine temperature (ITT). The

PMU, if still online, should limit the ITT in range; if not, you have a problem.
1.20.3.2.2.3. V stands for visual signals. Smoke, flames, and oil on the
windscreen are symptoms of engine problems.
1.20.3.2.2.4. E stands for erratic engine operations.
1.20.3.2.2.5. R stands for roughness. An engine making strange noises also
indicate problems.
1.20.3.2.3. If at any time during “analyze the situation” step you realize there may
be signs of an impending engine problem, perform the first four steps of the
precautionary emergency landing (PEL) checklist (turn, climb, clean, check or
“TCCC”). Do not allow airspeed to decrease toward a stall or spin while attempting
to TCCC. Once pointed toward the nearest suitable airfield, attempt to get the aircraft
on an ELP profile, and continue to analyze the situation for impending engine failure.
1.20.3.2.4. Other things to analyze during this step include, but are not limited to,
avionics, lights and tones, circuit breakers, and outside aircraft structure (possibly via
a chase ship). As the analysis continues, do not spend more time than necessary just
to stall for time. If you think you know what is wrong with the aircraft, go with it.
Remember, even though time stands still in the flight room, it does not in the aircraft.
1.20.3.3. B —Boldface. Once you have analyzed the situation, time resumes, and it is
time to “take the proper action” and perform any boldface required. During this step,
state the boldface steps then verbally execute them (for example, Green ring – pull [as
required]. For example, “I will perform this step by pulling the green ring on the ejection
seat with my left hand.” Applying a boldface procedure should require you to do
something with the aircraft. (For example, the engine failure during flight boldface will
require you to trim the aircraft to 125 knots; the abort boldface will require you to use
rudder to keep the aircraft near the centerline, etc.) Once the boldface is complete, ensure
the aircraft is still under control and analyze your action. Did the boldface do what it was
intended to do? (i.e., Did fuel flow go to zero? Is the firelight still illuminated? Is the fire
out? Perform a post FEVER check.) After you have analyzed the situation, ask yourself if
there is another boldface that applies. Engine failure during flight may lead to immediate
engine start. Continue in this loop until there are no more boldface that apply.
1.20.3.4. C —Cleanup Items and (or) Checklists. During this step, you will perform
the cleanup items (the non-boldface steps) of the boldface checklists and accomplish
other non-boldface checklists that may apply. Once you apply a checklist, refer back to
aircraft control. Verbalize how you will use control surfaces to compensate for changes
made to power settings. Continue to loop through the above steps until no more
checklists are required. After all the flight manual EP checklists are performed, use the
in-flight guide to help determine any other pertinent data required to recover the aircraft
(for example, local no radio [NORDO] procedures).
1.20.3.5. D —Declare, With a Plan. Once you establish your game plan, let the
appropriate authorities know what is wrong and what you plan to do. When you talk to
ATC, the SOF or RSU crew, make sure you can tell them the nature of the emergency,
fuel remaining (expressed in hours and minutes), souls on board, and your plan of action
to include your estimated time until landing. Know what you are going to do in terms of
pattern type (straight-in, ELP, overhead, instrument approach) and how you are going to
stop the aircraft (stop on the runway and emergency ground egress, stop on a taxiway, or
taxi back to parking). Be knowledgeable enough that you have most of the answers
before the question is asked.
1.20.3.6. E —Egress/Ejection. Review emergency ground egress and controlled
ejection checklists. Determine when you will eject if the situation deteriorates and leads
to an ejection scenario.
1.20.3.7. F —Follow the Plan. This part of the tabletop or standup EP (land as soon as
conditions permit) is where you continue to chair fly the emergency to a safe landing. In
real life, this is where you execute your plan to get safely back to the flight room. During
a tabletop or standup EP, talk your IP through all the steps—descent check, arrival and
pattern procedures—and safely exit the airplane.
Figure 1.4. A-A-B-C-D-E-F Method of Accomplishing Practice EPs.

Chapter 2
BASIC T-6 FLIGHT PRINCIPLES
2.1. Introduction. This chapter discusses basic terms that apply to all aircraft. It explains
concepts and terms associated with the T-6 as a single-engine, propeller-driven aircraft.
Knowledge and understanding of these terms and their associated aerodynamic effects is
essential to successfully fly the T-6.
2.2. Control Effects. Each flight control affects the attitude of the aircraft by controlling
movement about one of three axes (Figure 2.1.). Control movements result in the same
predictable aircraft responses regardless of the attitude of the aircraft. The pilot is the
approximate pivot point about which all changes of attitude occur.
Figure 2.1. Control Axes.
2.3. Use of Controls. When a control surface is moved out of its streamlined position, air
flowing past it exerts pressure against the control surface and tries to return it to neutral. These
air forces on control surfaces are felt on the control stick and rudder pedals. Control forces are
directly proportional to airspeed and control deflection and provide feedback to the pilot. This
feedback, which is felt in terms of forces felt on the control stick and rudder pedals, identifies
trim requirements. Air forces can impede positioning of the controls to the desired position.
2.3.1. How to Use the Rudder. When properly positioned, the heels of the feet rest upon
the cockpit floor and the balls of the feet touch the rudder pedals, allowing full application of
rudder. Rudder application should be smooth, and commensurate with applications of power
and or bank to maintain a consistent nose track. In order to optimize control feel, maintain
firm but relaxed pressure on the rudder pedals.
2.3.2. How to use the Brakes. The feet need to be repositioned from heels on the cockpit
floor to balls of the feet on the top of the rudder pedals. Smoothly press on the top of the
rudder pedals with a rate similar to how you would generally apply the brakes in an
automobile. Apply pressure on each individual brake pedal as required to maintain
directional control.
2.3.3. How to Use the Control Stick. Although many maneuvers generate heavy control
stick forces, a firm but light touch on the control stick optimizes control feel. Hands and arms
should remain relaxed. Ideally, during cruise operations fingertips on the control stick are all
that should be needed. Fingertips give the best feedback on minute changes of aircraft trim.
2.3.4. How to Use the PCL.
2.3.4.1. Known power settings provide a useful starting point for PCL position. Starting
with power settings close to the desired setting minimizes torque and propeller effects.
General power settings are listed in Table 2.1. These pitch and power settings are
approximate, and vary from aircraft to aircraft based on factors such as aircraft weight,
pressure altitude, and temperature.
Table 2.1. General T-6 Airspeeds and Power Settings.
Maneuver Airspeed Gear Flaps Pitch Power Other

±1% torque per
Level flight 250 UP UP 2° NL 93% 1,000 feet
50% +
altitude
200 0° (see note)
150 2° NH 32%
Takeoff 85 DOWN TO 7-10° NH MAX
Tech climb 180 UP UP 10° NH
160 12.5° NH
140 15° NH
NOTE: Add mean sea level (MSL) altitude (for example, at 3,000 feet MSL, set 53 percent
torque).
LEGEND:
NH--nose high
NL--nose low
TO--takeoff flaps
2.3.4.2. The PCL requires relatively little travel to change the power. A small movement
of the PCL can result in a larger than desired power change. Because torque is computer
controlled, the torque may change slightly after the PCL is set.
2.3.4.3. Proper hand placement on the PCL is critical to safe operations. Place the palm
of the hand on the PCL. Never place your wrist on the PCL; there have been several
instances of improper hand placement leading to contact with the finger lift while
retarding the power to idle, leading to an inadvertent engine shut down.
2.3.5. Other Devices. Other devices controlled by the pilot that also affect aircraft handling
are the flaps, landing gear, and speed brake. However, their effects, for the purposes of
general aircraft handling, are incidental. Trimming sufficiently compensates for minor
aerodynamic effects of these systems.
2.4. Trim.
2.4.1. There are many factors in various conditions of flight that affect the forces felt in the
controls. Trim is needed to compensate for these control stick forces to prevent fatigue and
increase smoothness and enable multitasking. When properly trimmed, an aircraft can and
should be flown with just the fingertips on the control stick to allow slight out-of-trim
conditions to be easily felt.
2.4.2. Trim tabs are small movable surfaces attached to the primary flight control surfaces
(rudder and elevator) that act as levers to equalize pressure exerted on either side of the
parent control surface. To equalize pressure, the rudder and elevator tabs move in opposite
direction from the parent control (Figure 2.2.). The amount of trim tab displacement
determines the magnitude of the parent surface deflection. When trimming the ailerons the
entire control surface is moved to equalize the pressure.
Figure 2.2. Trim Tab Locations.

2.4.2.1. Trimming is a continuous process. When pressure on the controls is relieved and
aircraft attitude is maintained, the aircraft is correctly trimmed. In the T-6, subtle power
changes normally do not require large, immediate changes in control pressure. The need
for trim, therefore, is evident only gradually as airspeed, power, and pitch change.
2.4.2.2. Without proper rudder trim, the aircraft flies in a slip or a skid as indicated by
the turn-and-slip indicator (the ball is deflected while the needle is centered). The
longitudinal axis of the aircraft is not aligned with the direction the aircraft is traveling. In
effect, the aircraft is flying sideways through the air (proportional to the deflection of the
ball). To correct this, first apply rudder to center the ball (while holding the turn needle
centered) and then relieve pressure using rudder trim.
2.4.2.3. To correct either fore or aft control stick pressure or to maintain a stabilized
attitude, use elevator trim.
2.4.2.4. To correct wing heaviness or rolling tendencies, adjust aileron trim. Note that
aileron trim tabs are preset by maintenance personnel and do not adjust in flight. The
aileron trim actually repositions the ailerons.
2.4.2.5. Trim in the following order: rudder, elevator, and aileron.
2.4.2.6. The trim aid device (TAD) assists rudder trim to help maintain coordinated flight
during power and airspeed changes. Using engine torque, altitude, airspeed, and pitch
rate, the TAD computes a desired rudder trim tab position and applies it to the rudder
trim tab actuator. During large transitions of the four parameters, the TAD will lag the
desired trim position requiring pilot input to ensure coordinated flight.
2.5. Coordination. No single control movement provides all the control input necessary for a
successful maneuver. The various aircraft controls must be properly orchestrated and smoothly
applied for coordinated flight. Rough, erratic use of any control causes the aircraft to react
accordingly. Apply control pressure smoothly and evenly.
2.6. Power and Torque Effects.
2.6.1. Slipstream Effect (Figure 2.3.). The thrust generated by the rotation of the propeller
induces a phenomenon called corkscrew slipstream effect. Specifically, the rotating prop
produces a helical (or corkscrew) shaped airstream about the longitudinal axis. This
slipstream strikes the wing root, fuselage, and tail surfaces with a constant high-energy force
proportional to power setting and airspeed. The addition of power increases airflow over the
tail surfaces and makes them more effective at slow speeds. In the T-6, the corkscrew
slipstream induces a slightly higher angle of attack (AOA) on the left wing root and left tail
surfaces, and slightly lowers AOA on the right wing root and right tail surfaces. This causes
the aircraft to yaw to the left when power is increased, and requires right rudder input to
counter the yaw and maintain coordinated flight. As the power is increased by moving the
PCL forward with the left hand, the right foot must move forward to counter the yaw that is
induced to the left. The amount of rudder movement is proportional to the amount and rate of
PCL movement. The amount and rate of rudder movement can be determined by looking out
the front of the aircraft and using the rudder to keep the nose from swinging either left (too
little rudder application) or right (too much rudder application). A power reduction has the
opposite effect requiring left rudder to maintain coordinated flight.
Figure 2.3. Slipstream Effect.
2.6.2. P-factor (Figure 2.4). P-factor is another effect of the propeller. It is caused by AOA
being higher on the downward-moving propeller blade than on the upward-moving propeller
blade. This occurs when the aircraft’s thrust line is above the free airstream relative wind or
at low speeds and high AOAs with power on. This moves the aerodynamic center of the
propeller to the right of the shaft on a clockwise-rotating propeller causing the aircraft to yaw
left as AOA or power is increased. This is why increasing right rudder is required to maintain
coordinated flight as AOA is increased on the aircraft, such as in a pull-up for an over-the-
top aerobatic maneuver. As the airspeed decreases and the AOA increases, the aerodynamic
center of the propeller shifts to the right and right rudder is required to keep the aircraft in
coordinated flight. The opposite is true when the thrust line is below the free airstream
relative wind. The upward-moving propeller blade then has a higher angle of attack than the
downward-moving blade. This moves the aerodynamic center of the propeller to the left of
the shaft on a clockwise-rotating propeller, causing the aircraft to yaw to the right and
requires left rudder to maintain coordinated flight. A right yawing situation seldom occurs
since pushing over to the point of shifting the thrust line below the free airstream relative
wind is rarely warranted.
Figure 2.4. P-Factor.
2.6.3. Torque (Figure 2.5.). Torque reaction in a propeller-driven aircraft acts opposite the
direction of propeller rotation. In the case of the T-6, the aircraft tends to roll to the left as a
result of torque when power is increased, and the aircraft tends to roll right when power is
reduced. Rudder and the TAD are the primary means for compensating for engine torque.
Figure 2.5. Torque.
2.6.4. Gyroscopic Effect (Figure 2.6.). Gyroscopic reactions are called gyroscopic
precession. This occurs when a force is applied to displace a spinning mass such as the
propeller or, in the case of a spin, the aircraft as a whole. Gyroscopic precession causes an
applied force to act in a plane 90 degrees from that in which it was applied (it is applied in
the same direction as the rotation). The effect of gyroscopic precession depends on the rate of
movement about the pitch or yaw axis. Increased rotation rates tend to increase the effect.
This explains why a pilot, who abruptly corrects aircraft deviations (pitch, bank, and yaw),
ends up frustrated with the adverse effects of precession. The relatively large propeller on the
T-6 and high revolutions per (rpm) result in more precession effect than an aircraft with a
lighter, smaller propeller turning at slower rpm. Typical reactions from a clockwise-turning
propeller (as viewed from the pilot’s seat) include:
2.6.4.1. If the nose is yawed to the left, the nose tends to pitch up.
2.6.4.2. If the nose is yawed to the right, the nose tends to pitch down.
2.6.4.3. If the nose is pitched down, a left yaw tends to develop.
2.6.4.4. If the nose is pitched up, a right yaw tends to develop.
Figure 2.6. Gyroscopic Effects.
2.7. Composite Flight. Composite flight utilizes outside references, complemented by flight
instruments, to establish and maintain desired flight attitudes.
2.7.1. Establish and maintain an attitude by positioning the nose and wings of the aircraft in
relation to the horizon.
2.7.2. While maintaining this position, use trim to reduce or eliminate control pressures. A
failure to adequately trim at this point in the cross-check will result in ineffective aircraft
control. See paragraph 2.4. for a discussion on trim technique.
2.7.3. Small changes in attitude may not be readily noticed by outside reference to the
horizon but is indicated by the flight instruments. An over reliance on instrumentation to
maintain aircraft attitude is a common error in composite flight and results in excessive head-
down time that impedes ability to observe aircraft and other hazards.
2.7.4. Time spent looking at specific cues (horizon, flight instruments, etc) varies with flight
conditions. Use the following basic rules to develop an effective cross-check:
2.7.4.1. Do not concentrate on one cue.
2.7.4.2. Clear vigilantly for other aircraft.
2.7.4.3. Check one parameter, make a correction using outside references (if available),
and then check another parameter. Repeat this cycle.
2.7.4.4. A single pitch change can correct a deviation involving both altitude and
airspeed. For instance, if the aircraft is 100 feet high, and approximately 5 knots slow in
the traffic pattern, a minor pitch down should put the airplane close to desired parameters.
This is often referred to as “trading altitude for airspeed.”
2.7.4.5. In clear flight conditions (for example, horizon clearly discernible), devote
approximately 80 percent to outside references (and clearing) and 20 percent to inside
references (flight instruments).
2.8. Basic Instrument Flight. As outside references deteriorate, the composite cross-check
evolves into an instrument cross-check. General instrument procedures are found in AFMAN 11-
217, Volume 1, and FLIP. T-6-specific guidance is found in the flight manual and Chapter 7 of
this manual.
2.9. Straight-and-level Flight (Figure 2.7.).
2.9.1. Straight-and-level flight requires familiarity with flight instruments and visual cues.
2.9.1.1. To fly in level flight, consciously fix reference points on the aircraft in relation
to the horizon, and compare or cross-check this relationship with the flight instruments.
In addition to outside references, refer to the electronic attitude director indicator (EADI),
altimeter, and vertical speed indicator (VSI).
2.9.1.2. In straight-and-level, unaccelerated flight at 200 knots indicated airspeed
(KIAS), the level flight visual pitch picture is approximately half-ground/half-sky with
the wings equidistant from the horizon. At higher airspeeds, hold the nose at a lower
attitude to maintain level flight; at lower airspeeds, hold the nose at a higher attitude.
Figure 2.7. Straight-and-level Flight.
2.9.1.3. Familiarity with the design, location, and purpose of flight instrumentation
speeds up the composite cross-check and aids in detecting small deviations (while they
are still small). Good aircraft control is a continuous succession of minor, almost
imperceptible, corrections to keep the aircraft on the desired flight path.
2.9.1.4. When straight and level, trim the aircraft in all three axes. A trim change is
necessary when continuous control stick or rudder pressure is required to maintain the
desired attitude. Straight-and-level flight requires almost no pressure on the controls if
the aircraft is properly trimmed and the air is smooth; however, when flying through
turbulence, the flight attitude may change abruptly.
2.9.1.5. A properly trimmed aircraft is trimmed for a specific airspeed and power setting.
It flies at the trimmed airspeed hands off, that is, with little or no force applied to the
control stick or rudders. Changes to airspeed require additional trim input potentially in
all three axes but predominantly in elevator and rudder (pitch and yaw) trim. For
example, if the PCL is retarded to slow from 200 to 120 KIAS in level flight, the nose of
the aircraft drops to seek 200 KIAS. Back stick pressure is required to maintain level
flight until nose-up trim relieves the back stick pressure and left rudder will be necessary
to accommodate the for the power decrease. A trimmed aircraft reduces pilot fatigue and
allows the pilot to devote more attention to task management and development of SA on
events occurring outside the cockpit. Large changes in airspeed in a short amount of time
will require large changes in elevator trim and will require running the trim or holding the
trim button forward or aft. After heavy forces are trimmed off, fine tune the trim by
loosening grip on the control stick and note the direction that the nose or wings travel.
2.9.1.6. Apply trim in the opposite direction to nose or wing movement. For example, if
the nose drops, apply aft elevator trim. If the aircraft rolls left, first confirm slip indicator
is centered, then add right rudder trim as necessary for coordinated flight. If the slip
indicator is centered and the aircraft still rolls left, apply right aileron trim.
2.9.2. A common error in straight-and-level flight is to apply force to the control stick
inadvertently due to the weight of the pilot’s arm. Minimize this by resting the forearm on
the thigh.
2.10. Turns.
2.10.1. Turns involve coordination of all three controls: ailerons, rudder, and elevator. A
shallow turn is a turn of approximately 30 degrees bank or less. A steep turn is a turn of
approximately 45-60 degrees bank or greater.
2.10.1.1. Prior to turning, clear in the direction of the turn. Simultaneously apply
pressure to ailerons and the rudder in the direction of the turn. The roll rate is governed
by the amount and rate of pressure applied. Hold control pressure constant until at the
desired angle of bank (AOB). Use outside references and the instruments to set bank
angle.
2.10.1.2. As bank is introduced, a point on the windscreen directly in front of the pilot
appears to pivot on the horizon. This is often referred to as the “bug” spot. To maintain
level flight, the bug spot should remain on or near the horizon throughout the turn. As
bank increases, increase back pressure to compensate for the loss of vertical lift (and raise
the bug spot to slightly above the horizon). Dragging the TAS antenna, located just in
front of the windscreen, across or slightly below the horizon (depending on seat height) is
another T-6 reference commonly used to maintain a level turn. In shallow turns, the
increase in pitch attitude required is small. As bank increases, the increase in pitch
required is more pronounced. For steep turns, a power increase is required to maintain
airspeed.
2.10.1.3. Just as in straight-and-level flight, outside references can be found in any
direction. The best outside reference for measuring bank is the angle of the horizon
across the windscreen. Approaching the desired AOB, return the ailerons and rudder to
neutral but maintain the increased pitch attitude to maintain constant altitude.
2.10.1.4. To correct nose-low (or nose-high) attitudes in a steep turn, reduce (or increase)
the AOB with coordinated aileron and rudder pressure. Simultaneously adjust back
pressure to raise (or lower) the nose to the desired pitch attitude. After attaining the
desired attitude, reestablish the desired AOB. Cross-check the VSI to detect nose-low or
nose-high attitudes.
2.10.1.5. Rollout from a turn is much the same as the entry except control pressure is
applied in the opposite direction. Apply aileron and rudder pressure in the direction of the
rollout (toward the high wing). As bank decreases, release elevator pressure smoothly to
maintain altitude. The bug spot should remain on the horizon. With decreasing bank, the
effects of centrifugal force and loss of vertical lift are reduced.
2.10.1.6. Because the aircraft normally turns as long as there is bank, start the rollout
before the desired heading. The aircraft continues to turn during the rollout until the
wings return to the level position. The steeper the bank, the more lead is required to roll
out on a desired heading. As a guide, during composite flight use a 10-degree lead point
for turns with 45 degrees or greater bank. Use a 5-degree lead point for turns with less
than 45 degrees bank.
2.10.2. Posture in the aircraft is very important. Do not constantly lean forward, backward,
or side-to-side because this changes the relative position of aircraft references with respect to
outside references. With a consistent position in the cockpit, outside references remain the
same.
2.10.3. A precision turn consists of a constant AOB and a definite amount of turn. To make a
precise 90-degree turn, align the aircraft with a road or section line on the ground, and turn
perpendicular to it. In the absence of a ground reference, pick a point on the horizon directly
off a wingtip.
2.10.4. A common error is to treat a steep turn differently from a shallow turn. The
aerodynamic effects are more pronounced in a steep turn, but ultimately the effects are the
same as in any turn. The difference between steep turns and shallow turns is the amount of
back stick pressure and power needed to maintain level flight. Rapid and abrupt control
inputs often result in excessive back pressure (causing a climb) or insufficient back pressure
(causing a dive).
2.11. Adverse Yaw.
2.11.1. Adverse yaw is the tendency of the aircraft to yaw away from direction of aileron
input. Increased lift on the up-going wing causes more induced drag, which retards forward
movement of that wing. This results in the nose yawing or turning opposite the direction of
the roll.
2.11.2. Adverse yaw is overcome by use of the rudder. As aileron pressure is applied,
simultaneously apply rudder pressure in the same direction as the desired turn. Use rudder
pressure as long as the bank is changing. The correct amount of rudder pressure depends on
the aircraft speed and the amount of aileron deflection. To ensure the proper amount of
rudder is used, cross-check the turn and slip indicator and attempt to keep the ball centered.
“Step on the ball.” This means to push on the rudder that is on the same side of centerline as
the ball so as to put the ball back in the middle of the turn and slip indicator. Apply rudder
and aileron pressure simultaneously, although the required amount of pressure differs
depending on the amount of aileron used, airspeed, effect of drag, and design of the aircraft.
Aileron drag effect is present during recovery from a turn as well as during the entry. The
rudder must be used in the same direction as aileron control stick pressure to counteract
adverse yaw in the rollout.
2.12. Coordinated and Uncoordinated Flight.
2.12.1. In a coordinated level turn (Figure 2.8.) with constant bank and airspeed, the flight
path of the aircraft is a true circle (no wind). Variation in the circular flight path is also
caused by uncoordinated control (improperly trimmed rudder), erratic bank, or changes in

airspeed.
2.12.2. A skid is caused by insufficient bank angle in relation to the turn rate of the aircraft.
Excessive bottom rudder (rudder deflection to the inside of the turn) during the turn causes a
skid. A skid also occurs in level flight if the nose of the aircraft rotates sideways about the
vertical axis when the wings are held level due to improper rudder input. The result is a slow
turn caused by the rudder only. The turn-and-slip ball shows a slip by displacing to the
outside of the turn. Skids are dangerous due to the possibility of inadvertent roll at slow
airspeeds. The impending stall is known as a skidded turn stall.
2.12.3. A slip is caused by too much bank angle in relation to the turn rate of the aircraft.
When in a turn, insufficient bottom rudder pressure in relation to the aileron pressure results
in a slip. A slip can be induced by holding opposite rudder in a turn. Indication of a slip is
when the slip indicator ball displaces to the inside of the turn. Slips are used to align the
aircraft with the runway for landing during crosswind conditions. Slips are also useful for
depleting excessive energy by increasing descent rates while maintaining airspeed.
Figure 2.8. Coordinated and Uncoordinated Flight.

Chapter 3
GROUND OPERATIONS
3.1. Introduction. Mastery of ground ops is an important first step toward mastery in the air.
3.2. Preflight Check. Preflight checks start before reaching the aircraft. Survey taxi routes for
potential hazards such as foreign objects, repair work, stray equipment, vehicles, or personnel.
Take note of fueling or other aircraft servicing that may impact preflight checks or engine start.
Inform maintenance of special requirements as soon as possible (for example, oil requirements
for cross-country, seat tieup for solo, position in formation, etc.).
3.2.1. Aircraft Forms. AFTO Forms 781, ARMS Aircrew/Mission Flight Data Document;
781A, Maintenance Discrepancy and Work Document; 781B, Communication Security
Equipment Record; 781C, Avionics Configuration and Load Status Document; 781D,
Calendar and Hourly Item Inspection Document; 781E, Accessory Replacement Document;
781F, Aerospace Vehicle Flight Report and Maintenance; 781G, General Mission
Classifications—Mission; 781H, Aerospace Vehicle Flight Status and Maintenance; 781J,
Aerospace Vehicle—Engine Flight Document; 781K, Aerospace Vehicle Inspection, Engine
Data, Calendar Inspection and Delayed Discrepancy Document; 781L, Record of
Removal/Installation of Controlled Cryptographic Items (CCI); 781M, Status Symbols and
Functional System Codes; 781N, J-9 Engine Run-up Record; and 781P, Support General
Documentation Record, are the official log of aircraft operation, servicing, and maintenance.
Check the forms before any aircraft inspection, other action, or checklist is initiated. Contact
maintenance to report discrepancies in the forms or for clarification. Do not accept the
aircraft until the forms are accurate and there is no question regarding the acceptability of the
aircraft.
3.2.2. Before Exterior Inspection. After opening the canopy, ensure that both seat pins are
installed and the ISS is in solo before proceeding with the inspection. Before turning on the
battery, ensure that cockpit switches are positioned properly and that the prop area is clear.
After the seat is moved to the desired height, pre-adjust straps and pre-position personal
equipment and publications to expedite strap-in. Take precautions when pre-positioning or
stowing equipment or publications in the cockpit.
3.2.2.1. Care should be taken when moving the seat to ensure straps and oxygen hoses
are not jammed between the bulkhead and seat. This can cause significant damage to the
seat belt, hoses, ejection seat, or circuit breaker panel.
3.2.2.2. Do not place anything on the canopy glass to prevent damage.
3.2.2.3. Do not stow clothing or miscellaneous personal items in the cockpit. Stow
personal gear not required to execute the mission in the baggage compartment. Use
caution when stowing items to prevent interference with the ejection or any other system.
3.2.3. Exterior Inspection. Commonly referred to as a “walkaround”, this inspection is a
critical part of each mission. Maintenance performs detailed inspections, and prepares the
aircraft for flight; however, the pilot’s walkaround serves as a last look before flight.
3.2.3.1. The walkaround checklist begins behind the left wing and moves about the
aircraft in a clockwise direction. It is not necessary to refer to the checklist for each item,
but reference the checklist to ensure all items are completed.
3.2.3.2. Carefully check for fluid leaks in the wheel well, speed brake, and engine bay
areas. Fluid along fairing doors, seams, and line couplings may indicate potential leaks.
Check the general condition of trim tabs, hinges, and control surfaces; however, do not
manhandle control surfaces. Ensure that tire condition is acceptable for the planned
mission. If you are unsure about the condition or operation of any system, check with
qualified maintenance personnel. The pilot in command has final authority to accept or
reject an aircraft.
3.3. Seating Position in the Aircraft. Seating position should be the same on every flight.
When sitting comfortably, the upper part of the EADI display should be visible just below the
glare shield. A clenched fist between the top of the helmet and the canopy ensures adequate
clearance for the canopy breaker during ejection. Adjust the rudder pedals to allow full travel of
the rudder and associated wheel brake with the heel raised slightly off the floor. During strap-in,
ensure there is enough length with minimal slack in the leg restraint lines for full rudder
deflection.
3.4. Cockpit Organization. The T-6 cockpit has limited storage space, so good cockpit
organization is essential. Cockpit organization varies by mission and personal preference. In-
flight publications or FLIP should be readily available. It is common practice to organize them in
the order in which they will be used. Large checklists or other items on the left leg may cause
interference with PCL movement or cause inadvertent radio transmissions.
3.5. Interior Inspection. Ensure the prop area is clear before turning the battery on or
starting/motoring the engine. Pre-solo student pilots will verbalize each item in the interior
inspection checklist. During the flight controls check, it is common practice to visually confirm
the neutral elevator stick position.
3.6. Engine Start.
3.6.1. Ensure the canopy fracture system (CFS) pin storage box located over the left
shoulder of the pilot in the RCP is closed and the pilots’ visors are down before closing the
canopy.
3.6.2. During engine start, closely monitor ITT, gas generator speed (N1), and the start ready
light. Occasionally glance outside to detect possible aircraft movement or signals from the
crew chief.
3.6.3. If necessary to motor the engine before engine start, inform the crew chief and ensure
the prop is clear. While all starts are made with the canopy closed and locked, motoring may
be done with the canopy open.
3.6.4. Inform the crew chief before activating any system (engine start, speed brake, flaps,
etc.) that could endanger ground personnel. When ground intercom is not used, use visual
signals according to AFI 11-218, Aircraft Operations and Movement on the Ground, and this
manual. The crew chief repeats the signal when it is safe to operate the system.
3.7. OBOGS Check. It is critical to check oxygen connections to ensure system integrity from
the supply to the mask. Don the oxygen mask and verify that the supply lever is on and the
concentration lever is normal. Check the mask seal by selecting EMERGENCY and momentarily
holding your breath. A good mask seal is indicated by a no-flow indication on the regulator
(black).
3.8. Radio Procedures. Monitor Air Terminal Information System (ATIS) before taxi. If
reported conditions are significantly different than forecast, consider using actual conditions to
recompute TOLD. Include ATIS identifier in taxi call, “Texan 11, taxi with Charlie.” Listen
carefully to taxi instructions. Read back the ATC clearance as required locally. In general, read
back instructions if they appear to be different than standard or appear unusual.
3.9. Taxi.
3.9.1. When the before-taxi checklist is complete, clear to the front and rear; then signal the
crew chief when ready to taxi IAW local procedures. Before leaving the parking area, clear
for taxiing aircraft. Use caution for personnel, ground equipment, foreign objects, and sun
shelters. Select nose wheel steering (NWS), release brakes, and increase power as necessary.
Follow the marshaller’s (if available) signals, taxi straight ahead, and check the brakes.
When parked under sun shelters, slowly pull out from the shelter before checking brakes.
After a successful brake check, the PF states, “My brakes check, check yours.” No formal
transfer of aircraft control is required for the brake check. Normally, the taxi checklist
including NWS, brakes, and heading, turn, or slip indicators is completed on the first turn out
of parking. Taxi no faster than 5-7 knots or a fast walk in congested areas, and always be
prepared to stop.
3.9.2. To turn with NWS selected, simultaneously apply rudder in the desired direction and
reduce power (normally to idle). If a sharper turn is required, deselect NWS (the nose wheel
will freely caster) and use the inside brake to turn. Apply the brakes smoothly, evenly, and
cautiously at all times. Differential braking with the NWS engaged could damage the nose
gear.
3.9.3. Use power to keep the aircraft rolling at a moderate speed. Once the aircraft is rolling,
idle power should provide sufficient thrust. Use the brakes as necessary to control taxi speed;
however, do not ride the brakes. Normal taxi speed should not exceed 15 knots in
uncongested areas, or IAW locally established procedures. NWS is more sensitive as taxi
speed is increased.
3.9.4. Taxi on the centerline unless local procedures direct otherwise. If local procedures
direct staggered taxi, align the appropriate main wheel with the taxi line. The main wheel is
approximately underneath the start of the wing dihedral. The most common reference to
establish this stagger is to line up an exhaust stack on the taxi line.
3.9.5. Avoid taxiing over cables to preclude aircraft damage. If a cable must be crossed, taxi
as slowly as possible to prevent damage to the aircraft. Steer to avoid nose and main gear
contact with cable support donuts.
3.9.6. Maintain obstacle clearance and taxi interval distance according to AFI 11-2T-6,
Volume 3.
3.9.7. Prepare for takeoff and departure while taxiing in uncongested areas. Review and
intercockpit briefings may include, but are not limited to, weather, winds, departure routing,
navigational aid (NAVAID) setup, and takeoff emergencies. A widely used acronym is R-
NEWS:
3.9.7.1. R —Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM). Check RAIM and
fault detection and exclusion (FDE) on the STAT 2 page as directed in AFI 11-2T-6,
Volume 3 and AFMAN 11-217, Volume 1.
3.9.7.2. N —NAVAIDs/Needles. Ensure electronic horizontal situation indicator
(EHSI) is set for departure (including NAVAIDs, course selected, and heading set
marker).
3.9.7.3. E —Emergencies. Review actions for abort or engine failure on takeoff.
Consider emergency return options for existing conditions.
3.9.7.4. W —Weather/Winds. Consider weather impact on departure and emergency
recovery options. Analyze effect of wind on takeoff and planned patterns, and anticipate
pattern corrections. Determine direction the control stick needs to be deflected based
upon crosswind component.
3.9.7.5. S —Standard Instrument Departure (SID)/Departure Procedure (DP).
Review departure, open in-flight publications to required page.
3.10. Overspeed Governor Check. Ensure area immediately in front of and behind the aircraft
is clear. During engine run-up for the overspeed governor check, the PNF guards and is ready to
assume control of the brakes in case of rudder pedal rod end failure. Clear outside the aircraft
during this check. If the aircraft moves, reduce power, pump up the brakes, and reattempt. Power
should be advanced smoothly and slowly only as high as required to verify proper function of the
overspeed governor. Keep the control stick in the neutral to slightly aft position to prevent the
nose gear strut from compressing during the check.
3.11. Before Takeoff and Lineup Checks. Review TOLD. In addition to normal checklist
items, it is common technique to scan the cockpit to check various items such as switch
positions, systems indications, security of in-flight pubs, etc.
3.12. After Landing. Do not begin the after landing checklist until reaching normal taxi speed
and clear of the active runway. Unless local procedures dictate otherwise, obtain clearance
before crossing active runways and (or) proceeding back to the ramp. Stay alert and taxi with
caution. Do not get complacent, the sortie is not complete until the aircraft is parked, the engine
is shutdown, and all required checklist items are complete.
3.13. Full Stop and (or) Taxi Back. More than one full-stop landing may be accomplished
during a mission to achieve training objectives. Anticipate a longer than normal landing roll due
to higher fuel weight. Complete the full stop/taxi back checklist.
3.14. Engine Shutdown and Before Leaving Aircraft. Do not rush engine shutdown in a
hurry to get out of the aircraft. However, keep ground personnel in sight and shut down
immediately if the prop safety zone is violated. If there is no marked prop safety zone (for
example, off station), do not hesitate to shut down if ground personnel move too close. After
exiting the cockpit, perform the before leaving aircraft checklist. Ensure the ejection and CFS
pins are installed, the ISS is in SOLO, the battery switch and OBOGS lever are both off, the gust
lock is engaged and the parking brake is set before stepping down from the aircraft wing.
3.15. Postflight Inspection. After local sorties, ground personnel accomplish a thorough
postflight inspection. However, pilots should accomplish a postflight walkaround and report any
abnormalities (for example, missing panels, damaged tires, leaking fluids, bird strikes, tail
strikes) to maintenance. The flight manual also contains detailed strange-field procedures that
contain postflight and preflight inspections for pilots to accomplish off station if trained
maintenance personnel are unavailable.
3.16. Abnormal Procedures. Malfunctions are handled according to flight manual and other
applicable directives. As soon as possible, notify the controlling agency (ground or tower) if
assistance is required. If maintenance or fire personnel must inspect the aircraft, set the parking
brake and raise both hands (hands clear) to signal that it is clear to inspect the aircraft. Do not
actuate switches without informing the ground crew.
3.16.1. Perform the emergency ground egress in a systematic, deliberate manner. When
necessary to egress the aircraft due to an emergency, bring the aircraft to a complete stop and
set the parking brake. Shut down the engine, ensure the ISS is in SOLO, and install both
cockpit seat pins. Turn the battery and generator to OFF just before egress to preserve
intercom with the other cockpit. CRM is critical to a successful ground egress.
3.16.2. If returning to parking without taking off, complete the after landing checklist to
ensure all systems are appropriately set.
Chapter 4
TAKEOFF, CLIMB, AND LEVEL OFF
4.1. Introduction. This phase of flight is very dynamic and can be as complicated as any other
part of the mission. Complex departure procedures may be required immediately after takeoff in
the low altitude environment, and communications can be very busy leaving the terminal area.
Emergency situations, when they occur in this phase of flight, require forethought and quick
correct action. Solid preparation is essential to success.
4.2. Lineup Check.
4.2.1. Objective. Accomplish checklist items in preparation for takeoff.
4.2.2. Description. This check is normally accomplished while taxiing onto the active
runway. The PF must ensure that all items are complete and “BOTH” items are confirmed
with the PNF.
4.2.3. Procedure. Clear final prior to crossing the runway hold short line and accomplish
the lineup check.
4.2.4. Technique. A common technique to remember the checklist steps is the acronym TP
PLAN:
4.2.4.1. T – TAS. Set TAS to NORM (if applicable).
4.2.4.2. P —Panel. CWS panel shows normal lights.
4.2.4.3. P —Probes. Turn on the anti-ice probes.
4.2.4.4. L —Lights. Ensure all exterior lights are on.
4.2.4.5. A —ALT. Select the ALT mode on the transponder.
4.2.4.6. N —NWS. Deselect NWS after the aircraft is aligned with the runway.
4.3. Takeoff.
4.3.1. Objective. Safely get the aircraft airborne.
4.3.2. Description. Two takeoff options exist: static and rolling. The static takeoff is used
early in training because it provides more time to accomplish required checks and verify
proper engine operation. A static takeoff is also required at night and for solo students. A
rolling takeoff aids traffic flow in a busy pattern and is a smooth transition from taxi to
takeoff roll. Rolling takeoffs have a negligible effect on TOLD and no recalculation is
required.
4.3.2.1. Airspeed – rotate at 85 KIAS no wind. Add one-half the gust up to a maximum
of 10 knots with gusty winds.
4.3.2.2. Power – MAX.
4.3.2.3. Pitch – 7-10 degrees nose high at rotation.
4.3.2.4. FCP visual reference – spinner on, or slightly below the horizon.
4.3.3. Procedure. Do not accept takeoff clearance until ready for takeoff and the departure.
Check the windsock and take note of winds reported by the RSU or tower controller.
Anticipate takeoff clearance by listening to the position reports of other aircraft in the
pattern. When cleared for takeoff, do not delay taking the runway, ensure proper spacing
behind aircraft on landing roll, and complete the lineup check.
4.3.3.1. Static Takeoff. Stop when the aircraft is aligned with the runway and the nose
wheel is centered. Pump up the brakes to prevent creep during engine run-up. The PNF
guards the brakes (without touching rudder pedals) ready to assume control. Clear down
the runway and advance the PCL to 25-30 percent torque. Cross-check outside to detect
creep and check engine instruments. Release brakes to begin the takeoff roll and
smoothly advance PCL to MAX. Check engine instruments when stabilized at maximum
power (approximately 3 seconds after PCL reaches MAX) to ensure proper operation.
4.3.3.2. Rolling Takeoff. Once the aircraft is aligned with the runway and the nose
wheel is centered, disengage NWS and smoothly advance the PCL to MAX. Check
engine instruments when stabilized at maximum power (approximately 3 seconds after
PCL reaches MAX) to ensure proper operation.
4.3.3.3. Takeoff Roll. Without any crosswind, you will need to deflect the control stick
to the right slightly to compensate for the torque generated at MAX power. When a
crosswind is present, deflect the control stick in the direction of the crosswind component
to keep the upwind wing from lifting (see paragraph 4.4). Position the elevator
approximately neutral to prevent the nose gear from digging in during takeoff roll. Power
application causes the aircraft to yaw to the left. Counteract this yaw by using right
rudder. Place heels on the floor and the balls of the feet on the bottom of the rudder
pedals to prevent accidental brake application and use rudder for directional control
throughout the takeoff roll. The flight controls become more effective as airspeed
increases, so progressively smaller control inputs are required to maintain aircraft control.
At 60 knots, check that actual torque at least matches minimum power calculated during
the Before Takeoff checklist. At rotation speed, smoothly apply back stick pressure to
establish the takeoff attitude (7-10 degrees nose high, Figure 4.1). Without wind gusts,
rotation speed is 85 knots. If gusty winds are present, increase rotation speed by one-half
the gust factor (up to 10-knot increase).
Figure 4.1. FCP Takeoff Pitch Attitude.
4.3.4. Technique. Cut the pitch picture in half (placing the spinner slightly below or on the
horizon) to attain the takeoff attitude. Use control stick pressure as necessary to hold this
attitude. Immediately after take-off and safe gear retraction it will be necessary to apply right
rudder trim in order to counteract adverse yaw and “center the ball”.
4.4. Crosswind Takeoff. The procedures for a takeoff with a crosswind are the same as for a
no-wind takeoff except aileron is held into the wind to keep the wings level. Aileron deflection is
necessary because the upwind wing develops more lift, causing it to fly (begin rising) before the
downwind wing. If the upwind wing rises, skipping may result (Figure 4.2). Skipping is a series
of very small bounces caused when the aircraft attempts to fly on one wing and settles back onto
the runway. During these bounces, the aircraft moves sideways and increases stress on the
landing gear. Anticipate aileron requirement due to the crosswind and either pre-position aileron
into the wind or apply aileron into wind as required during takeoff roll. Use rudder to keep the
aircraft from weathervaning (for example, crabbing or turning into the wind). The flight controls
become more effective as airspeed increases, so progressively smaller control inputs are required
to maintain aircraft control.
Figure 4.2. Skipping on Takeoff.
4.5. After Becoming Airborne.

4.5.1. Objective. Transition the aircraft from takeoff roll to climb.
4.5.2. Description. Control inputs change significantly as the aircraft leaves the ground.
Rudder requirements change as the wheels leave the ground and airspeed increases.
4.5.2.1. Airspeed – Accelerate to climb airspeed (140-180 KIAS).
4.5.2.2. Power – MAX.
4.5.2.3. Pitch – As required to fly desired airspeed (normally 10-15 degrees).
4.5.3. Procedures. Retract the gear and flaps when safely airborne with a positive climb
rate, the engine is stabilized in MAX, and the engine instruments are checked within limits.
Gear and flap retraction should be a conscious, deliberate act. Before moving the gear
handle, the PF makes an intercockpit “gear clear” call and pauses momentarily. On student
pre-solo contact sorties, the IP must acknowledge the “gear clear” call with “clear” before the
student pilot raises the gear. On all other sorties, “gear clear” is an advisory call only. After
gear and flap retraction, verbally confirm the landing gear warning lights are extinguished
and the flaps are up before limiting speed. In addition, check that the engine instruments are
within limits. As airspeed increases, nose-down trim is necessary to relieve pressure on the
control stick.
4.6. After Becoming Airborne (Crosswind). Control inputs change significantly as the aircraft
leaves the ground. Crosswind controls must be released after takeoff, as the aircraft is allowed to
crab into the wind, to prevent the upwind wing from dipping toward the ground. Rudder
requirements change as the wheels leave the ground, airspeed increases, and the aircraft crabs
into the wind. Climb in coordinated flight and maintain runway alignment on takeoff leg (Figure
4.3).
Figure 4.3. Crabbing Into Crosswind After Takeoff.
4.7. Abnormal Procedures.

4.7.1. Takeoff Aborts. If there is reason to ABORT the takeoff, do not hesitate to do so. If
the PNF sees something hazardous, inform the PF. If the AC is not flying during a time-
critical situation that requires immediate action and there is no time to relay this to the PF,
the AC should take control of the aircraft and accomplish the appropriate procedures.
4.7.2. Wake Turbulence/Prop Wash. Anticipate wake turbulence or prop wash when
taking off behind other aircraft on the same or parallel runways, especially if the wind is
calm or straight down the runway. Wake turbulence is formed when an aircraft is creating
lift, therefore plan to take off at a point prior to the preceding aircraft’s takeoff point or after
their point of touchdown. The T-6A is very susceptible to rolling motion if within a
preceding aircraft’s prop wash.
4.8. Turns After Takeoff. Climb straight ahead until past the departure end of the runway
(EOR) (or as directed). Attain a minimum of 140 KIAS and 400 feet above ground level (AGL)
(or per local directives) before the first turn after takeoff. The 400-foot restriction does not apply
to the VFR pattern.
4.9. Climbs.
4.9.1. Objective. Establish the aircraft in a climb as required by local directives or
published departure.
4.9.2. Description.
4.9.2.1. Airspeed – Accelerate to climb airspeed 140-180 KIAS according to local
directives.
4.9.2.2. Power – As required, normally MAX.
4.9.2.3. Pitch – As required to fly desired airspeed (normally 10-15 degrees).

4.9.3. Procedures. Climbout airspeeds below 160 KIAS are permitted by the flight manual
but not normally recommended due to high-pitch attitudes that limit forward visibility,
however, any airspeed between 140-180 knots is acceptable after consideration of all climb
factors including, obstacle clearance, local procedures, traffic, forward visibility, etc. Pilots
are not required to make a significant pitch change in order to achieve standard climb speeds
when conducting intermediate/small altitude changes (approximately 1000-2000 feet) as this
normally leads to an abrupt level off. Initiate the climb check according to the flight manual
passing 10,000 feet MSL.
4.9.3.1. Straight Climb from Level Flight. Advance PCL and allow the aircraft pitch
to increase. If above the desired climb speed, initially set the pitch to achieve the desired
airspeed. After reaching the desired airspeed, lower the nose to keep airspeed constant as
altitude increases. Make all pitch changes using outside references when available.
Maintain heading by using section lines, a prominent point or object near the horizon, or
other outside references, cross-checked with the heading on the EHSI. Maintain wings-
level attitude by outside references cross-checked with the attitude indicator. Trim after
power is set and the climbing attitude is established. Trimming is a continuous process
throughout the climb and level off. A climb attitude of 12.5 degrees nose high results in a
climb gradient of approximately 1000 feet per nautical mile (NM) (or what is referred to
as a 1:1 ratio). This climb gradient is determined by using the formula that 1 degree is
equal to 100 feet per NM. Level flight for 160 knots is about 2-3° degrees nose high.
Therefore a pitch attitude of 12.5 degrees is about 10 degrees above level flight resulting
in 1000 feet per NM climb rate.
4.9.3.2. Climbing Turns. If standard bank angles are not required to comply with
published routings, use shallow-banked turns to maintain a higher rate of climb. Trim
used in the turn must be taken out during the rollout.
4.9.3.3. Level off. Start the level off at a lead point that allows a smooth transition to the
desired level-off altitude. The standard method to achieve a smooth level off is to use a
lead point that is approximately 10 percent of the VSI. For example, if climbing at a rate
of 2,000 fpm, start the level off 200 feet below the desired altitude. At the lead point,
smoothly lower the nose of the aircraft to level flight. Approaching the desired airspeed,
adjust the PCL to obtain the desired airspeed and trim the aircraft.
4.9.3.3.1. Operations Check. Conduct an Operations Check (ops check) at initial
level-off and periodically throughout the flight IAW the Flight Manual.
4.9.3.3.2. Technique. Perform an ops check approximately every 15 minutes while
accomplishing area work. Using the stopwatch feature of the clock or accomplishing
a check on the quarter hour (for example, 1415, 1430, 1445, etc.) can help ensure
checks are accomplished in a timely manner.
Chapter 5
TRAFFIC PATTERNS AND LANDINGS
5.1. Introduction. In any traffic pattern, the runway is the primary visual reference. Each
airfield has specific procedures designed to help prevent conflicts, assign traffic priority, and
maximize training. Base-specific traffic pattern diagrams and ground references are contained in
the local in-flight guide.
5.2. Letdown and Traffic Entry.
5.2.1. Objective. Descend and enter traffic pattern.
5.2.2. Description. Letdown is the transition from the enroute structure to the traffic
pattern. In busy environments, detailed procedures are used for traffic sequencing and
deconfliction. Strive to make all radio calls at the proper location. However, if deviations
occur, always report actual location.
5.2.2.1. Airspeed - 200-250 KIAS according to local directives.
5.2.2.2. Power - As required.
5.2.2.3. Speed brake - As required.
5.2.2.4. Pitch - As required to meet altitude restrictions.
5.2.3. Procedures.
5.2.3.1. Comply with published routing and altitude restrictions.
5.2.3.2. Monitor ATIS, if available.
5.2.3.3. Clear pattern entry route.
5.2.4. Techniques.
5.2.4.1. Clearing turns during a visual meteorological conditions (VMC) letdown can
improve clearing, control rate of descent and appropriately place a dedicated focus on
outside visual references.
5.2.4.2. Before the traffic pattern entry point, use the GUTS check:
5.2.4.2.1. G —GPS - Select useful waypoint and omni-bearing selector (OBS) to
runway heading.
5.2.4.2.2. U —UHF/VHF - Set to proper frequencies.
5.2.4.2.3. T —TAS - Set to range that aids clearing.
5.2.4.2.4. S —Squawk appropriate code.
5.3. Aircraft Configuration. Three configurations are used in the T-6. Normally, touch-and-go
landings are practiced with flaps takeoff. Full stop landings may be performed at any flap setting,
but normally flaps takeoff or landing are used. Crosswinds and gusty winds affect flap setting.
When flying in gusty winds, add one-half the gust up to a maximum of 10 knots to final
approach and touchdown speeds.
5.3.1. Gear - Down, Flaps – Landing.

5.3.1.1. Final turn/maneuver airspeed - 110 KIAS or on speed AOA, whichever is
higher. Final airspeed - 100 KIAS. In the final turn, cross-check airspeed with AOA. At
higher aircraft weights, higher airspeed may be required to maintain AOA on speed
indication.
5.3.1.2. Landing flaps are normally used for full-stop landings. Landing flaps should be
used when heavy weight flaps up landing distance is equal to or greater than 80 percent
of runway length. Not recommended in gusty wind conditions. Landing flaps are
discouraged with crosswinds greater than 10-knots due to the potential stresses the side
loads impart on the landing gear. If landing flaps are appropriate for the existing
conditions (i.e., runway length, required training objectives, etc.), the crosswind limit for
landing flaps is 25 knots.
5.3.1.3. Generates significantly more drag than takeoff flaps. Requires lowest pitch
attitude and highest power setting of the three configurations to maintain level flight.
5.3.1.4. Decreases stall speed. Permits slower approach and landing speeds (see flight
manual, Appendix A), resulting in reduced landing distance.
5.3.2. Gear - Down, Flaps - Takeoff.
indication.
5.3.2.2. Normally used for touch-and-go landings. May also be used for full-stop
landings if landing distance not a factor.
5.3.2.3. Recommended for full stop landings with 10-knot or greater crosswind. May be
used for full-stop landing in gusty winds.
5.3.2.4. Generates slightly less lift, but much less drag compared to landing flaps.
Slightly lower power and slightly higher pitch required to maintain level flight compared
to landing flaps.
5.3.2.5. Stall speed slightly higher than landing flaps. Slightly longer landing distance
than landing flaps.
5.3.3. Gear - Down, Flaps - UP.
indication.
5.3.3.2. May be used for full-stop landings with high crosswinds (greater than 20 knots)
if landing distance not a factor.
5.3.3.3. Generates least lift. Lowest power, but highest pitch attitude required of three
configurations.
5.3.3.4. Stall speed higher than TO flaps. Significantly longer landing distance than
landing or takeoff flaps.
5.4. Overhead Pattern and Landing. The 360-degree overhead pattern is used to safely
accommodate a maximum number of aircraft with minimum congestion. Adjust pattern spacing
for wind conditions. See Figure 5.1 depicting a normal traffic pattern and Table 5.1 listing
overhead pattern parameters.
Figure 5.1. Normal Traffic Pattern.
Table 5.1. Overhead Pattern Parameters.
Gear Down, Flaps Gear Down, Flaps

Configuration landing Takeoff Gear Down, Flaps UP
INSIDE DOWNWIND
KIAS (min) 120 120 120
Torque 45% 35% 30%
Pitch attitude 1/4 Ground, 3/4 sky 1/4 Ground, 3/4 sky Spinner on horizon
(level flight)
Runway spacing
(No wind)
FINAL TURN
KIAS (min) 110 (or on speed 115 (or on speed 120 (or on speed AOA)
AOA) AOA)
Torque Approx 18% Approx 15% Approx 12%
Pitch Picture
Pitch Attitude 2/3 Ground, 1/3 sky 2/3 Ground, 1/3 sky one-half Ground, one-half
sky
FINAL
KIAS (Min) 100 (or on speed 105 (or on speed 110 (or on speed AOA)
(note 1) AOA) AOA)
Torque Approx 16 to 18% Approx 14 to 16% Approx 12 to 14%
Pitch Attitude Aim point 1/2 up Aim point 1/2 up Aim point 1/3 up windscreen
windscreen windscreen
Pitch Picture
TOUCHDOWN
KIAS (notes 1
and 2)
Target 80 85 90
Range 75-90 80-95 85-100
Target 1st 1,000 feet 1st 1,000 feet 1st 1,500 feet
touchdown
zone (note 3)
NOTES:
1. Add one-half the gust factor up to 10 KIAS to final approach and touchdown speeds.
2. Factors such as aircraft weight, crosswind, and outside air temperature may raise these speeds
slightly.
3. This does not mean that routinely landing in the first few feet or the very end of the target
touchdown zone is desirable. A proper touchdown point has an adequate safety margin against
landing short, yet allows the aircraft to easily stop within the available runway.
5.5. Initial.
5.5.1. Objective. Align aircraft with landing runway.
5.5.2. Description.
5.5.2.1. Airspeed - 200 KIAS.
5.5.2.2. Power – 50 percent + 1 percent per 1,000 feet MSL altitude.
5.5.2.3. Pitch - As required for level flight.
5.5.2.4. Altitude – 1,000-1,500 feet AGL or according to local directives.
5.5.2.5. FCP visual reference – one-half ground, one-half sky.
5.5.3. Procedure. Follow depicted pattern ground track. On initial, align with the runway
centerline (or as directed). Make required radio call.
5.6. Break.
5.6.1. Objective. Transition from initial to inside downwind.
5.6.2. Description. 180 degrees level decelerating turn.
5.6.2.1. Airspeed - Slow from 200 KIAS to 120-150 KIAS.
5.6.2.2. Power - As required (approximately 10 percent).
5.6.2.3. FCP visual reference - Drag TAS antenna across horizon. Expect required pitch
to increase slightly throughout the break.
5.6.3. Procedure.
5.6.3.1. The break zone is between the approach end and 3,000 feet down the runway.
Wind conditions and traffic spacing will affect the actual point where you start the break.
RSU or tower controllers may direct you to break at a certain point within or outside the
break zone.
5.6.3.2. Clear in the direction of turn. Smoothly roll into approximately 45-60 degrees of
bank and simultaneously adjust the PCL as required (approximately 10 percent). AOB
and back pressure vary with wind conditions. Fly a level, decelerating turn to inside
downwind trimming control stick forces as the airspeed decreases.
5.6.3.3. On inside downwind continue to slow to 120-150 KIAS.
5.6.3.4. As airspeed decreases, vary bank angle and/or G-loading to maintain level flight.
Setting and maintaining a constant bank angle requires increasing aft stick deflection to
remain level.
5.6.3.5. If required to break beyond normal break point, maintain airspeed according to
local directives until mid-field downwind to aid traffic pattern spacing.
5.7. Inside or Closed Downwind.
5.7.1. Objective. Maintain proper spacing and a ground track parallel to the runway. Apply
drift correction and offset inside/closed downwind ground track into the wind to account for
the effects of wind on the final turn. Arrive at perch point at 120 KIAS minimum, properly
configured, and ready to perform a planned 30-degree bank final turn.
5.7.2. Description. Airspeed - 120 KIAS minimum or according to local directives.
5.7.3. Procedures.
5.7.3.1. On inside downwind, with airspeed below 150 KIAS, make an intercockpit
“gear clear” call and pause momentarily before moving the gear handle. On student pre-
solo contact sorties, the IP must acknowledge the “gear clear” call with “clear” before the
student pilot lowers the gear. On all other sorties, “gear clear” is an advisory call only.
5.7.3.2. Lower the landing gear and flaps as required. As the flaps are lowered, the nose
of the aircraft pitches up slightly due to the increase in lift. Maintain level flight by
slightly increasing forward control stick pressure and trim for zero control stick forces.
(The objective is to be trimmed-up, hands-off as described in paragraph 2.9.1.5.)
5.7.3.3. Adjust power between approximately 30% – 45% depending upon flap setting to
maintain airspeed (120 KIAS minimum) and pattern altitude.
5.7.3.4. Adjust spacing and perch point for winds. No wind spacing is approximately 0.7
- 1.0 mile. Drift correction is approximately twice the correction used on initial. Visual
references are given in Table 5.1.
5.7.3.5. PF verbally confirms completion of Before Landing Checklist. PNF physically
checks the gear handle down (if in the FCP) and acknowledges the aircraft configuration
IAW local directives.
5.7.4. Technique.
5.7.4.1. Upon arrival on inside downwind, commonly applied techniques are the
pneumonics:
5.7.4.1.1. T -Torque (10-20% verify)
5.7.4.1.2. T – Track (adjust for wind)
5.7.4.1.3. T – Talk (radio call)
5.7.4.1.4. T – Trim (as required when slowing)
5.7.4.2. Alternatively.
5.7.4.2.1. S – Speed
5.7.4.2.2. S – Spacing
5.7.4.2.3. S - Speak
5.8. Perch and Final Turn.
5.8.1. Objective. Use a descending 180-degree turn to align aircraft with the runway. The
final turn is complete when wings level on final.
5.8.2. Description. For a no-wind pattern, the desired perch point occurs when the runway
threshold is approximately 45 degrees off your shoulder (Figure 5.2). See Table 5.1. for
parameters.
Figure 5.2. Perch Point Reference.
5.8.3. Procedure.
5.8.3.1. Confirm aircraft configuration prior to the perch.
5.8.3.2. Begin final turn (perch point) to allow for a one-half to three-quarter mile final.
Correct for winds. For example, with a strong headwind on final, begin the final turn
earlier than for a no-wind pattern. Displace the perch point into the wind which is
affecting the final turn to rollout on a one-half to three-quarter mile final.
5.8.3.3. Clear visually and with the radios. Do not start the final turn if conflicts exist or
if potential conflicts are not in sight. Break out from inside downwind (pattern status
permitting) using local procedures if:
5.8.3.3.1. Another aircraft in the final turn is not in sight.
5.8.3.3.2. A straight in is inside 2 miles and not in sight.
5.8.3.3.3. An ELP is inside low key and normal spacing cannot be maintained.
5.8.3.3.4. Pattern spacing cannot be maintained within the normal ground track.
5.8.3.3.5. Not properly configured by the perch point.
5.8.3.4. Start the final turn by adjusting power, lowering the nose, and rolling into 30
degrees of bank.
5.8.3.5. When able after starting the final turn, make a gear down call.
5.8.3.6. Cross-check airspeed with AOA. At higher aircraft weights, higher airspeed may
be required to maintain AOA on-speed indication.
5.8.3.7. Plan to use no more than 30 degrees of bank, but do not exceed 45 degrees of
bank during final turn as stall speed increases with increasing bank angle. If greater than
45 degrees of bank is required to complete the final turn, initiate a go-around. Correct
spacing on subsequent patterns to allow for 30 degrees bank in the final turn.
5.8.3.8. Roll out on extended runway centerline, approximately one-half to three-quarters
of a mile from the runway on a 3-to 4-degree glide path as you slow to final approach
airspeed.
5.8.3.9. If any doubt exists about the safety of continuing the approach, go around. Do
not hesitate to disregard the ground track and use traffic pattern stall recovery procedures
if required.
5.8.4. Techniques.
5.8.4.1. A commonly applied technique is the mnemonic: Power, Pitch, Roll.
5.8.4.1.1. Upon reaching intended perch point, set pitch 2/3 ground, 1/3 sky for
normal and ½ ground, ½ sky for no flap while simultaneously reducing power
initially to 15% torque for normal and 12% torque for no flap, roll to 30 degrees of
bank initially and cross check airspeed, adjust power as required, reference aimpoint,
adjust pitch accordingly and visualize extended runway centerline and adjust bank
angle to meet, not exceeding 45 degrees of bank.
5.8.4.2. Pick a rollout point on final before beginning the final turn. Visualize the pitch
and bank required to hit the rollout point. A good composite cross-check is critical to
smoothly flying the final turn, and as a minimum should include the intended landing
point, the rollout point, and airspeed.
5.8.4.3. Halfway through the final turn (perpendicular to the runway), cross-check
aircraft altitude which should be approximately 600 feet AGL for a 1,000-foot pattern.
This allows for aircrew to intercept final at ½ mile at approximately 200 feet AGL.
5.9. Final. Final provides the opportunity to stabilize airspeed and glide path before entering
the landing phase. Stable airspeed, proper glide path, and a fixed aim point provide the
consistency required for successful landing. Airspeed is based on configuration and winds, glide
path is 3-4 degrees, and, under normal conditions, the aim point is the runway threshold.
5.9.1. Objective. Maintain runway alignment, proper glide path, and correct airspeed.
5.9.2. Description. Final begins when wings level after the final turn and ends when the
flare begins. See Table 5.1 for parameters.
5.9.3. Procedure. Begin slowing from final turn speed to final speed when beginning to roll
out of bank by initially reducing power (approximately 5-10 percent) and maintaining or
slightly adding backstick pressure to prevent the nose from dropping.
5.9.3.1. Maintain proper spacing with preceding aircraft. If spacing is insufficient, go
around. After rolling out on final, initially use crab to maintain runway alignment.
5.9.3.2. On final, use a cross-check of aim point, airspeed to focus attention on the most
critical items. The aim point is usually about 500 feet short of the intended touchdown
point and is usually the runway threshold but could vary based on headwinds. Visualize
a constant glide path to the aim point.
5.9.3.3. Crab. Crab allows the aircraft to maintain runway alignment by weathervaning
into the wind. The amount of crab required on final indicates the amount of control
deflection needed to transition to the wing-low method. Do not land the T-6 with crab.
See paragraph 5.11.3.5. for crosswind landing considerations.
5.9.3.4. Airspeed and AOA. Cross-check airspeed with AOA. At higher aircraft
weights, higher airspeed may be required to maintain an on-speed (amber donut) AOA
indication. Above 700-800 pounds of fuel weight, approximately 3-5 knots above final
turn and final airspeed may be required. Be alert and stop excessive sink rates with pitch
and power. Heavy aircraft are less responsive to both pitch and power changes and
develop sink rates quicker than light aircraft.
5.9.3.5. Gusty Wind Conditions. Increase final approach airspeed by one-half the gust
factor up to a 10-knot increase. (Gusty winds do not affect final turn speeds.) The
aircraft may float farther than normal before touchdown due to the extra airspeed.
5.10. Straight-in Approach.
5.10.1. Objective. Land with minimum maneuvering and gradual airspeed changes.
5.10.2. Description. Visual maneuver that aligns the aircraft with the runway for a constant
speed, constant rate descent and landing. Situations that may require a straight-in approach
include flight control malfunction, pitot-static problem, structural damage, or an unlocked
canopy.
5.10.3. Procedure.
5.10.3.1. Request straight-in approach according to local directives.
5.10.3.2. Descend to 500 feet AGL before the 5-mile or 5-mile radar point or according
to local directives.
5.10.3.3. Configure prior to 2-mile point.
5.10.3.4. Slow to final approach speed once configured and before starting descent on
glide path.
5.10.4. Technique.
5.10.4.1. With flaps landing or takeoff, begin the descent when the threshold of the
runway (aim point) is in the lower one-third of the windscreen. For flaps UP, begin the
descent when the spinner reaches the threshold (aim point).
5.10.4.2. Use actual distance from threshold (aim point) from GPS to determine proper
point to begin descent. Begin descent between 1.25 and 1.67 miles from the aim point (3-
4 degrees glide path from 500- feet AGL). This can help develop ability to visually
determine start descent point.
5.10.4.3. Use straight-in to practice transition from crab to wing-low crosswind controls.
A longer final affords more time to practice multiple transitions.
5.11. Normal landing.
5.11.1. Objective. Land in proper landing zone, in proper landing attitude and on speed
(Table 5.1).
5.11.2. Description. The landing is divided into three phases: (1) roundout, (2) flare and
touchdown, and (3) landing roll. Each of these phases serves as a transition from the previous
phase to the next. The roundout serves as the transition from final to the flare. The flare is
used to reduce energy in the transition from final to landing airspeed. The landing roll serves
as the transition from landing to taxi. Groundspeed is reduced straight ahead on the runway
until at safe taxi speed.
5.11.3. Procedure.
5.11.3.1. Roundout. Use slight backstick pressure to reduce decent rate to a near
horizontal flight path. Start a smooth power reduction to slow from final approach speed
as aim point is shifted further down the runway. At the threshold, airspeed should be
approximately 10 knots below final airspeed.
5.11.3.2. Flare and Touchdown. In the flare, back stick pressure is slowly increased as
power is reduced to idle and airspeed further decreases. The aircraft will be in a slight
descent or level flight depending on altitude, airspeed, power setting, and rate of
deceleration.
5.11.3.2.1. Use caution to avoid excess back stick which could lead to a climb in the
flare. Flare at a rate proportional to the rate of descent. For example, higher descent
rates require faster application of back stick to attain normal descent rate prior to
touchdown and prevent a firm landing. Similarly, a lower than normal descent rate
requires slower control stick movement to prevent a high flare.
5.11.3.2.2. As the nose rises, forward visibility is reduced and peripheral vision
becomes the key factor in height and drift assessment. Continue back stick pressure
to increase the pitch attitude until the proper landing attitude is reached. As descent
rate and airspeed decrease, the aircraft gently settles onto the runway. Touchdown is
simply an end to the flare and should occur as landing speed is attained. Ensure PCL
is idle at touchdown.
5.11.3.2.3. In the flare, power can compensate for errors in judgment. Faster or
slower power reductions can compensate for errors made in the roundout and early
flare. While a momentary actuation of the stick shaker may occur just prior to
touchdown, apply power and go around any time control effectiveness is lost, the
aircraft experiences an approach-to-stall indication during a high flare, balloon, or at
any phase of the roundout or flare where the aircraft is not in a position to safely
touchdown.
5.11.3.2.4. Go around if an excessively long touchdown will occur.
5.11.3.2.5. Ensure feet are not on brakes when aircraft touches down.
5.11.3.3. Landing Roll. After touchdown and below approximately 80 KIAS on a full-
stop landing, slowly relax back stick pressure to smoothly lower the nose gear to the
runway. Avoid banging the nose gear.
5.11.3.3.1. With the nose gear on the runway position the feet so the balls of the feet
are on the top of the rudder pedals and smoothly apply brakes and increase back stick
pressure. This increases weight on the main gear and helps prevent the nose gear from
digging in, however, do not allow the nose gear to lift off the runway. Continually
increase back stick and brake pressure as the aircraft decelerates. Always brake in a
straight line; do not turn and brake. Maintain directional control with rudder and (or)
brakes. Use caution to avoid over controlling when applying brakes.
5.11.3.3.2. At speeds below 80 KIAS, the chances of approaching optimum braking
action are greatly increased. Use caution when braking at speeds above 80 KIAS.
The physical limitations of the tire and brake system make it extremely difficult to
consistently achieve maximum braking action, particularly at high speeds, as lift
reduces the weight component. A single, smooth application, with increasing pressure
as airspeed decreases, offers the best braking potential. Do not allow the wheels to
lock during braking. Once a wheel is locked, it may be necessary to completely
release brake pressure to allow wheel rotation.
5.11.3.3.3. Confirm N1 reduction from 67 to 60-61 percent shortly after main gear
touchdown (approximately 4 seconds).
5.11.3.3.4. A good technique is to check for airspeed below 60 KIAS with 2000 feet
of runway remaining and below 40 KIAS with 1000 feet of runway remaining to
alleviate the need for excessive braking at the end of the runway.
5.11.3.3.5. Select NWS when the aircraft is at a normal taxi speed and the rudder
pedals are centered. Center rudder pedals before selecting NWS. At higher speeds,
NWS is extremely sensitive and should only be used if directional control cannot be
maintained with rudder and brakes. Intercept taxi line to transition from the runway
to the taxiway.
5.11.3.3.6. If you encounter nose wheel shimmy during the landing roll, apply
backstick pressure to relieve weight on the nose wheel, and then gently release
pressure to reestablish contact with the runway. If condition persists reapply back
stick pressure.
5.11.3.3.7. A low runway condition reading (RCR), such as wet or icy runway will
influence controllability after landing.
5.11.3.4. Landing on Alternate Sides of the Runway. When landing on alternate sides
of the runway, plan to land near the center of the runway (main gear to wingtip on the
centerline). The side of the runway closest to normal turnoff routes is known as the cold
side; the side away from the normal turnoff is the hot side. Landing in the center of the
runway is permissible if traffic and local procedures permit.
5.11.3.5. Landing Considerations with Crosswinds. Introduce crosswind controls
(wing-low) as required on short final. This requires rudder deflection to align the nose of
the aircraft with the runway and aileron deflection into the wind to stop drift. Crosswind
controls increase drag, rate of deceleration, and stall speed. A small addition of power is
necessary to counter these effects.
5.11.3.5.1. If power is used during the flare, retard the PCL to idle at touchdown.
Crosswind controls must be held through touchdown and landing roll to prevent the
upwind wing from rising and the aircraft from skipping. With significant crosswinds,
expect one main gear to touchdown before the other.
5.11.3.5.2. As the airspeed decreases, crosswind control deflection must increase to
achieve the same effect. Proper use of aileron prevents a crosswind from lifting the
upwind wing. When rudder effectiveness is lost, full aileron deflection may be
necessary. In crosswinds greater than 10 knots, plan to use TO flaps and touchdown
at approach speed minus 10 knots. The aircraft may float farther than normal before
touchdown due to the extra airspeed.
5.11.3.5.3. When introducing crosswind controls (wing-low), a common memory aid
is the acronym RAP:
5.11.3.5.3.1. R - Rudder to align the nose with the runway.
5.11.3.5.3.2. A - Aileron into the wind to prevent drift.
5.11.3.5.3.3. P - Power to counteract increased drag (uncoordinated flight).
5.11.4. Techniques.
5.11.4.1. Roundout.
5.11.4.1.1. Approximately 1000 feet short of the aim point, reduce power to
approximately 10 percent torque (about a knob width). Increase back stick pressure
slightly and apply nose-up trim.
5.11.4.1.2. Approximately 2 seconds after power is reduced (500 feet from aim
point), start to shift aim point to the EOR.
5.11.4.1.3. Begin further power reduction as aim point is shifted. The earlier power
reduction, the slower the rate will be.
5.11.4.2. Flare and Touchdown.
5.11.4.2.1. Apply back stick pressure at the same rate that the aircraft settles toward
the runway, ultimately achieving the takeoff pitch picture. This allows for controlled
deceleration and loss of altitude.
5.11.4.2.2. Continue power reduction throughout flare. Base the rate of reduction on
total energy (height, sink rate, and airspeed).
5.12. Touch-and-go landing.
5.12.1. Objective. Accomplish multiple landings on a single sortie.
5.12.2. Description. Normal landing followed by normal takeoff. After touchdown, power
is advanced to MAX to execute takeoff. Lift off at approximately 85 KIAS.
5.12.3. Procedure.
5.12.3.1. Accomplish a normal landing. At main gear touchdown, smoothly apply power
to MAX. As the PCL is advanced, slightly lower the nose to attain the takeoff pitch
picture, but maintain sufficient back stick pressure to keep the nose gear off the runway.
Do not pull the aircraft off the runway below normal takeoff speed.
5.12.3.2. Maintain desired ground track with crosswind controls (as necessary)
throughout touchdown and takeoff roll. Control stick deflection for proper crosswind
control constantly changes between flare and takeoff as airspeed, power, and weight on
wheels change. Use the rudder for directional control to compensate for engine torque.
As the torque increases after the PCL is advanced, the nose will tend to yaw to the left,
and more right rudder will be required to keep the aircraft nose tracking straight down the
runway.
5.12.3.3. Perform the after takeoff checklist when safely airborne with good engine
indications, expected torque, and a visual climb from ground.
5.12.3.4. The elevator trim required for final and landing may cause premature lift-off as
power is applied. Forward control stick pressure may be required to compensate for the
tendency of the nose to pitch up. This forward pressure can be significant depending on
the amount of trim used for landing. Trim as necessary during the takeoff portion of
touch-and-go to alleviate the pressure.
5.13. Closed Traffic (Closed Pull-up) (Figure 5.3.).
5.13.1. Objective. Maneuver the aircraft to closed downwind to perform multiple practice
patterns and landings.
5.13.2. Description. A climbing turn to closed downwind from initial takeoff, touch-and-go
landing, or go-around. Minimum airspeed is 140 KIAS; maximum bank is 90 degrees.
5.13.2.1. Airspeed - 140 KIAS minimum.
5.13.2.2. Bank - 90 degrees maximum.
5.13.2.3. Power - As required (normally MAX initially).
Figure 5.3. Closed Pull-up.
5.13.3. Procedure.
5.13.3.1. At 140 KIAS minimum and according to local directives, request clearance for
a closed traffic pattern.
5.13.3.2. When approved, clear and advance the PCL smoothly as required and start a
climbing turn to the closed downwind leg, initially using approximately 45-60 degrees of
bank. Closed downwind leg displacement should be the same as established with an
overhead break.
5.13.3.3. Approaching pattern altitude, reduce power to prevent acceleration.
5.13.3.4. On closed downwind reduce power to maintain 140-150 KIAS until mid-field
or as directed locally.
5.13.4. Technique.
5.13.4.1. Begin a climbing turn and pull the nose up until horizon is between the rudder
pedals.
5.13.4.2. Lead the level-off on inside downwind by retarding the PCL to approximately
20 percent torque. As a guide, begin power reduction 100 feet below pattern altitude for
every 10 KIAS in excess of 140 KIAS. For example, if airspeed is 180 KIAS, start power
reduction 400 feet below pattern altitude.
5.13.4.3. Bank may be increased to 90 degrees to affect level off, if vertical speed is
excessive. A small amount of rudder in the direction of the turn will help bring the nose
back to the horizon.
5.14. Abnormal Pattern Procedures. Recognition of abnormal situations in the traffic pattern
is critical. Traffic conflicts or poorly flown patterns or landings can lead to dangerous situations.
If a potential traffic conflict is not in sight or a landing attempt looks or simply feels wrong, do
not hesitate to breakout or go around. If in doubt about the location of traffic, query the RSU or
tower controller. If at any time stall indications are observed, perform stall recovery procedures
and disregard ground track.
5.14.1. Straight Through on Initial. To discontinue a pattern before the break, continue
(carry) straight through at pattern altitude and 200 KIAS (according to local directives). At
end of normal break zone, make radio call according to local directives (for example, “Texan
11, break point straight through”). At the departure end (or according to local directives),
turn crosswind. Clear for aircraft turning crosswind, pulling closed, or established on inside
downwind.
5.14.2. Breakout from Overhead Pattern.
5.14.2.1. At the home station, follow the local procedures for breaking out. In general, to
perform a breakout, add power to MAX, while starting a climbing turn away from the
conflict. Then raise the gear and flaps, and confirm a clean aircraft prior to 150 knots.
Level off at breakout altitude and fly toward the VFR entry point. Make the appropriate
radio call when able. After clear of all pattern ground tracks, descend and maneuver in
accordance with local guidance to arrive wings level at pattern altitude at the VFR entry
point.
5.14.2.2. Use initiative and judgment when deciding to break out of the pattern. If
directed to break out by the RSU, tower, or your instructor pilot, follow instructions
without hesitation, however; do not wait to be directed to break out if you see a
dangerous situation is developing.
5.14.2.3. Use caution when breaking out from the inside downwind leg due to slow
airspeed and configuration. Be cognizant of other aircraft breaking out at the same time.
Never break out from the final turn; execute a go-around instead.
5.15. Go-around.
5.15.1. Objective. Safely discontinue pattern from final turn, final, or landing.
5.15.2. Description. A go-around is termination of an approach after the aircraft is
configured. Power is used to accelerate and the aircraft is deconfigured when appropriate. At
low altitudes, a climb is established. At higher altitudes a continued descent may be required
according to local directives.
5.15.3. Procedures. Do not delay the decision and do not try to salvage a bad approach.
Safety is enhanced by an early decision to go around if required. There should be no need for
a controller to direct a go-around for a poorly flown pattern.
5.15.3.1. Final Turn, Final Approach and Landing Go-around.
5.15.3.1.1. Above 500 feet AGL, use power as required. Raise the gear and flaps, and
accelerate to normal pattern airspeed. Continued descent may be required (normally
to 500 feet AGL) to comply with local directives.
5.15.3.1.2. At or below 500 feet AGL, use power as required. When certain the
aircraft will not touch down and with a positive climb indication, retract the landing
gear and flaps.
5.15.3.1.3. If the go-around is initiated in the landing phase, advance the PCL to
MAX. Following a balloon or bounce, a touchdown (or second touchdown) may
occur. Maintain the landing attitude; do not over-rotate in an attempt to avoid a
touchdown (or second touchdown) as a tail strike may occur. Do not raise the gear
until a positive rate of climb is established and the aircraft is assured of not touching
down.
5.15.3.1.4. As flaps retract, raise the nose slightly to offset tendency of the aircraft to
sink.
5.15.3.1.5. Clear the runway (offset), if necessary, to avoid overflying aircraft on the
runway performing an initial takeoff or a touch and go. To offset, attain safe airspeed
and altitude; then smoothly roll into a shallow-banked, coordinated turn. Turn
approximately 20 degrees away from the runway. When well clear of the runway
(enough to see traffic on takeoff roll and (or) departure leg), execute another shallow
turn to parallel the runway. Normally offset is performed toward the same side of the
runway as inside downwind. Comply with local procedures. Add “offset” to callsign
for RSU requests.
5.15.3.1.6. Allow the aircraft to accelerate to between 140 and 200 KIAS, then climb
or descend to 500 feet above the terrain until past the departure end of the runway or
according to local directives.
5.16. Final Irregularities. Depending on nature and magnitude of irregularity and aircraft
flight parameters, correction and continued final may be possible. However, a go-around is
always acceptable.
5.16.1. Low (Drug-in) Final. Aircraft below proper glide path.
5.16.1.1. Causes.
5.16.1.1.1. Early descent on straight-in approach.
5.16.1.1.2. Long perch coupled with normal pitch and descent rate. Altitude rolling
out on final is as planned, but long perch leads to longer than desired final.
5.16.1.1.3. Excessive altitude loss from diving final turn.
5.16.1.1.4. Failure to maintain proper glide path.
5.16.1.2. Effects. Normal power settings are too low to maintain airspeed on shallower
glide path. Airspeed and (or) altitude may decrease.
5.16.1.3. Recovery.
5.16.1.3.1. If too low or slow, go around. Avoid obstacles.
5.16.1.3.2. Add power, level off, and intercept proper glide path.
5.16.2. Steep Final. Aircraft above proper glide path:
5.16.2.1. Causes.
5.16.2.1.1. Too close to runway on inside downwind.

5.16.2.1.2. Early perch.
5.16.2.1.3. Level final turn.
5.16.2.2. Effects. High descent rate with low power setting. Low power setting, coupled
with the pitch change required to intercept normal glide path, could result in rapid
decrease in airspeed and high sink rate. If not corrected, this power-deficient situation
could result in a stall or firm touchdown.
5.16.2.3. Recovery.
5.16.2.3.1. Go around if sink rate is too high or if it is not practical to intercept
normal glide path with a normal descent rate.
5.16.2.3.2. Use slightly higher than normal descent rates as soon as deviation is
recognized. Use power as required to control airspeed in descent and maintain
airspeed when on normal glide path.
5.16.3. Slow Final. Increased pitch attitude is required to maintain lift as airspeed is
reduced.
5.16.3.1. Cause. Improper glide path and (or) power setting.
5.16.3.2. Effects.
5.16.3.2.1. Higher than normal pitch attitude. Inaccurate perception of the proper
glide path.
5.16.3.2.2. Increased AOA and increased likelihood of stall, especially in gusty wind
conditions.
5.16.3.2.3. Increasing pitch leads aim point to shift down the runway.
5.16.3.3. Recovery.
5.16.3.3.1. Apply power at an altitude high enough to reestablish the correct airspeed
and attitude. If altitude is insufficient, go-around.
5.16.3.3.2. Correct aim point and glide path to reestablish proper airspeed.
5.17. Landing Irregularities. Airspeed in the flare is just above stall airspeed. Even at slow
airspeeds, the elevator is still very effective. Any abrupt change in pitch could result in a balloon,
a bounce, or even a stall. When any of these conditions are encountered, apply MAX power,
adjust the pitch attitude, and initiate a go-around if it is unsafe to continue the landing. If power
is applied and the aircraft continues to settle, do not try to hold it off by raising the nose above
the landing attitude. A touch down with too high of a nose attitude could result in a tail strike.
Hold the landing attitude and let the aircraft touch down. MAX power cushions the contact. In
case of a hard landing, do not raise the gear.
5.17.1. High Flare.
5.17.1.1. Cause. Roundout performed too early or with excessive pitch up.
5.17.1.2. Effects . Airspeed decay and or hard, long landing.
5.17.1.2.1. Possible premature touchdown of nose gear caused by abrupt pitch down
to compensate for high flare.
5.17.1.2.2. Stall if flare continued with excess altitude.
5.17.1.2.3. Hard landing due to high sink rates as airspeed decreases at higher than
normal altitude.
5.17.1.3. Recovery.
5.17.1.3.1. With adequate airspeed and runway remaining, release a small amount of
back pressure to increase descent rate. As aircraft approaches normal altitude,
increase back pressure to reestablish normal flare.
5.17.1.3.2. If in a landing attitude and excess altitude would require an end swap to
land, do not attempt landing, and initiate a go-around. Remember, as landing attitude
is attained, the aircraft is rapidly approaching a stall and there is insufficient margin
of error for radical pitch changes in the flare.
5.17.2. Late and Rapid Roundout.
5.17.2.1. Cause. Higher than expected descent rate or misjudged altitude.
5.17.2.2. Effects. Possible incomplete flare, ballooned flare, hard touchdown.
5.17.2.2.1. Firm touchdown due to higher than normal descent rates or insufficient
time to complete flare.
5.17.2.2.2. Abrupt roundout to prevent premature or firm touchdown may lead to an
accelerated stall. This is a dangerous situation that may cause an extremely hard
landing and damage to the main gear. This may or may not be a controllable situation,
depending on airspeed.
5.17.2.3. Recovery. Immediately position the controls to attain the takeoff attitude and
simultaneously advance the PCL to MAX, to initiate a go-around. The main gear may
contact the ground a second time, but if recovered properly, the second contact is usually
moderate.
5.17.3. Porpoising.
5.17.3.1. Cause. Incorrect landing attitude and airspeed. At touchdown, the nose gear
contacts the runway before the main gear.
5.17.3.2. Effects. The aircraft bounces back and forth between the nose gear and main
gear. Without immediate corrective action, the porpoise progresses to a violent, unstable
pitch oscillation. Repeated heavy impacts on the runway ultimately cause structural
damage to the landing gear and airframe.
5.17.3.3. Recovery.
5.17.3.3.1. Immediately position the controls to the takeoff attitude to prevent the
nose wheel from contacting the runway, simultaneously advance the PCL to MAX,
and initiate a go-around.
5.17.3.3.2. Do not attempt to counteract each bounce with opposite control stick
movement. The combined reaction time of pilot and aircraft is such that this control
movement aggravates the porpoise. Hold the controls in the recovery position to
dampen the oscillations. Power increases control effectiveness by increasing airspeed.
5.17.3.3.3. Do not raise the landing gear after a porpoise. Structural damage may
prevent normal gear operation.
5.17.4. Floating.
5.17.4.1. Cause. Late power reduction, excessive airspeed, or improper flap setting.
5.17.4.2. Effects. Long landing. Possible balloon or bounce.
5.17.4.3. Recovery. Dependent on magnitude of float and runway remaining.
5.17.4.3.1. For a slight float, airspeed permitting, gradually increase pitch attitude as
airspeed decreases and landing speed is approached.
5.17.4.3.2. Avoid prolonged floating, especially in strong crosswinds. If a long
landing is inevitable, initiate a go-around.
5.17.5. Ballooning.
5.17.5.1. Cause. Rapid roundout or flare. Raising the nose to the landing attitude before
lift has decreased sufficiently.
5.17.5.2. Effects. Altitude gain (dependent on airspeed and pitch rate).
5.17.5.3. Recovery.
5.17.5.3.1. Landing may be completed from a slight balloon. Hold landing attitude as
the aircraft settles to runway. Maintain wing-low crosswind controls through the
balloon and landing.
5.17.5.3.2. Go-around from a pronounced balloon. Do not attempt to salvage the
landing.
5.17.6. Bouncing.
5.17.6.1. Causes.
5.17.6.1.1. Firm or hard touchdown causes aircraft to bounce off runway.
5.17.6.1.2. Contact with ground before landing attitude is attained.
5.17.6.1.3. Late recognition that aircraft is settling too fast, combined with excessive
back stick pressure.
5.17.6.2. Effects. Height reached depends on the force with which the aircraft strikes the
runway, the amount of back stick pressure held, and the speed at touchdown.
5.17.6.3. Recovery. Same as a balloon, depending on severity of bounce.
5.17.7. Slight Bounce. Continue the landing. Maintain direction with wing-low crosswind
controls and smoothly adjust pitch to the landing attitude just before touchdown.
5.17.8. Severe Bounce (Aircraft Rising Rapidly). Do not attempt a landing from a
significant bounce, go-around immediately.
5.17.8.1. Simultaneously apply MAX power, maintain direction, and lower nose to a safe
pitch attitude.
5.17.8.2. Continue go-around even if another bounce occurs.
5.17.8.3. Leave the landing gear extended if a hard landing is encountered.
5.17.9. Bouncing in Crosswinds. Use extreme caution. When one wheel strikes the
runway, the other wheel touches down immediately after. The crosswind correction is lost
and the aircraft drifts. Reestablish crosswind controls to stop the drift and either continue the
landing or go-around, depending on the situation.
5.17.10. Landing in a Drift or Crab. Aircraft contacts the runway in a crab or drifting
sideways. Throughout final, flare, and touchdown, in a crosswind, the aircraft should track in
a straight line down the runway. With wing-low crosswind controls, align the fuselage with
the runway. Insufficient wing-low crosswind controls result in landing with a drift, in a crab,
or a combination of both.
5.17.10.1. Cause. Failure to apply sufficient wing-low crosswind corrections.
5.17.10.2. Effects. Excessive side loads on landing gear, potential gear damage.
5.17.10.3. Recovery. Go-around if unable to apply proper crosswind controls before
touchdown.
5.17.11. Wing Rising After Touchdown.
5.17.11.1. Cause. Lift differential combined with rolling moment. During crosswind
landing, air flow is greater on the upwind wing because the fuselage reduces air flow over
the downwind wing. This causes a lift differential. The wind also strikes the fuselage on
the upwind side, and this causes a rolling moment about the longitudinal axis which may
further assist in raising the upwind wing. When effects of these two factors are great
enough, one wing may rise even though directional control is maintained.
5.17.11.2. Effect. Depending on the amount of crosswind and degree of corrective
action, directional control could be lost. If no correction is applied, one wing can raise
enough to cause the other wing to strike the ground.
5.17.11.3. Recovery. Use ailerons to keep the wings level. Use rudder and (or)
asymmetric braking to maintain directional control. Aileron is more effective if applied
immediately. As the wing rises, the effect increases as more wing area is exposed to the
crosswind.
5.18. Emergency Landing Patterns (ELP). The ELP is a 360-degree pattern designed to
position the aircraft for landing when the possibility of a power loss exists, power is not
available, or only partial power is available. If an engine failure or malfunction in flight requires
an ELP, a thorough understanding of T-6 flight performance, emergency procedures, ELPs, and
ejection system capabilities, is critical in the decision to eject or attempt an ELP. An ELP might
be warranted for a fire warning in flight, engine failure (after takeoff or during flight), or any
indication of impending engine failure or unusual engine operation. If there is any doubt about
engine performance or there is benefit to remaining in the ejection envelope longer, consider
recovering via an ELP. The time available to decide whether to recover via ELP or eject depends
on the phase of flight and the severity of the engine malfunction. In the event of an actual engine
failure, time available can range from a few seconds (engine failure on takeoff) to over 20
minutes for a high-altitude power loss (HAPL). Figure 5.4 provides a graphic depiction of
factors affecting the decision to continue an ELP attempt or eject. ELPs are only flown to
suitable landing areas (hard surface runway, taxiway, under run, or overrun) of sufficient length.
Landing on an unprepared surface should only be attempted if ejection is not possible.
5.18.1. ELP Types. There are two types of actual ELPs: the forced landing (FL) and
precautionary emergency landing (PEL). The primary difference between the two is the
availability of power. The ELP profile depicted in Figure 5.6 is used for both the FL and
PEL. The FL is flown with the engine inoperative (no power) and the PEL is flown with
power available, although engine failure may be imminent or power available may be less
than normal. For training, simulate a feathered prop on simulated forced landings (SFLs) by
setting 4-6 percent torque. Likewise on a PEL, when the aircraft is established on proper
energy profile, fly the maneuver with 4-6 percent torque. If flown correctly, the FL and PEL
look the same.
5.18.2. ELP Operational Risk Management
5.18.2.1. FL.
5.18.2.1.1. In an actual engine failure scenario, the methodology to descend below
the minimum controlled ejection altitude employs the use of the acronym ORM 3-2-
1.
5.18.2.1.2. ORM 3-2-1 means that with an engine malfunction requiring a FL, T-6
aircrews will not descend below 2000 feet AGL unless they are (O) on profile for the
field of intended landing, with the (R) runway in sight and in a position to safely (M)
maneuver to land. Three hundred feet AGL (3) is the point to make the final decision
to continue or eject. At 200 feet AGL (2), the gear will be confirmed and reported
down, and at 100 feet AGL (1) the aircraft should be on centerline.
5.18.2.2. PEL.
5.18.2.2.1. The recommended minimum ceiling for a PEL is also 2000 feet; however,
ORM 3-2-1 is not applicable to PELs.
5.18.2.2.2. In an impending engine failure or unusual engine operation scenario
requiring a PEL with questionable weather, the inability to be clear of clouds by 2000
feet AGL does not necessitate immediate ejection. Depending on actual weather
conditions, a normal overhead, visual straight-in, or instrument approach may be
flown as an alternate means of recovery
Figure 5.4. Forced Landing ORM 3-2-1.
5.18.3. Initial Actions. Initial reaction to an engine-related malfunction at low altitude

should be to trade excess airspeed for altitude (zoom) according to emergency procedures. If
engine failure is suspected above 150 KIAS, initiate a zoom climb using a 2-G pull-up to a
20-degree climb angle until approaching 20 KIAS above the desired glide airspeed, then
lower the nose to maintain the desired glide speed. At higher altitudes, the requirement to
zoom or simply decelerate to glide speed is based on distance to the selected recovery field.
The PEL checklist in the flight manual offers an organized approach to recovery with an
engine malfunction, and some of the steps are equally useful for an engine failure in flight. A
good memory aid for these steps (PEL checklist) is; “Turn, Climb, Clean, Check, and Boost
Pump, Ignition, and Plan (BIP).” Never sacrifice aircraft control in order to TCCC.
5.18.3.1. Turn. Turn immediately to the nearest suitable field based on aircraft
condition, weather, airfield conditions, altitude, and gliding distance available. In most
PEL situations (chip light, low oil pressure, etc.), time is the most critical element. The
longer the engine runs, the greater the chance for complete failure.
5.18.3.2. Choosing the Most Suitable Field. Pilot judgment may lead to selection of an
airfield that is NOT necessarily the nearest. For example, a usable airfield with a less than
4,000-foot runway may be only a few minutes away, but the situation may warrant a
longer glide or use of the engine longer to reach a field that is familiar or has a
significantly longer runway, crash crew support, or medical assistance. In no case should
the engine-out glide range for the nearer field be exceeded until the aircraft is within
engine-out glide range of the desired field. Being at sufficient altitude to be able to make
an airfield using an engine-out glide is referred to as “being on profile” or “being in the
bubble.” Being on profile for a near field and climbing so as to be on profile for a further,
but more desirable, field is called “bubble hopping.” Winds, weather, and the risks
associated with remaining airborne for a longer period of time with potential aircraft
problems all need to be weighed before making the decision to bubble hop. In most cases,
landing with an operational engine is preferred to performing a forced landing.
5.18.3.2.1. Factors for Consideration. In the event of engine malfunction or failure,
there may be more than one airfield within glide distance.
5.18.3.2.2. Select the most suitable based on these factors.
5.18.3.2.3. Distance to airfield.
5.18.3.2.4. Terrain around airfield.
5.18.3.2.5. Runway length, width, direction, and condition.
5.18.3.2.6. Weather.
5.18.3.2.7. Fire or rescue support.
5.18.3.2.8. Emergency oxygen and electrical power supply. Time required for glide
from high altitude with engine inoperative may exceed emergency oxygen supply.
5.18.3.2.9. Threat to the public if aircraft must be abandoned.
5.18.3.3. Distance Calculations. A VFR map, conventional NAVAIDs, and GPS airfield,
user-defined, and (or) terminal waypoints can be used when judging distance to the
selected recovery airfield. The NRST function on the GPS is extremely helpful in
providing accurate distance information. Two primary methods used to determine energy
state relative to emergency fields are:
5.18.3.3.1. DME Method. A memory aid is “Half-DME + Key.”
5.18.3.3.1.1. “Half-DME”. Determine distance to field (GPS NRST function).
Divide distance by 2. (This is the minimum AGL altitude to reach the field via
straight-in glide, no wind, in thousands of feet.)
5.18.3.3.1.2. “+ Key”. Add 3,000 feet (high key) or 1,500 feet (low key) to
determine AGL altitude required to arrive at the desired key.
5.18.3.3.1.3. Add field elevation to determine MSL altitude required (no wind).
5.18.3.3.2. Altitude Method.
5.18.3.3.2.1. Determine max glide distance: Subtract desired key altitude (3,000
feet for high key or 1,500 feet for low key) from current MSL altitude. Next,
subtract field elevation. Finally, multiply this number by 2.
5.18.3.3.2.1.1. This can be expressed as: (Current MSL altitude – desired key
altitude – field elevation) x 2.
5.18.3.3.2.2 . Divide by 1000 to determine max glide distance to desired key (no
wind). (GPS NRST function).
5.18.3.4. Climb. Climb to intercept ELP profile to recovery airfield. Climb (zoom) to
trade excess airspeed (greater than 150 KIAS) for altitude and minimize turn radius. If
not within engine-out glide distance of high key, use the highest suitable power setting
and 140 KIAS to climb (best rate). Once altitude is sufficient to make high key, reduce
power to 4-6 percent torque and trim for a 125-knot (minimum) descent. When climbing,
do not lose SA or visual contact (if acquired) with the intended landing runway. When
determining altitude required for ELP, be sure to account for winds and required turns.
5.18.3.4.1. The preferred method to gain energy is a climb; however, weather
conditions may prevent a climb to the required altitude. If unable to climb due to
clouds, icing, etc., increase energy by accelerating to a higher airspeed. Remain clear
of clouds until in position to descend and (or) decelerate to enter the ELP.
5.18.3.4.2. Ten knots of extra airspeed can be traded for approximately 100 feet of
increased altitude. For example, 175 KIAS and 6,000 feet is approximately the same
energy level as 125 KIAS and 6,500 feet.
5.18.3.4.3. Ten knots of extra airspeed can also be traded for approximately 1,000
feet of horizontal distance using level deceleration with a feathered propeller (or 4-6
percent torque). For example, a level deceleration from 185 KIAS to 125 KIAS will
yield approximately 6,000 feet (or 1 nm) of forward travel.
5.18.3.5. Clean. Clean up the aircraft by raising landing gear, flaps, and speed brake (as
appropriate for the emergency) as soon as possible. Retraction may not be possible if the
engine fails. Remember that excess drag inhibits the climb and greatly reduces gliding
range. At optimum glide airspeeds, the drag of extended landing gear reduces the glide
ratio (NM divided by 1,000 feet of altitude) from 2:1-1.5:1.
5.18.3.6. Check. Check the aircraft. Look at all indications. Continue analyzing the
situation and take the proper action while intercepting or maintaining the ELP profile.
5.18.3.7. Boost Pump, Ignition, and Plan (BIP).
5.18.3.7.1. Turn boost pump and ignition switches on (as required) for fuel related
malfunctions.
5.18.3.7.2. “Plan”. The above considerations and energy state should lead to one of
four decisions:
5.18.3.7.2.1. Intercept the ELP profile at or above high key.
5.18.3.7.2.2. Intercept the ELP profile at a point other than high key with the
appropriate configuration and airspeed.
5.18.3.7.2.3. For FL scenarios, eject when it becomes clear that the aircraft
cannot be recovered safely (ORM 3-2-1).
5.18.3.7.2.4. With an engine malfunction, depending on actual weather
conditions, a normal overhead, visual straight-in, or instrument approach is highly
recommended as an alternate means of recovery.
5.18.4. HAPL.
5.18.4.1. Objective. Identify the nearest suitable airfield and safely maneuver the
aircraft to intercept ELP profile. Arrive at high key aligned with the landing runway. If
high key cannot be reached, intercept profile at a point before low key. Make a timely
decision to continue or terminate the ELP and eject.
5.18.4.2. Description. Loss of power at any altitude above high key altitude.
5.18.4.3. Airspeed. Maintain 125 KIAS minimum clean or 120 KIAS minimum with
landing gear.
5.18.4.4. Power.
5.18.4.4.1. SFL. 4-6 percent torque (simulates PCL off).
5.18.4.4.2. PEL. Adjust as required until on profile, 4-6 percent torque once on
profile.
5.18.4.5. Procedure. Maintain aircraft control and analyze the situation. Accomplish
boldface procedures.
5.18.4.5.1. Carefully manage energy to arrive at high key on altitude. Attempt to
dissipate excess energy prior to high key to minimize disorientation and allow the
profile to be flown normally. To lose energy, slip, S-turn, lower the gear early, or use
a combination of all three. Another method to lose the excess altitude is to make 360-
degree turns prior to high key. This is generally accomplished very near or directly
over the intended landing destination. Approximate altitude loss for 360-degree turns:
5.18.4.5.1.1. 30-degree bank - 2,000 feet.
5.18.4.5.1.2. 45-degree bank - 1,500 feet.
5.18.4.5.1.3. 60-degree bank - 1,000 feet.
5.18.4.6. Glide Performance. A clean glide at 125 KIAS approximates best glide range.
For no-wind planning, a clean aircraft (prop feathered or 4-6 percent torque set) at 125
KIAS should glide 2 miles for every 1,000 feet of altitude lost (2:1 glide ratio), with a
VSI of approximately 1,350-1,500 fpm.
5.18.4.6.1. Check the descent rate after setting 4- to 6-percent torque (clean
configuration). If the VSI is greater than 1,500 fpm, increase torque to achieve a
1,350 fpm descent. If power is insufficient to achieve a descent rate less than 1,500
fpm, consider shutting down the engine to improve glide performance. If Np is less
than 100%, traditional torque values are no longer a valid indicator of thrust. Crews
will need to find what torque will give them a rate of descent of 1350-1500 fpm then
utilize that torque during the PEL.
5.18.4.6.2. If time permits, use DME or GPS to confirm the actual glide ratio.
Consider winds and required turns. Adjust the plan if actual glide distance varies from
expected.
5.18.5. Slips.
5.18.5.1. Objective. Dissipate energy to achieve ELP profile while proceeding in a
desired direction.
5.18.5.2. Description. A slip is uncoordinated flight used to increase the sink rate and
lose altitude with a constant airspeed and ground track.
5.18.5.3. Procedure. May be used at any point in an actual ELP; however, it is
potentially dangerous in a configured T-6 close to the ground. Caution must be exercised,
since stall speed is greatly increased in this uncoordinated flight condition. The slip must
be taken out with enough altitude remaining (300 feet for training) to slow the rate of
descent and ensure positive control of the aircraft during the final moments of the
maneuver. Lower one wing and apply opposite (top) rudder pressure. Monitor airspeed
closely and adjust nose attitude as necessary to maintain 125 KIAS (120 KIAS
configured). Monitor the VSI and note the increased rate of descent. In a full slip, the rate
of descent may be in excess of 2,000 fpm. As a guideline, keep the nose below the
horizon in a full slip. During aggressive slips, a fuel low light may come on but should
extinguish after the slip maneuver is terminated. If the pilot reverses the control inputs
(opposite rudder and aileron), without first neutralizing controls to reverse the turn
direction, the aircraft may depart controlled flight. Use extreme caution when reversing
control inputs during slip maneuvers.
5.18.5.3.1. Straight Ahead. Select a reference point on the horizon and adjust
rudder pressure and (or) the AOB to keep the nose on the point.
5.18.5.3.2. Turning. Lower the inside wing while increasing opposite (top) rudder
pressure. It is necessary to vary the AOB and rudder pressure to maintain the desired
ground track.
5.18.5.3.3. Recovery. Smoothly roll the wings toward level while reducing rudder
pressure. The slip must be taken out with enough altitude remaining to slow the rate
of descent and ensure positive control of the aircraft during the final moments of any
maneuver in which it is used.
5.18.6. GPS Use on HAPL/ELPs (Figure 5.5). The GPS can provide vital information, but
do not sacrifice aircraft control or profile maintenance in an attempt to get GPS information
that you do not need to safely recover the aircraft. Although the NRST function may provide
quick information about an airfield, other resources such as the In-Flight Guide may also
provide the required executable data.
Figure 5.5. GPS Use During HAPL/ELPs.
5.18.7. Flying an ELP.

5.18.7.1. Objective. Safely land from high key or low key.
5.18.7.2. Description. The ELP is a 360-degree pattern designed to position the aircraft
for landing for an FL, SFL, or PEL. See Figure 5.6 and Table 5.2.
5.18.7.3. Airspeed. Maintain 125 KIAS (minimum) clean or 120 KIAS (minimum)
configured. A higher airspeed may be used while flying the ELP to increase drag and
decrease energy, but caution must be used to adhere to gear and flap limiting speeds.
5.18.7.4. Power.
5.18.7.4.1. SFL. 4-6 percent torque. Do not adjust power throughout the profile
unless safety of flight is jeopardized.
5.18.7.4.2. PEL. Adjust power as required according to the flight manual until on
profile, 4-6 percent torque on profile.
5.18.7.5. Procedures.
5.18.7.5.1. Planning. The primary reference during an ELP is the runway. Cross-
check energy level (altitude, airspeed) with position. Look outside to maintain or
attain proper ground track. Predict energy level (altitude/airspeed) at known reference
points (cross key, low key, base key, etc.) and anticipate required corrections.
5.18.7.5.2. Energy Corrections.
5.18.7.5.2.1. High Energy.
5.18.7.5.2.1.1. For an (S)FL, correct for high energy by modifying ELP
ground track, slipping the aircraft, and/or adding drag devices early.
5.18.7.5.2.1.2. For a PEL, correct with a power reduction or utilize any of the
options applicable to an FL.
5.18.7.5.2.2. Low Energy.
5.18.7.5.2.2.1. For an (S)FL, correct for low energy by delaying landing gear
or flap extension, intercepting the ELP at some point other than high key (low
key, base key, final), and (or) adjusting pattern ground track.
5.18.7.5.2.2.2. For a PEL, use power to correct for a low-energy state as soon
as it is recognized (if the severity of an actual engine malfunction allows).
After correcting back to profile, reset 4-6 percent torque. Note: Emphasis
should be on safely maneuvering the aircraft on proper profile and airspeed,
versus precisely resetting 4-6 percent torque.
5.18.7.5.3. Ground track management. Look outside to maintain or attain proper
ground track. Position deviations can occur due to poor planning, imprecise aircraft
control, or improper wind analysis. Trim throughout the ELP to minimize airspeed
deviations. Make all corrections smooth and expeditious to avoid stall.
5.18.7.6. High Key Placement.
5.18.7.6.1. Offset Method. Use approximately one-quarter wingtip distance (WTD)
displacement from the runway, away from the intended ELP turn direction. For
example, if making a right turn out of high key, displace to the left of the runway
approaching high key. Place the runway just above the canopy rail as an
approximation for one-quarter WTD. The exact amount of displacement is not
critical, but the goal is to be able to see the runway to determine high key position.
5.18.7.6.2. Overhead Method. Establish high key position directly over the runway.
If a bank is required to check for position relative to the runway, use caution to avoid
drifting in the direction of any potential traffic conflicts.
5.18.7.7. High to Low Key.

5.18.7.7.1. If on profile at or prior to high key, lower the landing gear.
5.18.7.7.2. Turn and use AOB as necessary toward low key.
5.18.7.7.3. If using offset method: Approximately 20-degree bank - no wind.
5.18.7.7.4. If using overhead method: Approximately 30-degree bank - no-wind.
5.18.7.8. Cross Key. Check for 2,200-2,300 feet AGL, with the aircraft approximately
perpendicular to the landing runway. If excessively high or low, check for proper power
setting and (or) configuration. Otherwise, evaluate airspeed, bank angle, and winds to
determine cause of altitude deviation.
Figure 5.6. Emergency Landing Pattern (Typical).
Table 5.2. Checkpoints for ELP.
Checkpoint Target Airspeed Target Position Description

Altitude Configuration
(Note 1)
High key 3,000 120 KIAS Gear down 1/3 down planned RWY. 1/4
feet minimum WTD abeam, or directly over
AGL (note 3) intended point of landing. RWY
(note 2) heading or aligned with landing
direction. Wings level
(note, 4)
Cross key 2,200- 120 KIAS Gear down Halfway from high key to low
2,300 minimum key, approximately
feet (note 3) perpendicular to the landing
AGL runway.
Low key 1,500 120 KIAS Gear Down, flaps 2/3 WTD abeam intended point
feet minimum TO (as required) of touchdown. Fuel cap on
AGL (note 3) RWY (note 4)
Base key 600-800 120 KIAS Gear down, flaps Halfway between low key and
feet minimum LDG (as final
AGL (note 3) required) (note 5)
Final N/A 110 KIAS Gear down, flaps Plan for 1,000-foot (minimum)
(minimum) LDG as required final prior to the intended point
(note 5) of touchdown. (Note 6)
Notes:
1. If below target altitude on an FL or SFL, delay configuration changes only until on profile. If
below target altitude on a PEL, immediately add power to get back on profile (if the severity of
an actual engine malfunction allows) prior to extending gear or flaps. The goal is to correct
deviations early to arrive at checkpoints on target altitude and in the proper configuration.
2. 3000 feet AGL is ideal; however, high key may be as low as 2500 feet AGL.
3. Or on-speed AoA, whichever is higher.
4. All WTDs are approximate and based on 10 knot headwind conditions.
5. Strive to set LDG flaps, but use flaps as required to ensure aircraft will not touch down short
of the runway. Flaps can be lowered after landing is assured or after touchdown if stopping
distance is critical. Not recommended in gusty wind conditions unless an actual emergency
condition exists. Landing flaps are discouraged with crosswinds greater than 10-knots due to the
potential stresses the side loads impart on the landing gear. If landing flaps are appropriate for
the existing conditions (i.e., runway length, required training objectives, etc.), the crosswind
limit for landing flaps is 25 knots.
6. The intended point of landing is within the first one-third of the RWY with landing flaps
extended, on centerline, touching down on-speed.
5.18.7.9. Low Key.

5.18.7.9.1. Low key is located approximately two thirds WTD (fuel cap on runway),
abeam the intended point of touchdown with approximately 10 knots of headwind,
however, the pilot must adjust the low key position based on wind, runway length,
presence of additional suitable landing area (taxiway, under/overrun). In any case,
plan on arriving at the selected low key at approximately 1,500 feet AGL and 120
KIAS minimum.
5.18.7.9.2. Approaching low key, cross-check the runway to evaluate spacing.
Estimate wind and plan accordingly.
5.18.7.9.3. At low key, level the wings momentarily and check for proper spacing
and altitude. Avoid excessive wings level time and use caution if past abeam to the
last usable landing surface. This is especially important if there will be a strong
headwind component on final. If energy is assessed to be adequate to make the
runway, lower TO flaps.
5.18.7.9.4. For low to base key, maintain 120 KIAS minimum. The descent rate is
normally greater than for a normal pattern. Fly the aircraft perpendicular to the
runway (base key) at 600-800 feet AGL. Altitude is not the only indication of proper
energy management; the distance from the runway must also be assessed and the
effect of winds taken into account. When landing is assured, lower flaps to LDG.
5.18.7.9.5. Hold the aim point (500-1,000 feet short of intended landing point--no
wind) and observe the airspeed. If the airspeed is increasing above 120 KIAS, it is a
good indication that the energy state is sufficient to reach the landing point. Consider
the winds and lower LDG flaps.
5.18.7.10. Final. Attempt to intercept final a minimum of 1,000 feet from the intended
point of touchdown. This allows time for stabilization of descent rate and evaluation of
the runway. Aircraft may be slowed to 110 KIAS (minimum) on final. Maintain 110
KIAS (minimum) on final until transition to landing. The transition to landing may begin
well prior to the intended point of touchdown.
5.18.7.11. Landing. Adjust the nose attitude in the roundout to transition to a normal
landing. Touchdown on the main gear and then gently lower the nose wheel as in a
normal landing. Apply braking based on runway remaining.
5.18.7.11.1. FL. Anticipate a longer flare and touchdown due to reduced drag. Use
caution when applying brakes to prevent blown tires. If the aircraft cannot be stopped
before the EOR, execute the aircraft departs prepared surface checklist or eject.
5.18.7.11.2. SFL. Anticipate a longer flare and touchdown because the PCL is not
reduced to idle when landing is assured. Reduce the power to idle upon touchdown
during full-stop landings.
5.18.7.11.3. PEL. Reduce power to idle after carefully determining that landing is
assured. If runway remaining after touchdown is insufficient to stop, go around. If
sufficient power is available to obtain low key, reattempt PEL. If power is insufficient
or the engine is not reliable, consider ejection.
5.18.8. ELP Wind Analysis. Winds can cause ELPs to differ significantly from standard.
An unanticipated strong wind or one for which there is no appropriate correction made can
result in an unsuccessful ELP, even if it was otherwise flawlessly flown.
5.18.8.1. Determining Winds. Surface winds, winds at 1,000 to 3,000 feet, winds at
5,000 feet and winds aloft should be obtained from weather forecasts and serve as a good
starting point for building SA about actual wind conditions. The winds at 1,000 to 3,000
feet can vary significantly from surface winds and significantly alter required ELP
ground track. At tower or RSU-controlled runways, actual surface winds are known.
Other ways to determine the winds include:
5.18.8.1.1. Radio calls to other aircraft, a fixed base operator (FBO) on the field, etc.
5.18.8.1.2. Without access to actual observations, use winds briefed by weather

forecaster in the preflight briefing as a starting assumption.
5.18.8.1.3. If performing an ELP at a non-towered airfield without weather
observation capability, assume that in the local area, surface winds will be similar to
those at the home field.
5.18.8.1.4. Observation of surface conditions: smoke, waves on lakes, wind
tetrahedron, windsock, etc.
5.18.8.1.5. Double the surface wind velocity to estimate winds at high key as wind is
typically stronger at altitude than at the surface.
5.18.8.1.6. Use GPS groundspeed and cross-track error (flying an OBS course).
5.18.8.2. Techniques for Wind Correction.
5.18.8.3. Crosswinds. If there is an option to turn in either direction, consider the
following:
5.18.8.3.1. Turning Away from the Wind at High Key. Adjust low key spacing.
Although there is a tailwind initially, the headwind departing low key allows more
time for decision making during the last, critical stages of the ELP, but could result in
a low energy situation. Remember, “base, wind in your face.”
5.18.8.3.2. Turning into the Wind at High Key. Adjust low key spacing. The turn
from low key will be aided by the crosswind component. Although this compresses
the time from low key to final and can result in an overshoot, it can provide an extra
energy cushion.
5.18.8.4. Headwinds. Move the high key position into the wind 1,000 feet for every 10
knots of wind. Start the turn from low key to base key earlier than normal and use an aim
point closer to the intended point of touchdown. Expect a shorter and steeper final.
Consider delaying lowering of full flaps longer than you would for no-wind conditions.
5.18.9. ELPs Through Weather.
5.18.9.1. Objective. Perform an ELP through the weather.
5.18.9.2. Description. Descending through the clouds for an FL requires an evaluation
of reported ceiling and visibility, runway length, familiarity with the field, local
obstructions, minimum safe altitudes, and pilot proficiency. Anytime a weather
penetration is required, give serious consideration to ejecting instead of attempting an FL
through the weather. If attempting an FL through the weather, first plan to go to high key
for a normal ELP if the weather allows for VMC at high key. If the weather will not
allow for VMC at high key, two methods to use are the standard ELP from high key and
the high-speed ELP.
5.18.9.3. Procedures.
5.18.9.3.1. ELP from High Key. The concept behind this method is to fly the ELP as
normally as possible, using the GPS rather than visual references for ground track
control. Use the GPS to navigate to high key (Figure 5.5). Use the standard 125-knot
glide and turns as necessary to achieve the appropriate altitude upon reaching high
key. Assuming there is weather all the way down to 2,000 feet AGL, attempt to
maintain the standard ELP ground track by turning to achieve a displacement of 0.7-
1.0 miles when abeam high key after completing the turn. If VMC is not encountered
until low key, this method should still place the aircraft fairly close to the proper ELP
ground track. However, it does not provide any maneuvering capability to correct if
you are not on the proper ground track. Once VMC is encountered, attempt to
intercept and maintain the proper ground track visually.
5.18.9.3.2. High-speed ELP. The concept behind this method is to arrive just below
the weather with excess airspeed, which will allow maneuvering to intercept the ELP
at or prior to an appropriate low key position. Establish a standard 125-knot glide
toward the GPS data point representing high key and maintain 125 knots until
reaching a 1:1 glide ratio, which is an altitude equal to distance to the field + low key
(MSL). For example, if the field elevation is 1,000 feet, look for 12,500 feet at 10
miles. Use “DME + Low Key (MSL)” for a high speed ELP memory aid. Upon
reaching the target altitude, set 10 degrees nose low and descend at 1000 feet per
nautical mile until breaking out of the weather. The resulting airspeed could be as
high as 230 knots. Once in VMC conditions, level off at a point to stay clear of
clouds, assess position, and maneuver to intercept the ELP at an appropriate ground
track point and altitude. If not clear of clouds by low key altitude on a PEL, seriously
consider discontinuing the ELP.
5.18.9.4. Techniques. If there is a published GPS approach for the runway selected,
consider loading that approach and OBS off the missed approach data point to estimate
high key. (Use runway bearing as the OBS course.) If no approach is available, estimate
high key using the airfield as the data point.
5.18.10. Additional Options for ELP Training
5.18.10.1. Break to Low Key.
5.18.10.1.1. Objective. A method to practice an ELP starting at low key; usually
performed when weather precludes starting the maneuver from high key or to
expedite training.
5.18.10.1.2. Description. An intentional climbing break turn, commenced in the
normal break zone, arriving at the low key position, in the normal low key
configuration.
5.18.10.1.3. Procedure. On initial, make a radio call to the RSU/tower requesting a
break to low key.
5.18.10.1.3.1. When approved by RSU/tower, and IAW local procedures, reduce
power as necessary to make a decelerating, climbing turn toward low key.
5.18.10.1.3.2. After decelerating below 150 KIAS, lower gear and TO flaps. Use
power as required to maintain 120 KIAS (minimum) until arriving at low key. At
low key, set 4-6 percent torque and continue with normal ELP procedures.
5.18.10.1.4. Technique.
5.18.10.1.4.1. Break closer to the end of the break zone to allow for ELP task
management. For energy management purposes, consider leaving torque set at
approx. 52% until half way through the break turn, then set 4-6%. Done properly,
energy should be appropriate at low key.
5.18.10.2. Closed Pull-up to Low Key.
5.18.10.2.1. Objective. A method to practice an ELP starting at low key; usually
performed when weather precludes starting the maneuver from high key, or to
expedite training.
5.18.10.2.2. Description. A climbing turn to 1500 feet AGL from initial takeoff,
touch-and-go landing, or go-around, flown similarly to a closed pull-up. Minimum
airspeed is 140 KIAS; maximum bank is 90 degrees. Arrive at the low key position,
in the normal low key configuration.
5.18.10.2.3. Procedure.
5.18.10.2.3.1. At 140 KIAS (minimum) and according to local directives, request
clearance for low key. When approved, clear for traffic, advance the PCL
smoothly to MAX, and start a climbing turn toward low key, initially using
approximately 45-60 degrees of bank.
5.18.10.2.3.2. Upon reaching 1500 feet AGL, use power as required, confirm
proper spacing, and report high downwind per local guidance.
5.18.10.2.3.3. After decelerating below 150 KIAS, lower gear and TO flaps. Use
power as required to maintain 120 KIAS (minimum) until arriving at low key. At
low key, set 4-6 percent torque and continue with normal ELP procedures.
5.18.10.3. Zero-torque ELPs. An ELP flown with excessive prop drag (greater than
that of a feathered prop) will require more nose-down pitch to maintain airspeed,
resulting in excessive descent rates and altitude loss. Excessive prop drag may be caused
by (1) inadvertently setting the PCL to less than 4 percent torque during a PEL or
simulated FL training, (2) a mechanical malfunction resulting in an unfeathered prop
after engine shutdown, or (3) excessive prop drag from a propeller malfunction with a
running engine. Practicing an ELP with zero torque simulates these conditions.
5.18.10.3.1. Objective. Demonstrate the effects of excessive prop drag on an ELP,
and stress the importance of cross-checking power setting during ELP training.
5.18.10.3.2. Description.
5.18.10.3.2.1. Airspeed - 120 KIAS (minimum).
5.18.10.3.2.2. Power.
5.18.10.3.2.2.1. High key. Zero percent torque; then power as required to
arrest descent to low key.
5.18.10.3.2.2.2. Low key. Zero percent torque; then power according to go-
around procedures.
5.18.10.3.2.3. Gear - Down.
5.18.10.3.2.4. Flaps - Up at high key; TO at low key.
5.18.10.3.3. Procedure.
5.18.10.3.3.1. This demonstration may be conducted by starting from high key or

low key.
5.18.10.3.3.2. Fly to normal high key altitude, configure with gear, and set the
PCL to idle. Notice the pitch attitude required to maintain 120 knots. At the
halfway point between high key and low key, altitude loss should normally be
approximately 750 feet. Note the actual loss. If allowed to continue, the altitude
loss at low key would be excessive, potentially resulting in an energy deficient
situation. For training purposes and to allow the demonstration to safely continue,
add power to arrive at low key on altitude.
5.18.10.3.3.3. Fly to a normal low key, lower flaps to TO, and set power to idle.
Notice the pitch required to maintain 120 knots and rapid altitude loss. The pitch
attitude required to maintain 120 knots from low key to final will be significantly
lower than normal. Due to excessively nose low pitch attitudes and descent rates
throughout the maneuver, initiate a go-around with a minimum of 200 feet AGL
in accordance with AFI 11-2T-6, Volume 3.
Chapter 6
CONTACT
6.1. Introduction. Contact flying develops the skills and techniques necessary for success in
every other type of flying. The use of outside references emphasizes the composite cross-check.
Basic skills, such as checklist use, systems operation, task management, and cockpit organization
are introduced and developed in preparation for more complex sorties. The basic maneuvers
learned and practiced in contact are the basis for all other flying. Furthermore, understanding the
difference between approach to stall conditions and a full aerodynamic stall increases safety—
both in the traffic pattern and during area work. Instrument training in the aircraft is only
accomplished after the basics of flight are learned in the contact phase. Formation cannot be
learned without an understanding of the advanced maneuvering concepts developed through
aerobatic practice. Energy awareness, position awareness, and overall SA developed in three
dimensional contact maneuvering are universally applicable.
6.2. Checks. Accomplish appropriate checks before performing maneuvers. Checks are not
required between individual maneuvers if flown in a series.
6.2.1. Tactically, a FENCE check is typically performed when entering or exiting a hostile
area. It ensures aircraft systems are set for combat. To instill an easily transferable habit
pattern, during T-6 training, a FENCE check is performed when entering the MOA (FENCE-
in) and again when leaving the MOA (FENCE-out). FENCE in the T-6 stands for:
6.2.1.1. F - Fuel (balance and quantity).
6.2.1.2. E - Engine (within limits); E - Review emergency airfield operations
6.2.1.3. N - NAVAIDs (GPS/EHSI set)/TAS (check range setting and clear the
airspace).
6.2.1.4. C - Communication (frequencies set, radio call according to local directives); C
- Checks complete (climb, ops, pre-stall, spin, aerobatic, descent).
6.2.1.5. E - Equipment (G-suit test (as required), loose items stowed). Emergency
airfield options reviewed.
6.2.2. A CLEF check is an excellent memory aid for checklist steps required prior to
stalling, spinning, or aerobatic maneuvers.
6.2.2.1. C - Clear the area (also CWS panel clear).
6.2.2.2. L - Loose items stowed.
6.2.2.3. E - Engine (within limits).
6.2.2.4. F - Fuel balance (within 50 pounds).
6.3. Maneuvering at Increased G Loading. During contact flying, especially during
aerobatics, G loading changes constantly. To avoid gray out, blackout, or G-induced loss of
consciousness (GLOC), an effective anti-G straining maneuver is essential. Physical fitness,
adequate rest, and proper hydration can improve G tolerance. The most intense G loading
changes occur during maneuvers that start in a very nose-down attitude at relatively low airspeed
but transition to high G at increasing airspeeds, such as nose-low recoveries, spin recoveries, and
split-S maneuvers. An effective anti-G straining maneuver (AGSM) is essential. Perform a G-

awareness exercise or AGSM demonstration before accomplishing any maneuver that may
require three or more Gs.
6.3.1. Anti-G Straining Maneuver (AGSM). Accomplish the AGSM by firmly contracting
muscles of the legs, abdomen, and chest. As the amount of G increases, increase the intensity
of the strain, and attempt to exhale through a closed airway. Continue to strain and
simultaneously breathe approximately every 2-3 seconds. Think of the AGSM as a
continuum. As the amount of G increases, increase the intensity of the strain and pay careful
attention to proper breathing technique. Do not hold the strain too long (more than 3 seconds)
without breathing as this reduces G tolerance. If gray out occurs at the onset of G forces,
application of the AGSM may not eliminate the gray out. If altitude and (or) airspeed are not
critical, return to 1 G flight, reapply the anti-G strain, and then continue maneuvering. Use
caution not to exceed aircraft or personal G limits.
6.3.1.1. AGSM Effectiveness. It is important to start the AGSM before the onset of G
forces and maintain the strain throughout the period of increased G loading. The amount
of strain required varies with the amount of applied G force. An effective AGSM uses
full muscle contraction and keeps constant breathing cycles. Lower G situations still
require all elements of a full AGSM but at a lower level of strain intensity.
6.3.1.2. AGSM Demonstration. The AGSM demonstration allows practice of the anti-
G strain technique and familiarization with increased G loading in a controlled setting.
The demonstration consists of a series of turns, each at a constant G level, with a break
between turns for critique and rest. The maneuver is flown at gradually increasing G
levels, starting at 2 Gs and increasing to 4 Gs, depending on proficiency. If, at any time,
personal G-tolerance limits are approached, inform the other crewmember. The
demonstration should be of sufficient duration to ensure a proper AGSM. The AGSM
cycle should last from 10-15 seconds with at least 4 to 5 breathing cycles.
6.3.2. G-awareness Exercise. Accomplish a G-awareness exercise on sorties that include
maneuvers that require or may result in 3 or more Gs.
6.3.2.1. The G-awareness exercise should be a level or slightly descending turn, using
maximum power. Begin the maneuver with sufficient airspeed to sustain 4 Gs. (For
planning purposes, use approximately 200-220 knots minimum for a level to slightly
descending turn where the nose remains within 10 degrees of the horizon.) The G-onset
rate should be slow and smooth, allowing sufficient time to evaluate the effectiveness of
the AGSM and determine G tolerance. Increase Gs to approximately 4 Gs and maintain
for approximately 4-5 breathing cycles in order to allow full cardiovascular response.
6.3.2.2. For advanced aerobatic and formation training, the G-awareness exercise should
be flown to G loads of 4-5 Gs.
6.3.2.3. If gray out begins during the demonstration, return to 1 G flight, reevaluate the
strain, and then smoothly reenter the G-awareness exercise.
6.3.2.4. If personal G tolerance is deemed insufficient for the sortie, terminate high-G
maneuvering and consider terminating the mission.
6.4. Area Orientation (Figure 6.1.). Visual ground references such as cities, lakes, road
intersections, terrain, etc., are the primary means of maintaining area orientation. When visual
references are inadequate, or to augment visual orientation, the GPS or VOR with DME may be
used. A good composite cross-check of ground references verified by instruments is an effective
way to maintain or build SA.
Figure 6.1. Area Orientation.

6.4.1. VOR/DME. Area boundaries are sometimes defined with VOR radial and DME.
There are two primary methods to maintain area orientation that utilize VOR or DME.
6.4.1.1. Center Radial (Course) Method. Set the center radial or center course of the
area in the course selector window (CSW) of the EHSI. When center radial is set, the
course arrow points away from the NAVAID; when center course is set, the course arrow
points toward the NAVAID. The center of the area (laterally) is always toward the course
deviation indicator (CDI). This method is best suited for areas that are 20 radials wide or
less.
6.4.1.2. Pie-in-the-sky Method. Best used in wide areas (20 radials wide or more). Set
one boundary (course) in the CSW and mark the other boundary (course) with the
heading marker. Keep the head of the bearing pointer, which always falls, between the
head of the course arrow and the heading marker. In Figure 6.1, if heading remains
constant, the aircraft will exit the area due to the DME range. A left turn to approximately
130 degrees makes the bearing pointer fall toward the 046-degree course and makes the
DME decrease.
6.4.2. EFIS and GPS Display Options. There are various possible configurations for the
EFIS and GPS. Normally, a typical display setup is used until proficiency is demonstrated
(the Super Nav 5 page of the GPS control head in conjunction with the VOR and visual
references). After demonstrating proficiency, other display options may be used to optimize
SA and precise control of the aircraft. These include using the EFIS GPS map mode on the
HSI. The arc mode may also be utilized to provide a more detailed picture.
6.5. Energy Management. Efficient energy management allows the sortie profile to be
accomplished with minimum wasted time and fuel. Energy level is defined by airspeed (kinetic
energy) and altitude (potential energy) and is manipulated with power, drag, and G loading. Plan
maneuvers in an order that minimizes the requirement for deliberate energy changes, and make
use of the inherent energy gaining or losing properties of individual maneuvers.
6.5.1. Altitude and Airspeed Exchange. Potential energy (altitude) and kinetic energy
(airspeed) can be traded; for example, 1,000 feet of altitude equals approximately 50 knots of
airspeed with the canopy bow on the horizon and power at maximum. Techniques include:
6.5.1.1. Altitude for airspeed - MAX power with the canopy bow on the horizon.
6.5.1.2. Airspeed for altitude - MAX power, wings level, and clock on the horizon.
6.5.2. Optimum Energy Level. In a typical MOA, optimum energy for aerobatic
maneuvering is 180-200 KIAS at an altitude midway between the top and bottom area limits.
Energy planning may need to be altered if the airspace is limited by weather, ATC
restrictions, or other limiting factors.
6.5.3. Losing Energy. Energy may be decreased with low power settings, increased drag
(for example, speed brake), or increased AOA (G loading). A simple way to lose energy is to
perform a constant speed descent until the desired energy level is reached.
6.5.4. Gaining Energy. Energy gain is enhanced with low AOA (avoid flight near zero G)
and high power. The best method to gain large amounts of energy is a climb at 140-160
KIAS with MAX power.
6.5.5. Energy Planning. Individual maneuvers are energy gainers, energy losers, or neutral.
Energy losers include spin, traffic pattern stalls, cloverleaf, split-S, nose-low recovery ELP
stalls, and high G turns with lower power settings. Energy gainers include power-on stalls,
nose-high recovery, stability demonstration, and Chandelle. Constant awareness of total
energy state aids in correct maneuver selection and effective profile management which
allows a smooth flow between maneuvers with minimum delay. For example, airspeed
exiting a Cuban Eight will be very close to entry airspeed for a loop. Another example: if
trying to exit the area for return to base (RTB) at the bottom of the area, have sufficient
energy near the end of the profile to accomplish ELP stalls as the last item. ELP stalls lose
energy, and the lower altitude and slow airspeed at the completion of the maneuver may help
expedite recovery.
6.6. Power-on Stalls.
6.6.1. Objective. Proper recognition of a full aerodynamic stall. Proper recovery with
minimum loss of altitude. Recognizing secondary stall if entered and properly recovering.
6.6.2. Description. Aircraft pitch and bank angle held constant until control effectiveness
lost indicated by uncommanded nose drop or unplanned rolling motion. Recover to a wings
level, climbing attitude. An entry speed of 160 KIAS results in about 1,500-2,000 feet
altitude gain.
6.6.2.1. Airspeed - As required to achieve desired pitch, power, and bank.
6.6.2.2. Power – Entry: 30-60 percent torque. Recovery: MAX.
6.6.2.3. Pitch – Entry: 15-40 degrees nose high.
6.6.2.4. Bank - 0 degrees for straight-ahead stall, 20-30 degrees for a turning stall.
6.6.2.5. FCP visual reference – Entry: crook of front windscreen on horizon.
6.6.2.6. FCP visual reference - Recovery: initially firelight on horizon, then as required
to MAX perform aircraft.
6.6.3. Procedure. Clear the area. Pay particular attention to the area above and in front of
the aircraft.
6.6.3.1. Straight-ahead Stall. Raise the nose to a pitch attitude between 15 degrees and
40 degrees. Adjust the PCL to 30-60 percent torque prior to first indication of stall.
Maintain attitude using increasing back pressure. Keep the wings level with coordinated
rudder and aileron. Initiate recovery when control effectiveness is lost. An uncommanded
nose drop, despite increased back pressure, or an uncommanded rolling motion indicates
loss of control effectiveness. Do not attempt to maintain pitch attitude or bank angle after
control effectiveness is lost. In almost all cases, full aft stick will not occur before
recovery is required. While it is possible under certain conditions to maintain a nose high
pitch attitude and counteract a rolling motion with aileron inputs, if the stick has reached
the aft stop and the aircraft is losing altitude (aft stick stall), the aircraft is fully stalled
and a recovery should be initiated.
6.6.3.1.1. To recover, simultaneously and smoothly relax back stick forces as
necessary to break the stall, advance the PCL to MAX, and use coordinated rudder
and aileron to level the wings. As AOA decreases and stall is broken, positive
pressure is felt in the controls. Minimize altitude loss by maintaining recovery AOA
until recovery is complete. While the recovery AOA is approximately 15.5-18 units,
the primary reference for maintaining recovery AOA is a positive, vertical nose track.
Recover with a minimum loss of altitude. Recovery is complete when the aircraft is
wings level, safely climbing and not decelerating.
6.6.3.1.2. Note : At lower pitch attitudes (between 15 and 30 degrees), the aircraft
stalls at a higher airspeed and regains flying airspeed faster. At higher pitch attitudes
(between 30 and 40 degrees), the stall speed is slower and a greater pitch reduction is
necessary to regain flying airspeed.
6.6.3.2. Turning Power-on Stall. Setup is the same as the straight-ahead stall, except
20-30 degrees of bank in either direction is added. Hold the bank angle with rudder and
aileron pressure until control effectiveness is lost. Recovery is the same as for the
straight-ahead stall. A precision entry is not as important as proper recognition and
recovery from the stall.
6.6.4. Techniques.
6.6.4.1. Use “MAX, Relax, Roll,” to guide initial recovery actions.
6.6.4.2. After actions to break the stall, pull nose up until the firelight is on the horizon.
If the nose begins to stop tracking before the firelight reaches the horizon, release back
pressure slightly momentarily to let airspeed increase to avoid a secondary stall. As
power and airspeed increase, increased back pressure is needed to establish a climb.
6.7. ELP Stalls. ELP stalls are flown to practice recovery from potentially dangerous low
airspeed conditions before high key and during the ELP. Speed may decrease for various reasons
including inattention, task saturation, and attempts to stretch the glide to regain profile. A full
series of ELP stalls may take approximately 4,000 feet.
6.7.1. Objective. Proper recognition and recovery from approach-to-stall indications during
an ELP--without the ability to use power to facilitate recovery.
6.7.2. Description. Inadvertent airspeed decay is simulated at three points in the ELP:
enroute to high key, between high and low key, and between low key and runway.
6.7.2.1. Airspeed - Clean, 125 KIAS. Configured, 120 KIAS.
6.7.2.2. Power - 4-6 percent torque.
6.7.2.3. FCP visual reference (recovery) – Clean, one-half prop arc on the horizon.
Configured, prop arc on the horizon.
6.7.3. Procedure.
6.7.3.1. Glide to High Key. Establish glide at 125 KIAS with wings level and power set
4-6 percent torque. Raise the pitch attitude slightly and allow airspeed to decay until the
gear warning horn sounds (approximately 120 KIAS). Recover by lowering the pitch
attitude slightly below the normal glide picture (half-prop arc on the horizon,
approximately 4 degrees nose low). Reestablish glide at 125 KIAS. Altitude loss is
approximately 300 feet.
6.7.3.2. Glide Between High and Low Key. Configure with gear down and flaps UP.
Establish a 120 KIAS glide with 30 degrees bank and power set to 4-6 percent torque.
Raise pitch attitude (approximately level flight turn picture) and allow airspeed to decay
until the stick shaker is activated or an approach-to-stall indication is noted. Maintain the
turn or profile ground track and recover by lowering the pitch attitude to put the prop arc
on the horizon (approximately 8 degrees nose low) until 120 KIAS regained. Altitude
loss is approximately 800 feet.
6.7.3.3. Glide Between Low Key and the Runway. Configure with gear down and
flaps TO. Establish a 120 KIAS glide with 30-degree bank turn and power set to 4-6
percent torque. Raise pitch attitude (approximately level flight turn picture) and allow
airspeed to decay until the stick shaker is activated or an approach-to-stall indication is
noted. Maintain the turn or profile ground track and recover by lowering pitch attitude to
put the prop arc on the horizon (approximately 8 degrees nose low) until 120 KIAS
regained. Altitude loss is approximately 900 feet. Note: Due to altitude loss during the
recovery, if an ELP stall between low key and the runway is encountered during an actual
FL, consideration should be given to ejection.
6.8. Traffic Pattern Stalls. In the traffic pattern, unrecoverable stall or sink rate situations can
occur before indications become obvious. If a stall indication occurs in the traffic pattern,
disregard ground track, and recover as described below. If in the pattern, do not hesitate to eject
if recovery appears unlikely.
6.8.1. Objective. Proper recognition of, and recovery from, approach-to-stall conditions in
the traffic pattern. Training emphasis is on recognition of approach-to-stall indications and
appropriate recovery procedures, not on setup or flow from one stall to the next. However,
much like power-on stalls, the smoother the entry, the cleaner the stall will be.
6.8.2. Description. This exercise simulates five possible traffic pattern errors and practices
the appropriate recovery actions: an overshooting (nose low), accelerated stall simulating
overshooting crosswinds or improper perch spacing; an undershooting stall simulating a
combination of inadvertently placing the PCL to idle (zero torque) and poor airspeed
crosscheck; a landing attitude stall simulating an improper landing assured decision (PCL to
idle) or improperly flown roundout and flare; a break turn stall simulating an exaggerated
aggressive break; and a closed pull-up stall simulating an exaggerated, aggressive pull-up
with poor airspeed and altitude crosscheck. The latter two stalls, the break turn and closed
pull-up stalls are to be practiced in the simulator only.
6.8.2.1. Airspeed.
6.8.2.1.1. Final turn setups; 120 KIAS (minimum).
6.8.2.1.2. Landing attitude setup: 5-10 knots above final approach airspeed
commensurate with flap setting.
6.8.2.2. Power.
6.8.2.2.1. Final turn setup: 10-15 percent torque.
6.8.2.2.2. To induce stall: zero percent torque.
6.8.2.2.3. Recovery: MAX.
6.8.2.3. Gear. Down.

6.8.2.4. Flaps. LDG, TO, and UP.
6.8.2.5. Bank.
6.8.2.5.1. Initial turn: 30 degrees.
6.8.2.5.2. Landing attitude stall: 0 degrees.
6.8.3. Procedures. For all traffic pattern stalls, recover at approach-to-stall indication,
which is considered to be activation of the stick shaker or aircraft buffet, whichever occurs
first.
6.8.3.1. Overshooting (Nose Low) Final-turn Stall. Fly a simulated downwind leg,
configure for an overhead pattern, and perform the before-landing checklist. At 120
KIAS minimum, initiate a normal final turn. After the turn is established, retard the PCL
to idle, steadily increase bank and back pressure to simulate an overshooting final turn,
inducing an approach to an accelerated stall. To recover, simultaneously and smoothly
advance the PCL to MAX, relax back stick pressure, and use coordinated rudder and
aileron to roll the wings level. Disregard pattern ground track. The objective is to
minimize altitude loss and max perform the aircraft by maintaining recovery AOA until
recovery is complete without stalling. It is permissible, but not required, to momentarily
“come out of the stick shaker” during recovery, however, if recovery is initiated due to
buffeting, alleviate the buffeting condition. While the recovery AOA is approximately
15.5-18 units, the primary reference for maintaining recovery AOA is a positive, vertical
nose track. Recovery is complete when the aircraft is wings level and safely climbing.
6.8.3.2. Undershooting (Nose High) Final-turn Stall. Fly a simulated downwind leg,
configure for an overhead pattern, and perform the before landing checklist. At 120 KIAS
minimum, initiate a normal final turn. After the turn is established, retard the PCL to idle,
raise the nose slightly, and shallow out the bank. Continue the turn until achieving an
approach-to-stall indication. Recovery is the same as for the overshooting final-turn stall;
however, since airspeed is initially lower, recovery takes slightly longer.
6.8.3.3. Landing Attitude Stall. Establish a simulated final approach at 5-10 knots
above final approach airspeed commensurate with flap setting. Retard the PCL to idle and
execute a simulated roundout for landing. Hold the landing attitude constant until an
approach-to-stall indication occurs. Recovery is similar to the final turn stalls. While it is
appropriate to relax back stick pressure, use caution to ensure that the aircraft would not
touch down in a three-point attitude or nose gear first.
6.8.3.4. Closed Pull-up Stall (Simulator Training Only). On departure leg, with 140
KIAS, roll and pull, simulating an overly aggressive closed pattern. At the first approach-
to-stall indication, recover by reducing back stick pressure and rapidly rolling wings level
with rudder and aileron. A reduction in power may be necessary during a left closed
pattern. If the aircraft departs controlled flight, eject.
6.8.3.5. Break Stall (Simulator Training Only). At 200 KIAS, retard the PCL to
approximately 10 percent torque and enter a 60-degree bank turn. Midway through the
turn, increase the bank and back stick pressure until an approach-to-stall indication is
recognized. Recovery by using stick forces as necessary to decrease the AOA. Adjust the
bank angle as necessary and continue the turn to a simulated downwind leg.
6.8.4. Technique.
6.8.4.1. Use “MAX, Relax, Roll” to guide initial recovery actions.
6.8.4.2. Pull nose up until the firelight is on the horizon. If the nose begins to stop
tracking before the firelight reaches the horizon, release back pressure slightly
momentarily to let airspeed increase to avoid a secondary stall. As power and airspeed
increase, increased back pressure is needed to establish a climb.
6.8.4.3. Propeller and gyroscopic effects will force the nose to the left when the power is
increased from idle to MAX at slow speed. Counter the tendency of the nose to move to
the left by using right rudder as torque increases. Find a point far in front of the aircraft
and use right rudder to keep the nose from moving left. Anticipate left nose movement to
start approximately two seconds after moving the PCL to MAX. The slower the airspeed
at recovery, the more pronounced the yaw will be at engine spool up.
6.9. Secondary Stall. During stall training, a common recovery error is entering a secondary
stall. This is the effect of an overly aggressive return to level flight after a stall or spin recovery.
Encountering a secondary stall demonstrates the value of smooth back pressure and the
importance of obtaining flying airspeed during the stall recovery. Avoid secondary stalls, but if
encountered, release back pressure slightly to decrease AOA, allow the airspeed to increase, and
then resume the recovery.
6.10. Slow Flight.
6.10.1. Objective. Familiarization and proficiency with aircraft performance and
characteristics at minimum flying airspeed. Demonstrate importance of smooth control
application at slow speeds. Validate the concept of coordinated turns.
6.10.2. Description.
6.10.2.1. Airspeed - Flaps landing: 80-85 KIAS. Flaps TO: 85-90 KIAS. Flaps UP: 90-
95 KIAS.
6.10.2.2. Gear – Down.
6.10.2.3. Flaps - As desired.
6.10.3. Procedure. Slow flight is conveniently flown before or after traffic pattern stalls;
however, slow flight may be performed at any time. Slow below 150 KIAS, configure the
aircraft as briefed, and perform the before landing checklist. Maintain altitude as airspeed
decreases. When target slow-flight airspeed is reached, adjust power to maintain airspeed and
altitude. Trim as required. Execute any SCATSAFE maneuver(s) as described in paragraph
6.10.3.1. Approach-to-stall indications (stick shaker or light buffet) are common while
executing slow flight; however, if the aircraft actually stalls during slow flight, recover the
aircraft by alleviating the condition that caused the stall (decrease the AOA, lower the flaps,
decrease bank, etc.). This is not the primary method of stall recovery and is used only during
slow flight. If the stall condition is not immediately corrected, or if an approach-to-stall
indication occurs at any other time, initiate traffic pattern stall recovery procedures.
6.10.3.1. SCATSAFE Maneuver.
6.10.3.1.1. S - Straight and Level. During operation on the back side of the power
curve, increased AOA results in increased drag and a stall if not carefully flown. Note
the pitch attitude, torque, and rudder deflection required to maintain straight-and-level
flight. This is the picture a pilot should see at rotation during takeoff or just prior to
touchdown during landing.
6.10.3.1.2. C – Coordination Exercise. Conduct a series of left and right turns,
using 15- to 20-degrees of bank. Keep the ball centered using coordinated rudder.
Approximately two inches of right rudder is required to maintain straight-and-level,
coordinated flight. Right turns require approximately twice the rudder deflection to
maintain coordination. Left turns require approximately one-half inch of right rudder
to maintain coordination.
6.10.3.1.3. A - Adverse Yaw. A lack of coordinated rudder during a turn results in
weaving or “S-ing” on final. Select two points: one directly in front of the aircraft,
and one approximately 20 degrees to the right of the nose. Without applying rudder,
initiate a rapid right turn with 20-degree bank. Note the initial tendency of the nose to
yaw left. After approximately 20 degrees of turn, roll out rapidly without using
rudder. The nose continues past the selected rollout point then comes back. Next,
initiate a right turn, using coordinated rudder. Notice that the nose immediately tracks
in a coordinated manner. After 20 degrees of turn, roll out using properly coordinated
rudder and note that the nose stops on the selected rollout point.
6.10.3.1.4. T - Torque and Turns. The T-6 initially tends to pitch up, yaw, and roll
left if positive control is not maintained during full power takeoffs and landings. To
demonstrate this, quickly increase power to MAX from straight-and-level,
coordinated slow flight and release the controls. The nose tracks up, yaws, and rolls
left, and approaches a stall. Recover from the buffet, prior to stall. Reestablish slow
flight and increase power to MAX again. This time, hold proper takeoff pitch and
apply coordinated rudder to maintain a proper nose track. Positive control of the
aircraft ensures safe takeoffs, touch-and-go landings, and go-arounds.
6.10.3.1.5. S - Steep Turns. High angles of bank at slow airspeeds increase stall
speed and cause rapid turn rates. Slowly increase bank toward 60 degrees while
adding power and back pressure to maintain level flight. Look at a point on the
ground and watch the wingtip appear to pivot around the selected point. The AOA
quickly increases, progressing into a stall. Roll out of the bank to recover from the
impending stall.
6.10.3.1.6. A - Abrupt Control Movement. Fixation on the aim point during
landing can cause an abrupt flare. Late recognition of the rapidly approaching runway
causes the pilot to abruptly raise the nose of the aircraft, causing an approach-to-stall
condition, a hard landing, or both. The stick shaker activates, but there is no decrease
in sink rate. To demonstrate this, abruptly apply back stick pressure to 20 degrees
nose high to simulate snatching the control stick in the flare. The AOA rapidly
increases and the aircraft progresses toward a full stall. Release back pressure to
recover. To avoid this condition on landing, view the total landing environment and
apply controls in a smooth, positive manner.
6.10.3.1.7. F - Flap Retraction. Flap retraction prior to the recommended airspeeds

causes the aircraft to lose lift and develop a sink rate. From straight-and-level
coordinated slow flight, raise the flaps from landing to UP without pausing at the TO
position. While retracting the flaps, increase the pitch attitude to maintain altitude.
Initially airspeed increases (due to reduced drag as flaps begin to retract), but as flaps
retract toward UP, the AOA increases and a stall results. Recover from the stall by
selecting landing flaps.
6.10.3.1.8. E – Effectiveness of Controls. Rapid control inputs, especially in the
flare, often do not give the aircraft sufficient time to respond. Move the ailerons with
small, rapid movements. Notice that even with aileron movement, there is little effect
on heading or bank during slow flight. In slow flight, smooth, positive inputs are
required to effectively control the aircraft as there is less airflow over the control
surfaces at slow airspeeds.
6.11. Stability Demonstration. The stability demonstration shows the low speed flight
characteristics of the aircraft in extreme attitudes. Although airspeed is below level-flight stall
speed, the aircraft will not stall if there is no attempt to attain level flight. In addition, the aircraft
will not depart controlled flight (for example, spin) if not stalled.
6.11.1. Objective. Demonstrate that the aircraft will not stall, regardless of airspeed, if there
is no demand placed on it.
6.11.2.1. Airspeeds – Entry: 160 KIAS. Recovery: 80 KIAS or stick shaker.
6.11.2.2. Power – Entry: 60 percent torque. Recovery: idle.
6.11.2.3. Attitude - Raise the nose to 40-45 degrees pitch attitude wings level.
6.11.2.4. Altitude Required - 2000 feet above entry.
6.11.2.5. Recover – Select idle power and neutralize controls, avoid 0 +/- 0.25 Gs.
6.11.3. Procedure. Perform pre-stall (CLEF) checks. Accelerate to 160 KIAS, set 60
percent torque, and clear the area. Raise the nose to a 45-degree pitch attitude. Maintain
coordinated wings-level flight. Hold this attitude until flying airspeed is depleted to
approximately 80 KIAS, or stick shaker activation, whichever occurs first. Recover by
selecting idle power and neutralizing all controls. Allow the nose to lower until positive
pressure is felt on the controls. This indicates the aircraft is regaining flying airspeed.
Recover to level flight without stalling the aircraft. The maneuver is complete when the
aircraft is returned to level flight. Avoid near zero-G flight for greater than 5 seconds due to
engine operating limitations.
6.11.4. Technique. Estimate 45 degrees nose high by visualizing the feet on the horizon.
Use memory aid, “idle-ize, neutralize” to guide recovery actions at 80 KIAS (or stick
shaker). Cross-check the G meter and maintain slightly more than 0.25 Gs with a small
amount of back pressure on the control stick to avoid exceeding engine operating limits. To
avoid near zero-G flight for greater than 5 seconds, start a mental count once the control stick
is neutralized. Before reaching the “5” count, ensure the pilot flying is putting positive-G
(backstick pressure) on the aircraft. Visually confirm the neutral elevator stick position
when checking the flight controls on the ground during pre-flight.
6.12. Inadvertent Departure from Controlled Flight. Section VI of the flight manual
contains detailed information about departures from controlled flight. Additional information and
details on the recovery procedure are found in section III of the flight manual. In the flight
manual, departures from controlled flight are also referred to as OCF (out of control flight), the
term used in this manual. Eject if it appears the aircraft is not recovering by minimum
uncontrolled ejection altitude (6,000 feet AGL).
6.12.1. The aircraft is in OCF if it does not respond immediately and in a normal manner to
control inputs. If in OCF, apply the boldface recovery procedure (OCF recovery) to return
the aircraft to level flight. In all cases, observe the minimum uncontrolled ejection altitude.
The OCF recovery is accomplished by simultaneously reducing the PCL to idle, positively
neutralizing the flight controls, and checking the altitude to ensure that the aircraft is above
the minimum uncontrolled ejection altitude. After the controls are neutralized, expect the
nose to lower as the aircraft seeks to regain flying airspeed. Initially, aircraft control authority
is minimal, but it returns to normal as airspeed increases in the dive. Allow the nose to lower
until positive control pressure is felt. The nose may near the vertical during this stage of the
recovery. Upon regaining flying airspeed, recover the aircraft to level flight. An unloaded
recovery may result in considerable altitude loss.
6.12.2. The OCF recovery is also used when the aircraft is in a nose-high unusual attitude,
and SA is lost to the point of disorientation. Depending on flight parameters when SA is lost,
the initial steps of the OCF recovery procedure either start the recovery or prevent departure.
In either case, the OCF recovery provides a guaranteed predictable method to return to level
flight and regain SA.
6.13. Intentional Spin Entry (Emphasizing Departure Recognition and Recovery). The
emphasis in primary pilot training is on departure from controlled flight recognition and
recovery. On most contact sorties where OCF recoveries are performed, recovery will be
initiated within one turn of the application of rudder. Recovery will utilize OCF recovery
procedures.
6.13.1. Objectives. Recognize what it looks and feels like when an aircraft departs
controlled flight. Practice the OCF recovery from an intentional departure from controlled
flight. Increase confidence in ability to recover from the OCF condition in case of inadvertent
OCF. Maintain SA and ability to function effectively in unusual attitudes.
6.13.2. Description. Note: Due to the potential for aeration of the oil system during spin
entry, do not push to less than 1 G or allow the aircraft to sink before intentionally entering a
spin. Allow 5 seconds of stabilized 1-G flight prior to spin entry.
6.13.2.1. Airspeeds - Initiate entry: 120 KIAS (minimum). Spin entry: approximately 80
KIAS.
6.13.2.2. Power - Idle.
6.13.2.3. Pitch - 15 to 40 degrees.
6.13.2.4. Flight controls at spin entry:
6.13.2.4.1. Rudder - Full deflection in spin direction.
6.13.2.4.2. Elevator - Full aft stick.
6.13.2.4.3. Ailerons - Neutral.

6.13.3. Procedure.
6.13.3.1. Accomplish pre-spin (CLEF) checks and adhere to restrictions according to
AFI 11-2T-6, Volume 3.
6.13.3.2. Attain level flight at a minimum of 120 KIAS. Raise the nose to 15 to40
degrees nose high, reduce the PCL to idle, and maintain approximately 1 G. Silence the
gear warning horn during deceleration.
6.13.3.3. At spin entry airspeed (approximately 80 KIAS), the pitch attitude should be 15
to 40 degrees nose high. Apply full rudder in the desired direction of spin. Position the
control stick full aft, ailerons neutral, and apply full rudder in the direction of spin.
6.13.3.4. Initiate OCF recovery procedure within one turn of the application of rudder.
6.13.3.4.1. Ensure the PCL has been reduced to idle.
6.13.3.4.2. Position all flight controls to neutral position.
6.13.3.4.3. Check altitude.
6.13.3.4.4. Recover from dive to level flight.
6.13.4. Technique.
6.13.4.1. Use memory aid, “idle-ize, neutralize,” to guide recovery actions.
6.13.4.2. Verbalize oil pressure before advancing the PCL.
6.14. Intentional Spin Entry (Emphasizing Near Steady State Spin Recognition and
Recovery). Recoveries from these spins will utilize OCF recovery procedures and be initiated
from a near steady state spin (between two and four turns from rudder application).
6.14.1. Objectives. The purpose of this spin training is to experience the characteristics of,
and recovery from, an aircraft in near steady state spin. The emphasis should be on spin
characteristics (18+ AOA, turn needle deflection, almost constant airspeed and rotation rate)
not just counting turns. Additional objectives are to increase confidence in the ability to
recover from a spinning condition in case of inadvertent OCF, maintain SA and function
effectively in unusual attitudes.
6.14.2. Description. Due to the potential for aeration of the oil system during spin entry, do
not push to less than 1 G or allow the aircraft to sink before intentionally entering a spin.
Allow 5 seconds of stabilized 1-G flight prior to spin entry.
6.14.2.1. Airspeeds - Initiate entry: 120 KIAS (minimum). Spin entry: approximately 80
KIAS.6.14.2.2. Power - Idle.
6.14.2.2. Pitch - 15 to 40 degrees.
6.14.2.3. Flight controls at spin entry:
6.14.2.3.1. Rudder - Full deflection in spin direction.
6.14.2.3.2. Elevator - Full aft stick.
6.14.2.3.3. Ailerons - Neutral.
6.14.3. Procedure.
6.14.3.1. Accomplish pre-spin checks and adhere to restrictions according to AFI 11-2T-
6, Volume 3.
6.14.3.2. Attain level flight at 120 KIAS (minimum). Raise the nose to 15 to 40 degrees
nose high, reduce the PCL to idle, and maintain approximately 1 G. Silence the gear
warning horn during deceleration.
6.14.3.3. At spin entry airspeed (approximately 80 KIAS), the pitch attitude should be 15
to 40 degrees nose high. Apply full rudder in the desired direction of spin. Control stick
should be full aft (ailerons neutral) and rudder should be full in the direction of spin.
6.14.3.4. Initiate OCF recovery procedure within two to four turns of the application of
rudder.
6.14.3.4.1. Ensure the PCL has been reduced to idle.
6.14.3.4.2. Position all flight controls to neutral position.
6.14.3.4.3. Check altitude.
6.14.3.4.4. Recover from dive to level flight.
6.14.4. Technique.
6.14.4.1. Use memory aid, “idle-ize, neutralize,” to guide recovery actions.
6.14.4.2. Verbalize oil pressure before advancing the PCL.
6.15. Contact Recoveries from Abnormal Flight. Recovery may be required due to an
improperly flown maneuver, disorientation, area boundaries (lateral or vertical), an aircraft
malfunction, or traffic conflicts.
6.15.1. Nose-high Recovery.
6.15.1.1. Objective. Expeditious return to level flight from a nose-high attitude, without
departing controlled flight or exceeding aircraft limits.
6.15.1.2. Description. T-6 aerobatics require nose-high attitudes. An improperly flown
over-the-top maneuver (i.e., starting below entry airspeed and/or not expeditiously
achieving recommended G-loading to begin maneuver) may result in rapidly decaying
airspeed. A nose-high attitude can be encountered with insufficient airspeed to continue
the maneuver. Immediate and proper recovery procedures prevent aggravated stall and
spin.
6.15.1.3. Procedure. Set power to MAX (or as required for low airspeed situations) and
initiate a coordinated roll towards the nearest horizon. Add back pressure once past 90
degrees of bank to bring the nose of the aircraft down to the nearest horizon. Depending
on initial airspeed and aircraft attitude, a wings-level, inverted attitude may be reached.
As the nose approaches the horizon (approximately canopy bow on horizon), roll to an
upright attitude (Figure 6.2).
6.15.1.3.1. During some nose-high, low-airspeed situations, when the aircraft
responds to inputs slowly due to low airspeed or torque effect, a reduction in power
may be required (usually below 60 percent torque) and all available control authority
may be required to smoothly return the aircraft to level flight. If the aircraft does not
respond normally, or if SA is lost, an OCF recovery should be accomplished.
Figure 6.2. Nose-high Recovery.
6.15.1.3.2. If the airspeed is low, the rollout may be delayed until the nose is
definitely below the horizon. In some cases, the nose has to be flown well below the
horizon to regain enough airspeed to feel positive pressure on the controls. When
airspeed is sufficient, roll wings level, raise the nose, check for normal oil pressure,
and use power as required to recover to level flight.
6.15.1.3.3. Do not be too aggressive when pulling to the horizon or pulling up from a
nose-low attitude. The stick shaker and airframe buffet indicate a potential for stall.
Decrease back stick pressure before entering a stall.
6.15.1.3.4. In all cases, observe system limitations when operating near zero G.
6.15.1.3.5. Do not recover by pushing the nose down towards the horizon. This
could induce a state of near zero-G flight, causing the oil pressure to decrease below
operational limits. Furthermore, this improper action may delay the time it takes to
get the nose below the horizon and airspeed increasing again, leading to a possible
loss of controlled flight with the torque at MAX and rapidly decreasing airspeed.
6.15.2. Nose-low Recovery.
6.15.2.1. Objective. Expeditious recovery to level flight from a nose-low attitude with
minimum altitude loss and without exceeding aircraft limits.
6.15.2.2. Description. T-6 aerobatics require nose-low attitudes. Immediate and proper
recovery procedures prevent a high-speed dive or excessive G forces.
6.15.2.3. Procedure . Roll the aircraft toward the nearest horizon, level the wings, then
pull-up to obtain level flight using up to the maximum allowable G force (Figure 6.3).
Use power and speed brake as required. Do not exceed maximum allowable airspeed
(316 KIAS). Airspeed may continue to increase as the nose is raised, and maximum
airspeed can occur just before level flight is attained. G loading increases during
recovery. Accomplish a proper AGSM as required.
6.15.2.4. Technique. Approaching 200 KIAS or greater, select idle and speed brake.
Figure 6.3. Nose-low Recovery.
6.15.3. Inverted Recovery. When inverted, or near an inverted position, recover by rolling
in the shortest direction to set the aircraft in an upright, wings-level attitude, adding power as
required.
6.15.3.1. Technique. Roll to the “nearest blue”.
6.16. Aerobatics.
6.16.1. Aerobatic maneuvers develop techniques for obtaining maximum flight performance
from the aircraft. Aerobatics explore the entire performance envelope of the aircraft and
should be smoothly executed. Aerobatic practice improves feel for the aircraft and the ability
to coordinate the flight controls, while remaining oriented, regardless of attitude. Aerobatics
increase confidence, familiarize the pilot with all attitudes of flight, and increase the ability to
fly an aircraft throughout a wide performance range. The concepts learned from aerobatic
practice are applicable in formation maneuvering and other advanced missions.
6.16.2. Training emphasis is on smoothness and proper nose track during the maneuver.
Strive to use the briefed entry parameters, but power and airspeed adjustments may be made
to enhance energy planning or expedite the profile flow. Normally, the left hand is on the
PCL, and the right hand is on the control stick. Avoid using a two-handed control stick
technique to maintain a wings-level attitude. Indicated torque varies relative to altitude and
airspeed without changing the PCL position. See Table 6.1 for a summary of entry airspeeds
and power settings for aerobatics.
Table 6.1. Summary of Entry Airspeeds and Power Settings for Aerobatics.
Altitude
Maneuver KIAS Torque Required Energy Gain/Loss
Aileron Roll 180-220 80% to MAX +1,000 feet Neutral
Barrel Roll 200- 220 80% to MAX +2,000 feet Neutral
-1,000 feet
Chandelle 200-250 MAX +3,000 feet Gaining
Cloverleaf 200-220 80% to MAX +3,000 feet Slightly losing
-1,000 feet
Cuban Eight 230-250 MAX +3,000 feet Neutral
Immelmann 230-250 MAX +3,000 feet Gaining
Lazy Eight 200-220 50 to 60% +2,000 feet Neutral
-1,000 feet
Loop 230-250 MAX +3,000 feet Neutral
Split-S 120-140 Idle to 80% +500 feet Losing
- 2,000 feet
(75%)
-2,500 feet
(IDLE)
6.17. Aileron Roll (Figure 6.4.).
6.17.1. Objective. Complete a 360-degree roll with a constant roll rate.
6.17.2. Description. The aileron roll is a 360-degree roll about the longitudinal axis of the
aircraft. The maneuver is complete when the wings are again parallel to the horizon.
6.17.2.1. Airspeed – 180 to 220 KIAS.
6.17.2.2. Power – 80 percent to MAX power.
6.17.2.3. Attitude – Wings-level entry, 20-30 degrees nose-high pitch attitude.
6.17.2.4. FCP visual reference - Corner of front windscreen on the horizon to start roll.
6.17.3. Procedure. Attain briefed entry parameters. Smoothly raise the nose to 20-30
degrees nose-high pitch attitude. Relax back stick pressure and stop nose track, then roll the
aircraft left or right using coordinated aileron and rudder. The nose of the aircraft does not
roll around a specific point in the roll. As the aircraft approaches wings level, neutralize the
rudder and aileron, and return to level flight. In the T-6, an aileron roll to the left requires less
rudder and aileron deflection than a roll to the right due to engine torque.
6.17.4. Technique. Visual references help keep focus outside. At 20 degrees nose high, the
clock is approximately on the horizon. At 30 degrees nose high, the STBY airspeed indicator
is on the horizon.
Figure 6.4. Aileron Roll.
6.18. Lazy Eight (Figure 6.5.).

6.18.1. Objective. Maintain coordinated flight through two successive, symmetric, opposite
direction turns that define the maneuver.
6.18.2. Description. This is a slow, lazy maneuver that describes a horizontal figure eight at
the horizon. The horizon line bisects this figure eight lengthwise. Pitch, bank, and airspeed
constantly change. The maneuver is complete after two 180-degree turns with the aircraft in
level flight.
6.18.2.1. Airspeed – 200-220 KIAS.
6.18.2.2. Power –50-60% torque.
6.18.2.3. Attitude – Entry: wings level, 90 degrees MAX bank, 45 degrees MAX nose-
high pitch.
6.18.2.4. Altitude - Approximately 2,000 feet above and 1,000 below entry altitude.
6.18.2.5. FCP visual reference - Bottom foot on or slightly above horizon at top of leaf,
feet splitting horizon as you come through horizon, top foot on horizon at bottom of leaf.
6.18.3. Procedure. Control pressure constantly changes due to changing bank, pitch, and
airspeed. To help fly symmetrical leaves, select a prominent point on the horizon (90 degrees
off aircraft heading, for example, off the shoulder) or a ground reference, such as a section
line or road (perpendicular to aircraft). Selected points should be far enough from the aircraft
(not beneath the wing) so you don’t fly over it. Mentally project an imaginary line from the
aircraft to the horizon. Look in the direction of flight turn and clear throughout the maneuver.
Figure 6.5. Lazy Eight.
6.18.3.1. Begin in straight-and-level flight with briefed entry airspeed and power setting.
Select the desired reference point on the horizon or ground, and align the aircraft so the
reference point is directly off a wingtip. Blend aileron, rudder, and elevator pressures
simultaneously to start a gradual climbing turn in the direction of the reference point. The
initial bank should be very shallow to prevent excessive turn rate. As the nose is raised,
the airspeed decreases, causing the rate of turn to increase. Time the turn and pull-up so
the nose reaches the highest pitch attitude (approximately 45 degrees) when the aircraft
has turned 45 degrees or halfway to the reference point. Use outside references and the
attitude indicator to cross-check these pitch-and-bank attitudes. Bank continues to
increase as the nose falls. The aircraft should be pointed at the reference point as a
maximum bank of 80-90 degrees is reached and the nose reaches the horizon. The lowest
airspeed occurs just as the nose reaches the horizon (approximately 100 knots below
entry airspeed).
6.18.3.2. Avoid freezing the pitch or bank at the horizon. Passing the horizon, let the
nose fall, and begin rolling out of bank. The second half of the leaf (nose below horizon)
should be symmetric and approximately the same size as the first half (nose above the
horizon). The bank should change at the same rate as during the nose-up portion of the
leaf. When the aircraft has turned 135 degrees, the nose should be at its lowest attitude
and the bank should be 45 degrees. Continue blending control stick and rudder pressure
to simultaneously raise the nose and level the wings. Monitor the progress of the turn by
checking the outside reference point (off opposite shoulder from maneuver start). The
aircraft should be wings level at entry airspeed as the nose reaches the horizon, having
completed 180 degrees of turn. Without pausing, begin the second leaf in the opposite
direction of the first.
6.18.4. Technique.
6.18.4.1. Set up perpendicular to a long road or section line. Visualize the road as the
straight line part of a dollar sign ($). The two turns of the maneuver complete the “S”
portion of the dollar sign. If ground references are unavailable, the heading bug can be set
to the initial heading and used to monitor the progress of the turns.
6.18.4.2. During the nose-up part of turns, pull to put the bottom foot (foot on inside of
turn) on top of the horizon and roll around it until reaching approximately 60-degree
bank. The nose will begin to fall at 60- to 90-degrees of bank. Use bank to control the
lift vector and achieve the desired nose low pitch attitude without freezing at 90-degrees
of bank. It is permissible to vary the roll rate to control the lift vector without stagnating.
Proper lift vector control is the key to a successful lazy eight.
6.18.4.3. When bringing the nose back to the horizon from a nose-low attitude, the
number of knots below wings level airspeed should be approximately equal to the
number of degrees nose low. For example, if the desired wings-level airspeed is 220
knots, the airspeed should be approximately 190 knots at 30 degrees nose low, 200 knots
at 20 degrees nose low, etc.
6.19. Barrel Roll (Figure 6.6).
6.19.1. Objective. Maintain coordinated flight through a 360-degree roll that describes a
circle around a point near the horizon.
Figure 6.6. Barrel Roll.
6.19.2. Description. A barrel roll is a coordinated roll in which the nose of the aircraft
describes a circle around a point on or near the horizon. Definite seat pressure should be felt
throughout the roll. Practice in both directions. The maneuver is complete when the aircraft is
wings level, abeam the reference point on the original side, at approximately entry airspeed.
6.19.2.1. Airspeed – 200-220 KIAS.
6.19.2.2. Power – 80 percent to MAX power.
6.19.2.3. Attitude – Entry: wings level.
6.19.2.4. Altitude - Approximately 2,000 feet above and 1,000 feet below entry altitude.
6.19.2.5. FCP visual reference - Reference point at or near the corner of front
windscreen.
6.19.3. Procedure. Select a reference point, such as a cloud or landmark, up to 45 degrees
off the nose of the aircraft, on or slightly above the horizon. Set briefed power and attain
briefed entry airspeed with the nose of the aircraft below the horizon. Begin a coordinated
turn in the opposite direction of the desired roll, as necessary, to place the aircraft up to 45
degrees to the side of the reference point, as required. The distance from the reference point
defines the size of the barrel roll, and it should remain constant throughout the maneuver.
From level flight, increase pitch and bank. As the bank reaches 90 degrees, the aircraft
should be directly above the reference point.
6.19.3.1. Passing 90 degrees of bank, relax some back pressure and increase aileron
deflection to continue the roll with reduced airspeed. Back pressure must be reduced
compared to the first quarter of the roll because gravity is now in the same direction as
the lift vector (downward) when inverted. Plan the roll so the wings become level just as
the aircraft reaches the inverted level-flight attitude. The aircraft should be displaced
from the reference point the same distance as at the beginning of the maneuver.
6.19.3.2. Continue the roll and apply increased elevator pressure. As the bank again
reaches the 90 degrees at the bottom of the maneuver, the nose track should continue to
arc around the reference point. In this last quarter of roll, increase back stick pressure
because gravity is now working against the lift vector. Maintain coordinated control
pressure to continue the roll so the nose completes the circle around the reference point,
ending up wings level at the horizon.
6.19.4. Technique. Choosing a reference point above the horizon and within the canopy
bow helps ensure reasonable displacement and barrel roll size.
6.20. Loop (Figure 6.7.).
6.20.1. Objective. Complete a 360-degree turn in the vertical with constant nose track.
6.20.2. Description. The loop is a 360-degree turn in the vertical plane with constant
heading and nose track. Because it is executed in a single plane, the elevator is the principle
control surface. Ailerons and rudder are used to maintain directional control and coordinated
flight. The maneuver is complete when wings are level at the horizon on the same heading as
at entry.
6.20.2.1. Airspeed – 230-250 KIAS.
6.20.2.2. Power - MAX.
6.20.2.3. Attitude - Wings level to horizon throughout maneuver.
6.20.2.4. Altitude - Approximately 3,000 feet above entry altitude.
6.20.2.5. FCP visual reference -- Wingtips equidistant from horizon in pull-up.
Figure 6.7. Loop.
6.20.3. Procedure. Begin straight-and-level to 20 degrees nose low, with briefed entry
airspeed and power setting. Smoothly pull the nose up using 3-4 Gs. When the forward view
of the horizon disappears in the pull-up, maintain wings level (straight pull) by keeping the
wingtips equidistant from the horizon. Back stick pressure and G loading decrease to
maintain a constant nose track as airspeed decreases; however, aft control stick displacement
increases. Right rudder pressure is required to keep the aircraft coordinated as airspeed
decreases. Insufficient rudder, as airspeed decreases, may allow the nose to deviate up to 30
degrees off desired track. Airspeed should be approximately 100-120 KIAS wings level
inverted (over the top). Pull straight through the vertical and increase G loading to maintain a
constant nose track until a level flight attitude is reached. Maintain coordinated rudder as the
airspeed increases in the dive.
6.20.4. Technique. Align the aircraft with a road or section line to provide a visual
reference for a straight pull. Keep aligned with selected reference throughout the loop. If a
ground reference is not available, the heading bug may be used to ensure a straight pull.
Accelerate to entry airspeed with canopy bow on the horizon. Anticipate entry by 20 KIAS
(an attitude of 20 degrees nose low requires a 20 KIAS lead point to hit the desired target
airspeed by the time the nose is back to level flight). Imagine pulling to the “zipper” to
ensure a straight pull. As the horizon disappears, use the cross-check of “wingtip, wingtip,
ball” to keep the wings level and flight coordinated. Make sure the wingtips are equidistant
from the horizon. Roll away from the wingtip that has the most ground above it to level the
wings. As the airspeed slows near the top of the loop, due to propeller effects, the nose will
tend to yaw to the left, which can be detected by cross-checking the ball on the turn and slip
indicator. Use the memory aid of “step on the ball” to push on the rudder coinciding with the
side the ball is deflected to. Near vertical, tilt the head back and try to locate the horizon as
early as possible. If the wings are not level, improper rudder application is most likely the
problem.
6.21. Immelmann (Figure 6.8.).
6.21.1. Objective. Complete a vertical, climbing, 180-degree turn with constant nose track.
6.21.2. Description. The Immelmann is a half loop followed by a half roll, all flown in the
same vertical plane. The maneuver is complete after a momentary pause in level flight with
wings level on an opposite heading from entry.
6.21.2.1. Airspeed - 230-250 KIAS.
6.21.2.2. Power - MAX.
6.21.2.3. Attitude - Wings level to horizon before and after half roll at top.
6.21.2.5. FCP visual reference - Wingtips equidistant from horizon in pull-up.
Figure 6.8. Immelmann.
6.21.3. Procedure. Begin in straight-and-level flight, with briefed entry airspeed and power
setting. Smoothly pull the nose up using 3-4 Gs. When the forward view of the horizon
disappears in the pull-up, maintain wings level (straight pull) by keeping the wingtips
equidistant from the horizon. Back stick pressure and G loading decrease to maintain a
constant nose track as airspeed decreases; however, aft control stick displacement increases.
Moderate right rudder pressure is required to keep the aircraft coordinated as airspeed
decreases. Insufficient rudder, as airspeed decreases, may allow the nose to deviate up to 30
degrees off desired track. As the aircraft reaches a point approximately 10 degrees above the
horizon inverted (FCP canopy bow on the horizon), relax back stick pressure and apply
aileron with coordinated rudder in either direction to initiate a roll to level flight. Airspeed
should be approximately 100-120 KIAS. The maneuver is complete after a momentary pause
in level flight following the rollout.
6.21.4. Technique. Reference the technique for the first half of the loop.
6.22. Split-S (Figure 6.9.).
6.22.1. Objective. Complete a max performance, 180-degree descending turn in the pure
vertical.
6.22.2. Description. The split-S combines the first half of an aileron roll with the last half
of a loop. It demonstrates how much altitude is lost if recovery from inverted flight is
attempted by pulling through the horizon. The aircraft climbs during entry and descends
during recovery. The maneuver is complete when the aircraft returns to level flight.
6.22.2.1. Airspeed - 120-140 KIAS.
6.22.2.2. Power - Idle to 80 percent.
6.22.2.3. Attitude - Entry: 20 degrees nose high. Wings level before and throughout pull.
6.22.2.4. Altitude - Approximately 2,500 feet below entry altitude.
6.22.2.5. FCP visual reference - Corner of forward windscreen on horizon to start roll.
Figure 6.9. Split-S.
6.22.3. Procedure. Begin in straight-and-level flight approximately 40 KIAS above briefed

entry airspeed. Briefed power setting may be established any time before or during the half
roll. Raise the nose to an approximately 20-degree pitch attitude (FCP clock on the horizon).
When the airspeed is approximately 20 KIAS above briefed entry airspeed, roll the aircraft to
the wings-level, inverted attitude. Apply back pressure to bring the nose through the horizon.
To avoid excessive G and airspeed at the bottom, attempt to max perform once the nose
passes the horizon. Airspeed and G loading (approximately 3-4 Gs) increase during the
pullout. Perform a proper anti-G strain.
6.22.4. Technique. Attempt to set up the maneuver over a road or section line. Ensure
wings are level- inverted before starting pull. Imagine pulling to the “zipper” to ensure a
straight pull. Looking at successive points above the canopy bow (as described on the back
half of the loop) that lead in a straight line from below the aircraft out to the horizon can also
help ensure a straight pull.
6.23. Cuban Eight (Figure 6.10.).
6.23.1. Objective. Maintain coordinated flight through two successive loop-type turns in
the vertical.
6.23.2. Description. Each half of this maneuver is a combination of a slightly modified loop
and Immelmann. The first portion of each leaf is approximately the first five-eighths of a
loop followed by a half roll. The pull and roll is then repeated in the opposite direction. The
maneuver looks like an “8” on its side. The maneuver is complete at level flight, with entry
airspeed and on original heading.
6.23.2.1. Airspeed - 230-250 KIAS.
6.23.2.2. Power - MAX.
6.23.2.3. Attitude - Wings level to horizon throughout maneuver.
6.23.2.5. FCP visual reference:
6.23.2.5.1. Wingtips equidistant from horizon in pull-up.
6.23.2.5.2. Seat on horizon when 45 degrees nose low, inverted.
Figure 6.10. Cuban Eight.
setting. Perform the first part of a loop until over the top, inverted. After passing through
inverted-level flight, continue the loop until approaching 45 degrees nose low, inverted.
Execute a coordinated half roll in either direction. Relax the elevator pressure to keep the
nose track in the same vertical plane. After completing the half roll, maintain 45 degrees nose
low until beginning the pull-up for the second half of the maneuver. Plan to initiate the pull-
up to attain briefed entry airspeed at the horizon (passing through level flight). To
accomplish this, begin the pull-up approximately 35-40 KIAS below briefed entry airspeed
(the airspeed lead point is approximately equal to number of degrees of nose-low pitch).
Continue the pull-up into another loop entry. The second half of the Cuban Eight is identical
to the first except the roll is in the opposite direction.
6.23.4. Technique. Use ground references, or the heading bug, as in other over-the-top
maneuvers. Upon reaching 45 degrees nose low, inverted flight (seat on the horizon),
momentarily freeze the control stick before the coordinated roll. To maintain 45 degrees nose
low, pick a point on the ground and freeze it in the windscreen. Verbalizing the roll direction
on the first half of the maneuver will help ensure the roll on the second half of the maneuver
is in the correct direction.
6.24. Cloverleaf (Figure 6.11.).
6.24.1. Objective. Combine elements of the loop, roll, and split-S into a fluid maneuver.
6.24.2. Description. The cloverleaf is composed of four identical maneuvers, each of which
changes heading by 90 degrees. The pull-up is similar to the loop, although with less G
loading. The top part is a rolling pull to the horizon 90 degrees displaced from the original
heading. The pulling roll resembles a nose-high recovery. The lower part or pull through is
flown like a split-S. The maneuver is complete in level flight after four leaves in the same
direction. Fewer than four leaves may be performed when practicing the maneuver.
6.24.2.1. Airspeed – 200-220 KIAS.
6.24.2.2. Power –80% to MAX.
6.24.2.3. Attitude - Wings level for pull-up and pull through.
6.24.2.4. Altitude - Approximately 3,000 feet above and 1,000 feet below entry altitude.
6.24.2.5.1. Wingtips equidistant from horizon in pull-up.
6.24.2.5.2. Feet on horizon when 45 degrees nose high.
Figure 6.11. Cloverleaf.
setting. Pick a reference point 90 degrees off the nose in the desired direction. The initial part
of the maneuver is a straight pull-up, similar to a loop, except utilizing a lower G loading (2-
3 Gs). As the aircraft reaches 45 degrees nose high (feet on the horizon), begin a coordinated
roll toward the 90-degree reference point. Allow the nose to continue climbing during the roll
so the maneuver is fairly slow and lazy. Coordinate the pull and roll so the nose passes
through the reference point with the aircraft wings level, inverted, and at a relatively low
airspeed (approximately 120 KIAS). Do not stare at the airspeed indicator, but note the
airspeed at the inverted point. Consider discontinuing the maneuver if airspeed is above
approximately 150-160 KIAS. Keep the wings level and pull through the bottom of the
maneuver as in the split-S. To avoid excessive G and airspeed at the bottom, attempt to max
perform (as in the split-S) once the nose passes the horizon. Approaching the horizon in the
pull- through, reduce back pressure to allow acceleration to entry airspeed at the horizon.
Complete three additional leaves in the same direction.
6.24.4. Technique. Use section lines or prominent roads off of the wingtip in the direction
of turn to visually identify 90-degree points. Begin roll when feet are on the horizon. A
combination of roll and pull is necessary to be inverted, wings level over the reference point.
Cross-check G load at the horizon after each pull through the bottom. Reaching 200-220
knots at the horizon, G may then have to be reduced to the 2-3 Gs required for the initial pull-
up by releasing back stick pressure.
6.25. Chandelle (Figure 6.12.).
6.25.1. Objective. Gain maximum altitude during a 180-degree turn.
Figure 6.12. Chandelle.
6.25.2. Description. The Chandelle is a precision, constant bank 180-degree steep climbing
turn that achieves a maximum gain of altitude for a given power setting. The maneuver is
complete after 180 degrees of turn.
6.25.2.1. Airspeed – 200-250 KIAS.
6.25.2.2. Power - MAX.
6.25.2.3. Attitude – Entry: wings level, 15 degrees nose low. Exit: wings level, 45
degrees nose high.

6.25.2.5.1. Bottom edge of canopy on horizon at entry.
6.25.2.5.2. Feet on horizon (45 degrees nose high) at exit.
6.25.3. Procedure.
6.25.3.1. Begin wings level, 15 degrees nose low with briefed power setting but below
briefed entry airspeed. When airspeed reaches briefed entry airspeed, blend rudder,
aileron, and elevator pressure simultaneously to begin a climbing turn, applying
approximately 3 Gs. Increase bank to 60 degrees and keep the nose track rising at a
uniform rate. The nose should describe a straight line diagonal to the horizon. The nose
should pass through the horizon at approximately 60 degrees bank with 30-45 degrees of
turn complete. Check the amount of turn by using outside references. Once the nose is
above the horizon, changes in pitch angle, airspeed, and the vertical component of lift
require constant changes in control pressures and considerably more back stick pressure
is required to keep the nose rising at a uniform rate. Aileron and/or rudder pressure
opposite the direction of turn will be required in order to prevent overbanking. At the
135-degree point in the turn, start the rollout but keep the nose rising. Monitor the
amount of turn remaining before reaching the 180-degree point by checking outside
references. Time the rollout so the wings become level as the nose reaches the highest
pitch attitude (approximately 40-45 degrees) at the 180-degree point. When the maneuver
is complete (180 degrees of turn), lower the nose to the horizon or perform a nose-high
recovery.
6.25.3.2. If the rate of climb is too fast, and the aircraft approaches stall before turning
180 degrees discontinue the maneuver by performing a nose-high recovery. If the rate of
pitch change is too slow, the 180-degree point may be reached before the maximum pitch
attitude is attained. When starting the maneuver, the rate of roll-in is faster than the rate
of pull-up (60 degrees bank change, 15 degrees pitch change).
6.25.4. Technique. Use perpendicular and parallel roads or section lines visually to monitor
progress of turns. Inside the cockpit, the heading marker can be a good cross-check tool in
addition to cross-checking bank and pitch on the main attitude indicator (ADI). Outside the
cockpit, pick a reference point and place it 90 degrees off either shoulder. Begin a turn away
from the reference point. Once the reference point becomes visible again off the other
shoulder, you will have completed approximately 135 degrees of turn, prompting the rollout
to achieve 180 degrees of turn. Visualizing the Chandelle as similar to climbing a spiral
staircase can help with maneuver execution.
Chapter 7
INSTRUMENT FLYING
7.1. Introduction. Instrument flight in Air Force aircraft is governed by standardized rules and
procedures. Most of the standardized guidance is found in sources other than this manual.
AFMAN 11-217, Volumes 1 and 3 are the main sources of guidance for instrument flight. They
contain detailed information on most of the topics presented in this chapter and must be studied
to ensure success. This chapter provides T-6-specific considerations for instrument flight and
presents information on training rules, basic and advanced instrument maneuvers, spatial
disorientation, and the application of basic principles to instrument mission execution. You
should also refer to Flight Information Publications (FLIP)(for example, Flight Information
Handbook, IFR Supplement, General Planning, etc.); AFI 11-202, Volume 3; Federal Aviation
Regulation (FAR)/AIM; and the flight manual for additional instrument flight guidance.
7.2. RCP Instrument Procedures. For instrument flight, the RCP is functionally the same as
the FCP. When a PPT student pilot occupies the RCP, the instructor performs all landings.
7.3. Use of Vision-Restricting Device (VRD). To enhance instrument training, a VRD is used
during student instrument training sorties. The VRD (commonly called the hood) is used to
restrict peripheral vision and force dependence on instruments for SA. When under the hood,
focus on the instrument cross-check as if in actual IMC. Use the VRD according to AFI 11-202,
Volume 3; AFI 11-2T-6, Volume 3; and the appropriate syllabus. The VRD will not be worn by
pilots in the FCP.
7.4. EFIS and GPS Display Options. There are multiple configurations for the EFIS and GPS.
Normally, a standard display setup (established locally) is used until proficiency is demonstrated.
After demonstrating proficiency, other than standard display options may be used to optimize SA
and precise control of the aircraft.
7.5. Task Management. Unlike contact flying, the horizon is not used to determine pitch and
bank. Instrument flight uses the EADI for attitude information. As visual cues become less
prominent, a greater percentage of attention must be focused on the EADI. Time-consuming
tasks such as approach plate review, chart manipulation, and NAVAID setup or GPS
programming should be accomplished as the workload allows with control of the aircraft attitude
always maintained as first priority. Complex tasks that divert attention from basic instrument
flight should be broken down into subtasks; complete a subtask then return full attention to the
instruments. Alternate attention between subtasks and the instruments until the full task is
complete. Effectively trimming the aircraft significantly reduces workload in controlling the
aircraft and is the key to successfully accomplishing other subtasks. Anticipate and begin
required actions as early as practical such as putting anticipated frequencies and NAVAIDs into
the queue or STBY function of the RMU.
7.6. Cockpit Organization. An organized approach to cockpit setup is essential due to the
additional publications, such as charts and approach plates, required on most instrument sorties.
Consideration for cockpit organization during mission analysis can pay big dividends when it
gets busy in the aircraft. In general, strive to find ways to get ahead and prepare for upcoming
tasks. The following examples are just a few of the techniques that can help improve task
management and cockpit organization:
7.6.1. Pre-fold all charts before strap-in. Store them in the order they will be used.
7.6.2. Use AF Form 70, Pilot’s Flight Plan and Flight Log, VFR chart (when flying a VFR
leg), or lineup card to annotate information that is likely to be required in flight.
7.6.3. Fold flight plan or other paperwork so it is easy to read. Store in order of use.
7.6.4. Use a self-adhesive tab or rubber band to mark required pages in the IFR supplement
and IAP.
7.6.5. Write down radio frequencies as they are assigned.
7.6.6. Print and highlight applicable NOTAMs.
7.6.7. Use the STBY frequency function of the RMU to anticipate radio changes.
7.7. Control and Performance Concept. Proper use of the control and performance concept
(described in AFMAN 11-217, Volume 1) makes basic aircraft control much easier and frees
attention for other tasks. T-6 control instruments are the EADI and the primary engine data
display (specifically, engine torque). Performance instruments are the altimeter, airspeed
indicator, VSI, AOA, and EHSI (heading). When possible, start with the known pitch and power
settings (See Table 7.1). These power settings vary slightly between aircraft depending on fuel
load and temperature. Use of known pitch and power settings helps to minimize power changes.
Excessive or continual power changes in the T-6 cause heading, pitch, and trim deviations which
make precise instrument flight more difficult.
Table 7.1. Common Instrument Pitch and Power Settings.
Pitch Torque (note 1)

Maneuver Airspeed Gear Flaps (degrees) VSI
Vertical-S up 150 UP UP 5-6 NH 55% 1,000 fpm
Vertical-S down 1-2 NL 15%
45 steep turn 3 NH 45%
60 steep turn 4 NH 60%
Wingover 220 80% to MAX
Aileron roll 15-25
NH
Penetration 200 UP UP 8 NL 5%
(note 2) 10 NL 25 % and speed
brake
En route descent 200 UP UP 5 NL 20%
7.5 NL 8%
Final approach 110 DOWN TO 3 NH 35%
(level/configured)
Precision final LOL 21% 600 fpm
Non-precision final 1 NL 16% 1,000 fpm
Non-precision final 120 DOWN TO 1 NL 21% 1,000 fpm
(circling)
Holding 150 UP UP 2 NH 35%
Notes:
1. All torque settings are approximate and vary slightly depending on density altitude and aircraft
weight.
2. An 800-1000 ft/NM penetration descent (8-10 degrees nose-low) ensures you remain within
protected airspace on a penetration approach. See AFMAN 11-217 vol 1.
LEGEND:
AR: As required
LOL: Line-on-line
NH: Nose high
NL: Nose low
7.8. Instrument Flight Maneuvers. Instrument flight is simply a series of basic instrument
maneuvers flown in a sequence that depends on the route, weather, air traffic congestion, and
other factors. The following basic maneuvers are the building blocks for advanced concepts
described later in this chapter.
7.9. Turns and Turns To Headings.
7.9.1. Objective. Maintain smooth, coordinated flight in turns to specific headings.
7.9.2. Description. Normally, bank is no greater than 30 degrees to reduce the chances of
spatial disorientation.
7.9.3. Procedure. Apply coordinated aileron and rudder in the direction of the turn. Refer to
the EADI for bank information. In level turns, maintain constant altitude and airspeed by
cross-checking the EADI and performance instruments. Increase the pitch attitude, as
necessary, to counteract the loss of lift when the aircraft is banked. Apply corrections when
the flight instruments indicate a deviation. When the desired bank is reached, it may be
necessary to exert slight aileron pressure in the opposite direction to prevent over-banking.
Maintain the desired AOB. Adjust power to hold a constant airspeed. As the bank is
established, a small increase in power is usually required. Reverse these procedures to return
to straight-and-level flight.
7.10. Airspeed Changes.
7.10.1. Objective. Smooth, controlled, deliberate change of airspeed.
7.10.2. Description. Change of power setting to affect change in airspeed. At completion of
airspeed change, power is set to maintain new airspeed. Aircraft trimmed during airspeed
change and fine-tuned at target airspeed. Normally practiced between 110 and 250 KIAS.
7.10.3. Procedure. To increase airspeed in straight-and-level flight, advance the power
beyond the setting required to maintain the new airspeed. As airspeed increases, lift increases
so there is a climb tendency. Adjust pitch attitude to maintain altitude. Approaching target
airspeed, reduce power to a setting estimated to maintain the new airspeed. Reduce airspeed
in the same manner but use an opposite power schedule.
7.10.4. Adjustments to trim will be required almost continually during airspeed changes. Do
not neglect the need for rudder trim. An increase in torque generally requires nose-right
rudder trim. Likewise, a reduction in torque requires nose-left rudder trim. Speed brake may
be used for rapid airspeed reductions; however, use caution as the susceptibility for spatial
disorientation increases with use of the speed brake in IMC.
7.11. Constant Airspeed Climbs and Descents.
7.11.1. Objective. Maintain constant airspeed during climb or descent.
7.11.2. Description. Climb or descend at a specific airspeed. Normally practiced at 110-250
KIAS.
7.11.3. Procedure. To climb, simultaneously increase power and raise pitch to maintain
desired airspeed. To descend, simultaneously reduce power and lower pitch to maintain
desired airspeed. The amount of pitch change varies with airspeed and power setting.
Although airspeed is constant, trim is required due to power change.
7.12. Constant Rate Climbs and Descents.
7.12.1. Objective. Maintain constant vertical speed during climb or descent.
7.12.2. Description. Climb or descend at constant rate, normally at constant airspeed.
Usually practiced between 110-250 KIAS and 500–4,000 fpm.
7.12.3. Procedure. Simultaneously advance or reduce power and change pitch to affect
desired climb or descent rate. When vertical speed stabilizes, adjust pitch and power to
maintain target vertical speed and airspeed.
7.12.4. Application. Initially use known pitch and power setting, then fine tune when
vertical speed stabilizes. The 60-to-1 rule can be used to calculate pitch change required for
target vertical speed: 1 degree of pitch change = 100 feet per NM. For example, at 240 knots
true airspeed (KTAS) (4 NM/min), 2 degrees of pitch change (4 NM/min multiplied by 200
ft/NM) results in 800 fpm vertical speed. For example, at 240 KTAS, 2 degrees of pitch
change results in 800 feet per minute vertical speed (4 NM/min multiplied by 200
ft/MN=800 feet per minute). If airspeed and target vertical speed are fixed, the formula to
solve for required pitch change is: VSI divided by NM per minute, divided by 100 = pitch
change. For example, target vertical speed 1,000 fpm at 150 KTAS (2.5 NM/min) = 4-
degree pitch change.
7.13. Instrument Slow Flight.
7.13.1. Objective. Familiarization with handling characteristics in approach configuration
at approach airspeeds.
7.13.2.1. Airspeed - 110-120 KIAS.
7.13.2.2. Gear – Down.
7.13.2.3. Flaps – TO.
7.13.2.4. Attitude – 3 degrees nose high; 0-30 degrees AOB.
7.13.3. Procedure. Slow and configure as for an instrument approach. Practice level flight,
turns, and descents.
7.13.4. Techniques. Use known pitch and power settings. Use 60-to-1 to determine pitch
change for target descent rate on simulated approaches. Practice level, shallow bank turns at
110 KIAS to simulate corrections on final. Practice level off at simulated minimum descent
altitude (MDA). Practice 30-degree bank turns at 120 KIAS to simulate maneuvering on a
circling approach.
7.14. Steep Turns.
7.14.1. Objective. Maintain smooth, coordinated flight in turns to specific headings at
steeper than normal bank angles.
7.14.2.1. Airspeed - 150 KIAS normally, other airspeeds permissible.
7.14.2.2. Attitude - 45- degree and 60-degree bank.
7.14.3. Procedure. Enter a steep turn in the same manner as a normal turn. Anticipate the
addition of power to maintain a constant airspeed. Pitch required, in the turn, is higher than
wings level flight. Anticipate pitch change as VSI lags behind actual aircraft performance.
Use a constant AOB during steep turns, and attempt to correct altitude deviations by
adjusting the pitch attitude; however, if altitude gain or loss is excessive, a decrease or
increase in bank can help correct the pitch attitude.
7.14.4. Technique. “Bug, Turn, Talk.” Use the known pitch and power settings in Table
7.1. Add power passing 30 degrees of bank. To roll out on the desired heading, as a starting
point, lead the rollout by approximately 15 degrees for a 45-degree bank turn and 20 degrees
for a 60-degree bank turn. Lead points should be adjusted as necessary if consistently rolling
out short or past the desired heading.
7.15. Vertical-S.
7.15.1. Objective. Practice instrument cross-check.
7.15.2. Description. As described in AFMAN 11-217, Volume 1. Climb or descent at 1,000
fpm and 150 KIAS. Type flown (A-B-C-D) based on proficiency. Target pitch and power
settings are found in Table 7.1.
7.15.3. Procedure. Use procedures for constant rate climbs and descents.
7.15.4. Technique. Begin with aircraft completely trimmed (trimmed hands-off, see
paragraph 2.9.1.5.) for level flight at 150 KIAS. Lead the change at the top or bottom of the
maneuver by 100 feet (10 percent of VSI). Lead pitch reversal with power. Generally, control
VSI with pitch; control airspeed with power.
7.16. Confidence Maneuvers.
7.16.1. Objective. Gain confidence in the use of the attitude indicator in extreme pitch and
bank attitudes.
7.16.2. Description. Wingover (similar to one-half lazy eight) and aileron roll flown with
EADI as the primary reference. Each maneuver is complete when stabilized in level flight.
7.16.2.1. Airspeed - 220 KIAS.
7.16.2.2. Power: 80 percent to MAX .
setting.
7.16.3.1. Aileron Roll. Begin in straight-and-level flight, at entry airspeed and power
setting. Maintain wings level and raise the nose 15 to 25 degrees on the EADI. Use
aileron and rudder to perform a coordinated roll. Start with a moderate roll rate. Unlike
the contact aileron roll, a constant roll rate is not the goal. Adjust the roll rate to pass
through the horizon in a wings-level, inverted attitude. Do not unload, when inverted, to
hit the horizon. Continue rolling to wings-level upright, as the nose continues to drop to
approximately 15 to 25 degrees nose low at about 220 KIAS. Smoothly return to level
flight.
7.16.3.2. Wingover. Begin in straight-and-level flight, at entry airspeed and power
setting. The wingover is a slow and precise maneuver with a constant roll rate. Increase
back pressure and start to roll such that the low wingtip of the EADI fixed aircraft symbol
remains on the horizon bar. Back pressure increases as bank increases to 60 degrees.
Pitch is approximately 10 degrees nose high at 30 degrees bank. At 60 degrees bank,
pitch is approximately 20 degrees nose high. As the nose falls, continue to roll. At the
horizon, bank should be 90 degrees. Begin to roll out passing the horizon. Increase back
pressure and approaching 60 degrees-bank, catch the high wingtip on the horizon bar.
Pitch is about 20 degrees nose low. Keep the wingtip on the horizon bar until wings level.
7.17. Unusual Attitude Recoveries.
7.17.1. Objective. Recover to normal attitude with reference to instruments only.
7.17.2. Description. An unusual attitude is any unexpected or inadvertent attitude
encountered during normal instrument flight. Generally, in IMC conditions, bank should be
limited to 30 degrees and pitch limited to 10 degrees nose low to 15 degrees nose high.
Possible causes of unusual attitudes include slow cross-check, spatial disorientation,
channelization on a subtask, and transition from VFR to IFR. The recovery is complete when
desired attitude, for normal instrument flight, is reached.
7.17.3. Procedure. Perform recoveries as described in AFMAN 11-217, Volume 1. Use the
EADI as the main recovery instrument after proper operation is verified and it is confirmed
that an unusual attitude exists. Compare the EADI indication with the STBY attitude
indicator and performance instruments to confirm an unusual attitude.
7.17.3.1. If operating properly, the EADI is used to recover. The horizon bar is always
visible, but in extreme nose-high or nose-low attitudes it may be very near the bottom or
top of the EADI. In these cases, red recovery chevrons point to the horizon and may be
used to determine attitude.
7.17.3.2. Bank interpretation and control response are most important in recovering from
unusual attitudes. In high performance aircraft, an inverted (beyond 90 degrees of bank),
diving attitude is the most critical situation. Correction to an upright attitude (less than 90
degrees bank) is the priority and must be initiated before pitch correction.
7.17.3.3. If the aircraft is diving, roll toward wings level and start pull-up when bank is
less than 90 degrees. Reduce power and extend the speed brake if required.
7.17.3.4. If the aircraft is climbing, use power as required to maintain desired airspeed.
As the fuselage dot of the miniature aircraft approaches the horizon bar, adjust bank to
establish a wings-level attitude. If airspeed is low, the nose may continue below the
horizon. Only use as much bank as required to recover; it is not necessary to use 90
degrees in all recoveries.
7.17.4. Technique. “Recognize, Confirm, Recover”:
7.17.4.1. Recognize - Identify potential unusual attitude with EADI and aircraft
performance.
7.17.4.2. Confirm - Verify actual attitude with standby (STBY) ADI and performance
instruments.
7.17.4.3. Recover - Apply appropriate recovery procedure.
7.18. Spatial Disorientation Demonstrations. The following maneuvers simulate three
common types of spatial disorientation illusions. They reaffirm the requirement to rely on
instruments during instrument flight instead of seat-of-the-pants sensations. These maneuvers
will only be practiced with an IP on board and only conducted in VMC. The purpose of these
demonstrations is to help a student pilot understand the real threat of spatial disorientation and
the importance of trusting flight instruments. See AFMAN 11-217, Volume 1, for further
information.
7.18.1. Leans. An illusion experienced due to the effects of aircraft motion about the
longitudinal axis (roll) on the semi-circular canals. There are three phases – roll entry, roll
sustainment and roll-out. Each elicits a sensation that may be correct or false with regards to
aircraft motion. This is commonly experienced while maneuvering or being vectored in the
weather or at night and can be particularly problematic during sustained or slow rate turns.
7.18.1.1. Demonstration. The PNF closes eyes while the aircraft is in a straight-and-
level attitude. PF executes a well-coordinated instrument turn, which the PNF should
sense correctly with eyes closed. As the PF sustains the constant rate turn for 8 to 10
seconds, the PNF should experience a ‘straight-and-level’ sensation. At roll-out to
straight-and-level flight, the PNF should experience the illusion of roll in the opposite
direction of the original bank. In the absence of a good instrument crosscheck, this may
lead to re-entry into the original roll at often more severe bank angles in an attempt to
“feel” straight and level during instrument flight conditions.
7.18.2. Coriolis Effect. An illusion experienced when more than one angular plane of
motion is stimulated in the inner ear. This is usually accomplished through the simultaneous
motion of the head and aircraft but in different planes, e.g., looking down at an approach
plate or checklist during a turn in instrument flight conditions. The result can be a sense of
motion in the form of tumbling or vertigo and loss of orientation awareness. Compensatory
eye movements in the form of nystagmus may occur and make aircraft instrument recovery
much more difficult.
7.18.2.1. Demonstration. The PF executes a well-coordinated instrument turn while the
PNF closes their eyes and rotates their head position from facing forward to facing
downward towards their lap, then back to facing forward while the aircraft is banking or
rolling out of bank. The PNF will experience the Coriolis illusion and have difficulty in
distinguishing orientation even after the PNF re-opens their eyes and focuses on their
instruments. This demonstrates the danger of not only excessive head movement during
aircraft motion in instrument flight conditions but also difficulty in determining correct
instrument recovery procedures due to the severity of the illusion.
7.18.3. Pitch and Elevator Illusions. A false sensation of pitch created by the effects of
acceleration on the otolith organs. During instrument flight conditions positive acceleration
can lead to a sense of nose-up pitch while deceleration can result in a sensation of nose-down
pitch. Normally associated with take-off at night or in the weather, the combination of
positive acceleration and pitch required for takeoff rotation can lead to a sense of over pitch
and cause aggressive pitch-down control inputs to compensate. Go-arounds and missed
approaches at night or in instrument conditions are also common scenarios where this
illusion can result in inappropriate aircraft control inputs. Sudden climbs and dives or abrupt
changes to climbs and dives such as sudden level-offs can lead to a sensation of excessive
vertical motion or the continuation of a climb or dive, as if in an elevator, even after vertical
motion has stopped.
7.18.3.1. Demonstration. PF configures the aircraft normally for an instrument
approach while the PNF closes their eyes. Once established at final approach speed, the
PF executes a simulated missed approach using normal procedures, allowing the aircraft
to accelerate to a normal climb speed. PNF should sense a pitch in excess of actual
aircraft performance. After climbing approximately 1000 feet, PF levels the aircraft at
moderate rate (faster than what would be normally desired). The PNF should experience
the sensation of continuing to climb (elevator illusion). The demonstration warns pilots of
the tendency to compensate with a pitch-down response in degraded visual conditions.
7.19. Application of Instrument Flight Maneuvers. The basic maneuvers and principles of
instrument flight are basis for safe instrument flight. Skills developed in practice are used alone,
or in combination, to perform an instrument sortie from takeoff through the enroute portion to
descent and landing.
7.20. Instrument Takeoff (ITO) and Climb.
7.20.1. Objective. Safely transition to IMC from a normal takeoff (VMC).
7.20.2. Description. Normal takeoff based on visual cues with transition to instruments on
departure leg at the same rate as the loss of visual cues.
7.20.3. Procedure. Perform a normal takeoff. After lift-off, use outside references and the
EADI to control attitude. Transition to instruments at the same rate as visual cues are lost.
Unless otherwise directed, do not turn until at a minimum of 140 KIAS and 400 feet AGL.
Initially raise the nose to 7-10 degrees nose-high indication on the EADI to establish a
definite rate of climb. Trim and verify climb with altimeter and VSI. Maintain initial attitude
until target climb speed. Nonstandard climb gradients, on published departures, may require
adjustments to the climb profile. See AFMAN 11-217, Volume 1, for additional information.
7.20.4. Technique. Consider a static takeoff to allow for a thorough check of all systems
prior to brake release and takeoff into IMC. Before takeoff, review impact of IMC on
emergency recovery options.
7.21. Level Off.
7.21.1. Objective. Smoothly level off at desired altitude with power set to attain or maintain
desired airspeed.
7.21.2. Description. Change of pitch to reduce vertical speed at a specific altitude

combined with power adjustment to meet desired airspeed.
7.21.3. Procedure. To level off at airspeed below climb speed, lower the nose to level flight
and reduce power below the setting required to maintain the lower airspeed. To level off at a
higher airspeed, leave the PCL at MAX or set power above the setting required to maintain
the greater airspeed. Adjust power approaching target airspeed, and apply trim. Use similar
procedures for a level off from a descent.
7.21.4. Technique. Use 10 percent of vertical speed (from VSI) as a lead point to begin
level off; for example, begin level off 200 feet below desired altitude when VSI indicates
2,000 fpm. At the lead point, cut the pitch in half, and then continue pitch change to
smoothly level off. If intermediate level offs are required, it is permissible to maintain climb
airspeed or accelerate to the appropriate cruise speed for that altitude.
7.22. Instrument Departures.
7.22.1. Objective. Comply with departure procedures and safely transition from takeoff to
the enroute structure.
7.22.2. Description. Departure routes and altitudes are designed to provide clearance from
obstacles or efficient traffic flow. Consult AFMAN 11-217, Volume 1 and AFI 11-202,
Volume 3, for detailed information on instrument departures.
7.22.3. Procedure. Consult AFMAN 11-217, Volume 1, and AFI 11-202, Volume 3, for
detailed procedures for instrument departure. Minimum obstacle and ATC climb gradients
must be met.
7.22.4. Technique.
7.22.4.1. Review the entire departure procedure to include surrounding terrain, hazards,
and climb gradient requirements during preflight planning. The departure review during
the “R-NEWS” check is not a substitute for thorough preflight review.
7.22.4.2. Set NAVAIDs and displays, as required, to fly the departure.
7.22.4.3. Thoroughly review the airfield diagram (strange field).
7.22.4.4. Develop a plan for emergency return. Have an instrument approach plate open
with the primary recovery approach displayed in case immediate return to the departure
base is required. A common technique is to develop specific course of action for each
section of the departure. For example, review potential actions for problems before gear
retraction, after gear retraction but VMC, and in IMC. Review surrounding terrain for
effects on emergency recovery.
7.22.4.5. Review NORDO procedures.
7.23. Course Intercepts. See AFMAN 11-217, Volume 1, for course intercept procedures with
an HSI. See Figure 7.1. and Figure 7.2. for examples with T-6 instrumentation.
7.23.1. Objective. Intercept a radial inbound or outbound from a station.
7.23.2. Description. Turns to intercept specific courses to comply with published or
assigned departure, in route, or arrival routing.
7.23.3. Procedures. See AFMAN 11-217, Volume 1, for course intercept procedures with
an HSI. See Figure 7.1. and Figure 7.2. for examples with T-6 instrumentation.
7.23.4. Technique.
7.23.4.1. Set the heading bug on the intercept heading. Lead points are dependent on the
CDI rate of movement and turn radius.
7.23.4.2. To intercept a course inbound, “Charlie Brown plus 30, not to exceed 90” is a
common memory aid. Start at the course arrow (Charlie) on the EHSI, move up the case
to the bearing pointer (Brown), and finally continue 30 degrees past the bearing pointer to
identify the intercept heading.
7.23.4.3. To intercept a course outbound, “Top Cat plus 45, not to exceed the head of the
bearing pointer” is a common memory aid. Start on the tail of the bearing pointer (Top),
move up the case to the course arrow (Cat), and finally continue 45 degrees past the
course arrow, but not to exceed the head of the bearing pointer, to identify the intercept
heading. Bird’s-eye-view awareness of aircraft location in relation to the NAVAID
(radial/DME) as well as the desired radial to be intercepted will serve as a sanity check
that the chosen intercept heading makes sense.
7.23.4.4. To maintain a course and correct for winds, divide the crosswind component of
the wind by the true airspeed in NM/min. For example, if flying at 240 KTAS (4
NM/min) with 40 knots of crosswind, approximately 10 degrees of drift correction (40
knots/4 NM/min) into the wind are required to maintain a course.
Figure 7.1. Inbound Course Intercepts.

Figure 7.2. Outbound Course Intercepts (Away from the Station).

7.24. Arc and Radial Intercepts. See AFMAN 11-217, Volume 1, for detailed information on
arc and radial intercepts. At normal T-6 airspeeds, lead points are not large, and the rate of CDI
movement during the intercept can be used to determine the lead point.
7.25. Fix-to-fix. Proceed directly to a point defined by radial/DME, and/or RNAV waypoint
using onboard navigational equipment. See AFMAN 11-217, Volume 1 for procedures.
7.25.1. Objective. Proceed directly to a point defined by radial and DME, using onboard
navigational equipment.
7.25.2. Description. Specific points on the EHSI represent location and target radial or
DME. The relative positions of current and desired position enable determination of the
course between them.
7.25.3. Procedure. See AFMAN 11-217, Volume 1.
7.25.4. Technique.
7.25.4.1. Tune, identify, monitor (TIM) NAVAID and confirm the correct frequency is
selected. Set radial of the desired fix in the CSW.
7.25.4.2. Turn in the shorter direction to a heading between the head of the bearing
pointer and the head of the course arrow (which is the desired radial). Favor the head of
the bearing pointer (which brings you closer to the selected station) if destination DME is
less than current DME. Favor the head of the course arrow if destination DME is greater
than current DME. Note: A heading (in a no-wind condition) exactly between the head of
the bearing pointer and the head of the course arrow results in arrival at the target radial
at the same DME as current DME. If both the bearing pointer and the head of the course
arrow are in the upper half of the EHSI, the DME will initially get smaller than the
current position DME before increasing to the target DME (referred to as cutting the arc).
7.25.4.3. After turning to an initial heading, fine tune and update the fix to fix by
envisioning the aircraft’s current position and the targeted fix superimposed on the EHSI
as if it were a map. Use the DME of the position (current aircraft location or desired fix)
furthest from the station as the distance to the outer ring of the EHSI bezel. The ground
station is then located at the center of the EHSI. The current aircraft position is always
somewhere on the tail of the bearing pointer, and the targeted fix is always somewhere
between the center and the head of the course arrow. The relationship between the two
points allows determination of turn direction and an estimate of the initial heading.
Figure 7.3. and Figure 7.4. depict a fix-to-fix heading computation from the current
aircraft position (180 radial at 60 DME, heading 360 degrees) to the targeted fix (090
radial at 30 DME). Current position is 60 NM south of the station, heading north. The
target fix is 30 NM east of the station. The resultant heading to the fix under no wind
conditions is approximately 025 degrees.
7.25.4.4. The following simple facts can prevent confusion. Current aircraft position is
always somewhere between the tail of the bearing pointer and the center of the EHSI. The
target fix is always somewhere between the center of the EHSI and the course arrow. The
distance from the center to the outer edge of the compass card is always equal to the
larger DME; therefore, either the current position or target fix is located on the outer edge
of the compass card.
7.25.4.5. The pencil method may be used to determine heading from current position and
target fix. A pencil can be used (or just visualize straight line) to connect the two
positions with an imaginary line (Figure 7.3, photo C). Then imagine a parallel line
through the center of the compass card. This line through the center of the compass card
intercepts the no-wind heading to the target fix (Figure 7.3, photo D). A pencil is not
necessary but may help develop the ability to imagine the proper lines.
7.25.4.6. The plumb bob can supplement the pencil method to determine heading to the
target fix. As in the pencil method, imagine a line between current position and target fix.
Turn to put the line in a vertical orientation (fixes aligned vertically).
7.25.4.7. Apply known wind drift corrections. A requirement for significant heading
changes during updates can indicate approximate windspeed and direction. Proper wind
drift correction can be determined by dividing the crosswind component by the true
airspeed in NM/minimum min. For example, if the no-wind heading is 360 degrees, the
crosswind component is 30 knots out of the west, and the airspeed is 3 NM/minimum min
(180 NM/hour divided by 60 sec/minimum = 3 NM/minimum), the drift correction is 10
into the wind (30 divided by 3 = 10 degrees) for a resulting heading of 350 degrees to
proceed toward the fix.
7.25.4.8. Regularly update the required heading to the target fix. Simply repeat the steps
used to determine the initial heading (always use current DME). It can be helpful to
schedule updates at distances that form simple ratios with the target DME. For example,
if going from 60 DME to 15 DME, plan updates at 45 DME (1:3 ratio), 30 DME (1:2
ratio), and 20 DME (3:4 ratio). Mathematical ratio methods may also be used to
determine heading. A heading midway between the bearing pointer and course arrow
results in hitting target radial at DME same as current DME. A heading midway between
the midpoint and course arrow results in hitting target radial at DME twice the current
DME. Likewise, heading midway between the midpoint and the bearing pointer results in
hitting target radial at DME one-half the current DME.
7.26. In-flight Checks.
7.26.1. Objective. Accomplish in-flight checks and other actions required during instrument
flight.
7.26.2. Description. In-flight checks performed according to flight manual and other
required actions such as IAP review accomplished in a timely fashion throughout the sortie.
7.26.3. Procedure. Accomplish required in-flight checks. Perform actions required by
AFMAN 11-217, Volume 1, including review of IAP for planned approaches, re-check
destination weather, and coordination of lost communication instructions, if required. See
AFMAN 11-217, Volume 1, for detailed requirements.
Figure 7.3. Fix-to-fix Example.

Figure 7.4. Visualize the HSI.
7.26.4. Techniques. Many useful acronyms are found in the AETC TRSS Handout 11-1,
Navigation for Pilot Training. Following are some commonly used memory aids:
7.26.4.1. One of two methods is used prior to descent from cruising altitude.
7.26.4.1.1. WHOLDS .
7.26.4.1.1.1. W - Weather, check prior to IAF or beginning enroute descent.
7.26.4.1.1.2. H - Holding, coordinate holding instructions, if required.
7.26.4.1.1.3. O - Obtain clearance for the approach.
7.26.4.1.1.4. L - Let down plate (approach) review (see below).
7.26.4.1.1.5. D - Descent check.
7.26.4.1.1.6. S - Speed, slow down for holding, or low altitude procedure.
7.26.4.1.2. DRWHO .
7.26.4.1.2.1. D - Descent check.
7.26.4.1.2.2. R - Review IAP (see below).
7.26.4.1.2.3. W - Weather, check prior to the IAF or beginning enroute descent.
7.26.4.1.2.4. H - Holding, coordinate holding instructions if required.

7.26.4.1.2.5. O - Obtain clearance for the approach.
7.26.4.2. Let down plate review:
7.26.4.2.1. NMAILMAN.
7.26.4.2.1.1. N - NAVAIDS, set for position awareness.
7.26.4.2.1.2. M - Minimum altitudes (on approach, minimum/emergency safe,
etc.), weather minimums.
7.26.4.2.1.3. A - Altimeter.
7.26.4.2.1.4. I - Initial descent rate.
7.26.4.2.1.5. L - Lost communication instructions, if required.
7.26.4.2.1.6. M - Missed approach and (or) climbout.
7.26.4.2.1.7. A - Aerodrome sketch.
7.26.4.2.1.8. N - NAVAIDS, set, and review changes for approach.
7.26.4.3. Before commencing final approach or between approaches:
7.26.4.3.1. LIDS .
7.26.4.3.1.1. L - Localizer, set correct frequency.
7.26.4.3.1.2. I - Inbound course, set if required.
7.26.4.3.1.3. D - DME, check frequency.
7.26.4.3.1.4. S - Speed for approach.
7.26.4.3.2. NORM .
7.26.4.3.2.1. N - NAVAIDS set and TAS checked.
7.26.4.3.2.2. O - Obtain clearance.
7.26.4.3.2.3. R - Review approach and (or) RMU set.
7.26.4.3.2.4. M - Minimum and (or) missed approach.
7.26.4.3.3. LDROD (for GPS approach):
7.26.4.3.3.1. L - Load the approach.
7.26.4.3.3.2. D - Proceed direct.
7.26.4.3.3.3. R - RAIM check (predictive).
7.26.4.3.3.4. O - OBS if required.
7.26.4.3.3.5. D - Display setup as desired or required.
7.26.4.4. When crossing any approach or holding fix to maintain SA and aid task
management:
7.26.4.4.1. Six Ts .
7.26.4.4.2. T – Time for the approach or holding leg.

7.26.4.4.3. T - Turn to specific heading or to intercept a desired course.
7.26.4.4.4. T - Torque set to hold desired airspeed.
7.26.4.4.5. T - Twist desired course into the CSW.
7.26.4.4.6. T - Track the selected course.
7.26.4.4.7. T - Talk (make appropriate radio call). Note: this is intentionally the
last step.
7.27. Holding.
7.27.1. Objective. Maneuver to properly enter holding and remain within holding airspace.
7.27.2. Description. Turn at entry to enter published or assigned holding pattern. Fly wind-
corrected headings to remain within protected airspace.
7.27.3. Procedure. Procedures for holding entry, holding, and holding exit are described in
FLIP, General Planning; AFMAN 11-217, Volume 1; and the flight manual. Normally hold
at 150 KIAS. Airspeeds as low as 120 KIAS (or MAX endurance AOA, whichever is higher)
may be flown in holding.
7.27.4. Techniques. Use the GPS to determine winds. Compare aircraft heading to actual
aircraft track to determine crosswind correction required. Use techniques for the vertical-S
when climbing or descending in a holding pattern.
7.28. Penetration Approach.
7.28.1. Objective. Transition from the enroute structure directly onto a published
instrument approach.
7.28.2. Description. A steep instrument approach procedure with specific altitudes and
courses, flown by military aircraft for tactical considerations.
7.28.2.1. Airspeed - 200-250 KIAS.
7.28.2.2. Power - As required. (See Table 7.1) Typically for 200 KIAS: 8 degrees nose
low and 5 percent torque.
7.28.2.3. Speed brake – As required.
7.28.3. Procedure.
7.28.3.1. Lower nose and set power to maintain 200 KIAS. Airspeed may be adjusted to
comply with published altitude restrictions. (Do not exceed 250 KIAS below 10,000 feet
MSL.) Plan descent to allow configuration before final approach fix (FAF).
7.29. Enroute Descents.
7.29.1. Objective. Smoothly transition from the enroute structure to a (low) instrument
approach.
7.29.2. Description. Descent according to assigned routing and altitude restrictions issued
by ATC. The more commonly used method to descend for an instrument approach.
7.29.2.1. Airspeed - 200-250 KIAS.
7.29.2.2. Power - As required. (See Table 7.1) Typically for 200 KIAS: 5 degrees nose
low and 20 percent torque.
7.29.2.3. Speed brake - As required.
7.29.3. Procedure.
7.29.3.1. Lower nose and set power to achieve desired airspeed and rate of descent. Plan
descent to allow configuration before the FAF.
7.29.4. Techniques.
7.29.4.1. If given the option of a descent at pilot discretion, a 5-degree descent is
comfortable and controllable. To determine when to start down using a 5-degree descent,
multiply the altitude to lose in thousands of feet by 2 and add 10 miles. For example, if
the altitude to lose is 20,000 feet, start down approximately 50 NM from the destination
(20 multiplied by 2 = 40 plus 10 = 50 NM). The extra 10 miles allows for an instrument
approach into the destination.
7.29.4.2. Given an altitude to be at within a specified range, determine the pitch attitude
by one of two methods:
7.29.4.2.1. 60-to-l rule:
7.29.4.2.1.1. Pitch change = Altitude to lose (hundreds of feet) divided by NMs.
For example, lose 5,000 feet in 10 NM; 50 divided by 10 = 5 degrees nose low.
7.29.4.2.1.2. Every 1 degree of pitch equals descent (or climb) of 100 feet per
NM.
7.29.4.2.2. EADI technique (Figure 7.5.).
7.29.4.2.2.1. The 10 degrees nose-low line on the EADI represents NM to
descend.
7.29.4.2.2.2. Lower the nose, based on this scale, to altitude to lose (in
thousands). For example, lose 10,000 feet in 20 NM. Set scale with 20 at 10
degrees nose-low line. Descent of 10 (thousand feet) is one-half of 20; therefore,
pitch required is 5 degrees nose low.
Figure 7.5. EADI Descent Calculation.
7.29.4.3. Verify descent gradient by cross-checking VSI. Calculate descent rate from
airspeed and pitch (descent gradient).
7.29.4.3.1. VSI = Groundspeed (NM/minute) multiplied by pitch (descent gradient)
multiplied by 100. For example, 4 NM/minute (240 GS) multiplied by 5 degrees
descent gradient multiplied by 100 = 2,000 fpm on VSI.
7.29.4.3.2. Use caution when calculating VSI with IAS or TAS. Significant winds
change desired VSI for selected descent gradient. Headwinds result in lower VSI and
tailwinds in higher. For example, descent above calculated with 240 TAS; expected
VSI is 2,000 fpm; to maintain 5-degree descent gradient with a 60-knot headwind
(180 GS); VSI is 1,500 fpm. Likewise, with a 60-knot tailwind (300 KGS), VSI is
2,500 fpm.
7.29.4.4. Use GPS and/or NAVAIDs to maintain SA.
7.30. Final Approach.
7.30.1. Objective. Transition from IMC to VMC via instrument approach procedure.
7.30.2. Description. Straight-in approach flown using EADI and GPS or NAVAIDs to
control aircraft attitude, altitude, and route of flight. Weather minimums allow transition to
visual cues for landing.
7.30.2.1. Airspeed - 110 KIAS (120 KIAS may be used if a circling approach is
planned).
7.30.2.2. Gear - Down.
7.30.2.3. Flaps - TO.
7.30.3. Procedure. See AFMAN 11-217, Volume 1, and AFI 11-202, Volume 3, for
approach procedures, rules, restrictions, and approach system information. See AFI 11-2T-6,
Volume 3, for weather and approach minimum restrictions.
7.30.3.1. Before glide path intercept (precision) or FAF (non-precision) approaches,
configure, slow to approach speed, and complete the before-landing checklist.
7.30.3.2. With crosswinds or gusty winds, configure using appropriate flap settings and
increase airspeed, as required.
7.30.3.3. GPS-specific approach procedures include:
7.30.3.3.1. The GPS approach procedure must be loaded from a current database.
7.30.3.3.2. Check waypoint names, sequence, courses, and distances prior to
commencing the approach (may be accomplished during preflight).
7.30.3.3.3. Check P-RAIM before initiating any GPS approach procedure (STAT
page 5 or http://sapt.faa.gov).
7.30.3.3.4. Ensure course indicator set to proper tolerance (+/-1 mile on MODE page
or APPR ARM any time terminal area procedures are flown).
7.30.3.3.5. Ensure no deviations while on the approach.
7.30.3.3.6. If deviations are noted, immediately terminate the procedure, and switch
to backup options.
7.30.4. Technique.
7.30.4.1. Configuring 2 to 3 NM prior to the FAF in the T-6 allows for stabilization of
airspeed and trim prior to descending at the FAF.
7.30.4.2. Compare aircraft track on the GPS to aircraft heading. The difference
approximates the drift correction. Set heading bug to wind corrected heading for final.
Update as necessary; wind speed and direction are rarely constant during the descent.
7.30.4.3. When deviations are noted, set specific headings to make corrections. If
possible, limit heading changes to 5 degrees when making a course correction. Set
heading bug to final approach course for additional visual cue for size of heading
deviations. Because the heading bug is approximately 10 degrees wide (5 degrees either
side of the bugged heading), limiting heading changes to the area beneath the heading
bug will reduce the tendency to overcorrect. Limit pitch changes to 2 degrees
(approximately 400 feet/minimum on the VSI) for glide slope corrections. Avoid large
power corrections (unless required for excessively low or high airspeed).
7.31. Transition to Landing.
7.31.1. Objective. Safely transition from IMC to VMC to land the aircraft using visual
cues.
7.31.2. Description. Transition to landing begins when visual cues for the runway
environment are available. The transition from IMC to VMC is similar to the transition
during an ITO, except transition from the instruments to visual cues at the same rate as they
appear.
7.31.3. Procedures. See AFMAN 11-217, Volume 1, for detailed guidance.

7.31.3.1. Maintain instrument glide path or transition to a visual glide path for landing.
Use visual approach slope indicator (VASI) or other visual glide path guidance when
available.
7.31.3.2. Ensure adequate visual references (runway environment) are available before
starting transition to landing. Some weather phenomenon, such as ground fog, may
require missed approach even after initially breaking out from IMC to VMC.
7.31.3.3. Do not correct to visual glide path with a high sink rate, which may result in a
short or hard landing. See AFMAN 11-217, Volume 1, for further information on “duck-
unders” and landing illusions.
7.31.3.4. Thoroughly review the airport diagram (IAP). Pay particular attention to
runway lighting, runway dimensions, runway slope, and charted obstructions.
7.31.4. Technique. With the field in sight and the decision made to land, the pilot may slow
to 105 KIAS. If flaps landing are selected for landing, slow to 100 KIAS.
7.32. Circling Approach.
7.32.1. Objective. Safely maneuver to align with the landing runway.
7.32.2. Description. Visual flight maneuver used to align with runway if approach does not
meet requirements for a straight-in approach or an approach to a runway different than the
landing runway must be flown. Circling is performed with the runway environment in sight
at all times.
7.32.2.1. Airspeed - 120 KIAS recommended; 110 KIAS minimum while circling until
on a visual final.
7.32.2.2. Gear - Down.
7.32.2.3. Flaps - TO.
7.32.3. Procedure. See AFMAN 11-217, Volume 1, for detailed information.
7.32.3.1. Fly the instrument approach at 110 KIAS and accelerate to recommended
airspeed of 120 KIAS when commencing the circle or fly the entire instrument approach
and circle at recommended airspeed of 120 KIAS. In no case allow the aircraft to slow
below 110 KIAS during any portion of the circling maneuver. If visibility permits,
attempt to maintain lateral spacing that allows for a 30-degree bank turn to final, and
begin the base turn to allow for normal length final (approximately one-half mile).
Normally, fly the T-6 to Category B circling minimums based on its maneuvering
airspeed of 120 KIAS, however, a higher circling category may be selected to increase
circling radii as long as that category’s minima are observed. Do not exceed the obstacle
clearance distance of the selected circling category during the circling maneuver.
7.32.3.2. Landing flaps may be extended on base or final if landing distance is critical.
Descend from MDA when in position to intercept a normal glide path. Airspeed may be
reduced from 120 KIAS to approach speed appropriate for flap setting (110 KIAS flaps
UP; 105 KIAS flaps TO; 100 KIAS flaps landing) when transitioning to final.
7.32.4. Technique.
7.32.4.1. If electing to fly the circling approach at 120 KIAS, approximately 1 degree
nose low and 21% torque (remember “non-precision pitch and precision power”; see
Table 7.1) will hold 120 KIAS until the MDA. At the MDA, approximately 3 degrees
nose high and 40% power will hold level.
7.32.4.2. At circling MDA, visual cues for runway displacement appear considerably
different than those commonly used in the overhead pattern. Because of the lower
altitude, proper displacement on a circling approach appears to be much wider than for an
overhead pattern. A good visual reference for proper downwind spacing at 500 feet AGL
is wingtip on the landing runway.
7.32.4.3. Practice circling approaches at the MDA. However, under actual conditions,
increase altitude above the MDA as weather conditions permit, up to normal overhead
pattern altitude (1,000 feet AGL).
7.33. Missed Approach.
7.33.1. Objective. Safely discontinue an instrument approach and comply with published
procedures or ATC instructions.
7.33.2. Description. Climb away from the airfield similar to ITO. May be performed in
IMC with reference to instruments only, or may require transition to instruments (as in ITO).
See AFMAN 11-217, Volume 1, for missed approach guidance.
7.33.3. Procedure. Smoothly advance the PCL to MAX, set attitude to 10-15 degrees nose
high on the EADI, check VSI and altimeter to verify climb and raise gear and flaps. Once at
targeted pitch and between 140-180 KIAS, pitch and power may be reduced as necessary to
preclude excessive attitude and associated disorientation in IMC. If missed approach
instructions direct a climbing turn, accelerate to 140 KIAS (minimum) before turning. Ensure
that a minimum 200 feet per nautical mile climb gradient (or published, whichever is greater)
is met. Maintain 150-200 KIAS (or according to local directives) on vectors for an additional
approach. Maintain appropriate cruise airspeed if diversion is necessary.
7.34. Climbout.
7.34.1. Objective. Safely transition from departure leg to the radar pattern (for additional
instrument approaches) or continue the sortie on a departure procedure.
7.34.2. Description. The transition from a practice instrument approach to the radar pattern
or departure procedure. Similar to the applicable portions of an ITO.
7.34.3. Procedure. See ITO. Follow departure procedures if departing to the enroute
structure. Power may be reduced to control acceleration and climb rate if entering the radar
pattern for multiple instrument approaches; maintain 150-200 KIAS (or according to local
directives).
7.34.4. Technique. If not otherwise directed by ATC, local directives, or unusual
circumstances (weather, traffic, etc.), maintain 200 knots on radar downwind and slow to 150
knots on radar base.
Chapter 8
NAVIGATION
Section 8A—General
8.1. Introduction. Navigation training covers techniques and procedures used to fly from one
location to another. Additional topics such as use of unfamiliar airfields, decision making outside
the local area, task management, cockpit organization (complicated by charts and additional
FLIP), and VFR mission analysis are covered in this chapter. AFPAM 11-216, Air Navigation,
AETC TRSS Handout 11-1, and AFMAN 11-217 are primary sources for information on
navigation.
8.2. General . Mission preparation may begin several days before departure. Destinations and
routes may be selected any time in the planning process; however, some flight planning tasks,
such as wind computations, fuel calculations, and weather briefings, must be completed shortly
before departure. Note the distinction between IMC and IFR. IFR and VFR refer to rules and
procedures while IMC and VMC refer to conditions. VMC generally refers to the ability to fly
using references outside the aircraft while IMC generally refers to conditions where instruments
inside the cockpit are used as the primary references. Conditions must generally be VMC to fly
using VFR, but conditions can be either IMC or VMC to fly using IFR. Although there are
differences between IFR and VFR flight, there are common planning steps and tasks. The
following general guidelines apply to the planning and execution on any type of navigation
mission (for example, IFR, VFR, or VFR low level).
8.3. Mission Analysis.
8.3.1. Choosing a Destination. Basic considerations to determine if an airfield is acceptable
for use include runway length, servicing capability, command restrictions, operating hours,
and instrument approach availability. Strange fields are those with which the pilot is
unfamiliar and requires additional planning effort. There are several other significant
considerations for training missions. Excessive distance (time and (or) fuel required) can
preclude completion of required approach training. Weather conditions may not allow
completion of major training objectives (for example, VFR low level) or use of an otherwise
excellent airfield (weather below minimums). When significant weather is a factor (for
example, winter weather to the north), it is good technique to develop multiple plans, such as
a west option and an east option, for individual navigation missions or cross countries.
8.3.2. NOTAM. See FLIP, General Planning, for detailed information on the NOTAM
system. An initial scan of the NOTAMs can identify issues that eliminate potential
destinations from planning consideration and prevent wasted effort. Performing a flight path
search on the NOTAMs homepage will identify possible emergency airfields that may not be
used due to runway closure.
8.3.3. Airfield Suitability and Restrictions Report (ASRR). See AFI 11-202, Volume 3,
for detailed information about use of the ASRR. Though originally designed for larger
aircraft, the ASRR contains information about potential restrictions for T-6 operations and
information that will enhance general SA.
8.3.4. Weather. Actual and forecast weather conditions are a huge part in the planning of a
navigational sortie or cross country. Study long-range forecasts several days in advance to
determine the suitability of potential destinations and impact of weather on the probability of
meeting training objectives. AFI 11-202, Volume 3, lists authorized weather sources and
describes weather minimums. Check weather and winds for emergency fields along the route.
8.3.5. Flight Plan. There are several ways to input a flight plan into the ATC system (a
flight plan indicates aircraft type, aircrew, routing, airspeed, special handling requirements,
etc., for a planned mission). At military bases, the DD Form 175, Military Flight Plan, may
be completed and filed at base ops. This can be done in person, using a facsimile machine or
through a Web site. Flight plans may also be filed via telephone with a local flight service
station (for example, 1-800-WX-BRIEF). This is a convenient option for stopovers at civil
fields. Consult FLIP, General Planning, Chapter 4, for guidelines on completion of the DD
Form 175. Use “TEX2/G” as aircraft designator and TD code.
8.3.6. TOLD. Compute TOLD with the abbreviated checklist when off station.
8.3.7. Navigation Checklists. Most units have excellent navigation planning checklists and
(or) briefing guides that contain detailed information about the mission analysis process. A
common memory aid to ensure completion of major planning steps is WANTS.
8.3.7.1. W - Weather (departure, enroute, destination).
8.3.7.2. A - Activate flight plan (complete and file).
8.3.7.3. N - NOTAMs (check for destination and drop-in airfields).
8.3.7.4. T - TOLD (compute).
8.3.7.5. S - SID (review departure procedure); S – STAR (plan for destination).
8.4. Radio Procedures. Standard radio calls used at home station simplify communications and
reduce radio congestion in the highly regulated local flying environment. Outside the local area,
radio calls may not be as standardized, but efficient communication is still the goal. Note: using
VHF with civilian ATC outside the local area minimizes the chances of “stepping on” other
aircraft radio calls.
8.5. Task Management and (or) Cockpit Organization. The principles for instrument sorties
apply to navigation sorties (see paragraphs 7.5. & 7.6.); however, navigation sorties may be
more complex and require more organization. For example, a navigation sortie could include an
IFR portion to a VFR low level followed by VFR point-to-point navigation to the destination and
concluded with practice instrument approaches. In general, strive to find ways to get ahead and
prepare for upcoming tasks.
8.6. Ground Ops.
8.6.1. At strange fields, use caution for other transient aircraft. Use the airfield diagram
during taxi. Some civilian fields are not accustomed to operations with military aircraft. It is
the pilot’s responsibility to ensure the safety of civilian ground personnel.
8.6.2. After engine shutdown, complete the before-leaving aircraft checklist, and conduct a
thorough postflight inspection of the aircraft. Ensure transient maintenance personnel are
thoroughly familiar with all servicing requirements, as outlined in the flight crew checklist,
strange field procedures section. Stay with the aircraft until refueling is complete and ensure
the aircraft is properly secured.
8.6.3. Provide transient maintenance or FBO personnel with contact information in the event
that questions or unusual situations arise after leaving the aircraft. The aircrew is ultimately
responsible for the aircraft when off station. Even after careful preflight planning, unforeseen
circumstances may result in degraded transient servicing capability, such as absence of
proper servicing fluids and (or) equipment. If any doubt exists as to transient maintenance’s
ability to properly and safely service the aircraft, contact the home station before servicing
the aircraft.
8.6.4. Other off-station considerations include:
8.6.4.1. Before departing the aircraft, ensure at a minimum the main gear is chocked.
8.6.4.2. Before leaving base ops or the FBO, check the overnight and next day's weather.
If strong winds are in the forecast, triple chock the aircraft. Tie down ropes may also be
used to anchor the aircraft down. Section one of the flight manual states that, "wing and
tail points provide sufficient mooring in normal conditions. However, when windy or
extreme conditions are anticipated, the nose gear should also be secured." History has
shown that the parking brake system will bleed over time, and with strong winds at night,
a pilot may find their T-6 has moved, if not chocked.
8.6.4.3. If thunderstorms are forecast, attempt to hangar the aircraft.
8.6.4.4. Always have a ground observer and fire bottle available for engine starts.
8.6.4.5. Don’t allow a change in the off-station airfield environment to negatively affect
normal habit patterns. For example, the absence of ground personnel to confirm proper
configuration (i.e., T.O. flap setting, lights, panels, covers, etc.) is no excuse for lack of
checklist discipline in ensuring those items are accomplished.
Section 8B—IFR Navigation
8.7. Introduction. Missions conducted under IFR rely on NAVAIDs and aircraft
instrumentation for navigation, SA, and aircraft control. The enroute IFR structure is very
different from the local pattern, MOA, or stereo routes. Paragraphs 8.8. through 8.13. provide
guidelines for missions conducted under IFR.
8.8. Mission Analysis.
8.8.1. Choosing a Destination. The general considerations apply. A leg length of
approximately 300 miles allows for multiple approaches at the destination.
8.8.2. Weather. If IMC conditions are anticipated, give special attention to the weather
brief. Review weather minima and requirements in AFI 11-202, Volume 3, to determine
takeoff and landing minimums. Use caution for enroute hazards, such as embedded
thunderstorms, icing, and turbulence, especially if IMC is anticipated.
8.9. Route Planning.
8.9.1. Training sorties are typically flown on airways. GPS routing may also be used.
8.9.2. Determine cruising altitude based on leg length. As a guide, use 10 percent of the
distance for cruise altitude (for example, cruise at 15,000 feet MSL on a 150 NM leg).
8.9.3. When authorized for use, computerized tools (DUATS, PFPS/Falcon View, etc.) can
aid the planning process. Check the results for reasonability and accuracy before flight, as
bad input can lead to bad output.
8.9.4. The AF Form 70, Pilot’s Flight Plan and Flight Log, is an approved flight log
(according to AFI 11-202, Volume 3). Use of all columns on the AF Form 70 can help ensure
accurate time and fuel planning. Exact methodology for use of the AF Form 70 is technique.
Figure 8.1. shows a typical IFR leg from Randolph AFB TX to San Angelo TX.
8.9.5. AF Form 70 assumptions include:
8.9.5.1. As a starting point, use 50 pounds for start, taxi, and takeoff (STTO).
8.9.5.2. Use a double-entry climb calculation if field elevation is more than 5,000 feet.
8.9.5.3. Average TAS has a negligible effect on climb calculations.
8.9.5.4. Level-off distance approximately equals level off altitude (up to FL 250).
8.9.5.5. Use approximately 15 minutes and 100 pounds for initial penetration and
approach.
8.9.5.6. Use approximately 50 pounds and 10 minutes for subsequent approaches if
being vectored to final.
8.9.5.7. Track frequencies, NAVAIDs, and clearances in appropriate blocks.
Figure 8.1. AF Form 70 Example.
8.9.6. Review the approach plate to determine takeoff restrictions, for example, departure
procedure (Trouble T), SID, etc. Plan to use preferred routings, if applicable, to avoid
significant route changes when issued the clearance.
8.9.7. Review planned approaches during preflight planning.
8.9.8. If required, choose an alternate; use the same factors as when choosing a primary
location.
8.10. Ground Ops.
8.10.1. IFR clearance is generally received on a clearance delivery frequency (found on the
approach plate). The clearance should mirror what was filed on the DD Form 175; however,
clearances may be changed by ATC. The clearance can include, but is not limited to, routing,
heading after takeoff, altitude, departure frequency, squawk, etc.
8.10.2. Example radio calls.
8.10.2.1. “Peterson Clearance Delivery, Texan 69, IFR to Amarillo, ready to copy.”
8.10.2.2. “Texan 69, cleared as filed; on departure fly runway heading, climb and
maintain ten thousand, expect FL 310, 10 minutes after departure, departure frequency
120.5, squawk 3456.”
8.10.3. Review the airfield diagram before taxi request. Request progressive taxi instructions
if necessary (to receive specific directions on where and when to turn from parking spot to
the takeoff runway).
8.11. Departure. Review departure routing and altitude restrictions before takeoff. Set
NAVAIDs and GPS before takeoff. The departure routing and altitudes may change just before
takeoff or while on departure. An approach plate for the departure airfield should be readily
available and reviewed for critical details in case of emergency return. Solid planning increases
flexibility and ability to maintain SA when changes occur to the original plan.
8.12. Enroute.
8.12.1. Generally, the busiest portions of off-station sorties are from the clearance call to
level off and from descent to engine shutdown. Predictably, this is also where the majority of
safety incidents occur. There are less external demands during the enroute or cruise portion;
however, there is still a requirement to accomplish many tasks including required checklists,
analysis of fuel efficiency, and preparation for arrival. Sound task prioritization during the
enroute portion of the flight is essential to good training and successful completion of the
mission.
8.12.2. Without the cues associated with the local training environment, it is easy to forget
required in-flight checks. Stay busy and use memory aids, as necessary, to comply with all
requirements.
8.12.3. At level off, keep climb power until approaching the planned IAS, then set the
planned fuel flow to hold the IAS. Adjust the PCL as needed to maintain the mission planned
IAS. Accomplish a groundspeed check to determine the effects of winds and use the actual
fuel flow on the electronic instrument display (EID) to calculate fuels. GPS is the easiest,
most convenient way to determine groundspeed. Groundspeed can also be read off the EHSI
(if selected) when flying directly to or from a NAVAID. Alternatively, timing can be used to
calculate groundspeed when flying directly to or from a station if altitude is greater than the
range from the station. Simply note the DME change over one minute to determine
groundspeed in miles per minute. Use groundspeed and fuel flow to predict fuel at future
points on the route. Compare planned, updated (with groundspeed and fuel flow), and actual
fuel at these points. Significant deviations may require changes to the flight plan.
Modifications to the planned routing, altitude, winds, temperature, or excessive delays can
drastically change the actual fuels from the planned fuels.
8.12.4. Maintain positional awareness at all times with NAVAIDs, GPS, VFR chart, and
enroute chart. Periodically identify suitable emergency airfields. Use of the GPS nearest
function can be a valuable tool.
8.12.5. If an enroute descent is planned, determine the desired start-down point and attempt
to get an ATC clearance that matches the desired descent profile. (See planning technique,
paragraph 7.29.4.)
8.12.6. Prepare for arrival according to AFMAN 11-217, Volume 1. Pre-arrival tasks are the
same as for instrument sorties.
8.13. Arrival. See AFMAN 11-217, Volume 1, and Chapter 7 for detailed information about
IFR arrival (Figure 8.2).
Figure 8.2. Typical IFR Navigation Flight.
8.13.1. Navigation sorties typically terminate at other than the home field. Previous
experience at an airfield may simplify preparation for arrival. Likewise, arrival at a strange
field (neither pilot familiar) takes additional planning effort. From prior review, the pilot
should be familiar with airfield layout, approach lighting, type of glide path guidance, field
elevation, runway data, tower and ground control frequencies, etc. However, airfield
information must be reviewed before arrival and landing.
8.13.2. Match the planned arrival to the training objectives for the sortie. Some approach
procedures, that require extensive cruise at lower altitudes, may not be desirable because of
excessive fuel consumption. Coordinate requests for additional approaches as early as
possible with ATC (approach control) and be flexible.
Section 8C—VFR Navigation
8.14. Introduction. VFR navigation can be more demanding than IFR navigation. Compared to
IFR, the VFR pilot has more freedom to maneuver but also has more responsibility to maintain
SA and safe separation from aircraft and obstacles. Generally speaking, under VFR rules, pilots
are their own clearance authority and are responsible for weather updates, traffic avoidance and
separation, route planning, terrain avoidance, and airfield suitability. The goal of VFR navigation
training is to get from one point to another by dead-reckoning (DR) techniques and procedures.
8.15. Mission Analysis. Mission success starts with thorough mission analysis. Planning for
VFR missions can be time-consuming; it is good technique to start at least one day prior to the
mission. Local IFGs normally contain detailed step-by-step guidance.
8.15.1. Choosing a Destination. A leg length of approximately 200-250 miles allows
completion of additional training requirements (ELP at non-towered airfields, instrument
approaches, etc.) enroute or at the destination.
8.15.2. Weather. VFR missions require better weather than IFR missions (See AFI 11-202,
Volume 3). In general, the minimum weather to takeoff and land under VFR is a 1,500-feet
ceiling and 3 miles visibility. Additionally, enroute weather must allow compliance with
minimum VFR cloud clearance requirements and completion of the mission at VFR altitudes.
At times, weather conditions may not allow the flight to be accomplished solely under VFR.
In this case, a composite flight plan with VFR and IFR portions must be filed.
8.16. Route Planning.
8.16.1. Chart Selection. Choose a chart that gives the most usable detail for the planned
altitude, distance, and speed. In general, use a tactical pilotage chart (TPC) (1:500,000) or
VFR sectional.
8.16.2. Start Point. It is good technique to pick a route start point outside the terminal area.
Vectors or traffic conflicts may preclude an immediate turn on course. Also, airspeed and
altitude should be stabilized before DR begins.
8.16.3. Chart Construction. DR is flight on a calculated course for a specified airspeed and
time. Translated to pilot actions, it means flying a specific groundspeed on a specific heading
for a specific time. A properly prepared chart provides enough information to ensure safe DR
in-flight navigation. As a minimum, circle turn points, draw the route between points, insert
timing marks, and compute magnetic headings. Including other information, such as fuel
calculations, planning factors, and airfield data, on the chart may eliminate the requirement
for another type of fuel log (for example, AF IMT 70).
8.16.4. Chart Marking. Consider highlighting the chart or annotating it with the following
information:
8.16.4.1. Planned fuels.
8.16.4.2. Emergency divert airfields and tower frequencies.
8.16.4.3. NAVAIDs for additional SA.
8.16.4.4. Obstacles.
8.16.4.5. Spot elevations.
8.16.4.6. Air route traffic control center frequencies.
8.16.4.7. Restricted airspace.
8.16.4.8. Class B or Class C airspace.
8.16.4.9. Expected frequencies (approach control, tower, etc.).

8.17. VFR Departure. VFR departures differ significantly from IFR departures. Although a
flight plan is still required (IAW AFI 11-202, vol 3), an ATC clearance for the route of flight is
not required. A radio call to ground or tower controllers stating direction of flight and initial
altitude may be sufficient before VFR departure. However, in busy areas, an initial heading and
altitude may be assigned for traffic separation.
8.18. Flying the Route.
8.18.1. Flight Following. Flight following is a service provided at ATC’s discretion (for
example, workload permitting) under which advisories are given for traffic conflicts along
the route of flight. These advisories do not include vectors to eliminate conflicts unless
requested. Flight following does not change the pilot’s responsibility to see and avoid other
traffic; however, it is an excellent tool used to help prevent a midair collision. Request flight
following with ATC. Expect assignment of a transponder code with flight following.
8.18.2. Route Entry. The first few minutes of a VFR leg can be very challenging. Many
tasks must be performed including getting established on the desired route at the appropriate
altitude and airspeed. Additional tasks include in-flight checks, communication with ATC,
clearing, and finding the first point. Proper planning and a solid review of the planned
departure ground track make route entry tasks more manageable. Backup DR navigation with
NAVAIDs, including GPS.
8.18.3. Route Basics. At cruise altitude, set power to maintain the preplanned airspeed and
check groundspeed. Compare actual and planned groundspeed to determine the effect of
winds. At preplanned points (typically turn points), compare actual fuel burned and elapsed
time to planned data. Significant deviations may require changes to the flight plan. Flying the
correct groundspeed, on the correct heading, and for the correct amount of time is primarily
accomplished through the “Clock-to-Map-to-Ground” method. First, look at the clock to
determine time. Second, look at the map to determine where you should be on the map,
(based on timing) and what visual cues should be in view 30 seconds to one minute in front
of the aircraft. Last, look at the ground and visually acquire the predetermined ground
references. Do not reverse the order of “Clock-to-Map-to-Ground.” Reversing the order
generally leads to poor SA.
8.18.4. In-flight Checks on the Route. Without the cues associated with the local training
environment, it is easy to forget required in-flight checks. It is common practice to mark the
chart with preplanned points to accomplishing the required in-flight checks. For example,
route entry might include an annotation for the level-off check or selected turn points might
be marked with reminders for an ops check.
8.18.5. VFR Arrival. VFR arrival at an unfamiliar airfield can be challenging. Factors such
as runway length, runway alignment, terrain features, airspace classification, traffic
congestion, and weather can impact arrival. As with every other aspect of navigation, prior
planning and organization is essential to success. One common technique is to write arrival
information, such as frequencies, pattern information, or airfield restrictions, near the
destination airfield on the VFR chart.
8.19.1. Lost Procedures. GPS and VOR or DME can be useful in maintaining or regaining
positional awareness. If lost, follow the three “Cs”:
8.19.1.1. C limb - Visibility, fuel efficiency, and radio range improve.
8.19.1.2. C onserve - Slow to maximum endurance airspeed.
8.19.1.3. C onfess - Call ATC (help with current position, get a vector, etc.).
8.19.2. Weather Along the Route. Weather may not be as forecast along the route and
continued flight under VFR may not be possible. Do not continue when conditions
deteriorate and proper cloud and terrain clearance cannot be maintained. When unable to
maintain the planned route of flight under VFR:
8.19.2.1. Alter the course to maintain VFR to the destination.
8.19.2.2. Obtain an IFR clearance and continue to the destination.
8.19.2.3. Maintain VFR and land at an alternate destination.
8.19.3. Emergency. Constant positional awareness is critical to successful recovery if an
aircraft emergency prevents continued flight to the planned destination. Two common
techniques to increase SA and reduce workload in the event of an emergency are:
8.19.3.1. Circle emergency airfields in red circle. Annotate tower or common traffic
advisory frequency frequencies.
8.19.3.2. Use EHSI (airports displayed) or nearest function on the GPS to provide
constant display of airfields near the route of flight.
Section 8D—Low-Level VFR Navigation
8.20. Introduction. Only about 10 percent of USAF flight is conducted at low level, yet over
half of total mishaps occur there. Flying high performance aircraft on low-level missions
significantly increases exposure to risk. Reaction times and margin for error are greatly reduced
when operating close to the ground. Thorough preflight planning and preflight briefings are
imperative for safe and effective low-level training. In the T-6, operation at or below 3,000 feet
AGL is considered low-level navigation. The goal of low-level navigation is to fly a selected
ground track and arrive at a designated time over target.
8.21. Mission Analysis. A successful low-level mission begins with meticulous and extensive
mission analysis. The first step is to become familiar with route requirements and all applicable
guidance (FLIP, Area Planning/1B [AP/1B], and chart update manual [CHUM]). Select a
groundspeed that is easily converted to miles per minute but allows for airspeed corrections (180,
210, or 240 knots GS). Normally, plan to use 210 knots GS. Planned airspeed below 160 KIAS is
not recommended due to decreased maneuverability. Check the forecast weather for the route.
Use the forecast temperature, pressure altitude, and winds to compute indicated airspeeds. Use
flight manual charts to determine the fuel flow for the planned true airspeed. See AETC TRSS
Handout 11-1 for detailed information on mission analysis calculations. It is absolutely critical to
schedule the route and call the scheduling agencies for all crossing or conflicting routes to reduce
midair collision risk.
8.21.1. Chart Preparation. Use a 1:500,000-scale map (TPC or sectional chart) to fly low-
level MTRs or VFR legs below 5,000 feet AGL. A 1:250,000-scale map (joint operations
graphic [JOG]) may also be used for route study and on short low-level routes; however,
JOG charts are normally too cumbersome for use in the aircraft. Each pilot in the aircraft
should have an identical chart.
8.21.1.1. Draw the route corridor, and then update the chart with the latest information
from the CHUM. This step is imperative for flight safety. Next, identify all significant
obstacles and high terrain within the route corridor.
8.21.1.2. Check FLIP for mandatory turn points. Select easily recognizable points.
Normally, it is preferable to use natural features to identify the target and turn points, as
they seldom change. Choose turn points for uniqueness, vertical development, funneling
features, and surrounding terrain. Avoid features that may be hidden by high terrain or
trees. When picking turn points, consider the turning room required to remain within
route corridor. Remain clear of any FLIP-directed, noise-sensitive areas or airfields.
8.21.1.3. Choose the target first, then the initial point (IP), turn points, and entry point.
Choose an IP about 1 to 3 minutes from the target. An IP is an easily identifiable point
used to fine tune navigation and increase the probability of target acquisition. Minimize
the heading change at the IP in order to increase the accuracy of the IP-to-target leg. The
start point must be within the route corridor, but it is not necessarily the published entry
point.
8.21.1.4. Begin timing measurement at the route start point. Timing runs continuously
from start point to target.
8.21.1.5. A thorough and detailed chart study is an essential part of mission analysis. A
JOG may help analyze both man-made and natural features. Visualize key points on the
route and the general features around them to minimize the requirement for constant
reference to the map.
8.21.2. Chart Marking. In addition to the information recommended in AETC Handout,
Navigation for Pilot Training, the following should be included on the map:
8.21.2.1. The MTR corridor from entry to the planned exit point.
8.21.2.2. Route lines and circles around turn points. Do not obscure critical details with
the black line or turn circles.
8.21.2.3. Timing lines along the planned ground track. Marks at a 1- or 2-minute interval
are sufficient.
8.21.2.4. Information boxes aligned with each leg that include heading, leg time, and any
other relevant information.
8.21.2.5. Highlighted obstacles or high terrain along the route.
8.21.2.6. Fuel calculations. Calculate average fuel flow using tab data. Determine fuel
flow per minute by dividing pounds per hour (pph) by 60 and round up to the nearest
whole number to make in-flight calculations easier. (Example: Tab data indicates a fuel
flow of 450 pph, which is 7.5 pounds (lb) lb/minute, so use 8 lb/minute for in-flight
updates and (or) predictions.)
8.21.2.7. Continuation fuel for the start point and other selected points along the route.
Continuation fuel is the minimum fuel required to complete the route at planned speeds
and altitudes and to return to base with required fuel reserves.
8.21.2.8. Bingo fuel from the most distant point on the route to the recovery airfield.
Bingo fuel is calculated for the most practical means of recovery (route and altitude).
Consider factors such as cloud ceilings, winds, freezing level, and forecast icing.
8.21.2.9. Compute an Emergency Route Abort Altitude (ERAA) for the planned portion
of the low-level route and clearly annotate it for easy in-flight reference. Compute this
altitude to provide 1,000 feet (2,000 feet “mountainous”[FLIP]) clearance above the
highest obstacle within 25 nm either side of the route.
8.21.2.10. Circles around emergency and alternate airfield locations. Additional
information as necessary to expedite emergency recovery or divert.
8.21.2.11. Route and timing to and from the low-level route.
8.22. Scheduling and Filing. Schedule MTRs with the scheduling agency. Deconflict entry
times with other scheduled users. See FLIP for filing instructions.
8.23. Briefing. A thorough brief is essential and ensures awareness of possible hazards (for
example, crossing routes, towers, birds, terrain) and other potential threats in the low-level
environment. A solid briefing also reviews sortie objectives and prepares the crew for effective
training.
8.23.1. Detailed study must precede the brief. Recognize features that identify turn points
and other update points. Review route hazards and restrictions. Calculate planned altitudes.
Review emergency recovery options. Many more details may be studied and typically time
required for preparation is always greater than time available.
8.23.2. Place emphasis on low-level emergencies and recovery contingencies. Use caution to
avoid spending excessive time on the route briefing; extensive route study is understood. The
briefing is not a substitute for chart study. Likewise, the route may be briefed after
completion of briefing guide items.
8.24. Flying the Route. With proper planning, DR (flying accurate headings and airspeeds)
should result in a ground track close to black line and accurate timing.
8.24.1. Departure. Attempt to fly planned route to the entry point. If the route is a long
distance away or IFR flight is required to the entry point, identify a point short of the entry
point from which DR can begin. The point may be visual, a GPS waypoint, or a VOR radial
or DME. The easier it is to identify, the more accurate DR navigation will be.
8.24.2. Route Entry. Before the entry point, accomplish a descent check and compare the
EHSI heading with the magnetic compass to verify accuracy. Prepare the clock and review
the hack procedure with the other pilot. Identify the entry point as early as possible.
Maneuver to hit the entry point on the correct first leg heading. Use “ready, ready, hack” to
initiate timing. Regardless of the timing or cadence of the calls, “hack” always follows the
second “ready.” Inside the route structure, accelerate to planned airspeed.
8.24.3. Route Basics. Sound task prioritization and an organized approach are essential to a
successful low-level mission. On the route, there are three distinct mission elements that
must be integrated. These mission elements, listed in priority order, follow:
8.24.3.1. Safety. Stay clear of terrain, obstacles, and other aircraft. Focus on terrain
clearance is most critical during turns. While turns only make up 10 percent of flying in
the low-level environment, they make up about 50 percent of the accidents.
8.24.3.2. Systems Operation. Perform required checks. Monitor systems and fuel
consumption.
8.24.3.3. Navigation. Follow route and identify required points. Meet timing goal.
8.24.3.4. Mission. Pay sufficient attention to safety and systems operation to ensure
survival; these needs must be met first. Therefore, accomplish navigation with the
attention capacity remaining after survival priorities are maintained. The challenge is to
work efficiently, so sufficient time is available for success in all mission elements.
8.24.3.5. Priority. The highest priority task is clearing the ground, obstacles, other
aircraft, and birds. The neutral position during low level where 80 percent of time should
be spent is “head up and eyes out.” Always return focus to clearing after momentary
diversions to accomplish other tasks or subtasks. Bring the map up to eye level to read it;
don’t move the eyes and (or) head down. During turns, fly the aircraft and clear; do
nothing else.
8.24.3.6. Fly Accurately. Successful DR is based on solid planning and accurate flying.
Failure to maintain heading and airspeed can corrupt the entire process. Visual navigation
with the chart is based on being close to the expected position.
8.24.3.7. Trim the Aircraft. Trim the aircraft and set the proper IAS or power setting
for the planned groundspeed. A stable platform makes navigation much easier.
8.24.3.8. Clock-to-Map-to-Ground. Use the “Clock-to-Map-to-Ground” method as
previously described in this chapter to maintain course and timing.
8.24.3.9. Identify. Start trying to identify turn points about 1 to 1-1/2 minutes out
(approximately 3.5 to 5 miles at 210 knots GS). If possible, verify the point with multiple
features. If the point is not identified, turn on time. Turns at low altitude require extra
emphasis on clearing and aircraft control. Clear in the direction of the turn. Clearing is
enhanced by selection of a visual rollout reference; turn to the visual reference, then fine
tune heading.
8.24.4. Big Picture. Keep an eye on the big picture. Use major terrain features (mountains,
lakes, obvious geological formations, etc.) to improve positional awareness.
8.24.5. Altitude Control. Visually assess the height above the ground. Occasionally cross-
check the altimeter against the known elevation of towers, lakes, airfields, and peak
elevations. Visual navigation is easier as altitude increases. When in doubt, climb early if the
route structure allows it.
8.24.6. Heading Control. Pick a ground reference in the distance and fly to it. Set the
heading bug on the wind-corrected heading. ARC mode on the EHSI can be helpful. Heading
deviations occur often during low level (obstacle avoidance, poor wind analysis, etc.). One
method to correct to course is to aim for a distant feature on the route. Landmarks that
parallel the route or funnel toward the route (roads, rivers, drainage patterns, etc.) are also
useful. See Navigation for Pilot Training for course correction methods based on the 60-to-1
rule. At 210 knots GS, a heading change of 17 degrees held for 1 minute causes a 1-mile
course shift.
8.24.7. Timing. Accurate DR relies on a good clock “hack” started at the actual start point.
Features perpendicular to the ground track, such as roads, rivers, power lines, and pipelines,
are good timing update points. For every second early or late, increase or decrease indicated
airspeed by 1 knot, and hold that change for the number of minutes equal to the NMs per
minute you are flying. For example, if flying at 210 knots GS (3.5 miles per minute) and 10
seconds late, increase indicated airspeed by 10 KIAS and hold for 3.5 minutes.
8.24.8. In-flight Checks. Perform normal in-flight checks during low-level missions.
Compare actual fuel to planned fuel. Do not perform checks during turns. Primary techniques
to update required items before or after turn points include the “SHAFT” check or a variation
of the “six Ts”:
8.24.8.1. SHAFT.
8.24.8.1.1. S - Speed for new leg.
8.24.8.1.2. H – Heading for new.
8.24.8.1.3. A - Altitude for new leg.
8.24.8.1.4. F - Fuel at turn point. Compare to plan.
8.24.8.1.5. T - Timing at turn point. Compare to plan, determine correction/Threats
for new leg.
8.24.8.2. Six Ts.
8.24.8.2.1. T - Time ahead or behind.
8.24.8.2.2. T - Turn to specific heading for new leg.
8.24.8.2.3. T - Torque set to hold desired airspeed, check fuel, and fuel flow.
8.24.8.2.4. T - Twist heading bug or course arrow to proper heading.
8.24.8.2.5. T - Track course centerline at desired altitude.
8.24.8.2.6. T – Threats for new leg/Talk if at a required reporting point.
8.24.9. Route Exit and Recovery. Comply with FLIP, AP/1B, local procedures, and ATC
instructions. Perform in-flight checks. Prepare for training enroute or at destination.
8.25.1. Emergencies. The first reaction to any emergency encountered at low level is to
abort the route and climb as high as necessary (at least to the ERAA) to safely analyze the
situation.
8.25.2. Engine Malfunctions. If the engine fails on a low-level MTR, recovery is unlikely
unless a suitable landing field is within approximately 3 miles. Normally, airfields within an
arc circumscribed by the wingtips can be reached with an immediate turn and climb in the
direction of the airfield. Map study for potential emergency diverts before the mission will
greatly enhance chances for success. A zoom from 210 knots GS gains approximately 1,000
feet. Do not delay ejection to attempt an air start below 2,000 AGL or if no airfields are
within engine-out range.
8.25.3. Route Aborts. Route aborts occur for various reasons (insufficient fuel to complete
the route, aircraft malfunction, bird hazards, and weather). Low-altitude flight increases the
danger of distraction and complicates recovery. Use the map, GPS, and NAVAIDs to
maintain positional awareness or to find the nearest suitable recovery airfield. After aborting
the route, do not re-enter.
8.25.3.1. VMC. Maintain safe separation from the terrain, comply with VFR altitude
restrictions (if possible), squawk an appropriate transponder code, maintain VMC, and
attempt contact with a controlling agency, if required.
8.25.3.2. IMC. An abort into IMC is an emergency. Execute an immediate climb to the
emergency route abort altitude (minimum). Attempt contact with the appropriate ATC
agency. Fly the proper VFR altitude until an IFR clearance is received.
Chapter 9
TWO-SHIP FORMATION
Section 9A—General
9.1. Introduction.
9.1.1. Purpose. The primary purpose of flying formation is mutual support. Formation
skills and procedures are intended to turn the potential liability of two aircraft flying close
together into the benefit of mutual support, but only through precise compliance with the
obligations of the “number 1” and “number 2” aircraft, as presented in this chapter.
Formation, more than any other type of flying, builds confidence, develops teamwork,
teaches self-discipline, and promotes the proper application of aggressiveness to military
flying. While the dynamics of working with and being responsible for another aircraft are
new, the maneuvers are not. Formation maneuvering is an extension and combination of
skills learned in other categories.
9.1.2. Flight Discipline. Flight discipline requires an in-depth knowledge of flight rules,
unit standards, and the procedures in this manual. Additionally, it requires strict adherence to
the plan given in the preflight brief and any real-time alterations directed by number 1 during
flight. It begins with mission preparation and continues through briefing, ground ops, flight,
and debrief. Number 2 must speak up rather than allow the flight to enter an unsafe or
unauthorized situation. If the directed tasks are beyond number 2’s ability, he or she must
immediately inform number 1. Flight discipline means flying in the proper parameters for the
formation position directed by the flight lead with no tolerance for remaining out of position.
As number 2, always strive to fly within the proper formation position parameters. As
number 1, correct any wingman deviations immediately by directing number 2 to the proper
position if appropriate corrections are not being made. Number 2 will query number 1
immediately if unsure of assigned position. Uncompromising flight discipline is absolutely
essential for successful mission execution.
9.1.3. Aggressiveness. Aggressiveness in formation flying is a state of mind, an attitude not
to be confused with the speed of flight control movement. As number 1, thinking ahead of
the aircraft and profile while anticipating the need for changes and adjustments before they
actually occur is an indication of the proper aggressive attitude for number 1. As number 2,
correcting for positional deviations while mentally anticipating the next phase of flight or
maneuver indicates proper aggressiveness. Do not act until directed by number 1. A smooth
and timely response to number 1’s directives demonstrates the proper aggressive attitude for
number 2.
Section 9B—Formation Missions
9.2. Introduction. This section contains general concepts applicable to all formation missions.
9.3. Responsibilities.
9.3.1. Flight Lead. The flight lead is ultimately responsible for the safe and effective
conduct of the mission. This position gives both the authority and the responsibility of
ensuring mission success to one individual who will be clearly identified prior to the mission.
The flight lead is responsible for the planning, briefing, execution, and debriefing of the
flight. The flight lead may delegate some or all of these mission elements but retains overall
responsibility. The flight lead must focus on mission accomplishment, achievement of
objectives, and safety. Consideration of the capabilities and experience levels of all flight
members will help the flight lead plan a mission that optimizes training, and ensures
accomplishment of objectives. The designated flight lead does not change during a mission
under normal circumstances.
9.3.1.1. NAV Lead. This may be used when the flight lead wants the wingman to
navigate and clear. The flight lead will fly the wing position, deconflict within the flight,
and keep the radios (for example, battle damage [BD] check).
9.3.1.2. Administrative (Admin) Lead. This is used to pass lead responsibilities to
another member of the flight. The admin lead is expected to run all aspects of the profile
to include navigating, managing the radios, and making changes to the profile if external
conditions dictate. However, the flight lead still retains ultimate authority for the
formation.
9.3.2. Number 1 and Number 2. Within a two-ship formation (also referred to as an
element), there are two distinct roles with well-defined responsibilities: number 1 and
number 2. As described in the preceding paragraph, the designated flight lead does not
change during the mission, however to enhance training opportunities, numbers 1 and 2 will
often swap formation positions during a sortie. The mutually understood procedures,
standards, and briefed tasks form a contract between number 1 and number 2 that results in a
safe operating environment. (Note: Do not confuse the terms “flight lead” and “number 1”;
they are not the same.)
9.3.2.1. Number 1. Number 1 is responsible for executing mission elements while in
flight. Number 1’s top priorities include clearing for the formation, planning, and
monitoring number 2. Plan all maneuvers to keep the flight well within the assigned
working airspace. Use power to manage energy in a manner similar to contact flying.
High performance and high-G maneuvers require smooth and deliberate control inputs to
keep number 2 from exceeding G limitations. Monitor number 2 to ensure the correct
position before the next maneuver. Before directing a maneuver, always consider number
2’s position and ability to safely perform such a maneuver. Execute each maneuver
smoothly, allowing number 2 to maintain position without undue difficulty. It is
appropriate to fly safely with minor excursions from perfect performance parameters than
to be overly concerned with smoothness and compromise safety. Basic number 1
responsibilities include:
9.3.2.1.1. Clear for the Formation. Maneuver the formation away from other
aircraft and maintain a safe altitude above the ground or any obstacles.
9.3.2.1.2. Plan Ahead of the Aircraft. Altering the profile and (or) maneuvers as
appropriate and ensure fuel and time are used judiciously to accomplish mission and
training objectives.
9.3.2.1.3. Monitor Number 2. Ensure number 2 is properly maintaining the
assigned position. This also includes assessing parameters during maneuvers and
ensuring number 2 is in a safe position prior to executing a new maneuver.

Furthermore, this includes ensuring in-flight checks are completed by the entire
formation in a timely manner.
9.3.2.1.4. Navigation. Ensure the formation is at the proper altitude, airspeed, and
position relative to NAVAIDs, routing, instrument approaches, obstacles, airfields,
etc.
9.3.2.1.5. Communication. Transmit and receive information for the formation. To
the air traffic controller, a formation is treated as a single entity with a single voice:
number 1. Unless prebriefed or included in unit standards, radio frequencies will not
be changed unless directed by number 1.
9.3.2.2. Number 2. Number 2’s primary responsibility is to maintain flight path
deconfliction and proper position as directed by number 1. This includes providing
mutual support and maintaining formation integrity by executing the plan as briefed, and
accomplishing the tasks as directed by number 1 without compromising safety. Number
2’s top priorities include flight path deconfliction, maintaining proper position relative to
number 1, and executing additional tasks as directed by number 1. During initial stages of
formation skill development, number 2 will focus almost entirely on deconfliction and
position maintenance. Use all of number 1’s aircraft as a reference; do not focus on just
one spot. As skill at maintaining proper position improves, other lower priorities (like
clearing for the formation by scanning the area around and beyond number 1) may be
cross-checked but never at the expense of flight path deconfliction and proper position.
Basic wingman responsibilities include:
9.3.2.2.1. Do Not Hit Number 1. Flight path deconfliction is paramount. Unless
number 2 has called “blind”, number 2 is responsible to deconflict flight paths and
prevent a collision.
9.3.2.2.2. Keep Number 1 in Sight. Collisions within formations often occur when
number 2 has lost sight of number 1. Hitting number 1 is much less likely when
number 2 can see number 1. Losing sight is not uncommon and is only a problem if
number 2 fails to call “blind” with their altitude (this concept will be described later
in this chapter).
9.3.2.2.3. Be in Position and on Frequency. This is commonly referred to as
“being there.” If number 2 is in position and on frequency, it is much easier to keep
number 1 in sight and for number 1 to monitor number 2. Being in position is also a
requirement for mission accomplishment.
9.3.2.2.4. Clear for the Formation. Number 2 is able to clear quadrants that are
impossible for lead such as number 1’s 6 o’clock. Number 1 should put number 2 in
route or fighting wing, as appropriate, whenever possible as it allows number 2 to
clear more effectively.
9.3.2.2.5. Back Up Number 1. A good wingman is ready to take the lead at a
moment’s notice to accomplish any tasks assigned by lead. Number 2 should strive to
actively monitor navigation, communication, fuel state, mission accomplishment, etc.
When number 2 is able to consistently back up number 1, it usually shows a readiness
to become a flight lead. Never let these duties interfere with the higher priority
responsibilities. If clearing, being in position or keeping lead in sight is degraded by

“backing up lead,” immediately reprioritize in the order shown above.
9.3.3. Collision Avoidance.
9.3.3.1. Although numbers 1 and 2 are both responsible for adequate separation,
generally number 2 has primary responsibility for flight path deconfliction within the
element unless number 2 is unable to maintain visual. In that case, number 2 conveys a
blind status to number. This responsibility does not transfer to number 1 unless number 2
calls “blind.” See paragraph 9.16. for further information on blind scenarios.
9.3.3.2. Although not number 1’s primary responsibility when number 2 is visual,
number 1 is still expected to monitor number 2. Periodic cross-check of number 2’s
position will ensure that number 1 does not execute a maneuver that will compromise
safety should number 2 be out of position.
9.3.3.3. The following factors contribute significantly to the potential for a midair
collision:
9.3.3.3.1. Failure of number 1 to properly clear or visually monitor number 2 during
a critical phase of flight, such as a rejoin or the extended trail (ET) exercise. Number
1 must monitor number 2, either directly or with the mirrors. Number 1 must be
directive or take evasive action if number 2 loses sight. If number 1 loses sight and is
uncertain of number 2’s position, query number 2 by requesting “posit” (“Texan 2,
posit”). The “posit” call is a question as to the position of number 2 relative to
number 1. Number 2 responds with his position as in the example: “Texan 2, 5
o’clock, low, 500 feet”.
9.3.3.3.2. Failure of number 2 to execute lost wingman procedures promptly and
correctly if visual contact is lost in IMC. In IMC, if number 2 cannot maintain the
close formation position (hereafter referred to as “fingertip” and specifically defined
in paragraph 9.21.), using normal visual references, or loses sight of number 1,
initiate appropriate lost wingman procedures as described in this manual.
9.3.3.3.3. Failure to recognize excessive overtake. During rejoins, compare actual
airspeed with the directed airspeed. Use power and (or) speed brake as necessary.
Number 1 should direct an overshoot or breakout if necessary.
9.3.3.3.4. Failure to maintain lateral or vertical separation. For turning or straight-
ahead rejoins, number 2 must maintain lateral or vertical separation until closure rates
are under control and stabilized in route.
9.3.3.3.5. Failure to consider the effects of wingtip vortices. Number 2 may
encounter vortices when maneuvering too close to number 1. Control difficulties
associated with wingtip vortices are very dangerous. Fly within the parameters
described in this chapter to avoid them. If encountered, control the aircraft, maneuver
away from number 1 or perform a break out as necessary.
9.3.4. Call Signs.
9.3.4.1. Aircrew of each aircraft in the formation will be assigned a call sign that has a
unique word prefix and a two-digit numeric suffix. For example, Texan 11 (pronounced
“Texan one-one”) and Texan 12 would be members of Texan 11 flight. No two airborne
formations should have the same word prefix in their call sign.
9.3.4.2. During the preflight briefing, the designated flight lead will be given the call
sign that ends in 1, and the other flight member will be given the call sign that ends in 2.
Under normal circumstances, if the formation breaks up, the aircraft will assume the call
signs given in the preflight briefing.
9.3.4.3. All radio calls to an agency outside the formation should begin with the full call
sign which includes the word prefix and the double-digit suffix; for example, “Texan 11
level, one-five thousand.” When directing other members of the flight, it is also common
to use the full word prefix and single digit suffix of their position in the flight, for
example, “Texan 2, break out.” When immediately responding to an in-flight directive,
number 2 may simply use “2” to predicate or concisely answer radio transmissions. For
example, number 2 simply responds to the directive to breakout with: “2.”
9.3.5. Radio Discipline.
9.3.5.1. Clear, concise, correct communications are a good indicator of flight discipline.
Minimize and combine radio calls on common-use frequencies to reduce radio
congestion. Unless otherwise briefed or directed, when communicating with agencies
outside the formation, number 1 will speak for the flight until the formation splits up.
9.3.5.2. Number 1 owns the radios; which means number 2 will only change frequencies
when directed by number 1 or when written unit standards dictate. If number 1 uses the
term “go” for a frequency change, number 2 will acknowledge before changing the
frequency (for example, “Texan, 11 go channel 5”; acknowledged with “ 2”). If number 1
uses the term “push,” number 2 should change to the new frequency without
acknowledging (“Texan 11, push channel 5”; no acknowledgment). Number 1 adds the
suffix “victor” for the VHF radio calls (for example, “Texan 11, push channel 2 victor”).
9.3.5.3. If number 1 sends number 2 to the wrong frequency, number 2 should go to that
frequency and wait. Number 1 will get number 2 on the proper frequency either using the
radio or using visual signals. Number 2 should never change frequencies without being
directed by number 1 or written unit standards, and number 2 should not go hunting for
number 1 (if number 1 and number 2 end up on different frequencies).
9.3.5.4. When in fingertip formation, wingmen should automatically move to the route
position when number 1 directs a channel change, and they will return to fingertip after
being checked in on the new frequency. If in a position wider than fingertip, wingmen
will remain in that position unless directed otherwise by number 1. If in IMC, wingmen
will maintain fingertip spacing and use the crew concept to accomplish frequency
changes. (The PF talks on the radio and the PNF accomplishes the frequency change.) If
solo in IMC, change the frequency when workload permits. Wait until VMC, if
necessary, and use the discrete frequency to communicate within the formation.
9.3.5.5. When filling the number 1 position, do not use the term “lead” when referring to
own ship parameters. Use “one,” (for example, “Texan, ops check, one is 600, 4 Gs”).
The only time the term “lead” should be used over the radio is when executing a lead
change (for example, “Texan 2, you have the lead on the right”).
9.3.5.6. Wingmen will normally respond to all directive calls unless briefed otherwise or
if the action is obvious. If a radio call is unclear, number 2 will query number 1.
9.3.5.7. For traffic calls, transmit call sign, traffic direction (left or right), clock position,
elevation (low, level, or high), and an approximate distance. For example, number 2
obtains visual contact with a potential traffic conflict: “Texan 1, traffic right, 2 o’clock, 3
miles, slightly high.”
9.3.5.8. Military aviators use brevity code words to achieve clear, concise, correct, and
effective communication. These code words are listed and defined in AFTTP(I) 3-2.5,
Multiservice Brevity Codes. Common brevity code words which aid in collision
avoidance include blind, visual, no joy, tally ho, and padlocked. When referring to
aircraft within the formation, use the terminology blind (lack of visual contact) or visual
(positive visual contact) as appropriate. When referring to aircraft outside of the
formation, use the terminology no joy (lack of visual contact) or tally ho (positive visual
contact). Padlocked indicates that the pilot cannot take his or her eyes off an aircraft or
ground object without losing sight of that aircraft or object.
9.4. Visual Signals.
9.4.1. Objective. Relay information between flight members or direct maneuvers.
9.4.2. Description. Visual signals are used when radio transmissions are inappropriate or
difficult to make. Visual signals are described in AFI 11-205, Aircraft Cockpit and
Formation Flight Signals, and this manual.
9.4.3. Procedure. As number 2, acknowledge with a head nod when number 1 gives a
signal. If unsure of a signal, number 2 should not acknowledge or change position. Number 1
repeats the signal until an acknowledgment is received. Use the radio, if necessary, to
immediately clear up any confusion. Only the pilot at the controls will give visual signals to
another aircraft or acknowledge signals from another aircraft in the formation. Visual signals
must be clear, appropriate, and proportional to range. For example, a slight wing rock to
reform to fingertip from two-ship-width route versus a large wing rock to signal a reform
from a 500-foot route. Brief any nonstandard visual signals before they are used.
9.5. In-flight Checks.
9.5.1. Objective. Ensure the flight is making periodic checks of aircraft systems during
departure, in special use airspace, while maneuvering, and on recovery.
9.5.2. Description. Number 1 and number 2 perform the checklist appropriate for the phase
of flight (ops check, descent check, etc.).
9.5.3. Procedure. Use the intraflight radio to initiate checks if practical. Use visual signals
if formation spacing allows or if radio traffic inhibits the use of the intraflight radio. If forced
to turn during a check, number 1 should call the turn and ensure number 2 is attentive before
turning. Number 2 resumes the check after the turn is complete. In-flight checks are normally
accomplished in the following manner:
9.5.3.1. Number 1. Allow enough time for number 2 to complete the check. Check
number 2 in with a visual signal or a radio call. On the radio, check in by transmitting call
sign and OBOGS status for the climb check and total fuel for ops checks and descent
check (for example, “Texan 1, OBOGS good” or “Texan 1, 800”).
9.5.3.2. Number 2. Number 2 will acknowledge number 1’s visual signal or radio call
to initiate checks, move to route spacing (if the check was directed while in fingertip and
weather allows), and perform the appropriate checklist items. Accomplish the check one
item at a time, checking position on number 1 between each item. Prioritize tasks. Fly
formation first and accomplish checklist items as workload permits. During turns, fly the
aircraft and resume the check after the turn is complete.
9.6. Fuel and G Awareness.
9.6.1. Objective. Maintain fuel awareness of other aircraft and ensure all formation
members are capable of continuing the mission after high-G maneuvering.
9.6.2. Description. All flight members must understand the factors and assumptions used to
determine joker and bingo fuels. Flight members should increase the frequency of fuel
checks during high fuel flow ops (ET, low altitude) and when approaching joker and bingo
fuels.
9.6.3. Procedure. Number 1 must continually monitor the flight’s fuel state and adjust the
profile, frequency of ops checks, and joker or bingo as necessary.
9.6.3.1. Unless already on the recovery, number 2 will inform number 1 when reaching
joker and (or) bingo fuel, and number 1 will acknowledge the call.
9.6.3.2. It is number 1’s responsibility to monitor the fuel state and G loading of the
entire formation. Number 1 must also take action when any aircraft exceeds G
limitations, reaches joker or bingo fuel, or reports an abnormal fuel condition. Number 1
initiates a fuel and G check after the G-awareness exercise, periodically during the sortie
and following each set of extended trail. Number two responds with “same” if his fuel is
within 50 pounds, and Gs are within .5 of number 1. For example, “Texan 1, 800, 4.5”.
If number two has approximately 750 pounds and shows 4 Gs, the response is “Texan 2,
same.”)
9.6.3.3. Any time number 2 is maneuvering behind number 1, number 2 must use caution
to avoid areas of prop wash or wake turbulence. This is especially important in number
1’s six o’clock. Any time wake turbulence or prop wash is encountered, number 2 should
unload to approximately 1 G, exit the area of turbulence, and check the G meter. If the
aircraft G limits have been exceeded, the formation will terminate maneuvering and
conduct a controllability check, as required. In the case of an over G, the G meter is not
reset until the aircraft is inspected by a certified maintenance technician.
9.7. FENCE Check. Number 1 directs “FENCE-in” when entering the MOA. Number 1 directs
“FENCE-out” when exiting. See Chapter 6 for details on the FENCE check.
9.8. Battle Damage (BD) Check.
9.8.1. Objective. Using mutual support, members of a formation inspect all aircraft in the
formation.
9.8.2. Description. Aircraft within a formation maneuver to inspect each other for damage,
leaks, missing panels, or irregularities. Generally performed after aggressive maneuvering
(i.e., extended trail, fluid maneuvering, or tactical) or combat ops.
9.8.3. Procedure. Number 1 initiates the BD check using a radio call or the “check mark”
visual signal. If in fingertip, Number 2 automatically moves to the route position
(approximately two ship widths) and climbs to see the opposite wingtip of number 1’s
aircraft, descends back to route position and performs a crossunder to look at the other side in
the same fashion. Number 2 must maintain nose-tail separation while inspecting number 1.
Number 2 looks for any damage, leaks, missing panels, or irregularities. Upon completion of
the check, number 2 will return to route on the opposite side of number 1 from which the
check was initiated.
9.8.3.1. If there are no discrepancies on number 1’s aircraft, number 2 passes a thumbs-
up to number 1, indicating a “clean” BD check. If number 1 is not clean, number 2 will
use the radio to describe any discrepancies. Number 1 then initiates a lead change and
number 2 assumes navigational (nav) lead while clearing for the flight. Number 1 then
inspects number 2. Procedures for accomplishing lead changes, to include nav lead
changes, are described in paragraph 9.17. of this manual.
9.8.3.2. . If time or fuel is critical and the number 1 aircraft contains two pilots, the
option exists to conduct the BD check without a nav lead change. In this case, the PNF in
the number 1 aircraft inspects number 2 as number 2 maneuvers to inspect number 1, and
the PF in the number 1 aircraft clears the flight path for the formation. This option must
be briefed or directed before employed.
9.9. Mission Analysis. The FL establishes priorities for mission analysis and delegates tasks to
flight members to ensure thorough planning without duplication of effort. All flight members
should be involved in the mission preparation. The level of planning detail is dictated by mission
specifics and pilot experience level, but all necessary mission analysis must be completed in time
to conduct a concise, comprehensive mission briefing.
9.10. Mission Briefing.
9.10.1. Objective. The FL (or designated briefer) ensures all flight members are briefed on
start, taxi, takeoff, recovery, and relevant special subjects.
9.10.2. Description. The briefing sets the tone for the entire mission. The briefing should
set objectives, establish goals and set the standard used to measure successful performance
during the mission.
9.10.3. Procedure. All formation members will be present for the preflight briefing. The
briefing will be conducted in a professional manner and will be clear and concise. The
majority of the preflight brief should be spent describing the "how to" of the mission.
Elements of the mission which are to be conducted according to written unit standards or
procedures in this manual may be briefed as standard. Minimum time should be spent on
written standards as all formation members will have them committed to memory.
9.10.3.1. Individual Crew Briefings. The briefer must allow time for each crew to
discuss intercockpit responsibilities, emergency procedures, and other crew coordination
issues. Lead should plan to allow 5 minutes as a minimum.
9.10.3.2. Mission Debriefing. The debrief should cover areas that need improvement.
The mission should be reconstructed in only enough detail to debrief issues affecting the
formation as a whole. Conduct the debrief in a business-like atmosphere and critiques of
execution should not be taken personally. Receive instruction openly; use the debrief as a
tool for improvement.
9.11. G-awareness Exercise. Perform a G-awareness exercise or AGSM demonstration (as
described in Chapter 6) before accomplishing any maneuver that may require three or more Gs.
Brief the exercise with an emphasis on deconfliction procedures. Sufficient visual cues must be
available to perform this maneuver. Number 1 should consider sun angle and position prior to the
maneuver to preclude possible loss of sight due to the sun. If poor weather conditions prevent
safe accomplishment of the G-awareness exercise, number 1 should modify the flight mission
profile and limit maneuvering accordingly.
9.12. KIO and Terminate Procedures.
9.12.1. Objective. Cease tactical maneuvering.
9.12.2. Description. KIO is used when safety of flight is a factor or when doubt or
confusion exists. KIO is transmitted when any of the training rules listed in AFI 11-2T-6,
Volume 3, are violated. The terminate call is used to direct a specific aircraft or flight to
cease maneuvering and proceed as briefed or directed. Terminate is used when safety of
flight is not a factor.
9.12.3. Procedure. The procedures for KIO and terminate are very similar.
9.12.3.1. KIO. The KIO drill is normally initiated over the radio. Aircraft with radio
failure signal KIO with a continuous wing rock. The aircraft observing a continuous wing
rock should transmit KIO and provide required assistance. Any member of the formation
may initiate a KIO. For example either aircraft transmits, “Texan, knock-it-off.” Number
1 acknowledges, “Texan 1, knock-it-off,” followed by number 2 stating, “Texan 2,
knock-it-off”. Under normal circumstances, the aircraft initiating the KIO briefly states
the reason for initiating the drill in order to enhance situational awareness and eliminate
confusion for the formation. Number 2 should then await directions from number 1.
9.12.3.1.1. At the KIO call, number 1 continues the current maneuver without
changing power setting. This ensures predictability and aids in flight path
deconfliction, which should be the primary concern for all aircraft. If any aircraft
loses sight, the aircraft losing sight should make the appropriate “blind” radio call.
Upon hearing a KIO call or observing a continuous wing rock, all participating
aircraft will:
9.12.3.1.2. Clear the flight path.
9.12.3.1.3. Cease maneuvering.
9.12.3.1.4. Acknowledge with a call sign in order of position in formation, or with a
wing rock if the radios have failed.
9.12.3.1.5. Obtain verbal clearance before resuming maneuvers.
9.12.3.2. Terminate. Used to direct a specific aircraft or flight to cease maneuvering,
clear the flight path, and proceed as briefed or directed. Any aircraft in the formation
may initiate “terminate.” Use “terminate” to cease maneuvering when number 2 has met
the desired learning objectives, or if number 2 is outside position parameters (desired
learning objectives are not achievable). The terminate call is acknowledged in the same
manner as a KIO call. For example, “Texan terminate; Texan 1 terminate.” Number 2
promptly replies with, “Texan 2 terminate.” Number 1 smoothly transitions to a shallow
turn or level flight until number 2 has attained the desired formation parameters. Once
back in position, number 2 may signal for continued maneuvering by calling “in”
(“Texan 2, in”). At this point, number 1 may continue maneuvering or direct the
formation, as desired.
9.13. Lost Wingman Procedures.
9.13.1. Objective. Gain immediate separation of aircraft when number 2 loses sight of
number 1 in the weather.
9.13.2. Description. In IMC when visual contact with number 1 is lost or if unable to
maintain position due to disorientation, number 2 simultaneously executes the applicable lost
wingman procedure while transitioning to instruments. Smooth application of control inputs
is imperative to minimize the effects of spatial disorientation.
9.13.3. Procedure. When executing lost wingman procedures, number 2 notifies number 1,
who coordinates with the controlling agency and requests a separate clearance for number 2.
If required, the controlling agency can help establish positive separation.
9.13.3.1. Number 1. Number 1 should immediately perform the appropriate procedure,
acknowledge number 2’s radio call, and transmit aircraft attitude, which is acknowledged
by number 2. Number 1 should transmit other parameters such as heading, altitude, and
airspeed as necessary to aid in maintaining safe separation.
9.13.3.2. Wings-Level Flight (Climb, Descent, or Straight and Level). The lost
wingman turns away, using 15 degrees of bank for 15 seconds and informs number 1.
After 15 seconds, number 2 resumes heading and proceeds on a separate clearance.
9.13.3.3. Turns (Climb, Descent, or Level). When outside the turn, the lost wingman
reverses the direction of turn, using 15 degrees of bank for 15 seconds, and informs
number 1. After 15 seconds, number 2 rolls out, continues straight ahead, and ensures
positive separation before resuming the turn and obtaining a separate clearance. When
inside the turn, the lost wingman momentarily reduces power to ensure nose-tail
separation and tells number 1 to roll out of the turn. Number 2 maintains AOB to ensure
lateral separation, and then proceeds on a separate clearance. Number 1 may resume
turning only when separation is ensured.
9.13.3.4. Precision and Non-Precision Final Approach. The lost wingman
momentarily turns away from number 1 to ensure separation and starts a climb to either
the FAF or glide slope intercept altitude, as appropriate. While proceeding to the missed
approach point, number 2 informs number 1 and obtains a separate clearance from
approach control. Comply with the new clearance received or fly the published missed
approach, as appropriate.
9.13.3.5. Missed Approach. The lost wingman momentarily turns away to ensure
clearance, informs number 1, and continues to the published missed approach while
climbing 500 feet above the missed approach altitude. Number 2 obtains a separate
clearance from approach control.
9.13.4. Responsibility. Lost wingman procedures do not guarantee obstacle clearance. It is

the responsibility of all the pilots in the formation to be aware of terrain and obstacles along
the flight path. Use good judgment when executing lost wingman procedures.
9.14. Practice Lost Wingman Procedures.
9.14.1. Objective. Apply lost wingman procedures in a training exercise.
9.14.2. Description. The below procedures outline the basis of how practice lost wingman
will be performed. Practice lost wingman procedures in VMC to prepare for actual lost
wingman situations in IMC.
9.14.3. Procedure. Number 1 directs practice lost wingman with a radio call, “Texan 2, go
practice lost wingman.” Number 2 acknowledges “2,” but does not begin execution. This
acknowledgement simply verifies that number 2 knows a practice lost wingman exercise has
been directed. When ready, number 2 executes the appropriate lost wingman procedures and
makes the appropriate radio call (“Texan 1 roll out; Texan 2 lost wingman”). At a minimum,
number 1 will respond with attitude, to include bank angle. Number 2 will acknowledge this
radio call “2.” Number 1 will monitor number 2 to ensure adequate separation is maintained
and is primarily responsible for flight path deconfliction while number 2 is heads down
during the procedure. After executing the appropriate lost wingman procedure, number 2 will
initiate the end of the lost wingman exercise by conveying “visual” with a radio call, “Texan
2, visual.” Number 1 will direct a rejoin or other position.
9.15. Formation Breakout.
9.15.1. Objective. Ensure immediate separation and avoid midair collision.
9.15.2. Description. The HITS acronym describes when a breakout is required. Perform a
breakout immediately when: number 2 constitutes a Hazard to the formation, is In front
of/under number 1, directed (Told) to break out, or has a loss of Situational awareness of his
position relative to number 1.
9.15.3. Procedure. When breaking out, the wingman clears in the direction of the break and
maneuvers away from number 1’s last known position (or in the direction that ensures
immediate separation). Use power and (or) speed brake as required to maintain safe
maneuvering airspeed to expedite separation. When able, the wingman informs number 1.
For example, “Texan 2, breaking out” when self-initiating the breakout, or simply”2” when
complying with a directive from number 1. Number 1 continues to fly predictably and, if the
wingman is in sight, maneuvers to maintain sight and deconflict flight paths. Number 1 will
direct a rollout when safe separation is achieved; however, if visual with number 1 the
wingman may roll out regardless of who initiates the breakout. The aircraft breaking out
should anticipate disorientation and must use caution if passing under number 1 or viewing
number 1 through the top of the canopy.
9.15.3.1. On final approach, use caution as a rapid increase in back stick pressure can
quickly result in a stall. Also, abrupt application of excessive rudder or abrupt application
of MAX power can cause the aircraft to roll past the desired bank angle, which can
further aggravate the slow speed condition and reduce the chances of a successful
recovery.
9.15.3.2. During a breakout, it is possible to lose sight. All flight members must remain
vigilant to ensure deconfliction. A breakout does not always require an abrupt, high-G
turn away from number 1.
9.15.3.3. If a wingman initiates the breakout, it is that aircraft’s responsibility to
maintain safe separation until number 1 acknowledges the breakout, confirms visual
contact, or establishes altitude separation. If number 1 directs the breakout, number 1 is
responsible for safe separation and deconfliction until acknowledgement, visual contact,
or altitude separation.
9.15.3.4. After number 2 achieves safe separation and visual contact with number 1, a
radio call is made to advise number 1: “Texan 2, visual.” Number 1 then directs a rejoin
as appropriate. Do not rejoin until directed by number 1, however, number 2 may
parallel number 1’s flight path in-order to control a divergent vector.
9.16. Lost Sight Procedures.
9.16.1. Objective. Flight path deconfliction and notification of a lost sight condition.
9.16.2. Description. When one aircraft loses sight of another (usually number 2 loses sight
of number 1), the formation achieves at least vertical separation then completes rejoin when
visual contact is regained.
9.16.3. Procedures. If visual contact with number 1 is lost, number 2 will notify number 1
and state current altitude (“Texan 2, blind, one-seven thousand”). If there is no timely
acknowledgement of the “blind” call, number 2 will maneuver away from the last known
position of number 1 and alter altitude. In some cases, heading or turn information may also
be appropriate for this call (“Texan 2, blind, one-seven thousand, right turn through heading
130”).
9.16.3.1. If number 1 maneuvers into the sun, number 2 may lose sight. Although visual
contact is usually regained within moments, a momentarily blind condition could pose a
great hazard for midair collision. A sun-blind condition is an actual lost-sight case; apply
proper procedures immediately.
9.16.3.2. The formation member with visual contact transmits a relative position from
the “blind” aircraft; for example, “Texan 1, visual, right, 2 o’clock, high.” If number 1 is
“blind,” but number 2 has number 1 in sight, number 1 has the option to direct a rejoin. In
this case, number 2 does not rejoin closer than a route position until number 1 calls
“visual.” If number 2 is “blind,” and number 1 has number 2 in sight, and the situation
requires immediate aircraft separation, number 1 maneuvers to ensure separation between
the two aircraft.
9.16.3.3. If both aircraft have lost sight of each other, number 1 must immediately direct
a minimum of 1,000 feet altitude separation. Until visual contact is regained, number 1
must take positive action to ensure flight path deconfliction. Both formation members
maintain this separation until either visual contact is regained and a rejoin is initiated or
clearance to recover separately is received.
9.17. Lead Changes.
9.17.1. Objective. In-flight formation position change.
9.17.2. Description. Number 1 and number 2 exchange formation positions. As previously

explained, the designated flight lead retains his responsibility and authority throughout the
mission. That role is not affected by a lead change.
9.17.3. Procedure. Lead changes can be made with the formation in many flight attitudes.
Number 1 will call or signal for the lead change. If in fingertip, number 2 will move out to
route, then assume a route position near line abreast (LAB) and approximately two ship
widths. If the formation is already in route or greater spacing, number 1 may use the radio to
transfer the lead. Number 2 will acknowledge the lead change and become the new number 1
regardless of the method of lead transfer (visual signal or radio call). If number 1 uses a
visual signal, number 2 will acknowledge with visual signals. If number 1 uses a radio call to
initiate the lead change, the new number 1 accepts the number 1 position with a radio call.
9.17.3.1. Lead changes accomplished with visual signals should be expeditious to
minimize the time without a leader actively clearing for the formation. If limited visibility
is an issue, use the radio to execute the lead change.
9.17.3.2. When a lead change is initiated from fingertip, number 2 moves out and
forward to ensure wingtip separation. Number 2 accepts the lead after reaching a
position abeam number 1 and immediately assumes responsibility as the new number 1.
The old number 1 will assume wingman responsibilities. Unless changed by the new
number 1, the formation will remain in the position from which the lead change was
initiated. For example, if the lead change was initiated from route, the flight will remain
in route. If number 1 uses a radio call to initiate the lead change, the new number 1
accepts the number 1 position with a radio call. If the old number 1 uses a visual signal,
the new number 1 accepts the number 1 position with a head nod.
9.17.3.3. The new number 1 turns on the TAS and switches the transponder to ALT after
assuming the number 1 position. The new number 2 will turn off the TAS and switch the
transponder to STBY following the lead change but must prioritize tasks. Wingman
consideration dictates that after completing the lead change, the new number 1 utilizes a
power setting that allows the new number 2 to stabilize in the assigned position.
9.17.3.4. Nav Lead. Procedures for a nav lead change during the BD check are the same
as a standard lead change, with the exception that the number 1 aircraft maintains control
of the radios, squawk and TAS while inspecting the number 2 aircraft. The aircraft in the
nav lead position (the aircraft being inspected) must clear for the formation and comply
with all clearances.
9.18. Speed Brake Exercise.
9.18.1. Objective. Practice maintaining position as number 2 when the speed brake is
operated.
9.18.2. Description. Utilizing the speed brake is an effective method for number 1 to slow
the formation or achieve a desired descent profile while maintaining a higher power setting,
which is highly advantageous to number 2. The speed brake exercise is normally practiced
during the formation recovery.
9.18.3. Procedure. Number 2 lowers or raises the speed brake, as required, to match
number 1’s configuration and remain in the assigned formation position.
Section 9C—Maneuvering Fundamentals
9.19. Introduction. Common terminology and concepts applicable to formation flight are used
throughout the Air Force. The following are fundamental concepts:
9.19.1. Stabilized. In control and able to complete the maneuver safely within the pilot’s
capabilities. In this manual, number 2 is often directed to stabilize before continuing a
maneuver. For example, number 2 must stabilize in route before continuing to fingertip
during a rejoin. “Stabilize” does not mean stop; it means “under control.”
9.19.2. Heading Crossing Angle (HCA) (Figure 9.1.). The angular difference between the
longitudinal axes of two aircraft. (HCA is also synonymous with the term angle off.)
9.19.3. Aspect Angle (AA) (Figure 9.1 and Figure 9.2.). Aspect is expressed in degrees
off the tail of the reference aircraft, commonly expressed in multiples of 10. For example, at
6 o’clock to the reference aircraft, the aspect is zero. At 40 degrees left, the aspect is “4L.”
AA is not a clock position and is independent of aircraft heading. Two important AAs used
extensively in T-6 training are 30 and 45 degrees (Figure 9.3.). (Note position of the vertical
stabilizer on the outside wing.)
9.19.4. Closure. Overtake created by airspeed advantage and (or) angles; the rate at which
range decreases. Closure can be positive (decreasing range) or negative (increasing range),
and is usually measured by the velocity rate (knots) at which the range increases/decreases.
Figure 9.1. HCA and AA.

Figure 9.2. AA.
Figure 9.3. 30 and 45 AA.
9.19.5. Lift Vector (Figure 9.4.). The vector that is always positioned straight through the
top of the canopy. The magnitude is based on G loading. In the T-6, use the CFS cord as a
reference to indicate where the lift vector is pointed.
9.19.6. Velocity Vector (Figure 9.4.). Where the aircraft is going. The magnitude of the
velocity vector is controlled by changing airspeed.
Figure 9.4. Lift and Velocity Vectors.
9.19.7. Line of Sight (LOS). A straight line from the pilot's eye to another aircraft.
Commonly expressed as “forward LOS” (other aircraft moving forward on canopy toward
the nose) and “aft LOS” (other aircraft moving aft on the canopy toward the tail).
9.19.8. LOS Rate. The speed at which forward or aft LOS is occurring, expressed with
adjectives rather than a unit of measurement. (For example, “rapid, aft LOS.”)
9.19.9. Plane of Motion (POM). The plane containing the aircraft flight path. In a level
turn the aircraft's POM is parallel to the ground, regardless of bank angle. In a loop the POM
(Figure 9.5.) is perpendicular to the ground.
Figure 9.5. POM.
9.19.10. Lead Pursuit (Figure 9.6.). Number 2 aims the aircraft nose in front of number
1’s flight path. With enough lead pursuit, AA and closure will increase, and HCA will
decrease. Various lead pursuit pictures may result in aft LOS, no LOS, or minimal forward
LOS depending on the magnitude of lead pursuit and other parameters such as relative
airspeed and G.
Figure 9.6. Lead Pursuit.
9.19.11. Pure Pursuit (Figure 9.7.). Number 2 aims the aircraft nose directly at number 1.
In pure pursuit there is initially no LOS; the other aircraft remains fixed at 12 o’clock in the
canopy. A pure pursuit picture initially creates closure that diminishes over time. AA equals
HCA, which also both diminish over time. If both aircraft are co-airspeed, an attempt to
sustain pure pursuit eventually evolves into lag pursuit, resulting in increasing range and a
decreased AA.
Figure 9.7. Pure Pursuit.
9.19.12. Lag Pursuit (Figure 9.8.). Number 2 aims the aircraft nose behind number 1’s
flight path. Although there may still be some closure initially, closure soon decreases, AA
decreases, and HCA increases.
Figure 9.8. Lag Pursuit.

Figure 9.9. Lag Pursuit - Continued.
9.19.13. Aircraft 3/9 Line (Figure 9.10.). This is an imaginary line extending from the
aircraft’s lateral axis (parallel to the wings and perpendicular to the fuselage). The numbers
“3” and “9” have reference to clock position. Number 2 should normally remain aft of
number 1’s 3/9 line during maneuvering. This line equates to a 90-degree AA (9 aspect).
Figure 9.10. Aircraft 3/9 Line.
9.19.14. Turn Circle. As an aircraft maneuvers in a turn, the flight path describes an arc,
referred to as a turn circle.
9.19.15. Turn Rate. This is the rate of heading change (nose track), normally measured in
degrees per second. At about 10,000 feet MSL, at 30-degree bank, 180 KIAS (for example, a
normal rejoin), the T-6 turn rate is approximately 3 degrees per second.
9.19.16. Turning Room. This is the volume of airspace (vertical and horizontal) that is
available to execute maneuvers that change aspect, angle off, and closure. In the T-6, turning
room is mostly used aft of the 3/9 line.
9.19.17. Safe Airspace. Generally, this is an area where any immediate threat of collision is
unlikely if an out-of-plane maneuver is initiated. Pulling toward number 1’s high six o’clock
is a common example of safe airspace for number 2.
9.19.18. Lag Reposition (High Yo-Yo) (Figure 9.11.). A high yo-yo is a reposition of
number 2’s aircraft that uses various combinations of pursuit and a move out-of-plane above
number 1’s POM to control closure and aspect to prevent a potential 3/9 line overshoot. It
creates turning room by using the vertical POM (out-of-plane). Creating a large HCA will
result in a rapid increase in range.
Figure 9.11. High Yo-Yo.
9.19.19. Quarter Plane (Figure 9.12.). A quarter plane is an aggressive, last ditch, out-of-
plane lag maneuver used to control closure and aspect in order to preserve the 3/9 line. In a
true quarter plane, number 2 establishes a POM that is 90 degrees to number 1’s POM. This
situation may be caused by a late decision (or no decision) to execute a high yo-yo or a
failure to control closure and aspect. Indicators that a quarter plane is needed are similar to
those of a high yo-yo. However, aspect, HCA, range, and closure cues are more significant
and require a much more aggressive maneuver than a lag reposition. A large HCA will result
in a rapid increase in range. Caution should be used to maintain visual contact with number
1 throughout the reposition maneuver.
Figure 9.12. Quarter Plane.
9.19.20. Lead Reposition (Low Yo-Yo) (Figure 9.13.). A low yo-yo is a reposition of
number 2’s aircraft, using various combinations of pursuit and a move out-of-plane below
number 1’s POM to increase closure and AA.
Figure 9.13. Low Yo-Yo.
Section 9D—Formation Fundamentals
9.20. Introduction. This section describes the basic positions and maneuvers used in T-6
formation. Positions are defined with regard to the formation position and the formation spacing.
The basic formation positions are fingertip and echelon. The basic spacing options are close and
route.
9.20.1. Fingertip.
9.20.1.1. Objective. Maintain close formation spacing for weather penetration, airfield
arrival, departure, flyovers and (or) aerial demonstration formations.
9.20.1.2. Description. The fingertip position is flown on an angle approximately 30
degrees aft of the 3/9 line (equates to a 6 AA), with approximately 10 feet of wingtip
separation. It is the closest that number 2 will be to number 1 during formation flying.
Therefore, maintaining the proper position is critical to flight path deconfliction. See
Figure 9.14.
Figure 9.14. Fingertip Turn-into and Turn-away Positions.
9.20.1.3. Procedure. In fingertip, the contract is that number 1 will fly a smooth
aircraft, and number 2 will adjust to maintain proper position. Number 2’s primary FCP
reference to maintain proper vertical (up and down) position is to place the exhaust stack
on top of number 1’s closest wing. Number 2’s primary reference to maintain proper
longitudinal (fore and aft) position is to center number 1’s aft position light on the front
edge of the engine exhaust stack opening and align number 1’s pitot tube with the aft
edge of the engine exhaust stack opening (which should be visible above the wing).
Number 2’s primary reference to maintain proper lateral spacing (distance between
number 1 and number 2) is when number 2’s FCP pilot is aligned with the forward edge
of number 1’s horizontal stabilizer and the rudder hinge (Figure 9.15.). This lateral
reference maintains approximately 10 feet of wingtip spacing between the aircraft.
9.20.1.3.1. Good fingertip position is the result of recognizing deviations,
anticipating required control inputs, and applying deliberate corrections. Make
continuous, small, and controlled corrections to stay in position. Keeping the aircraft
trimmed and coordinated decreases workload and generally makes it easier to
maintain position. Number 1 should maintain a constant power setting or make
smooth power changes, so number 2 can make small, precise power changes instead
of large changes. Power corrections usually require three PCL movements: one to
start the correction, one to stop the aircraft, and finally one to stabilize the aircraft in
the proper position.
9.20.1.3.2. When a deviation is recognized, initially correct one reference at a time.

Correct the vertical position or stack first, correct fore and aft second, and finally
adjust the lateral spacing in or out. Push (forward control stick pressure) or pull (aft
control stick pressure) to move the aircraft vertically up or down with respect to
number 1. Increase power to move the aircraft forward and decrease power to move
the aircraft back. Finally, make small (almost imperceptible) bank angle changes
toward or away from number 1 to move the aircraft laterally in or out.
9.20.1.3.3. Number 1 executes a shallow wing rock to direct number 2 to fingertip
from route.
Figure 9.15. Fingertip Spacing References.
9.21. Route Formation.

9.21.1. Objective. Increase flight maneuverability while enhancing clearing and visual
lookout.
9.21.2. Description. Route (Figure 9.16.) is a wider extension of close formation spacing
and is flown to enhance clearing and visual lookout, increase flight maneuverability, and ease
the completion of in-flight checks, radio changes, other cockpit tasks, or simply to allow
number 2 to relax. Number 1 sends number 2 to route with a radio call or visual signal. With
the formation in route, number 1 should restrict maneuvering to moderate turns and pitch
changes. Maximum bank angle in route is approximately 60 degrees.
9.21.3. Route Spacing. Route spacing is from two-ship widths to no further than
approximately 500 feet. Route is flown no further forward than LAB and no further aft than
the extended 30 degree fingertip line. When not in a turn, number 2 generally maintains a
position level with number 1 (a level stack) by keeping the helmet of number 1’s FCP pilot
on the horizon. Although the formal definition of the route position has fairly wide
tolerances, number 2 should strive to maintain a specific position when in route. Number 2
should exercise judgment when selecting a route position. If weather is a factor or a reform
to fingertip is anticipated, select a position toward two ship widths and 30 degrees aft. If
weather is not a factor and a long cruise is anticipated, select a position toward 500’ and LAB
to aid in clearing and performing cockpit duties.
9.21.4. Route LAB. When LAB, strive to remain between the extended 3/9 line and
approximately 10 degrees aft of LAB. Typically, route is flown LAB and out toward the
500-foot limit when weather conditions are not a factor, and when visual clearing, flight path
deconfliction and maneuvering are formation priorities. LAB at 2-4 ship widths is typically
flown when anticipating a turn away while in route (echelon turn).
Figure 9.16. Route.
9.21.5. Turns In Route. When inside a turn, number 2 maneuvers below number 1’s POM
only as necessary to keep number 1 in sight just above the canopy rail. On the outside of a
turn, number 2 maintains the same vertical references used in echelon turns. As in fingertip,
number 2 will not cross to the opposite side unless specifically directed to do so verbally or
by a crossunder signal from number 1.
9.21.6. Procedure. Number 2 stabilizes in route before diverting attention to change radio
channels, accomplish in-flight checks, or execute other cockpit tasks.
9.22. Crossunder (Figure 9.17.).
9.22.1. Objective. A crossunder is used to reposition number 2 from one side of the
formation to the other.
9.22.2. Description. A crossunder may be accomplished with the formation in fingertip or
route formation. Number 2 maintains nose-tail separation while crossing under. Number 1
directs a crossunder with a radio call or visual signal. The visual signal is a rapid, shallow
wing dip in the desired direction of the crossunder. The size of the wing dip should be
proportional to number 2’s spacing. Anticipate each power change and make small changes
in pitch and bank.
Figure 9.17. Crossunder.
9.22.3. Procedure. To accomplish a crossunder, reduce power as required to establish a

small forward LOS rate. Move back and down below number 1’s POM to establish nose-tail
clearance, and then add power slightly to stop rearward movement. If in a climb, keep the
power reduction small to avoid excessive rearward movement. Bank slightly toward the new
side to change aircraft heading a few degrees (create small HCA). Roll wings level and fly
across and behind number 1. Add power as required to maintain proper nose-tail separation.
Typically, a slight power increase is required. Number 2’s canopy bow should appear to be
superimposed on the trailing edge of number 1’s elevator. Reestablish number 1’s heading
when in the desired position on the new side. Add power to move forward and up into
position. Reduce power to stabilize in position on the opposite side of number 1 from which
the crossunder was started.
9.23. Echelon Turn (Figure 9.18.).
9.23.1. Objective. Turn the formation while in close or route formation using other than
fingertip references.
9.23.2. Description. A turn in which number 2 remains in the same POM as number 1.
Echelon turns may be accomplished from fingertip or route. All turns while in route position
will be echelon turns (echelon signal not required). When in fingertip, however, turns are
only flown as echelon turns if indicated by number 1.
Figure 9.18. Echelon Turn.
9.23.3. Procedure. Instead of maintaining fingertip references, number 2 remains in the

same POM as number 1. Number 1 should roll smoothly into bank (approximately 60
degrees) and maintain appropriate back pressure. Slight variations in bank angle to control
undesired climbs and descents are smoother and easier for number 2 than variations in back
pressure. Number 1’s roll rate should approximate that used during instrument conditions.
Number 2 matches number 1’s roll rate and uses back pressure to maintain spacing. In a level
turn, the horizon bisects number 1’s fuselage. In the FCP, approximately one-half of the
yellow rescue door should be visible (resembles a triangle) behind the aft edge of number 1’s
wing and one wingspan spacing will exist between he aircraft. If out of position, use bank to
correct vertical (to keep number 1’s fuselage bisected by the horizon), power to correct fore
and aft position, and back pressure to maintain spacing. During rollout, number 1 should use
a smooth roll rate and gradually reduce back pressure. Number 2 matches number 1’s roll
rate to maintain position. Upon rolling back to wings level, number 2 should be re-
established in the fingertip position.
9.24. Reforms.
9.24.1. Objective. Move number 2 from one formation position to a closer one.
9.24.2. Description. Reforms are commonly used when number 1 desires to bring number 2
in from close trail, fighting wing, or route. Reforms may be to route or fingertip.
9.24.3. Procedure. Number 1 directs a reform with a radio call or visual signal (wing rock).
The size of the wing rock is based on distance between aircraft and may use slight climbs or
descents when necessary for energy management or area orientation. The procedure for
accomplishing a reform varies based on number 2’s position and distance relative to number
1. To reform from route to fingertip, maneuver as necessary to stabilize at a 2-ship width
route position on the fingertip line, and then slowly move up the line to fingertip. Guidance
on reforms from fighting wing and close trail are found in their respective sections of this
chapter.
9.25. Rejoins.
9.25.1. Objective. Get the flight back together safely and efficiently.
9.25.2. Description. Rejoins are commonly practiced from pitchouts and after number 2 has
taken spacing. They are also accomplished after breakouts, practice lost wingman, instrument
trail departures, and lost-sight situations (anytime the formation is split).
9.25.3. Procedure. Number 1 initiates rejoin with radio call or visual signal and may use
slight climbs or descents during a rejoin when necessary for energy management or area
orientation. Number 1 should consider using a radio call to initiate a rejoin when number 2 is
not in sight. All rejoins are to fingertip unless directed otherwise by number 1. Unless
otherwise briefed, rejoin airspeed in the T-6 is 180 KIAS. Number 1 calls out current
airspeed if it differs more than 10 knots from briefed or expected rejoin airspeed. The size of
the wing rock is based on distance between aircraft. Number 1 should monitor number 2
closely during all rejoins. If number 1 perceives an unsafe situation developing at anytime
during the rejoin, take positive action immediately to prevent a midair collision.
9.25.3.1. Straight-ahead Rejoin. Use straight-ahead rejoins when a turn is not possible
or practical. Airspeed closure is used to effect a straight-ahead rejoin. Number 1 should
maintain a stable platform (level, climbing or descending), clear and monitor number 2
during the rejoin.
9.25.3.1.1. Number 1. Direct the rejoin. If a turn is required after a straight-ahead
rejoin is initiated, inform number 2 and clear. Do not turn into number 2 if it would
exceed number 2’s capabilities or prevent a safe rejoin. Due to the location of number
2 behind and below number 1, number 2 will be difficult to see until the final stages
of a straight-ahead rejoin.
9.25.3.1.2. Number 2. Rejoin to the left side unless directed otherwise. Increase
airspeed to generate closure (initially use 20 to 30 knots of overtake). Establish a
position behind and slightly below number 1 with a vector toward number 1’s low 6
o’clock position. Placing number 1 slightly above the horizon will help maintain
separation from number 1’s wake turbulence. Continue to close until approximately
500 feet (when details on number 1’s aircraft, such as the pitot tubes, can be seen). At
this point, bank slightly away from number 1 (“make a bid”), toward a position two to
four ship widths out from number 1’s wingtip. The velocity vector should angle away
from number 1. Decrease overtake with a power reduction, and plan to arrive in the
route position with the same airspeed as number 1. As a technique, reduce the power
such that the PCL moves aft to match number 1’s aft LOS in the windscreen. After
stabilized in route, move into fingertip. If number 1 turns during a straight-ahead

rejoin, transition to a turning rejoin, and be alert for possible overshoot situations.
9.25.3.2. Turning Rejoin. Use a combination of airspeed and angular closure to effect a
turning rejoin.
9.25.3.2.1. Number 1. Direct the rejoin. If using a wing rock, attempt to make the
first wing dip in the direction of the rejoin. Maintain 30 degrees of bank unless
otherwise briefed. After a pitchout, delay long enough for number 2 to roll out in
trail. Establish a turn, maintain bank angle, and rejoin airspeed in level flight. Bank
and pitch may be varied if required for area orientation. A slight climb or descent is
acceptable for energy management. Monitor number 2’s AA and closure. Be ready to
take evasive action if required.
9.25.3.2.2. Number 2. Base closure and desired aspect on energy and aircraft
position relative to number 1. When number 1 starts to turn, begin a turn in the same
direction to intercept the desired aspect. Simultaneously establish desired vertical
separation (place number 1 within approximately two widths of the horizon) and
closure. Manage aspect with minor adjustments to bank angle. Number 1 must be
visible to pilots in both cockpits.
9.25.3.2.2.1. Begin with approximately 20-30 knots of closure and a moderate
lead pursuit picture (pull nose in front of number 1) to increase aspect. As number
2 moves inside of number 1’s turn circle, the vertical stabilizer appears to move
toward number 1’s outside wingtip as AA increases. When the vertical stabilizer
approximately bisects the outside wing (3 aspect/30 degrees AA), reduce bank
angle to maintain this relative reference line. When stable, there is no LOS.
9.25.3.2.2.2. If the vertical stabilizer appears to move toward the wingtip, AA is
increasing. If the vertical stabilizer appears to move toward the wing root, the AA
is decreasing. Use varying degrees of bank angle to manage aspect during a
rejoin. Shallow the bank angle to decrease aspect and increase the bank angle to
increase aspect. As range decreases inside route toward close spacing, the vertical
stabilizer will appear to move toward the outside wingtip.
9.25.3.2.2.3. Number 1 should appear slightly above the horizon. Maintain
number 1 within approximately two relative ship widths above the horizon. The
star on the left wing (or the “SA” in USAF on the right wing) should be directly
over the star on the aft fuselage. This is referred to as the “saddle” between where
the leading edge of the vertical stabilizer meets number 1’s fuselage and the aft
portion of number 1’s canopy.
9.25.3.2.2.4. The critical stage of the rejoin begins approximately 500 feet from
number 1. Inside 300 to 500 feet, the normal close (fingertip) fingertip references
will become visible. Descend slightly and move forward (increase aspect with
lead pursuit) onto an extension of the fingertip reference line. Begin decreasing
closure with a power reduction and speed brake as necessary. Monitor bank and
overtake closely during the last few hundred feet to ensure aspect and closure are
under control. Plan to stabilize in route with slight positive closure but
approximately co-airspeed with number 1, and then move into fingertip at a
controlled rate.
9.25.3.2.2.5. During two-ship formation ops, unless prebriefed or directed
otherwise, number 2 normally rejoins to the inside of the turn. To rejoin to the
outside of the turn (number 3 position), the event will either be prebriefed or
directed. Number 2 may request to rejoin to number 3, and number 1 may consent
on the radio. Rejoins to the outside of the turn (number 3 position) are initially
flown exactly like rejoins to the inside of the turn. In the later portion of the
rejoin, number 2 will cross below and behind number 1 with at least nose-tail
separation to get outside of number 1’s turn circle. Maintain enough positive
closure (about 10-15 knots) to facilitate this move to the outside. Stabilize in route
echelon on the outside and then move into fingertip at a controlled rate.
9.26. Overshoots.
9.26.1. Objective. Safely dissipate excessive closure and (or) aspect.
9.26.2. Description. A properly flown overshoot will safely dissipate excessive closure and
(or) aspect during a rejoin. Number 2 must not delay an overshoot with an unusually
aggressive attempt to save a rejoin.
9.26.3. Procedure. Keep number 1 in sight at all times during any overshoot. Reduce
power and use speed brake (if required) as soon as excess overtake is recognized.
9.26.3.1. Straight-ahead Rejoin Overshoot. A straight-ahead rejoin with excessive
closure results in a pure airspeed overshoot. Maintain lateral spacing on a parallel or
divergent vector to number 1. Do not turn into number 1, which is a common error while
looking over the shoulder at number 1’s aircraft. This can cause a vector into number 1’s
flight path and create a dangerous situation requiring a breakout. A small, controllable
3/9 line overshoot is easily managed and can still allow an effective rejoin. There is no
need to breakout if flight paths are not convergent and visual contact can be maintained.
After beginning to slide back into formation, retract the speed brake and increase power
prior to achieving co-airspeed (no LOS) to prevent excessive aft movement.
9.26.3.2. Turning Rejoin Overshoot. A turning rejoin with excessive closure airspeed
results in a combination airspeed-aspect overshoot in a POM about 50 feet below number
1. Attempt to overshoot early enough to cross number 1’s 6 o’clock with a minimum
spacing of two ship lengths. Breakout if unable to maintain nose-tail separation. Reduce
power and use speed brake as required. Once outside the turn, use bank and back stick
pressure as necessary to stabilize in route echelon position. Fly no higher than route
echelon. Excessive back pressure causes closure. A co-airspeed overshoot due to excess
aspect may not require maneuvering outside of number 1’s turn circle. Instead, there may
be sufficient space in number 1’s low 6 o’clock to align fuselages and stop the overshoot.
When under control with no aft LOS, complete a crossunder to the fingertip position (or
as directed) on the inside of the turn. If aft LOS is not adequately controlled, #2 may
need to reestablish the rejoin line inside #1’s turn and complete the turning rejoin.
Figure 9.19. Overshoot.
9.27. Fighting Wing.

9.27.1. Objective. Enhance formation flexibility or maximize clearing.
9.27.2. Description. Fighting wing is a fluid position defined by a 30 to 45-degree cone,
500 to 1,000 feet aft of number 1 (Figure 9.20.).
Figure 9.20. Fighting Wing Cone.
9.27.3. Procedure. Number 1 directs the wingman to fighting wing with a radio call
(“Texan 2, go fighting wing”). Number 2 acknowledges “2” and maneuvers into the cone.
Do not call “in” unless performing the ET exercise.
9.27.3.1. Number 2 maneuvers into and maintains the cone with a combination of pursuit
selection and lift vector placement. An initial turn away from number 1 (lag pursuit)
increases lateral spacing and causes a slight movement aft of number 1 (forward LOS).
The rate of aft movement can be increased with use of power, speed brake, or a vertical
move out-of-plane. It requires constant analysis of AA and closure to apply the proper
amounts of lead and lag pursuit and stay within the cone. Number 2 should not stagnate
in number 1’s high or low 6-o’clock while maneuvering within the cone because it is
difficult for number 1 to monitor number 2 in this position. While flying in the fighting
wing position, be aware it may be possible for number 2 to be outside standard formation
parameters (for example, plus or minus 100 feet vertical of number 1).
9.27.3.2. Reform from fighting wing. Number 1 signals a reform or directs Number 2 to
another formation position. If number 1 desires number 2 to reform to a particular side,
the reform is directed with a radio call or wing rock. For example, “Texan 2, reform
right side.” Lacking direction from number 1, number 2 reforms to the side currently
occupied.
9.27.4. Visually, the aft (30AA) line of the cone is the same as for the basic rejoin: number
1’s vertical stabilizer bisects the opposite wing. The forward (45AA) line of the cone is
approximately when number 1’s vertical stabilizer is superimposed over the opposite wingtip
or the inside wingtip strobe light just forward of the spinner.
9.28. Chase.
9.28.1. Objective. Used for performance assessment and assistance during an emergency.
9.28.2. Description. IAW 11-2T-6, Volume 3, a chase aircraft will maneuver as necessary
to observe performance, but is primarily responsible for aircraft separation. Generally, a
chase aircraft will maneuver in a 30- or 60-degree cone out to 1,000 feet from which the pilot
can effectively clear and/or provide assistance. The chase aircraft will not stack lower than
lead aircraft below 1,000 feet AGL.
9.28.3. Procedure. When flying chase to provide assistance during an emergency, both the
chase pilot and the emergency aircraft pilot should seriously consider the nature and severity
of the emergency (flight control malfunction, structural damage, controlled ejection, etc.)
when determining how close and exactly where to fly the chase formation position.
Section 9E—Mission Execution
9.29. Introduction. This section describes formation mission execution and advanced
formation maneuvering. The basics of departure, en route, area, and recovery procedures are the
same as for single-ship missions; however, accommodations must be made for the additional
aircraft in a formation.
9.30. Ground Ops.
9.30.1. Engine Start. Formations normally start engines on a visual signal, either pilot-to-
pilot or relayed through the crew chiefs. If aircraft are parked beyond visual range, the FL
sets a start time. If starting without visual contact between pilots or crew chiefs, number 1
will normally check number 2 in on the radio at start time. If required, number 2 will inform
number 1 of any difficulties that may delay start or taxi at this time.
9.30.2. Before Taxi.

9.30.2.1. All flight members will check the ATIS before check-in. When ready to taxi,
number 2 gives a thumbs-up signal to number 1. If not in visual contact, number 2 awaits
check-in.
9.30.2.2. Number 1 normally checks the flight in on VHF, then UHF. If more time is
needed by one of the crews, advise the other crew during the post-start check-in. For
example, “Texan 2 needs (x) minutes.” Number 1 responds with “1”. After check-in
with all members ready, number 1 calls for taxi clearance. Number 2 responds with “2,”
after number 1’s clearance acknowledgement indicating that the clearance is understood.
If number 2 does not understand the clearance, ask for clarification.
9.30.3. Taxi. The formation normally taxis together as a two ship. If another aircraft
attempts to taxi between members of the formation, Number 1 asks that aircraft to hold.
Formations may taxi staggered when taxiway width and local procedures allow. Number 1
should stagger on the downwind side.
9.30.4. Before Takeoff. The overspeed governor and before-takeoff checks are completed
automatically at the EOR at the normal locations for single-ship missions. When complete,
number 2 gives a thumbs-up signal to number 1. On other than instrument trail departures,
number 2 places the TAS to STBY and selects STBY on the transponder prior to takeoff.
9.31. Formation Departures (Figure 9.21.). Environmental or training factors determine
takeoff method. Number 1 will ensure all members of the formation understand the takeoff
option being executed. See AFI 11-2T-6, Volume 3, for formation takeoff restrictions.
Figure 9.21. Formation Takeoff.
9.31.1. Objective. Safely get the formation airborne.

9.31.2. Description. There are three options for getting a T-6 formation airborne. Option 1,
formation takeoff, commonly referred to as a “wing takeoff,” is the most common; option 2,
interval takeoff, is generally driven by wind requirements; and option 3, instrument trail
departure, is used when WX (ceiling and visibility) does not allow an interval or formation
takeoff. See AFI 11-2T-6, Volume 3 for formation takeoff restrictions.
9.31.3. Procedure. Details regarding the three T-6 formation departure options follow:
9.31.3.1. Wing Takeoff.

9.31.3.1.1. Place number 2 on the upwind side for takeoff when the crosswind
component exceeds 5 knots to keep number 2 from entering number 1’s wake
turbulence in the event number 2 falls behind. If crosswinds are not a factor, number
1 should consider placing number 2 on the outside of the first turn if entering IMC. If
crosswinds and IMC are not factors, number 1 should consider placing number 2 on
the inside of the 1st turn.
9.31.3.1.2. Number 1 takes the center of one-half of the runway and taxis a sufficient
distance down to allow number 2 room to maneuver into position.
9.31.3.1.3. Number 2 lines up on the fingertip line with a minimum of 20 feet of
lateral wingtip clearance. Number 2 gives a head nod to signify ready for run-up.
Number 1 gives the run-up signal and looks at number 2. Number 2 acknowledges the
signal with a head nod.
9.31.3.1.4. Both aircraft smoothly increase the PCL to approximately 30 percent
torque and check the engine. During the engine run-up, continue to primarily focus
attention outside the aircraft with only short glances inside the cockpit. Ensure the
aircraft does not creep forward.
9.31.3.1.5. Number 1 looks at number 2. When ready for takeoff, number 2 gives a
head nod.
9.31.3.1.6. Number 1 signals for brake release with a downward head nod. Both
aircraft then smoothly add power, with number 1 targeting 85-95 percent torque to
give number 2 a slight power advantage.
9.31.3.1.7. Number 2 uses power as required to maintain position on the takeoff roll.
Number 2 uses peripheral vision to detect lateral movement on the runway and
matches number 1’s pitch attitude. Stack level (helmet on the horizon) until the gear
and flaps are raised. If unable to maintain fore or aft position with normal power
settings, number 2 selects MAX power and performs an individual takeoff. Number 1
directs a rejoin when conditions permit.
9.31.3.1.8. When the formation is safely airborne with a minimum of 110 KIAS,
number 1 retracts both gear and flaps. Number 2 raises gear and flaps when climbing,
and number 1’s gear begins to retract. If overrunning number 1, number 2 may delay
retracting the gear. Number 2 never raises the gear before number 1. Number 2
performs the after takeoff check and assumes fingertip.
9.31.3.1.9. The first turn out of traffic is not initiated until a safe airspeed and
altitude.
9.31.3.2. Interval Takeoff.
9.31.3.2.1. Interval Takeoff. The interval takeoff may be accomplished from a static
lineup or a rolling takeoff.
9.31.3.2.2. Static Interval Takeoff. There is no visual signal for interval takeoff. After
number 2 gives a head nod that the run-up check is complete, number 1 releases
brakes and performs a MAX power takeoff. When ready for takeoff, lead will release
the brakes and perform a MAX power takeoff. Wingmen will ensure a minimum of 6
seconds spacing following lead, then perform a MAX power takeoff. Each aircraft
should steer toward (but not cross) the center of the runway after the start of the
takeoff roll. When airborne at a minimum of 160 KIAS, number 1 reduces power to
85 to 95 percent (or as required for an intermediate level-off) and maintains airspeed
of 160 KIAS.
9.31.3.2.3. Rolling Interval Takeoff. . When cleared for takeoff on a rolling interval
takeoff, number 1 will taxi onto the runway (centerline or offset) and perform a MAX
power rolling takeoff. As number 1 begins his takeoff roll, the wingman will taxi to
the runway (centerline or offset) and perform a MAX power rolling takeoff.
Wingmen will ensure a minimum of 6 seconds spacing after the preceding aircraft.
The remainder of the takeoff is the same as the static interval takeoff.
9.31.3.2.4. The rejoin may be a turning rejoin, a straight-ahead rejoin or, in some
cases, a combination of both. Number 2 must be alert for transitions from one type of
rejoin to another as number 1 follows the departure route. Unless briefed otherwise,
number 2 will rejoin to the inside of the first turn out of traffic. If necessary,
coordinate for an intermediate level off to maintain VMC until wingmen are joined.
Wingmen should maintain MAX power until sufficient overtake is achieved.
9.31.3.3. Instrument Trail Departure.
9.31.3.3.1. Same as wing takeoff through engine run-up.
9.31.3.3.2. During trail departures in IMC, sound instrument flying is the first
priority and must not be sacrificed to perform secondary tasks.
9.31.3.3.3. All formation members must strictly adhere to the briefed climb speeds,
power settings, altitudes, headings, and turn points.
9.31.3.3.4. If task saturated or disoriented, number 2 ceases attempts to maintain
trail, immediately concentrates on flying the instrument departure, and notifies
number 1.
9.31.3.3.5. Takeoff spacing is no less than 20 seconds.
9.31.3.3.6. Each aircraft climbs at MAX power at 160 KIAS and uses 30 degrees
bank for all turns.
9.31.3.3.7. Until join up or level off, both number 1 and number 2 call when passing
even-numbered thousands of feet (for example, 2,000, 4,000, etc.) and when initiating
heading changes. In order to maintain lateral separation, number 2 will delay all
turns/heading changes as announced by number 1 by the number of seconds delayed
on the takeoff (no less than 20 seconds). Acknowledgments are not required, but both
aircraft should monitor radio transmissions and the progress of the other member of
the formation. Immediately correct any deviations from the departure route.
9.31.3.3.8. During the climb and through level off, each aircraft maintains positional
awareness using NAVAIDs and all available aircraft systems, including the clock,
TAS, and GPS.
9.31.3.3.9. Number 2 will maintain a minimum of 1,000 feet of altitude separation

from number 1 until visual. If number 2 cannot maintain 1,000-foot separation and
comply with the minimum safe altitude, number 1 may reduce the vertical separation
to 500 feet.
9.31.3.3.10. If a visual join up cannot be accomplished by level off, number 1
requests 1,000 feet of altitude separation between the aircraft in the formation until
number 2 is visual.
9.31.3.3.11. Number 2 rejoins only after visually acquiring number 1 and receiving
permission. After the rejoin, number 2 sets TAS and transponder to STBY.
9.32. Wing Work Exercise (WW Ex).
9.32.1. Objectives.
9.32.1.1. Number 1. Develop judgment and skill necessary to lead a formation through
varying flight regimes. Use a combination of smooth changes in pitch, bank, and wing
loading (Gs) to provide a stable platform with consistent, predictable roll rates, and no
sudden changes in back pressure. Clear visually while planning for the formation
(navigation, next maneuver, etc.) and monitor number 2. Clear, plan, and monitor.
9.32.1.2. Number 2. Maintain or constantly correct back to fingertip. Make proper
power and flight control inputs using small, smooth, deliberate inputs. Trim should be
used to allow ease in maintaining position. Avoid tendency to focus or stare at any single
reference. Practice visually scanning all of number 1’s aircraft for position references and
visually clear through number 1.
9.32.2. Description. The WW Ex is typically flown as series maneuvers in a targeted
airspeed range. Eventually maneuver up to 2 to 3 Gs and approximately 90 degrees AOB as
proficiency improves. Initially, proficiency may limit both number 1 and number 2 to lower
levels of the WW Ex. Practice at the lower levels of the WW Ex gives number 2 a reduced
pitch, bank, and G environment to learn to recognize deviations and develop the ability to
correct. This allows number 2 to build the skills necessary to effectively and efficiently
correct and maintain fingertip. See Table 9.1.
Table 9.1. T-6 WW Ex Training Levels and Parameters.
Bank
Level Angle Pitch G Loading Airspeed
I ~ 0º – 30º ~ +/- 10º ~1–2G 120 KIAS
minimum
II ~0º – 60º ~ +/- 25º ~1–2G 120 KIAS
minimum
III ~ 0º – 90º ~ +/- 35º ~1–3G 120 KIAS
minimum
9.32.3. Procedure. Levels provide a measure of difficulty of the exercise. They provide a
building-block approach to develop fingertip flying skills and proficiency. Levels also
provide a way to set training objectives.
9.32.4. Number 1.
9.32.4.1. Power Control and (or) Energy. Target energy level is the middle of the area
altitude block between approximately 180 to 200 KIAS. Normally, number 1 sets power
to maintain desired energy level. As a guide, use approximately 50 to 55 percent torque
in a low area (~8,000 to 10,000 feet MSL) and approximately 55 to 60 percent torque in a
high area (~16,000 to 18,000 feet MSL). Weather or other environmental conditions may
affect the actual energy level in the area. Avoid extremely low or high power settings
during the WW Ex as it limits the ability of number 2 to adjust for deviations.
9.32.4.2. Maneuvering. During initial training, use smaller bank angles and
conservative climbs and/or descents (Level I WW Ex) to stay within number 2’s
capabilities. As number 2’s proficiency allows, increase to Level II or Level III. Avoid
advancing to higher levels too quickly; develop and master proficiency at lower levels
first. For Levels II and III, initially blend pitch with roll to the desired bank angle. Hold
the bank angle as the nose of the aircraft drops through the horizon. As the nose
approaches the desired nose-low pitch attitude, begin the rollout and reverse direction
while maintaining positive G. Attempt to pull through the horizon in a near wings-level
attitude. Use bank angle to aid pitch control.
9.32.4.2.1. Do not stair-step or ratchet roll rates into or out of turns. Initiate changes
in bank smoothly then continue using moderate, positive movements. Remain
predictable. Do not begin a rollout and suddenly roll back into the bank. If a turn
must be continued for area orientation, stop the roll, pause momentarily to allow
number 2 to adjust, then begin the roll smoothly back into the turn.
9.32.4.2.2. Visually clear the flight path before commencing the turn. The WW Ex
may be started with either a blend of pull and roll into a climb or descent, depending
on energy level. If starting from a low kinetic or high potential energy level, smoothly
increase bank angle, and allow the nose of the aircraft to slice to the desired nose-low
attitude, and then begin the WW Ex with a vertical pull-up as stated above.
9.32.4.2.3. Consider environmental conditions, such as sun angle and cloud layers,
and plan formation maneuvering to avoid them as able.
9.32.4.2.4. Do not stare at number 2, but continually monitor number 2’s position
and status. Use the mirrors if necessary, and communicate with the other
crewmember when required to assist monitoring number 2. Be ready to take evasive
action and (or) direct a breakout, if required.
9.32.5. Number 2.
9.32.5.1. Power Control and (or) Energy. The ability to fly well in close formation is
the result of recognizing, anticipating, and applying small corrections. Make continuous,
small, and controlled corrections to stay in position. Always keep the aircraft trimmed
and coordinated. Make small, precise power changes instead of using large power bursts.
9.32.5.2. Maneuvering. To remain in proper position, changes in bank (roll), backstick
pressure (pull), and power must be blended as necessary into one simultaneous action.
9.32.5.2.1. Turns Away. When number 1 turns away, number 2’s aircraft is out side
number 1’s turn circle. If corrections are not made, AA decreases (number 2’s aircraft
moves aft of the fingertip line) and range increases (lateral spacing increases).
Number 2 must match number 1’s roll rate, increase back pressure and climb to
maintain vertical position. This requires an increase in power to maintain airspeed
and position. When number 1 stops the roll-in, number 2 must reduce power as the
relative climb is complete.
9.32.5.2.2. Turns Into. Add slight forward pressure to maintain vertical position
and reduce power. Be aware of collision potential at all times. The collision potential
increases in turbulence or while flying maximum performance maneuvers or
maneuvers that are not frequently flown.
9.33. Close Trail Exercise (Figure 9.22.).
9.33.1. Objective. Practice maneuvering with number 2 in a position below and behind
number 1. Number 1 will maneuver similarly to the WW Ex.
9.33.2. Description. Close trail spacing is one to two aircraft lengths (nose to tail) behind
number 1, just below number 1’s wake turbulence and prop wash. To prevent encountering
wake turbulence, avoid flying high in the close trail position. Number 1 may direct close trail
from fingertip, route, or echelon.
Figure 9.22. Close Trail.
9.33.3. Procedure—Number 1. Close trail maneuvering limitations are the same as the
WW Ex. Direct number 2 to the close trail position with a radio call (“Texan 2, go close
trail). Wait for number 2 to call “in” before maneuvering. Maneuver in a smooth, predictable
manner similar to the WW Ex using combinations of turns and lazy-eight-type maneuvers.
Maintain positive G at all times. Avoid sudden releases of back stick pressure, rapid or
inconsistent turn rates, and rapid turn reversals. Power and maneuvering requirements are
identical to fingertip formation.
9.33.4. Procedure—Number 2. Acknowledge number 1’s directive with a radio call, “2.”
Maneuver into the close trail position. Once established in the close trail position, advise
number 1 with a radio call (“Texan 2, in”).
9.33.4.1. Maintain position primarily with power. As number 1 maneuvers, anticipate
power changes. Additionally, during turns at higher G, a small amount of lead or lag
pursuit may be necessary to maintain position.
9.33.4.2. Use the relationship between the tips of number 1’s horizontal tail and the
underside of number 1’s wing to estimate nose-tail separation. At approximately two ship
lengths, the tips of number 1’s elevator line up about one-third of the way out the wings
(just past the dihedral break in the wing). As a vertical reference, the engine exhaust
stacks should be visible directly on top of the wing. Any space between the engine
exhaust stacks and the wing is too high, and the possibility of encountering wake
turbulence increases. Other references include making a “T” out of the aft edge of the
speed brake and the UHF/VHF antenna, or placing number 1’s wingtips between the
AOA indexer and magnetic compass.
9.33.4.3. Closure rates are difficult to recognize and correct when directly behind and
below number 1. If excessive spacing develops, do not attempt to correct forward with
power alone. Add power and establish a small amount of lead pursuit if in a turn. If in a
wings-level attitude, move off to one side to obtain a better visual perspective of number
1’s aircraft. The two most important points to remember are to remain below number 1’s
wake turbulence and always keep number 1 in sight.
9.33.5. Reform from Close Trail. Number 1 may direct number 2 to fingertip with a
shallow wing rock (visual) or radio call. Unless directed otherwise, number 2 goes to
fingertip on the left side if number 1 is in a wings-level attitude or to fingertip on the inside
of the turn. Number 1 may also direct number 2 to route or fighting wing with a radio call.
Number 1 maneuvers in a smooth, predictable manner and avoids significant power changes
until number 2 is in the directed formation position.
9.34. Pitchout.
9.34.1. Objective. Provide spacing for rejoin practice.
9.34.2. Description. Normally a level turn, approximately 180-degrees, performed
sequentially, to provide spacing between the aircraft.
9.34.3. Procedure.
9.34.3.1. Number 1. Direct a pitchout with a visual signal or radio call. Clear in the
direction of the desired turn and begin a turn away from number 2, using approximately
60 degrees of bank and sufficient G to establish the desired airspeed. Slight climbs or
descents are acceptable for energy management. The degrees of turn may be adjusted for
weather, area orientation, and (or) energy management. Do not sacrifice clearing to
maintain precise altitude control or an exact 180-degree turn. Allow enough time for
number 2 to complete the pitchout and then direct the rejoin with a radio call or visual
signal.
9.34.3.2. Number 2. Stay visual. Delay 2 to 3 seconds or as briefed, which should
provide approximately 500 to 1,000 feet of separation at rollout, then turn to follow
number 1. Delaying 5 to 7 seconds will result in approximately 1,500 to 2,000 foot
spacing. After approximately 90 degrees of turn, vary bank and back stick pressure to
attain desired spacing and roll out behind and slightly below number 1. Place number 1
approximately one to two ship widths above the horizon. Rejoin when directed.
9.35. Take Spacing. “Take spacing” is used to put number 2 in a trail position when a pitchout
is not practical. Number 1 directs number 2 to take spacing with a visual signal or radio call
(“Texan 2, take spacing”). Spacing can be achieved with a combination of maneuvering and
deceleration by number 2 and (or) acceleration by number 1. Do not exceed the limits of
standard formation (100 feet vertical and 6,000 feet horizontal) if outside the MOA.
9.35.1. One technique is for number 1 to accelerate and direct number 2 to take spacing.
Number 2 reduces power and (or) uses speed brake to slow and increase spacing. Another
technique is for number 2 to take spacing by performing a series of “S” turns behind and
below number 1’s prop wash.
Table 9.2. Summary of Formation Position Descriptions, References, and Flight Control
Inputs.
Formation Description/ Vertical Stack Angle (Line) Distance (Spacing)

Position References/Flight
Control Inputs
Fingertip Description Slightly low 30◦ aft of LAB 10 feet
References Exhaust stack Lead’s exhaust FCP pilot look down
on top of wing stack bracketed by lead’s horizontal
pitot tube and aft stabilizer leading edge or
position light visualize 10 feet
between wingtips
Flight Control Elevator PCL Ailerons
Route Description Level with lead 30◦ aft of LAB up 2 ship widths out to 500
to LAB feet (stable)
References FCP pilot Strobe on spinner
2 ship widths out to 500
helmet on up to strobe on FCP
ft
horizon pilot helmet
Flight Control Elevator PCL Ailerons
Echelon Description Co-altitude LAB to 30◦ aft ~40 feet
unless route
turn into which
requires just
low enough to
maintain visual
References Lead bisects Half of CFS door Imagine 1 x T-6
horizon showing wingspan between
aircraft
Flight Control Ailerons PCL Elevator
Turning Description 2 ship widths 3 aspect/30◦AA Decreasing distance
Rejoin below until at fingertip position
References Put lead 2 ship Tail bisecting outer
widths above wing until you can Check airspeed, 20–30
horizon see the star or “SA” knots overtake until 500
in the saddle feet
(corrects vertical
AND angle)
Flight Control Elevator Ailerons PCL
Section 9F—T-6 Extended Trail and Preparatory Exercise Procedures
9.36. General. This section introduces formation exercises and procedures to enhance
formation training and ET maneuvering. It applies the building-block approach to ET training
based on fundamental formation concepts discussed in section 9C, Maneuvering Fundamentals,
of this manual.
9.37. Range Estimation. Table 9.3. gives suitable range estimation cues. Some of the cockpit
tools used to compare aircraft size includes the AOA indexer and the standby magnetic compass.
Externally, the anti-collision strobe light flash guard on the leading edge of the wingtip also
provides a good fixed reference to estimate range.
Table 9.3. Range Estimation.
Range Other aircraft is: Other

300 feet Width of AOA indexer turned Detail visible (canopy details, pilots). Tail flash
sideways or standby magnetic easily readable (letters more clear than numbers).
compass.
500 feet 2/3 width of AOA indexer turned Normal fingertip references apparent. Canopy
sideways or 2/3 width of standby detail discernible. Letters on tail are discernible
magnetic compass. Aircraft size (numbers barely discernible).
approximates four times the size of
the wingtip anti-collision strobe
flash guard.
1,000 feet Approximately twice the size of the Tail flash not visible.
wingtip anti-collision strobe flash
guard.
9.38. Blind Exercise.
9.38.1. Objective. Demonstrate the correct lost sight procedures in the event one or both
aircraft lose sight of each other.
9.38.2. Description. The exercise exposes pilots to a real lost sight situation in a scripted
setup to practice the procedures, including verbal coordination, required to facilitate safe
separation and an expeditions rejoin. The ensuing possibility for a high aspect rejoin can
effectively demonstrate lateral and vertical turning room requirements in relation to turn
circle geometry, range, closure, AA, LOS, HCA, pursuit options, and out-of-plane
maneuvering.
9.38.3. Procedure.
9.38.3.1. Altitude . As required, 100 feet.
9.38.3.2. Airspeed . 180 5 KIAS.
9.38.3.3. Heading . Reference heading 5 degrees.
9.38.3.4. Power . Approximately 50 percent torque (as required to maintain 180 5
KIAS).
9.38.3.5. Exercise Setup. Setup the exercise from fingertip or route formation. Before
the exercise begins, number 1 announces the exercise, “Texan, standby blind exercise,
reference heading xxx.” Number 2 acknowledges “2.” When ready to begin, number 1
gives the execution command, “Texan, turn away,” and number 2 acknowledges “2.”
Both aircraft then turn away from each other using 45 degrees of bank to a heading 90
degrees from the reference heading. Number 2 calls blind with altitude after losing sight.
For example, “Texan 2, blind, nine thousand.” Because number 2 is assumed to be
visual unless calling blind, number 2 conveys the situation with a minimum of “blind”
and “altitude”. The immediate concern must be to establish altitude separation between
the aircraft. When number 1 is also blind, number 1 calls blind and immediately
establishes altitude separation of at least 1,000 feet for each aircraft. For example, “Texan
1, blind, nine thousand; Texan 2 maintain eight thousand.”
9.38.3.6. Altitude Deconfliction. Once altitude deconfliction is established and
acknowledged, the potential for collision within the formation has been effectively
eliminated as long as both aircraft remain at the assigned altitude. Only after altitude
assignments are established and acknowledged will number 1 begin coordination to
rendezvous the flight. Number 2 must inform number 1 if unable to expeditiously attain
and maintain the assigned altitude. It is assumed that number 2 is complying with the
altitude assignment unless informing number 1 otherwise.
9.38.3.7. Vertical Buffer. Once a vertical buffer is established, number 1 may begin to
coordinate for a rejoin by establishing common headings and (or) a rendezvous point
according to the preflight briefing (for example, center radial or DME, orbits over a
ground reference, etc.). The key to expeditious visual acquisition in a blind situation is
effective communication from both aircraft within the formation (heading, radial, DME,
ground references, etc). Number 1 is responsible for coordinating the rejoin. Avoid
unnecessary radio communication, while remaining cognizant that extended pauses on
the radio may lead to lack of positional awareness and excess time trying to achieve
visual acquisition.
9.38.3.8. Regain Visual. Whoever regains visual first should talk the other pilot’s eyes
onto the other aircraft by using relative clock position (bearing) from the blind aircraft,
elevation (in degrees) and range. For example, “Texan 2, visual is at your 10 o’clock, 20
high, 2 miles.” If number 2 is visual but number 1 is still blind, number 2 may provide
recommended actions to facilitate visual between both aircraft (for example, “Texan 1,
recommend reference 090 heading, visual will be at your right 3 o’clock, slightly low,
3,000 feet”). The FL must ensure the preflight briefing includes a thorough discussion of
visual cues and ways to accomplish a high aspect rejoin. Figure 9.23. shows a graphical
depiction of the blind exercise.
Figure 9.23. Blind Exercise.
9.38.3.9. The exercise concludes with both aircraft visual, and number 1 directing a
rejoin or another position before proceeding to the next exercise or profile event. A
terminate communication drill is not necessary because visual calls effectively signal an
end to the blind situation and a transition to visual formation. If at any point after calling
visual, visual contact is lost and not quickly regained, apply the appropriate blind
procedures again to ensure separation.
9.38.4. Technique. Figure 9.24. shows a recommended technique to turn a high aspect
rejoin scenario into a more normal rejoin situation.
Figure 9.24. High Aspect Rejoin Technique.
9.39. Extended Trail (ET). ET is divided into three distinct levels that demonstrate practical
application of the fundamental formation concepts in a building block approach.
9.39.1. Objectives. Use lead, lag, and pure pursuit options, combined with lift vector
placement to practice three-dimensional maneuvering in relation to another aircraft.
9.39.1.1. Number 1. Provide a stable platform with consistent, predictable roll rates and
no sudden changes in back stick pressure.
9.39.1.2. Number 2. Maneuver within the fighting wing cone through proper pursuit
curve and lift vector application with a fixed power setting.
9.39.2. Description. ET is flown from the fighting wing position. The process of analyzing
and solving angular, range, closure, and LOS problems requires an understanding of the
consequences of flying each pursuit option and lift vector placement.
9.39.3. Procedures.
9.39.3.1. General Training Rules.
9.39.3.2. The Bubble. A spherical safety airspace buffer surrounding each aircraft. The
300-foot bubble is a safety of flight limit that surrounds each aircraft. If an aircraft is
inside the 300-foot bubble during ET, call “knock-it-off.”
9.39.3.2.1. The ET maneuvering limit is 500-foot slant range. Momentary deviations
within 500 feet are acceptable if it is quickly recognized and remedied. If unable to
quickly regain the fighting wing cone, call “terminate.”
9.39.3.2.2. Abrupt turn reversals by number 1 are prohibited. Abrupt turn reversals
are turns in one direction followed by a rapid, unanticipated roll in the opposite
direction.
9.39.3.2.3. ET is flown two-ship only.
9.39.3.2.4. Do not maneuver over-the-top in Level III if number 1 is blind or number
2 is not in a position to go over-the-top. Instead, number 1 transitions to Level II
maneuvering until both of these requirements are satisfied prior to initiating an over-
the-top maneuver (see Table 9.4.).
9.39.3.2.5. Minimum airspeed for extended trail is 100 knots. High power settings
(greater than 60 percent torque), combined with high AOA (stick shaker), and slow
airspeed (less than approximately 40 KIAS), can result in an unintentional torque roll.
If airspeed, G, and AOA are not sufficient to continue a maneuver, terminate or
knock-it-off as appropriate.
Table 9.4. ET Exercise Training Levels and Parameters.
Power
Level Maneuvers Bank G loading Setting
I (initial proficiency) Stable Turn 30 to 60 ~ 2-Gs ~50% (fixed)
degrees
II (limited proficiency) Turns, Modified ~120 degrees Moderate 85% (low
Lazy 8 Maximum area); MAX
(high area)
III (desired proficiency) Modified Cuban As required As required 85% (low
Eight, Loop, area); MAX
Cloverleaf, (high area)
Barrel Roll
9.39.3.3. ET Entry. At an appropriate energy level (180 to 200 KIAS and
approximately the middle of the altitude block), number 1 directs the ET with a radio
call, “Texan 2, go ET level 1/2/3.” Number 2 responds with “2.” Number 1 makes a
moderate G turn away from number 2 at MAX power. Number 2 maneuvers into the
fighting wing cone and calls, “Texan 2, in” before number 1 begins maneuvering. Both
aircraft then set and maintain the briefed power setting throughout the exercise.
9.39.3.4. ET Transition or Termination. When the desired learning objectives are met,
number 1 may direct a transition to another level of maneuvering or terminate.
9.39.3.4.1. To transition to another level of maneuvering, number 1 calls the new
level, “Texan, go ET level 3,” and number 2 acknowledges “2.” Set the new, briefed
power setting if required after number 2 acknowledges the transition.
9.39.3.4.2. If number 2 wants number 1 to discontinue maneuvering (for example,
loss of spacing), notify number 1 with a “terminate” call and state the reason. Number
1 directs the formation as required and may subsequently resume maneuvering or
initiate a reform/rejoin.
9.39.3.4.3. To end the exercise, number 1 or number 2 calls “terminate.” Number 1
may reduce power when number 2 is in sight or when number 2 acknowledges the
terminate call. Number 2 will then maintain the fighting wing position until Number
1 directs a reform or another formation position.
9.39.4. Post-ET Check. After each ET exercise, number 1 conducts a fuel and G check
using the radio. For example, number 1 states “Texan, ops check; Texan is 800, 4 Gs,” and
number 2 responds, “Texan 2 same” (if within 50 pounds and .5 Gs) or “Texan 2, 800, 5
Gs.” Report the maximum G reading on all G checks. Reset the G meter if no over-G
observed.
9.39.5. Flying ET—General. Each pilot is responsible for taking the necessary action to
avoid a collision; however, it is number 2’s primary responsibility not to hit number 1.
Because of the dynamic nature of ET, the potential for collision is increased, and flying ET
requires uncompromising flight discipline. Any pilot in either aircraft must call “terminate”
or “knock-it-off” if appropriate.
9.39.5.1. Number 1.
9.39.5.1.1. Number 1 is a training platform for number 2. Continually monitor G
loading, and remember that number 2 typically requires more G than number 1 to
maintain position. Generally, look for number 2 behind the wing in the 4 to 5 o’clock
or 7 to 8 o’clock position, and be more vigilant if number 2 strays from the cone
parameters. If necessary, terminate or transition to the next lower level of ET until
number 2 can maintain the fighting wing cone. Monitor number 2’s aspect, range,
closure, HCA, and LOS for the possibility of an inadvertent 3/9 line or bubble
violation. Do not delay calling KIO if it is evident one of these situations is about to
occur. It is far more desirable to KIO prior to the excursion than to see the situation
developing and wait for it to happen.
9.39.5.1.2. Tight, high-G maneuvers are of little value if number 2 is unable to
maintain proper position. Never maneuver in an unpredictable or abrupt manner that
may force number 2 inside the bubble or forward of the 3/9 line.
9.39.5.2. Number 2. Generally, use varying degrees of lead pursuit to maintain the
fighting wing cone during ET. Closure, range, aspect, HCA, and LOS rate changes can
occur rapidly, so be prepared to maneuver accordingly. Pause momentarily to see how
rapidly number 1 is moving in the canopy (LOS/LOS rate), predict number 1’s flight
path, and then maneuver by selecting the appropriate pursuit option and proper lift vector
placement. Use pure and lag pursuit judiciously to avoid high aspect, HCA, and LOS
rates. Normally, little time is spent in lag pursuit. Use terminate procedures to cease
maneuvering if unable to maintain position.
9.39.6. Flying ET (Level I).
9.39.6.1. Number 1. Begin ET Level I with a radio call (“Texan 2, go ET, level 1”).
After number 2 acknowledges the Level I call, enter a moderate G turn of approximately
2 Gs. Set power to maintain a 30- to 60-degree bank turn with approximately 50% power.
9.39.6.2. Number 2. As number 1 turns away after calling for the exercise, maneuver to
the fighting wing cone, call “Texan 2 in” and attempt to use the same power setting as
number 1 to explore and maneuver within the fighting wing cone using the appropriate
pursuit geometry and lift vector placement. Notice how difficult it is to stabilize in any
one position without use of power. Use pursuit options and lift vector placement to stay
within parameters and explore the quadrants of the fighting wing cone.
9.39.7. Flying ET (Level II).
9.39.7.1. Number 1. Begin ET Level II with a radio call (“Texan 2, go ET level 2”).
After number 2 acknowledges the Level II call, select MAX power, and turn away from
number 2. After number 2 transmits that they are established in the fighting wing cone,
reset the power at 85 percent torque. For low and medium altitudes, 85 percent torque is
a good power setting to maintain energy. Higher altitudes and air temperatures or a low
initial energy state may require the use of MAX power during maneuvering. In these
instances, number 1 makes a radio call directing the use of a higher power setting if not
previously briefed. Once the desired learning objectives have been met, transition to
Level III maneuvering or terminate the maneuver.
9.39.7.2. Number 2. As number 1 turns away after calling for the exercise, maneuver to
the fighting wing cone, call “Texan 2 in” and set 85 percent torque (unless briefed or
directed otherwise). During maneuvers, predict number 1’s flight path and maneuver in
relation to it. This requires constant analysis of number 1’s POM as well as relative
aspect, range, closure, HCA, and LOS. Realize that pursuit curves exist in both the
vertical and horizontal planes.
9.39.7.2.1. Sometimes, exaggerated pursuit curve adjustments are required to remain
in position. Normally, these type of corrections are only required for a short period of
time. A move toward lag pursuit may generally be the best solution to mitigate these
problems, but most of the time merely using less lead pursuit will adequately solve
the problem.
9.39.7.2.2. Intentional lag rolls are generally not required to maintain the cone.
Transitory periods in number 1’s high or low 6 o’clock position are acceptable;
however, avoid stagnating in the 5 to 7 o’clock position. Attempt to maintain the 30-
to 45-degree cone away from number 1’s high or low 6 o’clock position.
9.39.8. Flying ET (Level III).
9.39.8.1. Number 1. Begin ET Level III with a radio call (“Texan 2, go ET, level 3”).
After number 2 acknowledges the Level III call, select MAX power, and turn away from
number 2. After number 2 transmits that they are established in the fighting wing cone,
reset the power at 85 percent torque. For low and medium altitudes, 85 percent torque is a
good power setting to maintain energy. Higher altitudes and air temperatures or a low
initial energy state may require the use of MAX power during maneuvering. Maneuvers
are not flown with the precise parameters of contact flying. Attitudes and airspeeds vary
for effective training, area orientation, visual lookout, and smoothness. Consider number
2’s skill level while maneuvering to prevent exceeding number 2’s capabilities, but
challenge with hard turns, modified lazy eights, barrel rolls, and over-the-top maneuvers.
Number 1 will not attempt to force number 2 to overshoot. Ensure adequate airspeed is
available for over-the-top maneuvers.
9.39.8.2. Number 2.
9.39.8.2.1. As number 1 turns away after calling for the exercise, maneuver to the
fighting wing cone and call “Texan 2 in” and set 85 percent torque (unless briefed or
directed otherwise). Energy conservation becomes more critical at higher G and in
vertical maneuvering. There is a balance between the demands placed on the aircraft
to maintain position; either nose track or energy is more desirable during ET
maneuvering in order to maintain relative position on number 1. High AOA, buffet,
and (or) stick shaker indicate that the aircraft is losing energy. When encountering
these cues, prioritize between nose track and energy (airspeed). If nose track is more
important, sacrifice airspeed by pulling enough back stick pressure to facilitate
continued nose track. Realize that sacrificing airspeed for nose track may eventually
result in excessive spacing due to airspeed differential. If number 1 is in a hard turn,
relaxing back stick pressure may preserve energy or increase airspeed but can result
in excessive spacing. Conservation of energy is critical during Level III of the ET
exercise; the key is to maneuver in relation to number 1, and balance the need for
nose track or energy through proper pursuit selection and lift vector placement.
9.39.8.2.2. The concepts used in Levels I and II maneuvering apply equally to Level
III; however, the addition of over-the-top maneuvering makes the effect of gravity
more noticeable. If number 1’s nose position (longitudinal axis of the aircraft)
remains stationary below the horizon, the aircraft is likely to be accelerating for an
over-the-top maneuver. To properly manage this situation, it is generally prudent to
“lag at the bottom, lead at the top.” “Lagging at the bottom” means number 2 should
delay pulling up into the vertical until noticing LOS in the vertical (this will put
number 2’s nose in lag) to gain airspeed after number 1 has already started tracking
up in the vertical. At the apex of the maneuver, unless increased range is desired,
generally sacrifice airspeed for nose track and attempt to beat number 1’s nose
through the horizon (“lead at the top”). If range and plane are satisfactory, attempt to
hit over-the-top with the nose through the horizon before, or at the same time as
number 1, with fuselages aligned (zero HCA or angle off).
Section 9G—Formation Recoveries
9.40. Objective. Lead the formation to landing in a safe and efficient manner.
9.40.1. Description. Formation recoveries are similar to single-ship recoveries; however,
operational restrictions (for example, weather minimums, runway condition, winds, etc.) can
significantly change recovery options.
9.40.2. Procedure. Weather can significantly complicate the recovery. In-flight checks may
be difficult to perform in the weather (especially solo), and otherwise simple tasks such as
changing radio frequencies can be challenging. Number 1 must consider number 2’s
capabilities when developing the recovery plan. In general, number 1 should avoid low
power settings (less than 20 percent torque). Instead of reducing power below 20 percent
torque, the speed brake coupled with a higher power setting may be used.
9.40.3. Split-up in the Area.
9.40.3.1. If single ship recovery is required, number 1 verifies number 2 has positional
awareness, coordinates a new clearance for number 2, and clears number 2 off at the
appropriate time.
9.40.3.2. Number 1 normally coordinates the split-up in the MOA to minimize confusion
and radio transmissions on the recovery.
9.40.3.3. Number 2 will not depart the formation until number 1 has directed the
formation to split up. Even if the controller gives vectors to number 2, number 2 is part of
the formation and will not comply with or acknowledge air traffic controller directions
until number 1 splits the formation with a radio call “Texan 2, you are cleared off.”
9.40.4. Descent to VFR Pattern.
9.40.4.1. If weather allows, number 1 can direct number 2 to a position (route or fighting
wing) that enhances clearing and allows greater maneuverability.
9.40.4.2. Once established at pattern altitude inside the entry point for the VFR pattern,
all turns away from number 2 are echelon unless briefed otherwise.
9.40.4.3. Prior to initial, number 1 should position number 2 on the side opposite the
direction of the break. Number 1 should ensure the initial ground track is long enough to
allow number 2 to stabilize before the break.
9.40.4.4. At the break point, number 1 smoothly turns to the downwind and delays power
reduction until the turn is initiated.
9.40.4.5. After number 1’s break, number 2 waits a minimum of 5 seconds before
turning. Attain spacing in the break and on downwind. On downwind, number 2 should
be slightly outside number 1’s ground track.
9.40.4.6. Number 1 and 2 fly normal contact patterns. Perch points should be the same;
however, number 2 should not follow a poorly flown pattern. Go-around or breakout if
required.
9.40.4.7. In crosswinds, number 1 normally lands on the downwind side of the runway.
If crosswinds are not a factor, number 1 will land on the cold side of the runway (the side
that both aircraft will turnoff of after the aircraft is slowed sufficiently). Number 2 will
land on the hot side and clear cold when the aircraft has slowed sufficiently.
9.40.4.8. If splitting in the pattern after a formation low approach, the aircraft on the
inside of the pattern pulls closed or turns crosswind first. If number 2 is on the inside,
number 1 must visually clear in the turn direction, obtain clearance, and make a radio call
clearing off number 2. For example, “Texan 2, you are cleared off”. Number 2 replies,
“2” and proceeds as a single ship.
9.40.5. Formation Approach. Formation instrument procedures are the same as for a single
ship. Before starting an instrument penetration, number 1 determines if number 2 can be
crossed under after the penetration or if it is necessary to position number 2 on the upwind
side prior to penetration.
9.40.5.1. Number 1 should position number 2 on the upwind side of the landing runway.
9.40.5.2. Number 1 directs configuration with a radio call or visual signal. Use a radio
call in IMC. The gear and flaps are normally lowered with only one signal unless briefed
otherwise. Formation approaches are flown with TO flaps.
9.40.5.3. After internal confirmation, number 2 checks number 1’s configuration and
gives a thumbs-up signal. Number 1 checks number 2 and returns a thumbs-up if the
configuration looks good.
9.40.5.4. Number 1 transmits a “gear down” call for both aircraft after configuration
confirmation. Maintain 110 KIAS minimum, 120 KIAS recommended on the instrument
approach unless winds dictate otherwise.
9.40.6. Formation Landing. When out of the weather with the runway in sight, number 1
lines up on the center of one side of the runway and plans the touchdown approximately
1,000 feet down the runway.
9.40.6.1. Stack level no earlier than glide path intercept and when able to maintain VMC
throughout the landing, but no later than one-half mile from the runway. To stack level
vertically, place the pilot’s helmet in the corresponding cockpit on the horizon. To stack
level laterally, use the same references as on a formation takeoff. The increased lateral
spacing increases the margin of safety if problems occur during touchdown or landing
roll. (See Figure 9.25.)
Figure 9.25. Stacked Level on Final.
9.40.6.2. Approaching the overrun, number 2 should cross-check the runway. Number 2
uses number 1 as the primary reference during the flare and landing, but monitors the
runway and flight parameters to ensure a safe landing.
9.40.6.3. Number 1 gradually reduces power during the round out. Number 2 must
reduce power gradually to avoid falling out of position during the round out and flare.
9.40.6.4. On the runway, both aircraft maintain their side of the runway. Normal braking
technique is used regardless of the other aircraft’s deceleration rate. If number 2 passes
number 1 on landing roll, do not attempt to maintain position by over-braking.
9.40.6.5. On landing roll, if the trailing aircraft is on the cold side, that aircraft will clear
the preceding aircraft to the cold side when separation is established at a safe taxi speed
(“Texan 1, cleared cold”). If the trailing aircraft is on the hot side, the aircrew clears
themselves to cross.
9.40.7. After Landing. Following a formation landing, the formation normally clears the
runway, checks in on ground frequency, and then taxis back as a formation. If the flight was
split, either on recovery or in the VFR pattern, flight members normally taxi back single ship.
9.40.8. Formation Go-around.
9.40.8.1. Number 1 smoothly adds power to approximately 75 percent torque, follows
normal formation takeoff, and single-ship go-around procedures.
9.40.8.2. If required to offset during the go-around, number 1 should confirm number 2’s
position and ensure number 2 has safe altitude and airspeed during maneuvering.
9.40.9. Formation Missed Approach. The potential for lost wingman and for spatial
disorientation is high. Smoothly advance power to approximately 75 percent, as in the
formation go-around, and slowly and smoothly establish the missed approach pitch attitude.
Use the radio to direct gear and flap retraction. Ensure the minimum climb gradient is
maintained. Radio calls to number 2, stating current aircraft attitudes, can help avoid spatial
disorientation.
Section 9H—Abnormal Procedures
9.41. Introduction. Ultimately, each crew must deal with abnormal procedures within his or
her own cockpit. Other formation members can either complicate situations or provide valuable
mutual support. The key to dealing with abnormal situations is to maximize the positive aspects
of formation without letting the distractions hinder successful recovery.
9.42. Formation Takeoff Abnormalities.
9.42.1. Number 2 Passing Number 1. It may be difficult for number 2 to determine if
number 1 is experiencing a problem (loss of power, etc.) that requires an abort. If number 2
overruns number 1, number 2 selects MAX power and makes a separate takeoff while
maintaining their side of the runway. Follow number 1’s directions.
9.42.2. Number 2 Falling Behind Number 1. If number 2 falls behind on takeoff, number
2 may not have sufficient airspeed to rotate with number 1. In this case, number 2 cross-
checks engine instruments and the airspeed indicator, and aborts (if there is a problem) or
performs a separate takeoff. For a separate takeoff, number 2 assumes proper formation
position after becoming safely airborne.
9.42.3. Formation Takeoff Abort (One Aircraft). If an abort becomes necessary, maintain
aircraft control, ensure separation from the other aircraft (maintain the respective side of the
runway), and make a radio call as soon as practical (“Texan 2 aborting”). During an abort
situation, the aircraft continuing the takeoff maintains its side of the runway and executes a
normal single-ship takeoff in max power.
9.42.4. Interval Takeoff Abort. If number 1 aborts, make a radio call when practical. It
may be difficult for number 2 to recognize an abort using only visual cues. If number 2 has
not released brakes, number 2 reduces power and holds position until number 1 clears the
runway. If number 2 is rolling but below abort speed, an abort should be considered as there
may not be sufficient spacing to takeoff behind number 1. If number 2 is above abort speed,
continue the takeoff.
9.42.5. Element Abort. During a formation takeoff, there are normally no sympathetic
aborts after brake release. Sympathetic aborts can create situations in which the good aircraft
risks making the situation worse by adding another aircraft into the high-speed abort situation
when risk of collision, hot brakes, or blown tires increases. If it is necessary for the formation
to abort, each aircraft must maintain its respective side of the runway and make every effort
to stop prior to the end of the runway. Number 1 directs a formation abort with a radio call,
“Texan Flight: abort, abort, abort!” The operative word “flight” indicates both aircraft
should abort.
9.43. Airborne Emergencies (General). Maintain formation integrity to the maximum extent
possible during airborne emergencies. Mutual support is one of the primary reasons for
formation flight. If either member of the formation must return to the airfield prematurely, the
other aircraft should normally return and provide assistance. The FL may make exceptions to this
if the problem is minor and the field is in sight or if the weather conditions would complicate a
safe formation return. If an aircraft malfunction occurs while in fingertip, increase aircraft
separation before handling the emergency if weather allows. The formation member with an
abnormal situation advises other members in the formation of the problem, intentions, and
assistance required. In VMC, without engine problems, the emergency aircraft generally leads
back to a straight-in. In IMC, the emergency aircraft generally leads back to an instrument
approach. Modify as appropriate based on the type of problem (for example, a PEL may be the
best recovery option).
9.43.1. Number 1. When a malfunction is discovered, call KIO and inform number 2 of the
problem as soon as practical. In general, the aircraft with a malfunction should be given the
number 1 position. This allows the affected aircraft to handle the emergency without the
requirement to maintain position. The number 1 position should be offered three times: (1)
when the emergency occurs, (2) on recovery when below the weather and able to navigate
VFR to the field, and (3) when on final with the field in sight. Except in IMC, avoid flying
closer than route formation as number 2. If number 2 refuses the number 1 position at any
time, offer it at each successive point as described above. Except in very unusual
circumstances, do not attempt to land in formation with a disabled aircraft.
9.43.2. Number 2. When a malfunction is discovered, call KIO, and inform number 1 of the
problem as soon as practical. Normally, take the number 1 position when offered if able to
communicate and navigate. Generally, avoid flying in the number 2 position with an
emergency. If the situation dictates flying as number 2, avoid flying closer than route spacing
when possible.
9.44. Engine Problems. With engine problems, the emergency aircraft leads back to an ELP. If
weather or field conditions at the intended recovery runway are unknown, the good aircraft may
be sent ahead to report on airfield conditions and radio back to the emergency aircraft.
9.45. Physiological Incident. The bad aircraft typically leads back. The unaffected formation
member uses caution and good judgment, especially if penetration of IMC is required.
9.46. Bird Strike. If a bird strike appears imminent, do not attempt evasive maneuvers into the
other aircraft in an effort to miss the bird. The primary concern is midair collision avoidance and
aircraft separation. If a bird strike does occur, ensure aircraft separation before handling the
emergency. Consider executing a wing landing if forward visibility is severely restricted.
9.47. Midair Collision. If a midair collision occurs between formation members, they will not
act as chase ships for each other. Number 1 coordinates separate clearances and chase ships.
9.48. Spatial Disorientation.
9.48.1. Number 1. If suffering from spatial disorientation, immediately tell number 2, and
transfer aircraft control to the other pilot if practical. If transfer of aircraft control is not an
option, confirm attitude with the other crewmember or number 2. If symptoms persist,
terminate the mission and recover by the simplest and safest means possible.
9.48.2. Number 2. If suffering from spatial disorientation, immediately tell number 1, and
transfer aircraft control to the other pilot if practical. Number 1 advises number 2 of aircraft
attitude, altitude, heading, and airspeed. If symptoms persist and conditions permit, number 1
should establish straight-and-level flight for 30-60 seconds. If possible, number 1 may try to
get the formation to VMC conditions. If the condition persists, consider offering the number
1 position. If unable to maintain position, and number 2 becomes a threat to number 1, a lost
wingman should be initiated. As number 2, be cautious when initiating lost wingman
procedures as this could trigger further spatial disorientation. If necessary, terminate the
mission and recover by the simplest and safest means possible.
9.49. Aircraft Strobe Lights. At times, number 1’s strobe lights may distract number 2, which
could lead to spatial disorientation. Number 2 advises number 1 if the strobes are a hazard and
number 1 turns them off.
9.50. Icing. If number 2 experiences icing, notify number 1. Number 1 climbs or descends to
avoid cruising in icing conditions.
9.51. NORDO.
9.51.1. When a member of the formation has total radio failure, the NORDO aircraft
normally receives or retains number 2 position. The flight member with the operative radio
leads the NORDO aircraft into the overhead pattern, notifies the RSU or tower, and makes a
low approach to the landing runway. The NORDO aircraft flies a normal pattern and landing.
If weather prevents an overhead pattern, execute a straight-in or instrument approach as
appropriate for the weather. When number 1 clears number 2 off with a visual signal, number
2 assumes landing clearance and lands normally.
9.51.2. With total radio failure while in fingertip, number 2 should maneuver to route, attract
the attention of number 1, and give the appropriate visual signals. Terminate the mission as
soon as practical, and lead the NORDO aircraft to the base of intended landing.
9.51.3. If in other than fingertip or route when radio failure occurs and a rejoin is not
anticipated, the NORDO aircraft should cautiously attempt to rejoin (no closer than route).
Rock wings (attention in the air) and move no closer than route until directed. Once joined,
the NORDO aircraft gives the appropriate visual signals. Number 1 should terminate the
mission as soon as practical, and lead the NORDO aircraft to the base of intended landing.
9.51.4. If diversion is necessary with a NORDO aircraft, number 1 shows the pink pages in
the in-flight guide followed by the number of the diversion base. Number 2 repeats the
number to signal understanding.
9.52. Ejection. If ejection is required, the other aircraft acts as the on-scene commander until
relieved or bingo fuel is reached. Local in-flight guides will outline local specifics.
Chapter 10
NIGHT FLYING
10.1. Introduction. The techniques and procedures for night flying are basically the same as
for day flying, but vigilance must be increased, mostly due to visibility restrictions. The
reduction in visibility hampers the ability to see inside the cockpit (checklists, instruments, etc.)
and outside the cockpit (horizon, landmarks, etc.). These limitations can cause frustration and
discomfort, but practice and use of basic night flying techniques aid in adaptation to the night
environment in the T-6 and follow-on aircraft.
10.2. Briefing. Emphasize visibility restrictions. Include a discussion of night considerations,
foreground operations, taxi, takeoff, spatial disorientation, arrival (instrument approach or
overhead), landing, and abnormal procedures.
10.3. Night Flying Techniques.
10.3.1. Ensure all transparencies are clean. Make certain ground personnel remove spots and
dirt on the windshield. Scratches and dirt cause reflections and can be disorienting during
night ops.
10.3.2. During ground ops, ensure all required exterior and interior lights are operational.
10.3.3. Keep cockpit lights turned down to a comfortable level. As vision adapts to night
conditions, turn lights down to the lowest possible level that still allows instruments to be
easily read. This is especially important in the traffic pattern as canopy glare from
excessively bright interior lights can seriously restrict visibility.
10.3.4. Know the location of all important switches and control levers by touch. Use caution
to prevent operation of the wrong switch in a dim or dark cockpit.
10.3.5. Always carry an operable flashlight. With electrical failure, a flashlight may be the
only means of checking STBY instruments, checklists, and maps. Store the flashlight in a
readily accessible place.
10.3.6. The T-6 lighting system consists of red and white lights for the cockpit and
instrument panel. These lights can be adjusted for intensity and are used separately or in
combination to optimize cockpit lighting. To avoid eyestrain and keep canopy reflections to a
minimum, adjust instrument lights to the minimum level necessary. As eyes adapt to the
dark, even a momentary glance at a bright light can destroy this adaptation. It can be difficult
to distinguish objects outside the cockpit until the eyes readapt.
10.4. Inspections and Checks. Cockpit organization is more important at night. The
instruments may not generate enough light to see items in a G suit hold-down strap or kneeboard.
The glare shield finger lights (if installed) can be manipulated, or the utility light may be placed
on the right canopy rail for increased lighting in the cockpit. It is important for night adaptation
to keep the intensity of the interior light as low as practical to prevent degrading night vision and
to minimize the possibility of spatial disorientation.
10.5. Taxiing. Review the airfield diagram before taxiing. Form a good mental picture of the
taxi route to the runway. Pilots have made wrong turns on strange fields at night. Taxi at slower
speeds due to reduced visibility. Use a minimum of 300 feet spacing and taxi on the taxiway
centerline. When taxiing toward a landing runway, taxi and landing lights can interfere with the
vision of pilots landing or taking off. It is common to extinguish the taxi and landing lights
while awaiting takeoff. Always stop if an area cannot be visually cleared or there is any doubt
about the safety of continued taxi.
10.6. Takeoff. Line up on the centerline of the runway and perform a static run-up. After brake
release, look down the runway. Avoid fixation to one side (at the runway lights). Immediately
after takeoff there may be a tendency to pitch over due to lack of forward lighting and a desire
for forward visibility. Do not hesitate to use ITO procedures if visual references are poor. Ensure
a positive climb before retracting the gear.
10.7. Optical Illusions. Misinterpretation of the altimeter at night may cause accidents. Careful
interpretation of the altimeter is absolutely necessary for safe flight at night as actual height
above the ground is difficult to confirm visually. Compensate for lack of visual references at
night by using a reduced descent rate or by calling out altitudes when descending close to the
ground. At altitude, the ability to see distant objects (for example, lights) is typically much better
at night than in the day. The ability to see lights at great distances causes several problems with
judging distances. A bright light on the ground can be seen as a star if far enough away.
Conversely, bright stars can often be mistaken for lights on the ground, especially in sparsely
populated areas. Lights displayed by other aircraft are usually easy to detect, but direction of
flight, distance, and closure rate are difficult to determine. Navigation and strobe lights can help
determine the direction of flight of other aircraft.
10.8. Spatial Disorientation. Pilots are much more susceptible to spatial disorientation at night
than during the day. See AFMAN 11-217, Volume 1, and paragraph 7.18. in this manual for
detailed information on causes and hazards of spatial disorientation.
10.9. Area Orientation. Use contact (visual) and instrument procedures and (or) techniques for
area orientation at night. Prominent landmarks, cities, or towns can sometimes be seen at night,
especially with high moon illumination. Review local hazards and minimum safe altitudes before
night flying.
10.10. Unusual Attitudes. Unusual attitudes are generally caused by a loss of SA but can also
be caused by weather phenomena. Use instrument unusual attitude recovery procedures to
recover from unusual attitudes at night.
10.11. Night VFR. Night VFR flight uses a combination of instrument and visual references
and procedures. The degree of darkness and horizon clarity determine the ratio of attention given
to flight instruments and outside references. On bright moonlit nights, it may be possible to fly
visually with only occasional glances at the instruments to confirm visual references. On dark
nights, with little or no horizon, the instruments are the primary reference, and available visual
references are used to cross-check aircraft position. After takeoff, gradually transition from
instruments to outside references when above 500 feet AGL.
10.11.1. Reduced ability to see at night creates other hazards. Clouds can be difficult or even
impossible to see. Flying into a cloud at night can be surprising and very disorienting. After
inadvertent flight into clouds at night, quickly transition to instruments to minimize
disorientation. If strobes cause disorientation when in the weather, it is acceptable to turn
them off.
10.11.2. During darkness, an unlit landmark may be difficult or impossible to see. Lighted
landmarks can be confusing because of optical illusions; large cities can often be recognized
by their shapes. Many small towns are dark at night and make poor references. Highways,
which are usually discernible at night due to automobile headlights and airfield rotating
beacons, which can be seen up to 100 miles away, make useful visual navigation points.
10.12. Night Overhead Patterns. At night the traffic pattern is unchanged. Ground references
are more difficult to see, and although it is easy to see other aircraft, distance can be harder to
judge. A common practice is to verify final turn pitch with the EADI. A normal “2/3 ground, 1/3
sky” picture is approximately 2-3 degrees nose low.
10.13. Night Landings. When wings level on final, concentrate on the descent, and plan to
touch down within the first 1,000 feet of the runway. Do not fixate on any single runway
reference or stare at bright lights. Plan to touch down on centerline.
10.14. Abnormal Procedures. Procedures and techniques to handle emergency situations do
not change significantly, but limited visibility at night complicates every scenario. The reduction
in visual references may significantly reduce the ability to successfully accomplish an ELP,
especially if not at the home field, to the point that it may be eliminated as an option for aircraft
recovery altogether.
SAMUEL P. MILAM, Col, USAF

Deputy Director of Intelligence, Operations, and
Nuclear Integration
Attachment 1
GLOSSARY OF REFERENCES AND SUPPORTING INFORMATION
References
AFTTP(I) 3-2.5, Multiservice Brevity Codes, February 2002
AFPD 11-2, Aircrew Operations, 19 January 2012
AFI 11-2T-6, Volume 1, T-6A Aircrew Training, 9 October 2014
AFI 11-2T-6, Volume 2, T-6A Aircrew Evaluation Criteria, 21 April 2015
AFI 11-2T-6, Volume 3, T-6 Operations Procedures, 21 April 2015
AFI 11-202, Volume 3, General Flight Rules, 7 November 2014
AFI 11-205, Aircraft Cockpit and Formation Flight Signals, 19 May 1994
AFI 11-215, USAF Flight Manual Program (FMP), 22 December 2008
AFPAM 11-216, Air Navigation, 1 March 2001
AFMAN 11-217, Volume 1, Instrument Flight Procedures, 22 October 2010
AFMAN 11-217, Volume 2, Visual Flight Procedures, 22 October 2010
AFMAN 11-217, Volume 3, Supplemental Flight Information, 23 February 2009
AFI 11-218, Aircraft Operations and Movement on the Ground, 28 October 2011
AFI 11-290, Cockpit/Crew Resource Management Program, 15 October 2012
AFMAN 33-363, Management of Records, 1 March 2008
TO IT-6A-1, Flight Manual, USAF/USN Series T-6A Aircraft, 24 January 2006
TO 1T-6A-1CL, The Pilot’s Abbreviated Flight Crew Checklist, 24 January 2006
AETCI 11-204, Runway Supervisory Unit (RSU) Operations, 8 May 2014
AETC TRSS Handout 11-1, Navigation for Pilot Training, March 2005
Prescribed Forms
This instruction does not prescribe forms
Adopted Forms
DD Form 175, Flight Plan, Military
AF Form 70, Pilot’s Flight Plan and Flight Log
AF Form 847, Recommendation for Change of Publication
AFTO Form 781, ARMS Aircrew/Mission Flight Data Document
AFTO Form 781A, Maintenance Discrepancy and Work Document
AFTO Form 781B, Communication Security Equipment Record
AFTO Form 781C, Avionics Configuration and Load Status Document

AFTO Form 781D, Calendar and Hourly Item Inspection Document
AFTO Form 781E, Accessory Replacement Document
AFTO Form 781F, Aerospace Vehicle Flight Report and Maintenance
AFTO Form 781G, General Mission Classifications—Mission
AFTO Form 781H, Aerospace Vehicle Flight Status and Maintenance
AFTO Form 781J, Aerospace Vehicle—Engine Flight Document
AFTO Form 781K, Aerospace Vehicle Inspection, Engine Data, Calendar Inspection and
Delayed Discrepancy Document
AFTO Form 781L, Record of Removal/Installation of Controlled Cryptographic Items (CCI)
AFTO Form 781M, Status Symbols and Functional System Codes
AFTO Form 781N, J-9 Engine Run-up Record
AFTO Form 781P, Support General Documentation Record
Abbreviations and Acronyms

AA—aspect angle
AC—aircraft commander
ADI—attitude indicator
AETC—Air Education and Training Command
AGL—above ground level
AGSM—anti-G straining maneuver
AHC—Advanced Handling Characteristics
AIM—Aeronautical Information Manual
alt—alternate
AOA—angle of attack
AOB—angle of bank
AR—as required
ASSR—Airfield Suitability and Restrictions Report
ATC—air traffic control
ATIS—air terminal information system
BD—battle damage
BIP—boost pump, ignition, and plan
CDI—course deviation indicator
CFS—canopy facture system

CHADS—clearance, heading, altitude, departure frequency, squawk
CHUM—Chart Update Manual
CRM—cockpit/crew resource management
CSW—course selector window
CT—critical tasks
DME—distance measuring equipment
DR—dead reckoning
EADI—electronic attitude indicator
EFIS—electronic flight instrument system
EHSI—electronic horizontal situation indicator
ELP—emergency landing pattern
EOR—end of the runway
EP—emergency procedures
ET—extended trail
ETA—estimated time of arrival
FAF—final approach fix
FBO—fixed base operator
FCP—front cockpit
FL—flight lead
FLIP—flight information publication
FOD—foreign object damage
fpm—feet per minute
GPS—global positioning system
GND—ground
GS—groundspeed
HAPL—high altitude power loss
HCA—heading crossing angle
HDG—heading
HSI—horizontal situation indicator
IAF—initial approach fix
IAP—instrument approach plates
IAS—indicated airspeed
IFR—instrument flight rules
ILS—instrument landing system
IMC—instrument meteorological conditions
IP—instructor pilot/initial point
ISS—interseat sequencing system
ITO—instrument takeoff
ITT—interstage-turbine temperature
JOG—joint operations graphic
KIAS—knots indicated airspeed
KIO—knock it off
KTAS—knots true airspeed
LAB—line abreast
lb—pound
LDG—landing flap setting
LOL—line-on-line
LOS—line of sight
MAX—maximum thrust position
MDA—minimum descent altitude
min—minimum
MOA—military operations area
MSL—mean sea level
MTR—military training route
nav—navigational
NAVAID—navigational aid
NH—nose high
NL—nose low
NLT—not later than
NM—nautical mile
NORDO—no radio
NOTAM—notice to Airmen
NRST—nearest airfield
NWS—nose wheel steering

OBOGS—Onboard Oxygen-Generating System
OBS—omnibearing selector
OCF—out-of-control flight
ops—operations
ORM—operational risk management
PCL—power control lever
PEL—precautionary emergency landing
PF—pilot flying
PNF—pilot not flying
POM—plane of motion
pph—pounds per hour
PPT—primary pilot training
RAIM—receiver autonomous integrity monitoring
RCP—rear cockpit
REF—reference
RMU—radio management unit
rpm—revolutions per minute
RSU—runway supervisory unit
RWY—runway
SA—situational awareness
SID—standard instrument display
SFL—simulated force landing
SOF—supervisor of flying
stan/eval—standardization and evaluation
STBY—standby
STTO—start, taxi, and takeoff
TAD—trim air device
TAS—Traffic Advisory System
TCT—terrain clearance tasks
TIM—tune, identify, monitor
TO—technical order/takeoff flaps
TOLD—takeoff and landing data

TPC—tactical pilotage chart
TSS—time stands still
TWR—tower
UDC—unit developed checklist
UHF—ultra high frequency
VFR—visual flight rules
VHF—very high frequency
VMC—visual meteorological conditions
VOR—very high frequency omnidirectional range station
VRD—vision-restricting device
VSI—vertical speed indicator
WHOLDS—Weather, Holding, Obtain, Let down plate (approach) review, Descent check,
Speed
WTD—wingtip distance
WW Ex—wing work exercise
WX—weather
Attachment 2
THREE- AND FOUR-SHIP FORMATIONS
A2.1. Guidelines. Four-ship formation flying requires thorough planning and attention to detail
from preflight through postflight. All members of the formation will be briefed and thoroughly
familiar with the proposed profile and procedures. The basic formation positions, references,
techniques, and procedures described for a two-ship formation also apply to three- and four-ship
formations. Airspeed for rejoins will normally be 180 KIAS or as briefed.
A2.2. Three-ship Formation Briefing. Normally, you will not plan to fly a three-ship
formation. A three-ship formation is usually the result of a ground or takeoff abort by a member
of a four-ship formation. Brief a three-ship plan for all four ships.
A2.3. Runway Lineup.
A2.3.1. Figure A2.1. depicts the runway lineups for a four-ship takeoff. See AFI 11-2T-6,
Volume 3, for runway width restrictions for each lineup.
Figure A2.1. Four-ship Runway Lineup.
A2.3.2. Normally, a formation will use the element lineup depiction. Place number 2 on the
upwind side of the runway just like a two-ship formation. If crosswinds are not a factor,
number 1 will place the number 2 on the inside of the first turn out of traffic (Figure A2.2.).
If runway length is not a factor, 500 feet of space between elements can also be used as an
option.
A2.3.3. To establish the slot lineup, lead will be as far to the side of the runway as practical.
Number 2 will place the wingtip closest to lead on the centerline, ensuring a minimum of 35
feet wingtip clearance. Number 3 will line up with 10 feet of wingtip clearance on number 2
in echelon position (helmets of numbers 1 and 2 aligned). Number 4 will pull in between
numbers 1 and 2 with wingtip clearance, aligning to the appropriate formation position on
number 3. Number 4 will pull forward enough to see number 3’s helmet but before it is
blocked by number 2’s rudder. Number 4 will not run up power until numbers 1 and 2 roll.
Figure A2.2. Four-ship Element Lineup.
A2.4. Runups and Takeoffs.

A2.4.1. When all aircraft are in position, number 1 will direct the engine run-up, using the
same run-up procedures as in a two-ship formation. During individual takeoffs, numbers 2, 3,
and 4 may delay their run-up a few seconds.
A2.4.2. A three- and four-ship formation takeoff may be accomplished by single-ship
takeoffs with individual rejoins out of traffic or by element takeoffs. Use 6-second
(minimum) spacing between individual aircraft departures. Use 10-second (minimum)
spacing between elements. However, if weather necessitates an element instrument trail
departure, use spacing criteria specified in chapter 9 in combination with any local
directives. Each aircraft maintains at least 1,000 feet of vertical separation from the
preceding aircraft or element except where departure instructions specifically prevent
compliance.
A2.5. Takeoff Aborts. Each aircraft must be prepared to react to any situation if a preceding
aircraft aborts. Options available are: (1) hold position, (2) abort, or (3) continue the takeoff as
safety dictates.
A2.6. Rejoins (From Takeoff). The type of rejoin will depend on the local departure
procedures. It may consist of a turning rejoin, a straight ahead, or a combination of both.
Normally, for rejoins following element takeoffs, number 3 will send number 4 to a route
position with a minimum spacing of 100 feet prior to rejoining on the lead element. Number 4
will fly a position off number 3 and will monitor the lead element throughout the rejoin. During
the rejoin, number 3 must avoid sudden power changes and abrupt flight control inputs. Each
aircraft will maintain a minimum of 100 feet of separation until the preceding aircraft has
stabilized in route.
A2.7. Turns (From Takeoff). Number 1 will start a turn and maintain briefed power and
airspeed until the formation is joined. Wingmen will begin the turn no earlier than the departure
end of the runway. Following element takeoffs, number 1 will ensure number 2 is positioned on
the inside of the turn, allowing numbers 3 and 4 to join to the outside. If required, number 1 may
roll out and call for a straight-ahead rejoin.
A2.8. Straight Ahead (From Takeoff). Number 1 will maintain briefed power and airspeed
until the formation is joined. Following element takeoffs, number 1 will ensure number 2 is
positioned on the left, allowing numbers 3 and 4 to join to the right side.
A2.9. Formation Positions. The following positions are approached primarily from the
wingman’s point of view:
A2.9.1. Fingertip. Determine number 4’s position using the normal fingertip references
relative to the number 3 aircraft. If number 3 is rough, number 4 should fly a stable position
on number 1 and constantly monitor number 3’s position (Figure A2.3. and Figure A2.4.).
Figure A2.3. Four-ship Fingertip Formation.
Figure A2.4. Four-ship Fingertip Formation in a Turn.
A2.9.2. Echelon. Echelon is a variation of fingertip formation in which the second element
aligns itself on the same side as number 2 or vice versa (Figure A2.5. and Figure A2.6.).
Figure A2.5. Four-ship Echelon.
Figure A2.6. Four-ship Echelon Turn.
A2.9.2.1. Number 1 will signal for echelon by dipping a wing in the desired direction. If
number 1’s wing dips toward number 2, that aircraft will hold position. Numbers 3 and 4
will move back and down to provide adequate clearance from the lead element. Number
3 (with number 4 on the wing) will then begin to cross to an echelon position on the wing
of number 2, keeping safe clearances. As number 3 crosses behind number 1, number 4
will cross under to the new position on the other wing of number 3 (Figure A2.7.).
Figure A2.7. Echelon Crossunder for Numbers 3 and 4.
A2.9.2.2. If the echelon signal is given toward the side of the second element, number 3
(with number 4 on the wing) will move out and back and slightly down to make room for
number 2. Number 2 will maintain position until the element has spread out. Once
number 2 has determined the second element has made sufficient room, number 2 will
execute a normal crossunder keeping the element in sight until moving forward on
number 1. Numbers 3 and 4 will align themselves with number 2 and number 1. Smooth
technique by numbers 2 and 3 will prevent a crack-the-whip on number 4 (Figure A2.8.).
Figure A2.8. Echelon Crossunder for Number 2.
A2.9.2.3. Except for very gentle turns into the echelon, always make turns away from the
echelon. Number 3 will fly off number 2 and number 4 will fly off number 3, using
normal echelon references.
A2.10. Route. The purpose and parameters of a four-ship route are the same as for a two-ship
route. Due to the decreased maneuverability of a four-ship route, the wingman should favor the
extended fingertip line in level flight, and may maneuver behind the line to maintain spacing and
sight of lead.
A2.11. Rejoins.
A2.11.1. Turning Rejoins.
A2.11.1.1. During four-ship turning rejoins, wingmen will relay the wing rocking signal
to the aircraft behind them. Number 2 always joins to the inside of number 1’s turn.
Rejoin procedures for number 2 are identical to the procedures described in Chapter 9. If
number 2 is slow to rejoin, it will complicate the rejoin for numbers 3 and 4, who will
have to decrease airspeed and (or) cutoff to maintain proper spacing on the preceding
aircraft.
A2.11.1.2. Number 3 will always join to the outside of number 1’s turn. The basic rejoin
techniques used by number 3 are the same as those used by number 2. However, number
3 has the additional responsibility of monitoring number 2 and remaining aware of
number 4.
A2.11.1.3. Number 3 should establish an AA no greater than that used by number 2.
Number 3 should accelerate to gain an airspeed advantage on number 1 and maintain a
100-foot clearance (minimum) on the lead element until number 2 is stabilized in route.
A2.11.1.4. Number 3 should plan the rejoin to pass with a minimum of nose-tail
separation behind and below the lead element as he or she moves to the outside of the
turn, stabilizing in route, and slowly moving into fingertip position on number 1. Number
3 will avoid abrupt control pressure and rapid PCL movements if number 4 has closed to
minimum distance (approximately 100 feet).
A2.11.1.5. Number 4 will also always join to the outside of number 1’s turn, and basic
rejoin techniques will still apply. However, number 4 must monitor number 3 as well as
the lead element during rejoin. After receiving the rejoin signal, number 4 will begin a
turn to establish an AA no greater than number 3 or 2, while accelerating to gain airspeed
advantage. As number 4, maintain this AA on the lead element and number 3, and plan
your rejoin to pass with a minimum of nose-tail separation behind and below the first
element and number 3 as you move to the outside of the turn. Stabilize in route and
slowly move into fingertip position on number 3. Number 4 must monitor all aircraft in
the formation as the rejoin progresses.
A2.11.2. Straight-ahead Rejoins. After completing the pitchout, number 1 will signal for a
rejoin by rocking the wings or making a radio call. Wingmen will pass along the wing-
rocking signal to the aircraft behind them. Number 2 will rejoin to the left side unless
otherwise directed. The second element will always join to the side opposite of number 2,
and maintain a minimum of 100-foot clearance on number 3 until number 3 is stabilized in
route.
A2.12. Overshoot. As a member of a four-ship formation, you must recognize an overshoot
situation as soon as possible and make positive corrections. If an overshoot is appropriate, follow
previously established procedures. In addition, the following considerations apply based on your
position in the formation:
A2.12.1. As number 2, announce your overshoot to alert number 3 that you are encroaching
on his or her side of number 1, “Texan 2 is overshooting.” Clear to ensure sufficient spacing
on number 3 before returning to the inside of the turn, reestablish yourself on the rejoin line,
and complete the rejoin.
A2.12.2. As number 3, if number 2 overshoots, modify your rejoin by decreasing your
airspeed and adjusting your pursuit option to ensure adequate clearance as number 2 returns
to the inside of number 1’s turn. If you extend the speed brake or remain in zero torque to
rapidly bleed your airspeed, notify number 4, “Texan 3, idle (or) speed brake.”
A2.12.3. As number 4, follow number 3 whether number 3 is overshooting or adjusting for a
number 2 overshoot. If number 3 is overshooting, use good judgment and a combination of
trail and rejoin techniques to stay with number 3. Maintain a 100-foot clearance (minimum)
until number 3 is in route.
A2.12.4. When executing an overshoot as number 3 or 4, use the same procedures as

described for a number 2 overshoot. However, when stabilized on the outside of the turn, you
must determine whether it is more appropriate to remain on the outside of the turn or return
to the inside to complete the rejoin.
A2.13. Leaving Formation (Breaking Out). Leaving formation is the same in three- and four-
ship formations as in two-ship formations, except as follows:
A2.13.1. If number 2 or 4 breaks out of fingertip formation, the remaining aircraft will
maintain their original positions on number 1. If number 3 leaves formation, number 4 will
follow number 3 at a safe distance to maintain element integrity.
A2.13.2. Number 1 will direct the rejoin to the desired formation. An aircraft that has left
formation will not rejoin until directed by number 1.
A2.14. Speed Brakes. Speed brakes are lowered or raised on verbal signal by number 1 or
element lead if required. Visual signals are generally not used in four-ship formations. Speed
brakes will not be raised or lowered when the formation is in an echelon turn.
A2.15. In-flight Lead Changes.
A2.15.1. Four-ship lead changes are made from fingertip or echelon. Selected procedures
must be thoroughly reviewed in the formation briefing. The most commonly used method is
for number 1 to direct the formation to go to route with the radio call, “Texan, go route.”
The wingmen will acknowledge and move to route.
A2.15.2. After the formation is stable in the route position, number 1 will announce the lead
change by stating, “Texan 3 (or 2), you have the lead.” The new lead will acknowledge by
stating, “Texan 3 (or 2) has the lead,” at which time the lead change is completed. The new
lead will pick up the “1” call sign, and confirm the new formation positions with a radio call,
“Texan, check,” before reforming the formation to fingertip, and beginning other maneuvers.
A2.15.3. During lead changes from fingertip, number 3 always becomes the new number 1;
number 4 becomes number 2; number 1 becomes number 3; and number 2 becomes number
4 (Figure A2.9.).
Figure A2.9. Route Fingertip Lead Change for a Four-ship Formation.
A2.15.4. During lead changes from echelon, original lead either becomes number 2 or 4 as
briefed. When original lead becomes number 2; the original number 2 becomes lead; and
numbers 3 and 4 keep their previous positions (Figure A2.10). When original lead becomes
number 4, number 2 becomes lead, number 3 becomes number 2, and number 4 becomes
number 3 (Figure A2.11.).
Figure A2.10. Route Echelon Lead Change for a Four-ship Formation (Lead to Number
2).
Figure A2.11. Route Echelon Lead Change for a Four-ship Formation (Lead to Number
4).
A2.16. Three-ship Formation.

A2.16.1. General. If flying a three-ship formation due to a ground or takeoff abort, lead
will be directive and renumber the aircraft in the flight. In a three-ship formation, wingmen
may fly the normal positions for number 2 and 3, or may practice phantom 2. Phantom 2
allows the wingmen to practice flying number 3 and 4 positions as if they were in a four-ship
formation. If flying phantom 2, numbers 2 and 3 will fly the positions of numbers 3 and 4.
During phantom 2, turning rejoins are to the outside of the turn; straight-ahead rejoins are to
the same side; and wing work is done with numbers 2 and 3 on the same side.
A2.16.2. Three-ship Rejoins. When flying phantom 2 for turning rejoins, follow the
procedures for the second element for numbers 3 and 4. When flying standard three ship,
numbers 2 and 3 positions use normal four-ship procedures.
A2.16.3. Wing Work or Echelon. Lead of a three-ship formation will signal for echelon by
using the same procedures as in a four-ship formation. If flying phantom 2, direct echelon
turns by radio call, “Texan, echelon turn.” In phantom 2, if an echelon turn is not directed,
numbers 2 and 3 will maintain fingertip references (in numbers 3 and 4 positions). Lead will
be directive when reforming the formation to the fingertip position.
A2.16.4. Three-ship Lead Changes.
A2.16.4.1. During lead changes from route fingertip, number 3 will move forward (as in
a four-ship element lead change) to become number 1; original number 1 will become
number 2; and number 2 will become number 3. After the lead change, the formation is in
echelon position (Figure A2.12.).
Figure A2.12. Route Fingertip Lead Change for a Three-ship Formation.
A2.16.4.2. During lead changes from route echelon, the original number 1 will either
drop back to the route fingertip number 2 position (number 2 will become lead, and
number 3 will stay number 3), or drop back and cross behind the flight to the number 3
position (number 2 will become lead, and number 3 will become number 2).
A2.16.5. Three-ship Lead Changes During Phantom 2. Lead changes during phantom 2
are performed from the route echelon position. Lead drops back and crosses behind the flight
to the number 3 position. Number 2 will become lead, and number 3 will become number 2.
A2.17. Lost Wingman (Three-ship).
A2.17.1. Wings-level Flight (Climb, Descent, or Straight and Level). The lost wingman
will turn away, using 15 degrees of bank for 15 seconds. He or she will inform number 1,
resume course, and obtain a separate clearance.
A2.17.2. Turns (Climb, Descent, or Level). When outside the turn, the lost wingman will
reverse the direction of turn, using 15 degrees of bank for 15 seconds, and inform number 1.
He or she will roll out and continue straight ahead to ensure separation before resuming the
turn and obtain a separate clearance. When inside the turn, the lost wingman will
momentarily reduce power to ensure nose-tail separation and tell number 1 to roll out of the
turn. Maintain AOB to ensure lateral separation then obtain a separate clearance. Number 1
may resume turn only when separation is ensured. If in a three-ship flight with both aircraft
on the same side of number 1, refer to four-ship lost wingman procedures (paragraph
A2.18.).
A2.17.3. Precision and Non-Precision Final Approach. The lost wingman will
momentarily turn away from lead to ensure separation and start a climb to either the final
approach fix or glide slope intercept altitude, as appropriate. While proceeding to the missed
approach point, he or she will inform lead and obtain a separate clearance from approach
control. Either comply with the new clearance received, or fly the published missed
approach, as appropriate.
A2.17.4. Missed Approach. The lost wingman will momentarily turn away to ensure
clearance, inform number 1, and continue the published missed approach while climbing 500
feet above the missed approach altitude. The wingman will obtain a separate clearance from
approach control.
A2.18. Lost Wingman (Four-ship). Numbers 2 and 3 will follow the procedures described in
paragraph A2.17. However, because it is impossible for number 4 to immediately determine
number 3 still has visual contact with lead, number 4’s initial action must assume number 3 has
also become separated. If number 4 loses sight of number 3, number 4 will proceed as follows:
A2.18.1. Wings-level Flight. Simultaneously inform lead and turn away, using 30 degrees
of bank for 30 seconds. Then resume course and obtain a separate clearance.
A2.18.2. Turns (Climb, Descent, or Level). On the outside of the turn, reverse the
direction of the turn, using 30 degrees of bank for 30 seconds to ensure separation from lead
and number 3. Obtain a separate clearance. (Using 30 degrees of bank for 30 seconds will
develop a significant heading change from lead.) Maintain SA for obstacle clearance when
separating from lead. On the inside of the turn, momentarily reduce power to ensure nose-tail
separation and increase bank angle by 15 degrees. Tell lead to roll out of the turn. Obtain a
separate clearance. Lead will resume the turn only when separation is ensured.
Attachment 3
ENJJPT FORMATION PROCEDURES
A3.1. Two-Ship Tactical Formation.

A3.1.1. Objective. Tactical is the primary formation flown when employing fighter aircraft.
It is designed to optimize weapons and radar employment while improving visual lookout
and increasing maneuverability.
A3.1.2. Description. “Tactical” is an umbrella term covering several formations
characterized by increased separation between the members of the flight.
A3.1.2.1. A variety of tactical formations may be flown depending on the number of
aircraft in the formation and the type of employment desired. For two-ships, tactical
formations include line abreast (LAB) and wedge. Both may be referred to on the radio
by their separate names; however, if lead refers to “tactical” this is understood to mean
LAB. Formations involving three or four aircraft are merely variations of the basic two-
ship and include fluid four, wall, and box or offset box.
A3.1.2.2. The basic combat unit employed by fighter aircraft is the two-aircraft
element—the element lead and the wingman.
A3.1.3. Procedure. Basic formation contracts still apply, but tactical introduces the benefits
of increased flexibility, maneuverability, and mutual support. Regardless of the variety of
tactical being flown, some basic principles apply:
A3.1.3.1. Lead. Lead is responsible for maneuvering the formation and monitoring the
wingman, especially during tactical turns that momentarily cause the wingman to lose
sight.
A3.1.3.2. Wingman. The wingman is primarily responsible for maintaining formation
position and deconfliction. The wingman’s primary reference for heading and airspeed
is the lead aircraft. As proficiency and task management allow, the wingman may back-
up lead by monitoring area orientation, navigation, etc.
A3.1.3.3. Visual Lookout. Exercise a disciplined visual lookout to detect threats.
Figure A3.1. shows the priority of visual lookout for both members of the formation.
Often in training, as well as in combat a disciplined visual lookout has saved a formation
and allowed them to continue the mission to accomplish their objective. It is important to
remember that we operate in three dimensions. Therefore, every sector of the visual
lookout must be scanned not only level with your own aircraft, but higher and lower as
well. As a result, each sector depicted in Figure A3.1 can be divided up into three
vertical sectors. The environment, threats, weather, and other factors may alter the visual
search responsibilities of each member of the flight. For instance, at low altitude,
checking 12 o’clock and own-ship altitude are very high priorities. Flight leads may brief,
“Check near rocks, check far rocks, check six,” in that order of priority. When scanning
visually, it is very important to pause in each sector allowing your eyes to focus at range
and detect movement.
Figure A3.1. Visual Lookout Priorities in Tactical Formation.
A3.2. Element LAB (Tactical).

A3.2.1. Objective. Introduce the benefits of increased flexibility, maneuverability and
mutual support.
A3.2.2. Description. See Figure A3.2. The parameters of T-6 tactical LAB formation are
defined as 2,000 to 3,000 feet lateral separation, line abreast to 10 degrees aft, with a vertical
stack of up to 500 feet.
A3.2.3. Procedure. Tactical formations are normally flown at airspeeds near cornering
velocity, but other airspeeds may be flown as required. Normally, T-6 tactical formation is
flown at 200 KIAS. Airspeed deviations may be communicated by lead (ex: “Texan, set two-
fifty”).
A3.2.3.1. Visual References.
A3.2.3.1.1. Fore/Aft. The primary reference for LAB in any airframe is for the
wingman to put lead directly abeam their shoulder. In the FCP of the T-6 this can also
be referenced as in line with the flash guard. The RCP visual reference is to put lead
in line with the static wicks.
A3.2.3.1.2. Lateral. At 2,000 feet lateral separation, the ejection seats and both
pilots’ helmets are visible. At 2,500 feet, the ejection seats are still discernable, but
individual pilots cannot be distinguished. At 3,000 feet, the canopy begins to blend in
with the fuselage, but the prop blade is still visible.
A3.2.3.1.3. Vertical. A soda can height above or below the horizon will provide the
optimal 200-300 feet of stack. Double this reference for maximum allowable stack
(500 feet).
Figure A3.2. LAB Tactical Formation.
A3.2.3.2. Establishing LAB. To enter tactical formation, lead may use a radio call (ex:
“Texan 2, tactical left/right side”) or a visual signal by porpoising the aircraft. The
porpoise signal will not be given from fingertip. When sent to tactical, the wingman will
clear the flightpath in the direction of turn and smoothly initiate a turn (approximately 10
degrees) to a divergent heading while maintaining/attaining briefed tactical airspeed.
Approaching 2,000 to 3,000 feet, wingman will roll back to lead’s approximate heading.
Assess LOS and adjust power, airspeed and heading as required to zero out LOS and
HCA and establish LAB.
A3.2.4. Technique . As a technique, when receiving a signal to go to tactical and prior to
turning away from lead, the wingman may cross-check their current heading and/or set the
heading bug. This is only an initial reference for the wingman to establish and maintain
proper lateral spacing. The primary reference is lead’s aircraft, not the EHSI.
A3.2.4.1. Maintaining Position (Station Keeping) and Corrections . Mutual support
depends upon the wingman efficiently maintaining the proper position. Therefore, the
wingman should constantly strive for LAB, whereas lateral spacing and vertical stack
within the parameters depend on several factors such as training objectives, location of
the sun, presence of haze, or other obstructions to visibility. Position corrections, in order
of priority, are:
A3.2.4.1.1. Fore/aft. Once established LAB, prevent LOS from developing by using
small power corrections. If the environment permits, altitude may be traded for
airspeed to correct for larger deviations. If aft of LAB, initiate a descent to generate
aft LOS and regain LAB. If forward of LAB, initiate a climb in order to generate
forward LOS. Initiate an altitude correction in time to regain proper fore/aft position
at the proper airspeed and at the desired stack. When using the vertical, it is
imperative that wingman modulate power as required to return to the proper tactical
position at the briefed airspeed. Lateral s-turns (flying a greater distance than lead) or
a combination of climbing and turning can also be used to regain LAB from a
forward position. When applying these types of corrections, the wingman must
monitor the LOS being created through the correction to anticipate the return to
proper LAB position.
A3.2.4.1.2. Lateral spacing. Normally a small heading change into or away from
lead is all that is required to fix lateral spacing. Once at the proper lateral spacing,
wingman will realign fuselages and zero out HCA. Closure toward or separation from
lead is more easily discernible if the wingman avoids staring at lead and instead
executes the tactical visual scan pattern and a crosscheck of own aircraft parameters.
See Figure A3.1. Use of headings or ground references such as section lines or lead’s
LOS across the ground can help in the recognition of closure or separation. Prior to
making a heading correction, the wingman may note their current heading, which is
causing the vector into or away from lead. Once at the proper lateral spacing, the
wingman may then set a new heading that zeroes out HCA. Use of headings should
only be used as a building block to develop the ability to maintain lateral separation
solely by visual reference to lead’s aircraft.
A3.2.4.1.3. Vertical Stack. Unless restricted by airspace or environmental
conditions, the wingman should strive to be stacked 200-300 feet above lead;
however, there are times when level or low stack is appropriate. Having a stack
makes it more difficult for the enemy to obtain “tally two.” Unless making a
correction for fore/aft position, the maximum vertical stack is 500 feet. Ensure both
pilots maintain visual.
A3.2.4.2. Lead Considerations. Lead must maneuver the formation as required;
however, excessive heading or airspeed changes will require wingman to devote more
time to element integrity (maintaining position) at the expense of mutual support. Small
heading changes should be minimized. Small course corrections may be accomplished
through check turns. Turns of more than 30 degrees are usually accomplished by means
of a tactical turns as discussed below.
A3.3. Element Tactical Turns.
A3.3.1. Objective. Introduce formation maneuvering in LAB tactical formation.
A3.3.2. Description. Various tactical turns are employed to maneuver the formation in
combat to optimize weapons and radar employment while maintaining or improving visual
lookout and maneuverability.
A3.3.3. Procedures.
A3.3.3.1. Initiating the Turn. All tactical turns except a cross turn, shackle or hook
turn into the wingman are normally signaled visually (communication-out or “comm-
out”), but radio calls may be utilized for any tactical turn (ex: “Texan, 90 left/right”). No
radio response is required from the wingman. If given a visual signal, the wingman
should always assume a 90-degree turn is desired unless lead’s follow on signals indicate
a 45-degree turn or a hook turn away. The wingman may hear a “zipper-click” (a rapid
double-click of the comm toggle switch) to attract attention toward lead’s visual signal. If
first to turn, wingman should interpret lead’s visual signal as a directive to immediately
initiate a contract turn.
A3.3.3.2. The Contract. All aircraft should adhere to a “contract” as the turns are
executed to ensure turn rate and radii are similar. The contract parameters are normally
200 KIAS, MAX power, G to hold airspeed (approximately 2 to 3 Gs), and level turns.
The wingman may use variations in heading, airspeed, stack and Gs to facilitate
reacquiring LAB position.
A3.3.3.3. Turns Away From The Wingman. For comm-out tactical turns that require
the wingman to turn immediately in the direction of lead, lead will show the wingman a
large wing flash (approximately 90 degrees of bank) away from the wingman, then roll
out to wings level. This large wing flash avoids confusion with minor course corrections
(usually 30 degrees of bank or less). More than one signal may be required since the
wingman is expected to be executing their visual scan and may miss the initial signal.
While it is assumed to be a 90-degree turn after observing a wing flash from lead, the
wingman must watch for an additional signal that would indicate a hook turn or delayed
45-degree turn.
A3.3.3.4. Turns Into The Wingman. For comm-out turns that require the wingman to
delay their turn, lead will initiate a contract turn in the direction of the wingman. When
lead is observed turning into the wingman, it is always assumed to be a 90-degree turn;
however, the wingman must be prepared for lead to roll out, signaling a 45-degree turn.
A3.3.3.5. Deconfliction. The wingman’s primary responsibility is to deconflict from
lead. If the wingman is stacked high or low, he or she should maintain that stack when
commencing the turn, especially if first to turn. If deconfliction is questionable, the
wingman should telegraph their intentions to lead by positively maneuvering their aircraft
either above or below lead’s flight path. If in standard formation (within 1 mile laterally
and 100 feet vertically of lead), the wingman should climb or descend only as required
for deconfliction. If there is ever doubt, either aircraft may transmit a radio call to make it
immediately clear which direction they intend to deconflict (ex: “Texan 2 is going low”).
During some tactical maneuvering the wingman will momentarily lose sight of lead. This
is normal and not a cause for concern if adhering to the established contract and vertical
deconfliction. The wingman will continue to fly a contract turn until he or she is in a
position to be visual with lead. If the wingman does not re-acquire visual when expected,
then he or she must immediately call “blind” with their altitude. Both lead and wing are
ultimately responsible for midair collision avoidance, clearing during the turns and taking
appropriate evasive action as required.
A3.3.3.6. Check Turn. The check turn can be used for small heading corrections
(usually no more than 30 degrees) or to realign the formation, and requires a radio call
(ex: "Texan, check 20 left/right”). The wingman does not acknowledge this call. Both
aircraft turn simultaneously using a contract turn and the wingman remains on the same
side of the element. For small heading/course corrections that do not require an
aggressive contract turn, lead will maintain current airspeed and power setting to make
the correction and simply turn. A radio call is not required. Lead will telegraph this type
of turn by using a small amount of bank angle. The amount of bank should be enough for
the wingman to see and also execute a heading update, but small enough to be clear that
the turn is not a delayed turn.
A3.3.3.7. Delayed 90-degree Turns. See Figure A3.3. These turns may not always be
exactly 90 degrees of heading change. For turns greater than approximately 60 degrees,
lead will generally direct a delayed 90-degree turn.
A3.3.3.7.1. Delayed 90-degree Turns into The Wingman.
A3.3.3.7.1.1. Lead. Lead’s contract turn into the wingman signals the turn. If
the turn is called over the radio, lead begins the contract turn immediately after
the call.
A3.3.3.7.1.2. Wingman. As lead begins the turn, continue straight ahead.
Initiate a 90-degree contract turn at the increase in LOS (this occurs
approximately when lead's aircraft is approaching nose on). If out of position, the
wingman should vary the timing and G loading of the turn (based on lead's LOS)
to finish the turn in position. Generally, when starting a turn tight or aft, begin the
turn earlier. When wide or forward, begin the turn later.
A3.3.3.7.2. Delayed 90-degree Turns Away from The Wingman.
A3.3.3.7.2.1. Lead. Signal the turn, then execute IAW paragraph A3.3.3.7.1.2.
A3.3.3.7.2.2. Wingman. Begin a contract turn as soon as lead signals for the
turn (radio call or wing flash). Roll out after approximately 90 degrees of turn.
The wingman is responsible for being in position and must make necessary
adjustments as required. Start maneuvering to the correct position as soon as it
becomes apparent that a deviation will occur. As a technique, the wingman may
visually acquire a reference point (section line, cloud, lake, etc.) on the opposite
side of lead’s aircraft and use this as their initial rollout point for a 90-degree turn.
Figure A3.3. Delayed 90-degree Left Turn into the Wingman.
A3.3.3.8. Delayed 45-degree Turns. See Figure A3.4. These turns may not always be
exactly 45 degrees of heading change. For turns between approximately 30 to 60 degrees,
lead will generally direct a delayed 45-degree turn.
A3.3.3.8.1. Delayed 45-degree Turns into The Wingman.
A3.3.3.8.1.1. Lead. Lead’s contract turn into the wingman signals the turn. If the
turn is called over the radio, lead begins the contract turn immediately after the
call. Lead indicates a 45-degree turn by rolling out on the desired heading. If the
wingman initiates a 90-degree turn (goes belly-up to lead) prior to lead’s roll-out
for the 45-degree turn, lead should use a radio call to indicate the turn (ex: “Texan
2, roll out, forty-five”). This situation may develop when the wingman is flying
closer to the 2,000’ range of lateral separation.
A3.3.3.8.1.2. Wingman. As lead rolls out, execute a turn towards lead to
generate aft LOS. A turn of 20-30 degrees is usually sufficient. As aft LOS
increases, the wingman reverses the turn to regain visual with lead and maneuvers
as required to attain tactical on the opposite side of lead’s aircraft.
A3.3.3.8.2. Delayed 45-degree Turns Away from The Wingman.
A3.3.3.8.2.1. Lead. Signal the turn, then when the wingman’s nose is
approximately on the desired roll-out heading, signal the roll-out by initiating a
turn into the wingman.
A3.3.3.8.2.2. Wingman. When directed, begin a contract turn into lead. Roll
out when observing lead banking into you or when directed. Obtain correct
spacing and position as lead rolls out.
Figure A3.4. Delayed 45-degree Left Turn into the Wingman.
A3.3.3.9. In-Place Turns. Use an in-place turn to maneuver the formation any number
of degrees of turn in one direction at the same time. To initiate, lead transmits “Texan, in-
place 90 left/right.” The wingman does not acknowledge this call. Both aircraft turn at
the same time—in the same direction—using contract turns. If executed from LAB, a 90-
degree turn will put the formation in trail at whatever lateral spacing existed prior to the
turn.
A3.3.3.10. Hook Turns. See Figure A3.5. During a hook turn, the formation turns 180
degrees with both aircraft performing a contract turn at the same time in the same
direction.
A3.3.3.10.1. Hook Turns into the Wingman. A hook turn into the wingman must
be called over the radio and does not require an acknowledgment (ex: “Texan, hook
right/left”).
A3.3.3.10.1.1. Lead. During the first half of the turn, lead is visual and should
match the wingman’s fuselage through 90 degrees of turn. Approximately
halfway through the turn, lead will lose sight of the wingman. Continue a
contract turn to the desired rollout heading.
A3.3.3.10.1.2. Wingman. Initiate a contract turn upon receiving lead’s radio
call. After passing through 90 degrees of turn, begin looking out the top of the
canopy for lead while continuing the contract turn. Once visual is attained, vary
airspeed and Gs to roll out in LAB position after approximately 180 degrees of
turn.
A3.3.3.10.2. Hook Turns Away from the Wingman. Hook turns away from the
wingman may be signaled visually by a wing flash or called over the radio. If initiated
with a wing flash, lead will begin turning when the wingman begins the turn. Lead’s
immediate turn indicates a hook turn. For the first half of the turn, the wingman
should match lead and align fuselages through 90 degrees of turn, then transition to a
contract turn. Shortly after halfway through the turn, lead should reacquire sight of
the wingman.
Figure A3.5. Hook Turn, Left, into the Wingman.
A3.3.3.11. Shackle. See Figure A3.6. A shackle is used to place the wingman on the
opposite side. Lead initiates the turn by transmitting, "Texan, shackle." The wingman
does not acknowledge this call. Normally both aircraft simultaneously turn approximately
45 degrees into one another. The wingman rolls out as required to zero out LOS and cross
directly over or under lead (the wingman should clearly deconflict using the vertical).
Both aircraft reverse the turn after crossing flight paths. Lead may maneuver as required
and may not turn at all if the shackle is being utilized to fix wingman’s excessive forward
position or simply place the wingman on the opposite side. It is the wingman’s
responsibility to cross directly over or under lead and maneuver to LAB on the opposite
side.
Figure A3.6. Shackle.
A3.3.3.12. Cross Turn. See Figure A3.7. Cross turns are another 180-degree reversal
option. Lead initiates the cross turn by transmitting "Texan, cross turn." The wingman
does not acknowledge this call. Both aircraft execute a contract turn into each other. The
wingman is responsible for ensuring flight path deconfliction in the vertical. Aircraft
should cross after 60-90 degrees of turn and continue through 180 degrees of turn. The
flight is now on a reciprocal heading. Lateral separation may be wide even though the
original spacing was correct. To correct this, it is a common technique to perform an
auto-shackle after the cross turn.
Figure A3.7. Cross Turn.
A3.3.3.12.1. Auto-Shackle Blind Procedures. If either aircraft has not reacquired

visual by 180 degrees of turn, simultaneously roll out and call "blind" IAW AFI 11-
2T-6V3. If the other aircraft is visual, they may call “continue.” After “continue” the
blind aircraft will initiate a shackle by resuming the turn for 45 degrees. The visual
aircraft will continue the turn as required to zero out LOS, establish and maintain
altitude deconfliction, and call “Texan 1/2, crossing high/low.” The blind aircraft will
call “Texan 1/2, visual” when reacquiring the other aircraft and complete the shackle.
It is possible for neither aircraft to regain sight after the cross turn. In this case, both
aircraft will maintain the reciprocal of the cross turn entry heading. Lead will be
directive to ensure deconfliction and regain mutual support.
A3.3.3.13. Fluid Turns. These turns are used to maneuver a formation when there is
very little G or excess thrust available (heavy weight and/or higher altitudes). If a 180-
degree turn is required, combine the techniques for two 90-degree turns. The radio call
for a fluid turn is “Texan, fluid left/right.” No acknowledgement is required. Immediately
following the radio call, lead will begin turning using approximately 45 degrees of bank
while maintaining airspeed..
A3.3.3.13.1. Fluid Turns into the Wingman. Immediately start a turn in the same
direction as lead. One technique is to use less bank angle (approximately 30 degrees)
than lead and maintain it until you cross in front of lead. Another way is to initially
match lead’s bank and momentarily roll out of the turn or bank in the opposite
direction to check leads relative position. Depending on leads position at the start of
the turn, you should normally have 20 to 30 degrees of the turn completed as lead
passes the 6 o’clock position. Once lead has passed the 6 o’clock position, increase
bank angle and lower the nose to pick up airspeed, if necessary. Play the turn to
establish the proper spacing on the opposite side. Use altitude to gain or reduce
airspeed to arrive in the proper position as lead rolls out of the turn.
A3.3.3.13.2. Fluid Turns Away from the Wingman. The wingman will
immediately be behind at the onset of the turn. Therefore, roll into more bank
(approximately 60 degrees) than lead and lower the nose slightly to gain airspeed in
order to move to the inside of the turn behind lead. As the turn progresses, the
wingman should reduce the bank angle to attain proper lateral spacing and trade
excess airspeed for altitude approaching the LAB position. Airspeed corrections
should be made through the use of vertical while maintaining a fairly constant power
setting.
A3.4. Tactical G-Awareness Exercise.
A3.4.1. Objective. During tactical flying, especially during fluid maneuvering, G loading
changes constantly. The G-awareness exercise allows practice of the anti-G strain technique
and familiarization with increased G loading in a controlled setting.
A3.4.2. Description. The tactical GX is flown as two slightly descending 180 degree (hook)
turns from LAB formation, allowing AGSM practice of 10-15 seconds (4 or 5 breathing
cycles) per turn.
A3.4.3. Procedure. Accomplish the turns in MAX power and 200-220 knots. The first turn
is the “G-warm-up” turn and is flown with approximately 4.0 Gs. The second turn is the “G-
awareness” turn flown with approximately 5.0 Gs. The wingman should strive for 3,000 feet
LAB prior to starting the GX. The GX is not an instrument maneuver and will require
looking outside the cockpit to deconflict with the other aircraft. With both aircraft
maintaining proper Gs and airspeed, the formation will complete the exercise in LAB.
A3.4.3.1. The tactical GX must be initiated using the radio:
A3.4.3.1.1. “Texan, push it up, standby GX”; “2”
A3.4.3.1.2. “Texan 1 ready”; “Texan 2 ready” or “Texan 2 standby
airspeed/spacing” etc.
A3.4.3.1.3. “Texan, G warm-up, hook left/right” after 2’s ready call.
A3.4.3.1.4. “Texan 1 ready”; “Texan 2 ready” or “Texan 2 standby
airspeed/spacing” etc.
A3.4.3.1.5. “Texan, G awareness, hook left/right”
A3.4.3.2. It may be required (due to WX, airspace, etc.) to execute a tactical turn
following the “push it up” call but prior to the GX. In these cases lead will signal the non-
GX turn using comm-out signals, or use the radio and omit any reference to G-awareness.
A3.4.3.3. Following the GX, lead will initiate an ops check and decelerate to 200 knots.
A3.5. Wedge.
A3.5.1. Objective. Wedge formation can be used when terrain, tactics, etc., require an
increased degree of flight maneuverability.
A3.5.2. Description. The wedge position is primarily used in the low altitude environment.
The wedge position is defined as 30-45 degrees off lead’s 6 o’clock (30-45 AA) with a lateral
spacing of 2,000-3,000 feet. Wingman should stack up to 500 feet high (200 to 300 feet high
is optimal) but will not fly lower than lead in the low altitude environment.
A3.5.3. Procedure. Lead normally directs the wedge position with a radio call (ex: “Texan
2, go wedge”). The wingman maneuvers using power and/or geometry to attain proper
position. After lead directs wedge formation, turns do not need to be called. The wingman
will maneuver as required to maintain position.
A3.6. Tactical Rejoins.
A3.6.1. Objective. Safely and efficiently transition the formation from LAB to close
formation for mission accomplishment or external factors.
A3.6.2. Description. Straight-ahead and turning tactical rejoins are the two primary
methods or rejoining the wingman from LAB.
A3.6.3. Procedure. Rejoins will be initiated with a wing rock or radio call. The wingman
must acknowledge all radio calls to rejoin. The standard platform for lead is 200 KIAS, 45
degrees of bank (turning), and level flight. The wingman should strive to maintain closure
throughout the rejoin.
A3.6.3.1. Straight-ahead Tactical Rejoin. The wingman will rejoin to the side
occupied when the rejoin was directed. Unlike a normal straight-ahead rejoin from a trail
position, a tactical straight-ahead rejoin begins from LAB. The mechanics of flying this
maneuver will vary based on the wingman’s position when initiating the rejoin. Make a
bid toward lead’s 6 o’clock position to generate forward LOS while simultaneously
working toward a slightly low stack. If forward LOS is not established by this initial
heading change, it may be necessary to make another bid to lead’s 6 o’clock. As a
technique, visualize an aimpoint toward the close trail position. Maintain sufficient power
to achieve approximately 10-20 knots of overtake and begin to eliminate HCA to freeze
lead’s forward LOS. Once established 100-200 feet on an extended fingertip line,
stabilize (but don’t stop) in this position and continue to move into fingertip. Accomplish
the rejoin without crossing lead’s 6 o'clock position. If excessive closure exists, do not
rejoin closer than route and make sure to parallel lead’s flight path to avoid a conflict. If
closure still exists when approaching the 3/9 line, turn away from lead’s aircraft to
establish a diverging heading. Once closure is under control, complete the rejoin.
A3.6.3.2. Turning Tactical Rejoins.
A3.6.3.2.1. Turns into the Wingman. Even before lead turns, excessive AA exists.
Both lag pursuit and vertical turning room are required to decrease this aspect. The
wingman should use no more than 10-15 knots of overtake once crossing back inside
lead’s turn. If stacked above lead, use vertical turning room above; if stacked below,
use vertical turning room below lead, but always use caution for excessive airspeed
and a high asymmetric over-G potential.
A3.6.3.2.1.1. Vertical Stack above Lead or Stacked Level. In this case,
increase power to MAX, roll to set the lift vector to lead’s high 6 o’clock and pull
to attain forward LOS. Once forward LOS is observed (use caution not to exceed
90 degrees of HCA), reverse the turn to reacquire lead, low on the inside of the
turn. Use caution not to apply back stick pressure during the turn reversal in order
to continue a flight path toward lead’s turn circle. Once visual, pull to align
fuselages at or near lead’s turn circle and assess LOS. Avoid descending prior to
ensuring aft of lead’s 3/9 line and observing forward LOS. With forward LOS
established, begin a controlled descent toward the normal rejoin line on the inside
of lead’s turn circle. Crosscheck airspeed and modulate power to arrive on the
rejoin line with desired stack and closure. Once established on the rejoin line,
follow normal turning rejoin procedures.
A3.6.3.2.1.2. Vertical Stack below Lead. Make a turn into lead while
maintaining airspeed and adjusting stack towards the rejoin line. As a technique,
reverse the turn to align fuselages as lead crosses the nose. This type of rejoin can
result in a flight path overshoot, which should be flown IAW paragraph 9.26.3.2.
A3.6.3.2.2. Turns Away From the Wingman. As soon as lead turns, the wingman
is outside the turn and needs to maneuver to the inside of the turn with lead pursuit.
Immediately apply MAX power and turn towards lead, maneuver inside lead’s turn
circle, and establish the desired rejoin line. Cross lead’s 6 o’clock while remaining
clear of their prop wash and assess overtake (10-15 knots is normally sufficient).
Once inside the turn circle, follow normal turning rejoin procedures.
A3.7. ET Entry from Tactical.
A3.7.1. Objective. Transition from tactical maneuvering to the ET Exercise.
A3.7.2. Description. ET is flown from the fighting wing position. ET entry from Tactical
requires analyzing and solving angular, range, closure, and LOS problems to move the
number 2 aircraft from a Tactical position to fighting wing position
A3.7.3. Procedure. Lead initiates entry into ET from tactical with a radio call: “Texan, next
set ET level 1/2/3.” After responding with “2,” the wingman maneuvers to attain 3,000 feet
lateral separation. Once lead assesses both aircraft have achieved the correct starting
parameters and completed a CLEF check, he or she will call, “Texan 1 ready”, followed by
the wingman responding, “Texan 2 ready.” Lead then directs a check turn: “Texan, check
45 left/right,” and turns away from the wingman using a contract turn. The wingman does
not roll out after the check turn but maneuvers as necessary to establish pure pursuit. As the
wingman achieves pure pursuit, lead reverses turn direction and sets the wingman on a 4
aspect. The wingman maneuvers as required until reaching fighting wing parameters and
then calls, “Texan 2 in.” Both aircraft then set the briefed power setting and commence ET
maneuvering.
A3.8. Tactical Initial.
A3.8.1. Objective. Align the formation with the landing runway while maintaining the
maneuverability and mutual support of LAB formation.
A3.8.2. Description. Flown similar to single-ship initial. However, prior to initial, lead
should position the wingman on the side opposite the direction of the break.
A3.8.3. Procedure.
A3.8.3.1. Lead. At the break point, lead will signal the break with a wing flash and
initiates the break to a normal downwind upon observing the wingman’s turn.
A3.8.3.2. Wingman. The wingman breaks upon lead’s signal and rolls out after
approximately 90-degrees of turn (perpendicular to runway). The wingman then executes
a second turn (approximately 90 degrees) to roll-out on a normal downwind. The
wingman should use power modulation and lag pursuit as required, and may have to fly
slightly wider than lead’s ground track in order to maintain proper spacing.
A3.9. Fluid Maneuvering.
A3.9.1. Objectives.
A3.9.1.1. Introduce and practice the administrative set-ups, terminations, and resets for
advanced maneuvering.
A3.9.1.2. Introduce and practice the application of air-to-air training rules.
A3.9.1.3. Introduce and practice recognizing and solving problems of range, closure,
AA, HCA, and turning room using pursuit curves and out of plane maneuvering against a
cooperative aircraft flying a scripted training platform.
A3.9.1.4. For the training aircraft, practice setting and controlling the briefed training
parameters.
A3.9.1.5. For the maneuvering aircraft, introduce and practice recognition and alignment
of turn circles.
A3.9.1.6. Practice maneuvering to, recognizing, and stabilizing (fuselages aligned and
zero LOS) in the ET cone from a position well outside that cone.
A3.9.1.7. Practice recognizing and resolving high closure and/or high aspect situations in
FM Levels 3 and 4 and stabilize in the goal position (500 feet from training aircraft,
approximately 4 AA, fuselages aligned).
A3.9.1.8. Training Aircraft. Although the primary training objectives are for the
maneuvering aircraft pilot, there are significant training opportunities for the training
aircraft pilot. These include over-the-shoulder SA, POM assessment, lift vector control,
floor awareness, G awareness, and energy management. The responsibilities of the pilot
in the training aircraft include adjusting bank or backstick pressure to “set” the aspect,
monitoring the maneuvering aircraft (normally the wingman), and most importantly,
flying the pre-briefed parameters (“the contract”). Because the parameters are so vital to
achieving the DLOs, it is imperative that IPs monitor SP performance.
A3.9.1.9. Maneuvering Aircraft. FM’s primary objectives are for the pilot in the
maneuvering aircraft. The responsibilities of the pilot in the maneuvering aircraft include
being in level, pure pursuit to start, helping the training aircraft pilot adjust the starting
aspect, and remaining vigilant for maintaining proper airspeed.
A3.9.2. Description. FM in the T-6 is the first of several building blocks that will introduce
the concepts and skills required in future tactical training. FM builds on the short-range
maneuvering practiced in ET by requiring an understanding of turn circle geometry along
with the creative use of pursuit curves and energy management in order to close from
medium-range to short-range.
A3.9.3. Fluid Maneuvering Responsibilities.
A3.9.3.1. General.
A3.9.3.1.1. Collision Avoidance. Flight members must be vigilant with regard to

clearing their flight path to recognize and avoid the pre-briefed minimum range
limitation (“the bubble”).
A3.9.3.1.2. Fuel Awareness. Because FM generally involves higher power settings
for longer periods of time, pilots must continually monitor their fuel state to prevent
overflying joker or bingo. Leads will call for an ops check with fuel and Gs after each
setup.
A3.9.3.1.3. Setup Standardization. During FM training, the need for setup
standardization is critical to the reconstruction, debriefing, and assessment of the
desired learning objectives (DLOs). Therefore it is imperative that the training aircraft
(normally lead) not deviate from the pre-briefed profile. Leads are responsible for
aggressively controlling the appropriate setup and training platform parameters. Pilots
must strive to be in the correct position and must not call “ready” until the pre-briefed
starting parameters have been achieved.
A3.9.3.2. Special Instructions (SPINS), Training Rules (TRs), and Rules of
Engagement (ROE). These three terms intertwine in their application to training
scenarios. Violation of TRs has serious implications for flight safety. Adherence to TRs
is essential to becoming a disciplined combat aviator. Outside the UPT and PIT
environment, AFI 11-214, Air Operations Rules and Procedures mandates numerous
TRs, which have been developed over years of combat aviation training and are designed
to provide a safe, effective training environment. Although AFI 11-214 does not apply in
UPT or PIT, the concept of TRs remains the same. The following TRs apply to FM:
A3.9.3.2.1. Floor. The floor is 500 feet above the bottom of the assigned airspace.
Call “terminate” when a violation occurs or becomes imminent. Flight leads are
responsible for setting a new maneuvering floor if weather or other conditions dictate.
A3.9.3.2.2. Bubble. Under no circumstances will the maneuvering aircraft close
inside of 300 feet from the training aircraft. Call “knock-it-off” if a bubble violation
occurs or is imminent. When the maneuvering aircraft approaches a stabilized
position in the ET cone, the training aircraft will limit maneuvering to a slightly
descending turn maintaining constant G and airspeed until the exercise is terminated
or a transition to ET occurs.
A3.9.3.2.3. 3/9 Line. Maximum AA is 9 AA (3/9 Line). Call “knock-it-off” if the
maneuvering aircraft exceeds this aspect. The training aircraft shares responsibility
for this restriction and should control bank angle/turn rate to ensure the maneuvering
aircraft remains aft of the 3/9 line.
A3.9.3.2.4. Reversing Direction of Turn (FM Levels 3 and 4 only). A reversal by
the training aircraft is scripted to generate range/closure/aspect problems. The
training aircraft must have SA on the maneuvering aircraft’s position or may reverse
at the request of the maneuvering aircraft. These directional changes should be
commensurate with the maneuvering aircraft’s proficiency and are not intended to
force a bubble or 3/9 violation.
A3.9.3.3. Starting Parameters.
A3.9.3.3.1. Altitude block. 11,000 to 12,000 feet MSL or center of the airspace as
defined locally (Flight leads may adjust for weather or airspace restrictions).
A3.9.3.3.2. Airspeed. 200 (±10) KIAS.
A3.9.3.3.3. Position. 3,000 feet LAB for FM 1/2 or 3,000-4,000 feet LAB for FM
3/4 (if entry is from tactical).
A3.9.3.3.4. Stack. Level (±100 feet).
A3.9.3.3.5. Maneuvering aircraft. Pure pursuit (after check turn).
A3.9.3.3.6. Aspect angle. Approximately 40 degrees. The maneuvering aircraft is
centered between the training aircraft’s wingtip and vertical stab.
A3.9.4. Procedures.
A3.9.4.1. Setup Comm and Execution. Each setup should be preceded by a descriptive
preparatory call (ex: “Texan, next set FM level 2 for 2”; “2”). The maneuvering aircraft
will use this time to refine formation position and complete any required in-flight checks.
Once the preparatory calls and admin have been accomplished, the entry to FM may be
flown from one of three methods:
A3.9.4.1.1. Entry from Tactical. See Figure A3.8.
A3.9.4.1.1.1. After maneuvering into the block, completing setup admin, and
acknowledging the descriptive call for the next exercise, the maneuvering aircraft
slides out to approximately 3,000 feet LAB. If transitioning from a climb (160
KIAS), an acceleration maneuver may be directed by lead (ex: “Texan, push it up,
reference 180”, “2”.) If transitioning from 200 KIAS tactical, no acceleration
maneuver is required. The wingman should strive to be ready before the flight
lead. Once the flight lead calls “Texan 1 ready”, the wingman will respond
immediately with his/her status (“Texan 2 ready” or “Texan 2, standby
airspeed/stack/spacing/etc.”). If the wingman makes a “standby” call, he/she will
call ready as soon as they are in starting parameters for" the exercise.
A3.9.4.1.1.2. After the “ready” calls, lead directs a check turn, normally away
from the wingman (“Texan, check left/right.”). The training aircraft normally
turns 45 degrees away from the maneuvering aircraft, but may adjust as
necessary. The maneuvering aircraft continues the turn as needed to go to pure
pursuit (training aircraft in the middle of the windscreen). The training aircraft
acquires visual, remains on the roll-out heading until the maneuvering aircraft has
achieved pure pursuit, and then reverses the turn using bank as required to
maintain the maneuvering aircraft at a 4 aspect. Power, bank and back stick
pressure may be adjusted as required to maintain the desired aspect and
parameters. The maneuvering aircraft will verify the correct aspect angle and call
“Texan, ease off” or “Texan, tighten up” if required. When range decreases to
1,500 feet, the maneuvering aircraft will call “Texan, fight’s on”.
Figure A3.8. Fluid Maneuvering Entry from Tactical.
A3.9.4.1.2. Entry from a Pitchout. See Figure A3.9.

A3.9.4.1.2.1. After the preparatory comm, lead will direct a pitchout and roll out
at approximately 180 degrees of heading change (or as required for airspace
management). The maneuvering aircraft will delay the turn as required to create
proper spacing (approximately 7 seconds). Adjust the turn to roll out
approximately 3,000 feet at the training aircraft’s 6 o’clock. Once both aircraft
have rolled out and “ready” calls have been exchanged, the training aircraft will
turn in either direction to acquire visual and set the desired aspect. The
maneuvering aircraft will maintain pure pursuit, stacked level and 200 KIAS until
range decreases to 1,500 feet then call “Texan, fight’s on”. Contingencies such as
“standby” or “ease off/tighten up” may be used IAW A3.10.4.1.1.2.
Figure A3.9. Fluid Maneuvering Entry from a Pitchout.
A3.9.4.1.3. Entry from Directed Positions. This option is slightly more comm-
intensive, but is especially efficient for dealing with weather-restricted airspace.
Lead maneuvers or directs the flight as necessary back into the block for the next
setup. For example, lead can direct the maneuvering aircraft to maintain 3,000 feet in
trail and when the formation is clear of weather exchange “ready” calls and begin a
turn in either direction similar to the pitchout entry.
A3.9.4.2. Initial Moves. Once the maneuvering aircraft calls “fight’s on” the training
aircraft will begin maneuvering IAW Table A3.1. The maneuvering aircraft should
maneuver as described in the following paragraphs to arrive in a stabilized position
within the ET cone.
A3.9.4.2.1. Aligning Turn Circles. See Figure A3.10. If the call to begin
maneuvering comes right at 1,500 feet, the initial move is normally to drive to the
training aircraft’s turn circle. From 1,500 feet only a small delay is required before
arriving at the turn circle. This can be accomplished by easing off the pull required
for pure pursuit, allowing the training aircraft to drift toward the canopy bow (lag) or
by momentarily rolling out. Initially, the training aircraft’s aspect will increase with
slow LOS rate across the canopy. During this drive toward the turn circle power
modulation may be used to control airspeed. While greater than 200 KIAS is
acceptable for the break turn, use caution allowing the airspeed to accelerate past 227
KIAS as there will be an increase in over-G potential. A slight climb may also be
used to control airspeed and generate vertical turning room.
Figure A3.10. Initial Move.
A3.9.4.2.2. Turn Circle Entry Cues. When the training aircraft’s aspect appears to
be stabilized and the LOS rate increases, the maneuvering aircraft has entered the turn
circle. This is the point the break turn should be executed (see below). If a roll out
was used during the drive to align turn circles it is imperative to anticipate these cues
in order to set the lift vector prior to the LOS increase.
A3.9.4.2.3. Break Turn. The goals of the break turn are to realign fuselages as
much as possible and decrease range while preserving enough energy and turning
room to solve subsequent geometry problems. Heightened G awareness and careful
reference to current G are required to prevent exceeding aircraft limits.
A3.9.4.2.3.1. Timing. A break turn too early results in cutting across the training
aircraft’s turn circle, which quickly decreases range but creates high AA and can
lead to HCA problems. A break turn too late causes a turn circle overshoot and
results in excessive lag and range. Depending on the FM level and aggressiveness
of the training aircraft, a properly timed break turn should allow for closely
aligned turn circles with decreased HCA and AA, while preserving the most
energy for follow-on maneuvering.
A3.9.4.2.3.2. Execution. To execute the break turn, select MAX power and
simultaneously roll to place the lift vector such that your POM will be on or
slightly below the training aircraft and smoothly apply backstick pressure in a
symmetrical pull to stop the training aircraft’s LOS up the canopy.
A3.9.5. FM Exercise Levels.
A3.9.5.1. Objective. Levels provide a measure of difficulty of the exercise. They
provide a building-block approach to develop fingertip flying skills and proficiency.
Levels also provide a way to set training objectives.
A3.9.5.2. Description. See Table A3.1. The building-block approach is used in FM
training by decreasing the maneuvering limitations of the training aircraft as the
maneuvering aircraft’s proficiency increases. FM level 1 and 2 are primarily used for
student sorties. FM levels 3 and 4 are only flown on IP continuation training (CT) sorties
under the supervision of properly certified IPs. FM levels 3 and 4 provide instructors with
more tools and experience to handle abnormal situations.
Table A3.1. Fluid Maneuvering Exercise Levels (Training Aircraft).

FM
Level Maneuver Gs Airspeed Power
1 Level to slightly descending (±10º) 1 to 2 180 to 220 70-85% Torque
2 Slight climb/descent (MAX 120º bank and 2 to 4 150 to 250 85%-MAX

±30º pitch
Torque
3 Level to slightly descending (±10º) Approx 2 180 to 220 70 to 85%
(note 1) Torque
4 Slight climb/descent (MAX 120º bank and 2 to 4 150 to 250 85%-MAX
±30º pitch
Torque
(note 1)
NOTES:
1. Training aircraft may reverse turn IAW with 9.54.12 and 9.54.13.
A3.9.5.3. Procedures.
A3.9.5.3.1. FM Level 1. FM Level 1 is used to introduce the initial concepts
required to recognize and maneuver to the turn circle of the training aircraft. The
building block approach is used to limit the training aircraft and allow time for the
maneuvering aircraft to drive to the turn circle, recognize the entry cues and react
appropriately to stabilize the aircraft in the ET cone. With a properly timed and
executed break turn, the maneuvering aircraft should arrive in the ET cone on the
initial move. The setup and execution will be as previously discussed.
A3.9.5.3.2. FM Level 2. FM Level 2 builds on the skills introduced in FM Level 1

by allowing the training aircraft to maneuver more aggressively, thus requiring the
maneuvering aircraft to recognize and react in a more timely manner under more
dynamic conditions. Due to the higher G available and tighter turn circle of the
training aircraft, it is imperative that the maneuvering aircraft effectively use pursuit
curves and power modulation to arrive in the ET cone with sufficient energy for
follow-on maneuvering. This may require two or more iterations of the initial moves
discussed in 9.54.8. to further align turn circles and HCA. The setup and execution
will be as previously discussed.
A3.9.5.3.3. FM Level 3 (Not Used During Undergraduate Training). FM Level 3
utilizes three passes (Alpha, Bravo, Charlie) to illustrate several student errors IPs
may face and provides the tools necessary to safely intervene and maintain formation
deconfliction. Although the setup is executed the same as FM Levels 1 and 2, the
maneuvering aircraft will include a deliberate error to drive a specific DLO. Between
each pass, the maneuvering aircraft may call “Texan 2, resetting for A/B/C pass” and
lag to the outside of the training aircraft’s turn circle to establish approximately 2,500
feet. The training aircraft may facilitate the setup by easing off the turn to open up the
turn circle. Once the maneuvering aircraft is established at 2,500 feet, a “fight’s on”
call will be made to signal the start of the next pass.
A3.9.5.3.3.1. Alpha Pass. The first pass shows how out-of-plane maneuvering
towards the training aircraft’s high 6 o’clock can be used to solve high AA and
closure. This situation represents a common student rejoin error due to an
aggressive rejoin line combined with late recognition of excess closure.
A3.9.5.3.3.1.1. Execution. At the “fight’s on” call, use power as required
and execute a low yo-yo to create lead pursuit and maneuver towards a 9 AA.
As closure develops with lead pursuit, the AA will increase and range will
decrease. Maneuver as necessary to maintain a 9 AA while avoiding a 3/9 line
violation. Approaching 500 feet, maneuver out of plane from the training
aircraft towards the high 6 o’clock position. This may result in briefly losing
sight of the training aircraft as the flight path crosses high and to the outside
of the training aircraft’s turn circle. Crossing the turn circle, continue above
the training aircraft’s POM and bank back toward the direction of turn to
regain sight and realign fuselages. A lag roll may be used to maintain sight
throughout the reposition. Remain slightly outside of the training aircraft’s
turn circle to reestablish 2,500 feet of separation for the Bravo pass, or ensure
forward LOS is observed before maneuvering back to the rejoin line.
A3.9.5.3.3.2. Bravo Pass. The second pass demonstrates the use of lag pursuit to
control AA and closure similar to a rejoin overshoot except in a more dynamic
phase of flight, such as ET. This replicates a situation during ET where lead
reverses the turn with no SA that the wingman overshot to save the bubble or 3-9
line.
A3.9.5.3.3.2.1. Execution. Use the low yo-yo to increase aspect towards a 9
AA. At approximately 1,000 feet from the training aircraft, use lag to decrease
AA. Plan the maneuver to attain a 6 AA at a range of approximately 500 feet.
The 6 AA is achieved when the leading edge of the tail is approximately

aligned with the aft end of the opposite wingtip. The maneuvering aircraft
must then establish a POM that is slightly above or below lead approaching
the 6 o’clock. When crossing the training aircraft’s 6 o‘clock (0 AA) position
(inside of 500 feet, but in no case violating the 300 foot bubble), exaggerate
the flight path overshoot with increased angle off. With SA or as directed by
the maneuvering aircraft, the training aircraft will reverse the direction of turn,
increasing closure and aspect. To control closure and complete the reposition,
maneuver to the training aircraft’s new high 6 o’clock position. Reestablish
2,500 feet of separation or ensure forward LOS is observed before
maneuvering back to the rejoin line.
A3.9.5.3.3.3. Charlie Pass. The third pass will illustrate how earlier intervention
and appropriate use of power, G, and pursuit curves can solve most problems
students may present.
A3.9.5.3.3.3.1. Execution. Pull lead and allow the AA to increase towards a
9 AA. At approximately 1,000 feet, begin using lead and lag pursuit to control
AA and HCA. Plan to fly to a stabilized goal position (500 feet from the
training aircraft with approximately a 4 AA and fuselages aligned). A 4 AA
reference is the vertical tail on the wingtip. Approaching the stabilized
position, modulate power to help control closure. Varying Gs during
maneuvering will also help to control energy.
A3.9.5.3.4. FM Level 4 (Not Used During Undergraduate Training). The
objective of FM Level 4 is to demonstrate an understanding of the aforementioned
principles while the training aircraft maneuvers through a greater range of pitch and
airspeed variations. This provides the opportunity to recognize and react to
unexpected student errors like those that are common during poorly flown rejoins, ET
and FM.
A3.9.5.3.4.1. Execution. The maneuvering aircraft will attempt to maneuver to
and stabilize in the ET cone by using the skills learned in previous FM levels.
Errors may be introduced to achieve specific DLOs if desired. The training
aircraft, with SA or as directed by the maneuvering aircraft, should reverse the
direction of turn several times to create closure and angle problems.
A3.9.5.3.5. Transition to ET. If briefed, FM may culminate with a transition to the
maneuvering phase of the ET exercise. Once established in the ET cone the
maneuvering aircraft will call “Texan 2’s in”, after which both pilots will adhere to
ET parameters and restrictions.
A3.9.5.3.6. Post-Terminate Flow. Under normal circumstances the maneuvering
aircraft will terminate the exercise when the DLOs have been met. If lead does not
direct a new formation, fighting wing should be maintained until directed otherwise.
The normal post-terminate maneuver is a reset to tactical with a climb back to the
starting altitude block. The reset to tactical is dynamic due to the likely differences in
energy between lead and wing.
A3.9.5.3.6.1. As soon as practical lead should direct the formation back to
tactical in the most expeditious manner depending on the geometry, airspace, and
environmental conditions. A common technique to establish LAB is for lead to
direct the maneuvering aircraft to lag the training aircraft and for the training
aircraft to reverse their turn to put the formation line abreast. Both aircraft should
then begin a climb with MAX power and the briefed airspeed (normally 160
KIAS) to the starting block.
A3.9.5.3.6.2. Once established in the climb, the wingman’s primary
responsibility is to maintain the appropriate climb airspeed and, secondarily, to
establish tactical spacing. Depending on energy states at the “terminate” call, a
significant altitude difference between the two aircraft may develop in order to
maintain LAB and proper airspeed. This is acceptable as long as visual is
maintained.
A3.9.5.3.6.3. During the climb it is imperative that both aircraft maintain the
briefed climb speed without bleeding off airspeed in the turns. Lead may elect to
turn at less G than a level tactical turn, therefore the wingman must evaluate
lead’s turn rate and adjust turn timing and geometry to stay in position. Typically
these turns are referred to as “easy” turns (ex: “Texan, easy hook right/left”).
A3.9.5.3.6.4. While climbing back to the starting block, it is a good time to
accomplish an ops check and preparatory call for the next set (ex: “Texan, next set
FM level 2 for 2”, “2”). If required, lead may direct a check turn left or right to
force the wingman to LAB and facilitate the next setup.
A3.9.5.3.6.5. Once the formation is re-established in the block the wingman will
stack level.
A3.10. Two-Ship Low-Level Navigation.
A3.10.1. Objective. Maneuver a formation safely through a selected ground track while
avoiding threats to arrive at a designated time over target (TOT).
A3.10.2. Description. A successful two-ship low-level navigation mission will require a
combination of solid low-level navigation practices, formation skills, and discipline.
A3.10.3. Procedures.
A3.10.3.1. Mission Analysis. Mission analysis for a two-ship low-level mission is
generally more involved than a single-ship low-level or a standard formation mission.
The major addition in the planning process is that the turn points and ground track may
need to be altered to ensure the formation stays in the corridor, avoids threats, and can
adjust for significant terrain changes. Extra time should be spent during the route study
and briefing phases to ensure all formation members are aware of where the wingman
should fly to comply with the considerations above.
A3.10.3.2. Formation Types.
A3.10.3.2.1. Tactical Line Abreast. When flying low over relatively level terrain,
LAB formation works well. LAB provides an excellent formation for clearing in a
high-threat section environment. However, it is less flexible and requires a greater
degree of planning. The LAB parameters described in paragraph A3.2. should be
used, but the wingman should not stack lower than lead.
A3.10.3.2.2. Wedge. Utilize wedge when substantial maneuvering is required, such

as over terrain with significant vertical development. Wedge gives the wingman the
flexibility to alter sides as necessary and may lessen lead’s saturation in ensuring the
wingman is on the proper side. The wedge parameters in paragraph A3.6. should be
used, but the wingman should stack no lower than lead. Turns do not need to be
called over the radio.
A3.10.3.2.3. Fighting Wing. When aggressive maneuvering is required, fighting
wing may be flown. Fighting wing offers a great deal of flexibility, but drastically
reduces the wingman’s ability to clear for the formation. The fighting wing
parameters described in Section 9D should be used, but the wingman should stack no
lower than lead.
A3.10.3.3. Departure. To enhance clearing and preparation for route entry, send the
wingman to tactical formation as soon as possible after takeoff. Unless weather or other
conditions dictate, maintain LAB to the route entry.
A3.10.3.4. Route Entry. In a relatively short span of time, lead must locate the entry
point, maneuver the formation as necessary for course alignment, call entering the route,
accelerate to the planned airspeed, and call the time hack over the radio. Before
commencing navigation in the low level environment, flight lead should ensure the
formation has set the appropriate altimeter setting for the SR route being flown. Prior
planning and solid SA are imperative for a smooth entry into the low-level structure.
A3.10.3.5. Low-Level “Contract” and Priorities as Lead.
A3.10.3.5.1. Navigate and Clear. Use single-ship low-level route and timing
corrections to fly the route, identify all turn points and threats, and be in a position to
arrive at the target on time. In addition to single-ship techniques, formation check
turns, tactical turns, and shackles may be incorporated. Roll out of each turn on the
heading for the next leg. Find, call out, and avoid any threats (traffic, birds, obstacles,
etc.) that could be a factor to the formation. If able, position the wingman on the side
opposite the threats. Climb the formation in sufficient time to avoid all factor
obstacles along the planned ground track unless able to visually acquire and ensure
lateral separation IAW AFI 11-202V3 and 11-2T-6V3. If obstacle clearance for the
wingman is questionable, lead may direct the wingman to climb without climbing the
formation. TAS may help to focus the visual lookout and provide additional SA on
traffic outside the formation.
A3.10.3.5.2. Maintain SA on the wingman. Direct formation adjustments as
necessary and stay aware of the wingman’s fuel state. Initiate ops checks at
appropriate intervals.
A3.10.3.5.3. Communications. Use standard brevity code IAW AFTTP 3-2.5
Multi-Service Brevity Codes when referring to threats (towers, traffic, etc.). Unless
local standards dictate or lead briefs otherwise, formations should use the following
verbiage to communicate threats:
A3.10.3.5.3.1. The first flight member to see the obstacle transmits his or her call
sign and the clock position (relative to their own nose) and approximate range of
the obstacle (ex: "Texan 2, tower, 1 o’clock, 4 miles"). The other flight member
acknowledges (ex: "Texan 1, contact" or "Texan 1, negative contact"). If

immediate action is required to ensure safety of flight, use directive, and then
descriptive comm (ex: “Texan 1, climb, tower, 1 o’clock, 1 mile”).
A3.10.3.6. Low-Level “Contract” and Priorities as the Wingman.
A3.10.3.6.1. Maintain vigorous visual lookout. In addition to deconfliction, do not
hit the ground or anything attached to it. Although lead is responsible to clear for the
formation, do not hesitate to climb for own-aircraft obstacle clearance.
A3.10.3.6.2. Be in Position or Correcting. Always strive for the directed or briefed
formation position unless safety dictates otherwise. In LAB and wedge, stack no
lower than lead. Lead should be on or slightly below the horizon. Whenever a flight
path conflict with lead exists, cross high in relation to lead.
A3.10.3.6.3. Navigate. Only after accomplishing previous priorities, strive to
maintain sufficient positional awareness on navigation, route, and timing to know
when to expect key events such as threats, turns, and target acquisition. Strive to
maintain enough SA to confidently assume the lead if necessary.
A3.10.3.7. Two-Ship Low-Level Maneuvering.
A3.10.3.7.1. Contract Turn. Plan and fly turns at low altitude by continually
looking outside and in the direction of turn using MAX power and G (2-3 Gs) to hold
planned airspeed. It is critical that each pilot ensures the aircraft is not descending in
the turn as any over-bank or incipient sink could result in impact with the terrain.
A3.10.3.7.2. Low-Level Turns as lead.
A3.10.3.7.2.1. Wingman on the Inside of the Turn. Begin the contract turn
over the planned turn point to keep the aircraft on the planned ground track. The
wingman should climb to deconflict flight paths, if necessary.
A3.10.3.7.2.2. Wingman on the Outside of the Turn. Direct the wingman to
turn early enough to allow for lead to delay the turn until over the planned turn
point. Since most turns are not exactly 90 or 45 degrees, turn timing may vary
from the references described in paragraph A3.3. For example, a turn of greater
than 90 degrees will require the second aircraft to turn sooner than the normal 90-
degree turn reference.
A3.10.3.7.2.3. Turns of 30 Degrees or Less. Normally, turn to the new heading
using a check turn; a delayed turn is not necessary.
A3.10.3.7.3. Low-Level Turns as the Wingman. Anticipate the turn and be
vigilant for lead’s signal. Have the roll out heading in mind, execute a contract turn,
and climb to deconflict if necessary. Since degrees of turn will vary, it may be
necessary to vary power and/or G loading to compensate and roll out in proper
tactical position. Once lead is established on the next leg of the route, expeditiously
correct back to the briefed or directed formation position as required.
A3.10.3.8. IP to Target Flow.
A3.10.3.8.1. Target Run. Lead will normally direct the wingman to wedge prior to
the IP to target run. From LAB, the wingman may use a check turn into or away from
lead, along with power modulation, to establish the wedge position. The wingman
will maintain the directed position until necessary to overfly the target in level flight.
A3.10.3.8.2. Target Egress. The flight lead will plan and brief a method for
achieving the desired tactical formation (normally LAB) off-target. A common
technique is for lead to execute an immediate in-place turn followed by a reversal to
put the wingman LAB. The wingman should typically establish the next leg heading
upon target egress.
A3.10.3.9. Low-Level Lead Change. Accomplish the lead change IAW AFI 11-2T-
6V3. Normally, initiate the lead change over the radio from tactical formation.
A3.10.3.10. Contingencies. During any abnormal circumstances, it is critical to ensure
terrain clearance and remain aware of the formation’s fuel state, other aircraft scheduled
on the low-level, other threats, and degraded situational awareness. As a general rule,
initiate a climb to at least 1,000 feet AGL prior to analyzing any abnormal situation.
A3.10.3.10.1. Lost Sight Situations.
A3.10.3.10.1.1. Wingman’s Actions. During low-level tactical turns, a
momentary blind situation is acceptable as long as sight of lead is regained at an
appropriate time. If not regained or if sight of lead is unexpectedly lost at any
other time, transmit your callsign along with “blind” IAW AFI 11-2T-6V3.
Maintain current heading and climb to 1,000 feet AGL or as briefed to help
ensure deconfliction and terrain clearance while searching for lead. Once visual
with lead, call “visual” and continue the mission. If unable to regain sight of lead
after the climb, continue to ensure terrain clearance and follow lead’s instructions.
A3.10.3.10.1.2. Lead’s Actions. If visual, climb to 1,000 feet AGL and talk the
wingman’s eyes on (ex: “Texan 1, visual, left, 9 o’clock, 1 mile”). Consider a
shallow wing rock, reference to prominent ground features, or have the wingman
turn on TAS/squawk to aid the wingman in reacquiring visual. Once the wingman
is visual, descend and continue the route.
A3.10.3.10.2. “Double-Blind” Situation.
A3.10.3.10.2.1. Wingman’s Actions. See “Lost Sight Situations” above.
A3.10.3.10.2.2. Lead’s Actions. Once both aircraft have called blind IAW AFI
11-2T-6V3, direct the wingman to climb to an MSL altitude that equates to 1,500
feet AGL and reference the current planned heading (ex: “Texan 2, climb 2,700,
reference 007”). Maintain current heading and altitude until the wingman is
established. Once altitude deconfliction is assured, lead should climb to 1,000 feet
AGL. Lead should be directive and use the techniques from “Lost Sight
Situations” above to regain visual.
A3.10.3.10.2.3. If visual is regained, descend and continue the route.
A3.10.3.10.2.4. If unable to regain visual, both aircraft may continue to the next
turn point while maintaining altitude deconfliction, using landmarks along the
route to try to find each other. When arriving at the next turn point, if visual
mutual support has not been regained, lead will be directive. Do not continue the
route as a formation. As a technique, lead may direct the wingman to climb out of
the MTR to a VFR hemispheric altitude and orchestrate a single-ship recovery.

Lead may then continue to the next turnpoint before executing a separate single-
ship recovery. This will ensure lateral separation for the formation.
A3.10.3.10.3. Radio Failure. If either aircraft experiences radio failure, climb to a
minimum of 1,000 feet AGL, give the appropriate AFI 11-205 visual signals and
recover VFR IAW local guidance. It may be necessary to collapse range to exchange
visual signals, but do not proceed closer than 500 feet until directed.
A3.10.3.10.4. IMC Route Abort. If the route cannot be continued due to weather,
lead should make every attempt while aborting the route to keep the formation in
VMC. If unable to maintain VMC, in-place turns, hook turns, and fighting wing may
be utilized as required until able to rejoin the wingman and obtain an IFR clearance.
A3.10.3.10.4.1. Wingman rejoined prior to IMC. Comply with single-ship
IMC route abort procedures in paragraph 8.25.3.
A3.10.3.10.4.2. Wingman unable to rejoin prior to IMC. In addition to
complying with single-ship IMC route abort procedures, lead must ensure
formation deconfliction. Simultaneously direct the formation to execute an
immediate climb to the Emergency Route Abort Altitude (ERAA) and ensure
heading and altitude deconfliction between aircraft (ex: “Texan 2, climb 5,500,
reference 180”, “2”). Lead should ensure a minimum of 1,000 feet separation
above the ERAA. It may be necessary to establish diverging headings for
deconfliction during the climb. Having the wingman turn on TAS and squawk
may also aid in establishing deconfliction. Although single-ship route abort
procedures must be complied with, formation and obstacle deconfliction is the
number one priority.
Attachment 4
AHC PROGRAM
A4.1. Overview of the AHC Program. The AHC program provides IPs an in-depth look at the
handling characteristics of the T-6A when operated at the very edges of the envelope. The
program focuses on the effects of torque on spins, stalls, and slow flight; alternative weather
penetration ELP profiles; and aircraft ELP capabilities from within the standard pattern.
A4.2. AHC IP Certification. Only AHC IPs certified according to AFI 11-2T-6, Volume 1, T-
6 Aircrew Training, will conduct AHC training. Operations group commanders will determine
the minimum number of AHC IPs necessary to accomplish the mission.
A4.3. AHC IP Currency. See AFI 11-2T-6 Volume 1, T-6A Aircrew Training
A4.4. AHC Sortie Overview. AHC sorties are designed to allow the IP or PIT student to
observe and practice AHC maneuvers to ensure an understanding of the aircraft’s capabilities
and characteristics during each maneuver performed.
A4.5. Preflight Review. Prior to the sortie, the pilot will review Section III and VI of the T-6A
flight manual; this manual; and AFI 11-2T-6, Volume 3; to include:
A4.5.1. OCF entry procedures and restrictions.
A4.5.2. OCF recovery procedures.
A4.5.3. Stability demonstration procedures, characteristics, and engine limitations.
A4.5.4. Stall characteristics and restrictions.
A4.5.5. Weather conditions and restrictions for stalls, spins, and ELPs.
A4.5.6. AHC ELP profiles.
A4.6. Preflight Briefing. The preflight briefing should include objectives of the flight, details
and sequence of each maneuver to be accomplished, and an explanation of the expected results in
each of the maneuvers.
A4.7. Sortie Profile.
A4.7.1. Restrictions and Requirements.
A4.7.1.1. No more than two aircraft total (one in the tower controlled pattern at
Randolph AFB PIT and 479FTG, NAS Pensacola) are allowed in the pattern during AHC
operations.
A4.7.1.2. Only AHC sorties will be in the pattern when an aircraft is conducting AHC
maneuvers.
A4.7.1.3. Only AHC maneuvers will be conducted during AHC pattern times.
A4.7.1.4. ELPs must be flown in a runway supervisory unit (RSU)-controlled pattern.
Additionally, an AHC controller must be the active controller.
A4.7.1.4.1. Randolph AFB PIT may conduct AHC pattern operations in the tower
controlled pattern. The 12 OG will ensure that AHC ELPs flown in the Randolph
AFB tower controlled pattern will be flown under the supervision of a tower
controller and SOF who have received an orientation on T-6 AHC ELP operations.
This orientation will be given by the runway supervisory unit training and
standardization officer, runway supervisory unit training officer, or the SOF program
manager and will cover basic AHC ELP operations as well as the SOF/tower
controller’s role in making safety-of-flight radio calls (i.e., “go around,”
“discontinue”).
A4.7.1.4.1.1. Randolph AFB PIT may conduct AHC maneuvers in the tower
controlled pattern as long as the supervisor of flying [SOF] monitors pattern
operations, and any one of the following conditions are met:
A4.7.1.4.1.1.1. No other aircraft monitored by the SOF are airborne in the
local area.
A4.7.1.4.1.1.2. The only other airborne aircraft in the local area is a single
FCF sortie or an additional AHC sortie accomplishing the area profile. Only
one aircraft may be in the pattern during the AHC sterile period.
A4.7.1.4.1.1.3. An additional SOF is in the tower with the sole responsibility
of monitoring the AHC sortie. If an additional SOF is in the tower, there is no
limit to the number of local aircraft airborne during the AHC, however, only
one aircraft may be in the pattern during the AHC sterile period.
A4.7.1.4.2. 479FTG will conduct AHC pattern operations in the Pensacola NAS
tower-controlled pattern. 479FTG/CC will ensure USN tower controllers receive an
orientation briefing on T-6 AHC pattern operations. This orientation will cover AHC
ELP pattern operations, with specific guidance on the tower controller’s role in
making safety-of-flight radio calls (“go around/wave-off”, “discontinue”, etc.)
A4.7.1.5. Opposite-direction and crossing or parallel runway landings will not be
attempted. In zone B, assess the energy level of both approach end and departure base
keys, then intercept a normal inside downwind ground track. In addition, crews will not
practice takeoff emergencies below 500 feet AGL.
A4.7.1.6. Crews will use On profile, Runway in sight, and safely Maneuver to land 3-2-
1 (ORM 3-2-1) gate heights as minimum altitudes. At 300 feet AGL (3), the crew should
determine whether to continue or not. No later than 200 feet AGL (2), the crew will
confirm the gear down. At no less than 100 feet AGL (1), the aircraft will be on center
line (or alternate sides for reduced runway separation) for landing.
A4.7.1.7. Following an initial torque reduction, the pilot flying (PF) will set the PCL to 4
to 6-percent torque or direct the pilot not flying (PNF) to set 4- to 6-percent torque.
Torque will be fine tuned to 4 to 6 percent by the PNF only after the ELP has been
approved and the PF directs, “set torque.” Once 4- to 6-percent torque is set, the PNF will
respond with “torque is set,” informing the PF that no further adjustment will be made by
the PNF.
A4.7.1.8. Crews will lower the gear normally and then announce on the intercom,
“simulate emergency gear handle pull.” The emergency gear handle will not be activated
unless it is required in an actual emergency.
A4.7.1.9. ELPs will not be attempted from zones A or G or from other areas not defined.
479FTG-assigned pilots are not required to perform AHC ELP training from Zones C &
D at NAS Pensacola.
A4.7.1.10. Crews will refer to MAJCOM and local guidance for pattern deconfliction
rules and radio calls.
A4.7.1.11. To avoid entering IMC during an AHC sortie where OCF recoveries are
required, a minimum of 10,000 feet of airspace clear of clouds must exist below OCF
entry altitude. In addition, minimum weather must allow line of sight to a suitable airfield
within engine-out glide range or the minimum obscuration (few, scattered [sct], broken
[bkn]) to be 4,000 feet AGL with a minimum of 5 miles visibility.
A4.7.2. Best Rate-of-Climb Takeoff (Optional). This maneuver demonstrates the T-6A
best rate of climb. Perform this maneuver according to Section II of the T-6A flight manual.
Rotate to 15 degrees nose high after liftoff and accelerate to the best rate-of-climb speed of
140 knots indicated airspeed (KIAS), using normal procedures until reaching 5,000 feet mean
sea level or as directed locally.
A4.7.3. Slow Flight (Torque Demonstration). The purpose of the slow flight profile is to
demonstrate the effects of torque on the aircraft while operating in the very slow flight
regime. Start by accomplishing pre-stall, spin, and aerobatic checks. Then, at a safe altitude,
slow the aircraft below 150 KIAS and configure with landing gear down and landing flaps.
Continue reducing airspeed to approximately 80 KIAS (about 15 units of AOA), while
setting approximately 45-percent torque. Note that the stick shaker may be on throughout the
demonstration. Accomplish the following procedures:
A4.7.3.1. Straight and Level. This slow flight maneuver demonstrates operating the
aircraft on the back side of the power curve. Pilots must understand that increased AOA
will result in increased drag and a stall if not carefully flown. Note the pitch attitude,
torque, and rudder deflection required to maintain straight-and-level flight. This is the
picture a pilot should see at rotation during takeoff or just prior to touchdown during
landing.
A4.7.3.2. Control Effectiveness. Rapid control inputs, especially in the flare, often do
not give the aircraft sufficient time to respond to the inputs. While moving the ailerons
with small, rapid movements, notice that even though the ailerons are moving, the
controls have little effect on changing the heading or bank of the aircraft during slow
flight. In slow flight, less airflow over the control surfaces requires smooth, positive
inputs to effectively control the aircraft.
A4.7.3.3. Torque. The T-6A has an initial tendency to pitch up, yaw, and roll left if the
pilot does not maintain positive control during full power takeoffs, go-arounds, missed
approaches, and the go portion of touch-and-gos. To demonstrate this, quickly increase
power to MAX from straight-and-level coordinated slow flight and let go of the controls.
Note that the nose tracks up, yaws, and rolls left approaching a stall. Recover from the
buffet prior to the stall. Reestablish slow flight and increase power to MAX again. This
time, hold the proper takeoff pitch and apply a coordinated rudder to maintain a proper
nose track. Emphasize that positive control of the aircraft will allow a safe takeoff, touch-
and-go landing, or go-around.
A4.7.4. Stability Demonstration. The purpose of the stability demonstration is to show that
the aircraft will not spin if it is not stalled (even though there is yaw induced by torque). It
also shows the effect of different torque settings on the aircraft in this flight regime.
Accomplish the following procedures:
A4.7.4.1. Idle. Accelerate to 160 KIAS and set 60 percent torque. Increase the pitch
smoothly to 45 degrees nose high. Allow the airspeed to decay, using back stick pressure
to maintain 45 degrees pitch and ailerons to maintain wings level. Apply enough rudder
inputs for coordinated flight. Passing 80 KIAS (or at first stick shaker), select idle power
and position the stick and rudder to neutral. Note that there is some nose track to the left
as the nose smoothly falls through the horizon. The aircraft will not stall as long as
neutral stick is maintained. When the nose is well below the horizon, recover from the
dive. Use power as required when the engine parameters (for example, oil pressure) are
confirmed within limits and stable.
A4.7.4.2. Sixty Percent Torque. Accelerate to 160 KIAS and set 60 percent torque.
Increase the pitch smoothly to 45 degrees nose high while using coordinated rudder.
Allow the airspeed to decay, using back stick pressure to maintain 45 degrees pitch and
ailerons to maintain wings level. Apply enough rudder inputs for coordinated flight.
Passing 80 KIAS (or at first stick shaker), position the stick and rudder to neutral. Note
that the nose falls and the aircraft smoothly rolls significantly to the left. When the nose
is well below the horizon, recover from the dive. Use power as required when the engine
parameters (oil pressure) are confirmed within limits and stable.
A4.7.5. Stall Series. The stall portion of the AHC sortie demonstrates T-6A handling
characteristics while stalled with different configurations and power settings. Perform AHC
stalls above 6,000 feet AGL, complete the pre-stalling, spinning, and aerobatic checklists,
and clear the working area prior to starting. Accomplish the following procedures:
A4.7.5.1. Power-On Stalls. In a wings level stall with idle power, typically the right
wing will drop first at the point of stall. With higher power settings (greater than or equal
to 60 percent) in the same situation, the effect of torque will typically cause the aircraft to
roll left as it stalls. Gear position has little effect on stall characteristics, but extending the
flaps (which lowers stall speeds) aggravates the roll off tendency (slightly right with
power off, left with high power settings) at stall. Enter the stall setup near 140 KIAS and
raise the nose approximately 30 degrees. Increase back stick pressure as required to
maintain this attitude until past the stick shaker and into the stall (loss of control
effectiveness). Emphasis during the AHC sortie is on recognizing torque effect vs. stall
recognition and recovery. Recover the aircraft by relaxing back stick pressure and using
power, ailerons, and rudder as required. Power-on stalls require only relaxing back stick
pressure to allow the nose to decrease to approximately 2 degrees nose high. Looking
straight ahead and feeling the aircraft response is the most effective technique to
determine pitch attitude and rudder requirements. Perform power-on stalls with the
configuration, torque, and bank angle shown in Table A4.1.
Table A4.1. Power-On Stalls.

Configuration Torque Bank Angle Expected Result
Clean Idle Zero degrees Roll right
60 percent Roll left

Idle Roll right
Gear/LDG flaps Aggravated roll left
60 percent 30 degrees left
30 degrees right Aggravated roll to wings level
A4.7.5.2. Full Aft Stick Stall.
A4.7.5.2.1. The aft stick stall demonstrates that the aircraft can be fully stalled
without a nose drop, and requires a composite cross-check to determine a stalled
condition. Accelerate to 140 KIAS and raise the nose to approximately 30 degrees
nose high. Then set approximately 30-percent torque. Use back stick pressure,
ailerons, and coordinated rudder to maintain level flight until reaching full aft stick.
Note that the stick shaker is activated, AOA is at maximum (beyond 18 units),
airspeed is 80 to 110 KIAS, and vertical speed indicator (VSI) indicates a 1,500 to
4,000 feet per minute descent. Note how much effort it takes, using rudder and
ailerons, to maintain wings level and that the pitch attitude remains at or near the
horizon with no nose drop. Be aware that aggressive control inputs while in a deep
stall may result in a pilot-induced oscillation and post-stall gyrations.
A4.7.5.2.2. Recover the aircraft by relaxing back stick pressure and using power as
required. Use right rudder pressure as required to center the ball through the
acceleration and recovery. Recovery is immediate with very little decrease in pitch.
To confirm recovery, check that the AOA is below 18 units; the altimeter has stopped
decreasing; and VSI has reversed.
A4.7.6. Spin Series. The spin portion of the AHC sortie demonstrates the characteristics of
a spin and the effect of recovery controls. Because an unplanned departure from controlled
flight can be quite abrupt and unnerving for most pilots, IPs must be familiar with aircraft
departure characteristics and recovery procedures in order to properly teach them to students.
Recovery from an inadvertent loss of control (including post-stall gyrations, incipient spins,
steady-state spins, inverted spins, and spirals) can be accomplished by promptly reducing
power to idle and positively neutralizing the flight controls in all axes. Patience and the
maintenance of controls (including visual verification of control positions) are vital because
the dynamics of any aircraft departure may prevent an immediate response of the aircraft to
control inputs. Pilots will enter AHC spins with power at idle and pitch approximately 15 to
40 degrees nose high. The following spins will be accomplished during this portion of the
sortie: (Warning: During AHC spin training, do not exceed four 360-degree turns from the
application of rudder at spin entry until recovery controls are applied.)
A4.7.6.1. Neutral Controls (OCF) Recovery. This maneuver demonstrates spin
parameters and the standard recovery technique used when the aircraft departs controlled
flight. The IP will point out the AOA (full deflection 18+ units), airspeed (120 to 135
KIAS), and turn rate. Normally, an OCF recovery is initiated immediately when an out-
of-control condition is recognized, typically within a turn or two. For purposes of this
demonstration, however, the recovery will be delayed for at least two turns in order to
look at the spin characteristics and show that the procedure remains effective.
A4.7.6.2. Controls-Free Recovery. This maneuver demonstrates the inherently stable
characteristics of the aircraft. Trim the aircraft pitch into the green band before entering
this spin. Once the aircraft has entered a normal erect spin, ensure the PCL is in idle and
release all controls (including the rudder). The nose-down pitch angle and spin rate will
increase, and the control stick will move slowly forward and in the direction of the spin.
The stick will be forward of the pilot’s knee and leaning in the direction of the spin with
an accelerated turn rate when it pops out of the spin in a nose-low attitude. Take the
controls immediately and recover from the ensuing dive.
A4.7.6.3. Erect Spin Recovery (Simulator Only). This maneuver demonstrates fully-
developed spin characteristics and the ability to rapidly recover from a spin by applying
anti-spin control inputs. The IP will point out the AOA (full deflection 18+ units),
airspeed (120 to 135 KIAS), and turn rate. The turn needle will be deflected in the
direction of spin. For purposes of this demonstration, the recovery will be delayed for at
least six turns in order to observe spin characteristics and demonstrate spin recovery
using anti-spin control inputs. Erect spin recovery is prompt after recovery controls are
applied. In all cases, as the control stick is moved forward and rudder is applied opposite
to the direction of turn needle deflection, the pitch attitude will steepen and spin rate will
initially increase. Approximately 50 pounds of push force will be required to move the
control stick well forward of the neutral position. Avoid excessive forward stick input, as
it will result in a steeper nose-low attitude and possibly negative G. Spin rotation will
abruptly cease with the aircraft in a steep nose-down attitude within one and one-half
turns after applying controls. Controls should be neutralized and a smooth pullout
initiated to stop the loss of altitude and prevent airspeed from building excessively.
Apply the following erect spin recovery steps after six turns:
Table A4.2. Erect Spin Recovery Steps.

1. Gear, flaps, and speed brake - Retracted
2. PCL - IDLE
3. Rudder - Full opposite to turn needle deflection
4. Control stick - Forward of neutral with ailerons neutral
5. Smoothly recover to level flight after spin rotation stops
NOTE: This maneuver will only be flown in the OFT, and will be included in the pre-AHC
simulator profile (normally in conjunction with TI (or during ENJJPT PIT) as directed in
AFI 11-2T-6, Volume 1.). If follow-on (10-18month) AHC sorties are flown in the OFT, the
erect spin recovery demonstration will be included in the simulator profile.
A4.7.6.4. Spiral Recognition and Recovery (Simulator Only). The high-speed spiral
is characterized by a nose low attitude, high roll rates and rapidly increasing airspeed. A
spiral is a rolling and/or yawing motion of the aircraft that is often mistaken for a spin,
but is not steady-state in that airspeed is increasing through 160 KIAS and motions are
oscillatory. A spiral can result from misapplication of pro-spin controls (insufficient
rudder or aft stick), typically seen during an improper set-up for a planned OCF
maneuver. A spiral may easily be confused with a spin if the pilot relies solely on the
interpretation of outside references and fails to accomplish a proper analysis of the
cockpit flight instruments. Should the pilot misinterpret a high-speed spiral as a spin, it is
highly unlikely that anti-spin inputs will affect a successful recovery, and will likely
aggravate the condition. The cockpit indications differ significantly from those of a
steady state, erect spin. The aircraft is not stalled; therefore, AOA will not be pegged as
in an erect spin. Airspeed will most likely be rapidly building through 140 KIAS. The
rate of descent will exceed that of a steady state spin because of the high airspeeds
ultimately attained through this flight regime. The turn needle will, however, be fully
deflected in the direction of the roll. The key to a safe recovery lies in the expeditious
recognition of the aircraft’s actual flight condition. For this demonstration, set up a
typical OCF entry using IDLE power, 15-40 degrees nose high. At 80 knots, apply full
aft stick and ½ rudder input (not full) in the direction of desired spiral. Maintain these
control inputs and observe both outside and cockpit indications (AOA, turn needle,
airspeed). Slowly relax the stick forward following two turns and observe roll rate and
airspeed increase. As airspeed passes 160 KIAS, neutralize the controls using OCF
recovery procedures and recover to level flight. Note: This maneuver will only be
flown in the OFT, and will be included in the pre-AHC simulator profile (normally
in conjunction with TI (or during ENJJPT PIT) as directed in AFI 11-2T-6, Volume
1). If follow-on (10-18month) AHC sorties are flown in the OFT, the spiral
recognition and recovery demonstration will be included in the simulator profile.
A4.7.7. ELP Series - General. Pilots flying a single-engine airplane must be aware of the
aircraft’s engine-out capabilities. While ELPs are practiced in VMC, situations may arise
where a pilot must be aware of different methods for recovering an engine-out T-6A through
a cloud deck. In addition, a T-6A pilot instructing primary students may expect to spend a
significant amount of time in the traffic pattern. An engine failure in the pattern requires
quick thinking and instinctive reactions to optimize chances of a successful recovery. Both of
these situations require a familiarity with ELPs. (For purposes of the AHC sortie, an ELP is
defined as one that does not pass through high key.) This series is designed to demonstrate
the engine-out profiles for weather penetration and techniques for engine failure in the
standard pilot training pattern. The AHC sortie will consist of a high-speed ELP, straight-in
ELP, and pattern ELPs from zones B, C, D, E, and F (Figure A4.1). Additional ELPs may
be attempted, fuel and pattern saturation permitting. Note: If weather prevents
accomplishment of the high-speed ELP and/or straight-in ELP during an AHC sortie, these
maneuvers will be accomplished in the simulator.
A4.7.8. Weather Penetration ELP Series. Generally, there are three methods for
recovering an engine-out T-6A through the weather. In all cases, the pilot must set a
minimum acceptable weather to attempt the ELP. Whether a pilot will actually attempt an
engine-out weather penetration will depend on the reported weather, his or her proficiency,
familiarity with the airfield, obstructions, and minimum altitudes. For the following weather
penetration ELPs, the pilot will simulate ceiling and visibility at 2,000 feet and 3 miles.
A4.7.8.1. Classic ELP. The first method is to fly a classic ELP from high key using the
global positioning system (GPS) for situational awareness as described in paragraph
5.18.6. This method is just like a normal ELP practiced every day and will not be flown
on the AHC sortie.
A4.7.8.2. High-Speed ELP. The high-speed ELP assumes there is sufficient energy to
reach a high-key position. More energy is better. Excess energy will be converted into
airspeed, which can be used to maneuver the aircraft to a low-key position when breaking
out of the weather. For the AHC sortie, obtain approval to depart the military operating
area, contact the RSU, and set up a 125-KIAS clean glide toward the intended field. For
high-speed ELP training, the start point should be a locally developed point
approximately 5 to 15 miles from the over-field point. Using either a navigational aid on
the field or a GPS point as the overfield point, plan to intercept a one-to-one profile
(1,000 feet of altitude loss for every mile traveled) and be over that point at 1,500 feet
AGL. The aircraft will accelerate as the nose is pushed over to maintain profile. If
intercepting the profile far enough away, the aircraft speed will stabilize at approximately
230 KIAS. Once below 2,000 feet AGL, maneuver to intercept the ELP profile at a
modified low key. Perform a touch-and-go or low approach as appropriate.
A4.7.8.3. Straight-In ELP. A straight-in ELP is flown if energy is not sufficient to fly a
classic or high-speed ELP. This is typically a last resort because (1) there is little room
for error, and (2) wind effects weigh heavily on the planned profile. From outside
downwind, continue out to 5 miles from the runway threshold and climb to 3,000 feet
AGL. (Exception: When flown in the Randolph AFB tower controlled pattern, straight-
in ELPs will be modified to remain within Randolph AFB class D airspace.) After
receiving clearance from the RSU (or tower at Randolph), establish a 125-KIAS clean
glide at 5 miles and 3,000 feet AGL, and monitor the profile. The target is to cross 1 mile
at 600 to 800 feet AGL configured with gear and flaps as required. If the aircraft is
maintaining a 2-to-1 profile, it would reach 1 mile at 1,000 feet AGL in a clean
configuration. Therefore, if you are still on or near profile at 1.5 miles (approximately
1,250 feet AGL), configure with gear and flaps as appropriate to reach the target 600 to
800 feet AGL at 1 mile. Perform a touch-and-go or low approach as appropriate.
A4.7.9. Pattern ELP Series (Figure A4.1). (Note: Figure A4.1 depicts the pattern ELP
zones used in a nominal pattern. Pilots may alter the profile and ground track as mission
needs dictate.)
A4.7.9.1. Overview. The typical US Air Force pilot training pattern can be divided into
zones that define how the pilot should react to an imminent engine failure and where the
pilot should attempt to intercept the ELP profile. The ELP series allows the pilot to see
the worst case energy limitations of different pattern positions. Because pattern sizes vary
from field to field, each IP must be aware that results may vary. Most, but not all, areas of
the standard pattern are defined in paragraphs A4.7.9.2. through A4.7.9.8. (Areas not
covered, but worthy of discussion, are the straight-in ground track, breakout and VFR
entry, and go-around.) The defined zones assume a single runway and no wind. Crossing
or parallel runways on an airfield provide numerous other possibilities for recovery. In
most pattern ELP scenarios, pilots should:
A4.7.9.1.1. Simultaneously zoom the aircraft and turn toward the intended landing
surface.
A4.7.9.1.2. Establish 125-KIAS clean glide and intercept the ELP at the appropriate
point.
A4.7.9.1.3. Configure with gear and flaps as appropriate when landing is assured.
A4.7.9.2. Zone A, Ejection Zone. This zone is defined as the departure leg, past the
point where an airplane can be landed straight ahead, until reaching approximately 1,000
feet AGL and 160 KIAS or until turning crosswind. If an immediate engine failure is
experienced in this zone, the only option may be ejection. No simulated engine failures
will be practiced in the aircraft in this zone.
A4.7.9.3. Zone B, Crosswind Zone. This zone is defined as departure leg at

approximately 1,000 feet AGL and 160 KIAS or anywhere on crosswind until completing
the turn onto outside downwind. On the AHC sortie, simulate an engine failure on
crosswind. The reaction should be to simultaneously zoom and turn back to assess the
energy level for a glide to a low-key (landing runway) or an opposite-direction landing.
After making the energy assessment, discontinue the maneuver by adding power and
proceed to inside downwind for a normal pattern, or high downwind or high key for an
ELP. For any pattern where the crosswind turn is initiated at departure end, there may be
sufficient energy to reach a modified low-key position for the normal landing direction.
A4.7.9.4. Zone C, Low Key or Base Key Zone. This zone is defined as most of outside
downwind. On the AHC sortie, simulate an engine failure on outside downwind and
attempt to intercept a low key or base key. The reaction should be to simultaneously
zoom and turn toward low or base key. An engine failure just after turning onto outside
downwind will be slightly low on energy, which may necessitate using less than the full
runway. The energy state improves along outside downwind until passing abeam the
approach end of the runway. Passing this point, the energy level starts to decrease until
reaching zone D. Headwinds or gusts exceeding 15 knots may significantly reduce the
ability to intercept Low Key or Base Key.
A4.7.9.5. Zone D, Final Zone. This zone is defined as the latter part of outside
downwind and the 90-to-initial ground track. On the AHC sortie, simulate an engine
failure in this zone. In this zone, because of the distance from the runway, the turn back
to the runway is vitally important. The reaction should be to simultaneously zoom and
start an aggressive turn back to the runway. If you are already on a 90-to-initial, most of
the turn is out of the way. Therefore, the turn to the runway need not be as aggressive. In
all cases, the attempted result is to intercept final. Depending on pattern size and winds, it
may not be possible to get back to the runway from this far corner of the pattern.
Figure A4.1. An Example of Pattern ELP Zones.
A4.7.9.6. Zone E, No Zoom Zone. This zone is defined as a 45-to-initial through a 1-

mile initial point. On the AHC sortie, simulate an engine failure in this zone. This zone is
distinctly different than the rest of the pattern because the energy level is too low to
intercept a low-key position but too high to intercept base key or final. The best technique
in this zone is not to zoom but to maneuver the aircraft in level flight to dissipate excess
energy and intercept base key or final. From 45-to-initial, either delay the turn or
overshoot final or turn toward a low-key position as necessary, then back to the runway.
From an initial, an immediate 45-to-90-degree level turn from the runway is required,
then turn back to intercept base or final. From approximately a 1-mile initial, a 2G- to
3G-level 360-degree turn will dissipate enough energy to position the aircraft on final.
A4.7.9.7. Zone F, Low Key Zone. This zone is defined as 1-mile out on initial through
the break until reaching the approach end of the runway on inside downwind configured.
If carrying straight through the break point, this zone continues until intercepting zone C
on the turn to outside downwind. On the AHC sortie, simulate an engine failure in this
zone. The reaction should be to zoom (airspeed permitting) and turn toward a low-key
position. The energy level is sufficient through most of this zone for a near normal low
key. After turning crosswind on a break point straight through, the energy level will start
to decrease. This might necessitate using less than the full runway.
A4.7.9.8. Zone G, Second Ejection Zone. This zone is defined as inside downwind
past the approach end of the runway through most of the final turn. If an engine failure
occurs once slowed down and configured in this zone, there will probably not be
sufficient energy to make the runway, which will necessitate an ejection. No simulated
engine failures will be practiced in the aircraft in this zone.
A4.7.9.9. Zone H, Closed Pullup Zone. This zone is defined as the closed pullup for an
overhead pattern or low-key ELP, until reaching inside downwind or high downwind. An
engine failure in zone H at a low-energy state (e.g., closed pullup initiated at lower
airspeed and/or lower altitude) will be similar to zone A, where the only option may be
ejection. At increased energy levels past departure end of the runway, a turn back to land
opposite direction may be possible but a 360-degree pattern to land will usually not be an
option unless engine failure occurs at a very high energy level. If the closed pullup was
initiated prior to the departure end of the runway and an engine failure occurs at higher
energy levels in zone H, energy may be sufficient to execute a 360-degree turn back to a
touchdown near or abeam where the closed pullup was initiated, which may necessitate
using less than the full runway. The higher the energy is in zone H prior to engine failure,
the greater the opportunity will be to maneuver toward the approach end of the runway
before initiating a low-key turn. The highest energy levels in zone H near or at closed
downwind or high downwind eventually result in intercepting zone F. No simulated
engine failures will be practiced in the aircraft in this zone.
A4.7.9.10. ELP Summary. Being able to land an engine-out, single-engine aircraft
requires exceptional flying skills and airmanship. An engine failure while flying at low
altitudes or in or above IMC further complicates an already difficult situation. Any
combination of factors (weather, low altitude, strong winds, etc.) that task-saturate the
situation, exceed the pilot's flying capabilities, or cause the pilot to feel he or she is
unable to safely land an engine-out aircraft should lead to an aircrew ejection decision.
However, planning for and practicing these challenging ELP conditions and situations (in
the aircraft and OFT) will invariably increase the pilot's chances for a safe engine-out
landing. The ELP series of the AHC sortie demonstrates some of the pilot techniques,
aircraft capabilities, situational awareness, and judgment required for these challenging
engine-out situations.

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BY ORDER OF THE COMMANDER AIR EDUCATION AND TRAINING

AIR EDUCATION AND TRAINING COMMAND MANUAL 11-248

T-6 PRIMARY FLYING

COMPLIANCE WITH THIS PUBLICATION IS MANDATORY

ACCESSIBILITY: Publications and forms are available on the e-Publishing website at

OPR: HQ AETC/A3VU Certified by: HQ USAF/A3V

Forward unit supplements to HQ AETC/A3V for coordination prior to publication. Submit

Chapter 1— GENERAL INFORMATION 14

1.1. General. ................................................................................................................... 14

1.2. Using This Manual.................................................................................................. 14

1.4. Safety. ..................................................................................................................... 14

1.5. Flight Discipline. .................................................................................................... 15

1.6. Checklist Discipline. ............................................................................................... 15

1.7. Single-engine Mentality. ......................................................................................... 16

1.8. Cockpit/Crew Resource Management (CRM). ....................................................... 16

1.9. Risk Management. .................................................................................................. 17

1.10. Mission Preparation. ............................................................................................... 17

1.11. Fuel Considerations. ............................................................................................... 19

1.12. Mission Briefing. .................................................................................................... 19

1.13. Debrief. ................................................................................................................... 19

1.14. Tandem Seat Challenges. ........................................................................................ 20

1.15. Transfer of Aircraft and Systems Control. .............................................................. 20

Figure 1.1. Clock Positions. ...................................................................................................... 23

Figure 1.2. FCP Canopy Code, Elevation. ................................................................................ 24

Figure 1.3. FCP Canopy Code, Azimuth................................................................................... 25

1.17. Radio Procedures. ................................................................................................... 26

1.18. GPS Usage. ............................................................................................................. 27

1.19. Emergency Procedures............................................................................................ 27

1.20. Tabletop and Standup EPs. ..................................................................................... 29

Figure 1.4. A-A-B-C-D-E-F Method of Accomplishing Practice EPs. ..................................... 31

Chapter 2— BASIC T-6 FLIGHT PRINCIPLES 32

2.2. Control Effects. ....................................................................................................... 32

Figure 2.1. Control Axes. .......................................................................................................... 32

2.3. Use of Controls. ...................................................................................................... 32

Table 2.1. General T-6 Airspeeds and Power Settings. ........................................................... 33

2.4. Trim. ....................................................................................................................... 34

Figure 2.2. Trim Tab Locations. ............................................................................................... 34

2.5. Coordination. .......................................................................................................... 35

2.6. Power and Torque Effects....................................................................................... 35

Figure 2.3. Slipstream Effect..................................................................................................... 36

Figure 2.4. P-Factor................................................................................................................... 37

Figure 2.5. Torque. .................................................................................................................... 37

Figure 2.6. Gyroscopic Effects. ................................................................................................. 38

2.7. Composite Flight..................................................................................................... 38

2.8. Basic Instrument Flight. .......................................................................................... 39

2.9. Straight-and-level Flight (Figure 2.7.). ................................................................... 39

Figure 2.7. Straight-and-level Flight. ........................................................................................ 40

2.10. Turns. ...................................................................................................................... 41

2.11. Adverse Yaw........................................................................................................... 42

2.12. Coordinated and Uncoordinated Flight. .................................................................. 42

Figure 2.8. Coordinated and Uncoordinated Flight. .................................................................. 43

Chapter 3— GROUND OPERATIONS 44

3.2. Preflight Check. ...................................................................................................... 44

3.3. Seating Position in the Aircraft. .............................................................................. 45

3.4. Cockpit Organization. ............................................................................................. 45