UNIT-III

3.1Multiplexing:
Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple
signals across a single data link.
Demultiplexer:
It separates the stream of data back into its component transmission and direct them to
the receiving device.
Figure 3.1

Signals are multiplexed using three basic techniques: frequency-division multiplexing(FDM),

time-division multiplexing(TDM), and wave division multiplexing(WDM). TDM is further
subdivided into synchronous TDM(usually just called TDM) and asynchronous TDM, also called
statistical TDM or concentrator (see Figure 3.2).
Figure 3.2
3.2 FREQUENCY-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING(FDM)
Frequency-division multiplexing(FDM)is an analog technique that can be applied when the
bandwidth of a link is greater than the combined bandwidths of the signals to be transmitted.
The modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that can be transported
by the link. Channels must be separated by strips of unused bandwidth (guard bands) to prevent
signals from overlapping.
Figure 3.3 gives a conceptual view of FDM. In this illustration, the transmission path
is divided into three parts, each representing a channel to carry one transmission.
Figure 3.3 FDM

Figure 3.3 shows the path as divided spatially into separate channels, actual channel divisions are
achieved by frequency rather than by space.
The FDM Process
Figure 3.4 is a conceptual time-domain illustration of the multiplexing process. FDM is an
analog process and we show it here using telephone as the input and output devices. Inside the
multiplexer, these similar signals are modulated onto different carrier frequencies (f1, f2, f3).
The resulting modulatedsignals are then combined into a single composite signal that is sent out
over a media link that has enough bandwidth to accommodate it.
Figure 3.5 is the frequency-domain illustration for the same concept. In FDM, signals are
modulated onto separate carrier frequencies (f1, f2, and f3) using either AM or FM modulation.
Figure 3.4FDM multiplexing process, time domain

The band width of the resulting composite signal is more than three times the bandwidth of each
input signal.
Figure 3.5 FDM multiplexing process frequency domain

Demultiplexing
The demultiplexer uses a series of filter to decompose the multiplexed signal into its
constituent component signals. The individual signals are then passed to a demodulator that
separates them from their carrier and passes them to the waiting receivers. Figure 3.6 is a time-
domain illustration of FDM multiplexing, again using three telephones as the communication
devices. The frequency domain of the same example is shown in figure 3.7
Figure 3.6 FDM demultiplexing process, time domain

Figure 3.7 FDM demultiplexing, frequency domain

3.3 WAVE-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (WDM)
Wave-division multiplexing (WDM) is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the
multiplexing and demultiplexing involve light signals transmitted through fiber-optic channels.
The idea is the same: we are combining different signals of different frequencies. However, the
difference is that the frequencies are very high. Combining and splitting of light sources are
easily handled by a prism.
Figure 3.8 gives a conceptual view of a WDM multiplexer and demultiplexer.
Figure 3.8 WDM

A multiplexer can be made to combine several input beams of light, each containing a
narrow band of frequencies, into one output beam of a wider band of frequencies. A
demultiplexer can also be made to reverse the process. Figure 3.9 shows the concept.
Figure 3.9 Prisms in WDM multiplexing and demultiplexing

3.4 TIME-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (TDM)

Time division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process that can be applied when the
data rate capacity of the transmission medium is greater than the data rate required by sending
and receiving devices. In the TDM figure, portions of signals 1, 2, 3 and 4 occupy the link
sequentially.
TDM can be implemented in two ways: synchronous TDM and asynchronous TDM.
Figure 3.10 TDM

Synchronous TDM
In synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing, term synchronous means that the
multiplexer allocates the exactly the same time slot to each device at all times, whether or not a
device has anything to transmit.
Frames Time slots are grouped into frames. A frame consists of one complete cycle of time
slots, including one or more slots dedicated to each sending device.
Figure 3.11 Synchronous TDM

Interleaving Synchronous TDM can be compared to a very fast rotating switch. As the
switch opens in front of a device, that device has the opportunity to send a specified amount (x
bits) of data onto the path. The switch moves from device to device at a constant rate and in a
fixed order. This process is called interleaving.
Figure 3.12 shows the interleaving and frame building. Each device is sending a
different message. The multiplexer interleaves the different message and form them into frames
before putting them onto the link.
Figure 3.12 Synchronous TDM, multiplexing process

At the receiver, the demultiplexer decomposes each frame by extracting each character in
turn. As a character is removed from a frame, it is passed to the appropriate receiving device (see
Figure 3.13). The capacity of the link is being wasted.
Figure 3.13 Synchronous TDM, demultiplexing process

Framing BitsOne or more synchronization bits are usually added to the beginning of each
frame. These bits, called framing bits, follow a pattern, frame to frame, that allows the
demultiplexer to synchronize with the incoming stream so that it can separate the time slots
accurately.
Bit Stuffing Bit stuffing, the multiplexer adds extra bits to a device’s source stream to force
the speed relationship among the various devices into integer multiples of each other.
Asynchronous TDM
Asynchronous Time-DivisionMultiplexing orStatistical Time-Division Multiplexing, is
designed to avoid waste of capacity of a line. In asynchronous TDM the total speed of the input
lines can be greater than the capacity of the path. In an asynchronous system, if we have n input
lines, the frame contains no more than m slots, with m less than n.
Figure 3.14 Asynchronous TDM

The number of time slots in an asynchronous TDM frame (m) is based on a statistical
analysis of the number of input lines that are likely to be transmitting at any given time. The
multiplexer scan the input lines, accepts portions of data until a frame is filled, and then sends
the frame across the link.
Figure 3.15Example of asynchronous TDM frames
3.5 MULTIPLEXING APPLICATION:
I.THE TELEPHONE SYSTEM
Multiplexing has long been an essential tool of the telephone industry.
The various carriers as a single entity called the telephone network, and the line connecting a
subscriber to that network as a service line (see Figure 3.16).
Figure 3.16 Telephone network

Common Carrier Service and Hierarchies

Telephone companies began by providing their subscribers with analog services that used
analog networks. Later technology allowed the introduction of digital services and networks.
Figure 3.17 Categories of telephone services
ANALOG SERVICES:
These two are particularly relevant to our discussion here: switched services and leased services
(see Figure 3.18).
Figure 3.18 Categories of analog services

Analog Switched Service

Analog switched service is the familiar dial-up service most often encountered when using a
home telephone. It uses two-wire (or, for specialized uses, four-wire) twisted-pair cable to
connect the subscriber’s handset to the network via an exchange. This connection is called the
local loop. The network it joins is sometimes referred to as a public switched telephone network
(PSTN).
With switched lines, when the caller dials a number, the call is conveyed to a switch, or
series of switches, at the exchange. The appropriate switches are then activated to link the
caller’s line to that of the person being called. The switch connects the two lines for the duration
of the call (see Figure 3.19).
Figure 3.19 Analog switched service
Analog Leased Service
An analog leased service offers customers the opportunity to lease a line, sometimes called a
dedicated line, that is permanently connected to another customer. It has a single line becau se the
switch is always closed.(Fig 3.20)
Figure 3.20 Analog leased service

DIGITAL SERVICES
Recently telephone companies began offering digital services to their subscribers. One advantage
is that digital service is less sensitive than analog services to noise and other forms of
interference. A telephone line acts like an antenna and will pick up noise during both analog and
digital transmission. In analog transmission, both signal and noise are analog and cannot be
easily separated. In digital transmission, on the other hand, the signal is digital but the interface
is still analog. The signal therefore can be distinguished and separated easily. Another advantage
to digital transmission is its lower cost.
Three different types of digital services: switched/56, DDS, and DS (see figure 3.21).
Figure 3.21 Categories of digital services

Switched/56 Service
A caller with normal telephone service cannot connect to a telephone or computer with
switched/56 even if using a modem. On the whole, digital and analog services represent two
completely different domains for the telephone companies.
They need another device called a digital service unit (DSU)(see Figure 3.22).A DSU is more
expensive than a modem.
Figure 3.22 Switched/56 service

Digital Data Service (DDS)

Digital data service (DDS) is the digital version of an analog leased line; it is a digital leased
line with a maximum data rate of 64 Kbps.
Like switched/56, DDS requires the use of a DSU. The DSU for this service is cheaper
than that required for switched/56, however, because it does not need a dial pad (see Figure
3.23).
Figure 3.23 DDS service

Digital Signal (DS) Service

After offering switched/56 and DDS services, the telephone companies saw a need to develop a
hierarchy of digital services much like that used for analog services. The next step was digital
signal (DS) service. Ds is a hierarchy of digital signals.
 LANs are dominated by our architecture: Ethernet, Token Bus, Token Ring, and Fiber
Distributed Data Interface (FDDI). Ethernet, Token Bus, and Token Ring are standards of the
IEEE and are part of its Project 802: FDDI is an ANSI standard.
II.PROJECT 802
In 1985, the computer society of the IEEE started a project, called project 802, to set standards
to enable intercommunication between equipment from a variety of manufacturers.
It covers the first two layers of the OSI model and part of the third level.
The relationship of IEEE Project 802 to the OSI model is shown in Figure 3.24. The IEEE
has subdivided the link layer into two sub layers: logical link control (LLC) and medium
access control (MAC).
Figure 3.24 LAN compared with the OSI model

LLC
It contains the end-user portions of the frame: the logical addresses, control information, and
data. These functions are handled by the IEEE 802.2 logical linkcontrol (LLC) protocol.
MAC
The medium access control (MAC) sublayer, resolves the contention for the shared media. It
contains the synchronization, flag, flow, and error control specifications necessary to move
information from one place to another, as well as the physical address of thenext station to
receive and route a packet. MAC protocols are specific to the LAN using them (Ethernet, Token
Ring, and Token Bus, etc.).(see figure 3.25)
Figure 3.25 Project 802

III. ETHERNET
IEEE 802.3 supports a LAN standard originally developed by Xerox and later extended by a
joint venture between Digital Equipment Corporation, Intel Corporation, and Xerox. This was
called Ethernet.
IEEE 802.3 defines two categories: baseband and broadband, as shown in Figure 3.26. The
word base specifies a digital signal (in this case, Manchester encoding). The word broad
specifies an analog signal (in this case, PSK encoding). IEEE divides the baseband category into
five different standards: 10Base5, 10Base2,10Base-T, 1Base5, and 100Base-T. The first number
(10, 1, or 100) indicates the data rate in Mbps. The last number or letter (5, 2, 1, or T) indicates
the maximum cable length or the type of cable. IEEE defines only one specification for the
broadband category: 10Board36. Again, the first number (10) indicates the data rate. The last
number defines the maximum cable length.
Figure 3.26 IEEE 802.3
Access Method: CSMA/CD
Whenever multiple users have unregulated access to a single line, there is a danger of signals
overlapping and destroying each other. Such overlaps, which turn the signals into unusable noise
are called collisions. The access mechanism used in an Ethernet is called carrier sense multiple
access with collision detection (CSMA/CD).
Addressing: Each station on an Ethernet network has its own Network Interface Card(NIC).
The number on the NIC is unique.
Electrical Specification:
Signaling: It uses digital/analog conversion.
Data Rate: Ethernet LANs can support data rates between 1 and 100 Mbps.
Frame Format: It contains seven fields: preamble, SFD (Start Field Delimiter), DA (Destination
Address), SA (Source Address), length/type of PDU (Protocol Data Unit), and CRC.
IV. TOKEN BUS
Local area networks have a direct application in factory automation and process control, where
the nodes are computers controlling the manufacturing process. In this type of application, real-
time processing with minimum delay is needed. Processing must occur the same speed as the
objects moving along the assembly line. Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) is not a suitable protocol for this
purpose because number of collisions is not predictable and the in sending data from the control
center to the computer along the assembly line is not a fixed value. Token Ring (IEEE 802.5;
see next section) is also not a suitable protocol because an assembly line resembles a bud
topology and not a ring. Token Bus (IEEE 802.4) combines features of Ethernet and Token
Ring. It combines the physical configuration of Ethernet (a bus topology) and the collision-free
(predictable delay) features of Token Ring. Token Bus is physical bus that operates as a logical
ring using tokens.
Stations are logically organized into a ring. A token is passed among stations. If a station
wants, to send data, it must wait and capture the token. However, like Ethernet, stations
communicative via a common bus.
Token Bus is limited to factory automation and process control and has no commercial
application in data communication.
V. TOKEN RING
Token Ring resolves this uncertainty by requiring that station take turns sending data. Each
station may transmit only during its turn and may send only one frame during each turn. The
mechanism that coordinates this rotation is called token passing. A token is a simple placeholder
frame that is passed from station to station around the ring. A station may send data only when it
has possession of the token.
Token Ring allows each station to send one frame per turn.
Access Method: Token Passing
Token passing is illustrated in Figure 3.27. Whenever the network is unoccupied, it circulates a
simple three-byte token. This token is passed from NIC (Network Interface Card) to NIC in
sequence until it encounters a station with data to send. That station waits for the token to enter
its network board. If the token is free, the station may then send a data frame. It keeps the token
and sets a bit inside its NIC as a reminder that it has done so, then sends its one data frame.
This data frame proceeds around the ring, being regenerated by each station. Each intermediate
station examines the destination address, finds that the frame is addressed to another station, and
relays to its neighbour. The intended recipient recognizes its own address, copies the message,
checks for errors, and changes four bits in the last byte of the frame to indicate address
recognized and frame copied. The full packet then continues around the ring and until it returns
to the station that sent it.
The sender receives the frame and recognizes itself in the source address field. It then examines
the address-recognized bits. If they are set, it knows the frame was received. The sender then
discards the used data frame and releases the token back to the ring.

Figure 3.27 Token Passing

Addressing
Token Ring uses a six-byte address.
Electrical Specification
Signaling
Token Ring uses differential Manchester encoding.
Data Rate
Token Ring supports data rates up to 16Mbps.
Frame Formats
The Token Ring protocol specifies three types of frames: data/command, token, and abort.
VI. FDDI
Fiber distributed data interface (FDDI) is a local area network protocol standardized by ANSI
and the ITU-T (ITU-T X.3). It supports data rates of 100Mbps and provides a high-speed
alternative to Ethernet and Token Ring. When FDDI was designed, speeds of 100Mbps required
fiber-optic cable. Today, however, comparable speeds are available using copper cable. The
copper version of FDDI is known as CDDI.
Access Method: Token Passing
In FDDI, access is limited by time. A station may send as many frames as it can within its
allotted access period, with the proviso that real-time data be sent first.
To implement this access mechanism, FDDI differentiates between two types of data
frames: synchronous and asynchronous. Synchronous here refers to information that is real-time,
while asynchronous refers to information that is not. These frames are usually called S-frames
and A-frames.
Addressing
FDDI uses a six-byte address.
Electrical Specification
Signalling (Physical Layer)
FDDI uses a special encoding mechanism called four bits/five bits(4B/5B).
Data Rate
FDDI supports data rates up to 100Mbps.
Frame Format
The FDDI standards divides transmission functions into four protocols: Physical medium
dependent (PMD), physical (PHY), media access control (MAC), and logical link control
(LLC)(see figure 3.28).
Figure 3.28 FDDI layer

VII. IEEE 802.6

Another protocol in the IEEE Project 802 (IEEE 802.6) is distributed queue dual bus
(DQDB). Although DQDB resembles a LAN standard, it is designed to be used in MANs.
Access Method: Dual Bus
As its name implies, DQDB uses a dual bus configuration: Each device in the system connects
to two backbone links. Access to these links is granted not by connection (as in 802.3) or token
passing (as in 802.4 and 802.5) but by mechanism called distributed queues.
In this illustration, Figure 3.29 the two unidirectional buses are labelled Bus A and Bus B. Five
numbers stations connect to the buses as shown. Each bus connects to the station directly through
input and output ports: no drop lines are used.
Figure 3.29 Data transmission in DQDB

VIII. SMDS
Switched multimegabit data services (SMDS) is a service for handling high-speed
communications for metropolitan area networks. It was developed to support organizations that
need to exchange data between LANs located in different parts of a city or large campus. For
example, consider an enterprise with four offices in four different parts of a city. To join their
LANs into MAN requires a mesh of six point-to-point connections. n ×(n-1)/2; see Figure 3.30.
Figure 3.30Connecting LANs using T-1 or T-3 lines
SMDS Architecture
Access to SMDS is coordinate through the SMDS interface protocol (SIP). The SIP protocol
defines three levels, as shown in Figure 3.31.
Figure 3.31 SIP levels