Assyria

to Iberia
Art and Culture
in the Iron Age

978-1-58839-606-8

T H E M E T RO P O L I TA N M U S E U M O F A RT

Symposia
The Metropolitan Museum of Art Symposia

Assyria to Iberia
 The Metropolitan Museum of Art Symposia

Assyria to Iberia
Art and Culture in the Iron Age

Edited by
Joan Aruz and Michael Seymour

T h e M eT ropoliTa n MuseuM of a rT, n ew Yor k

d i s T r i b u T e d b Y Ya l e u n i v e r s i T Y p r e s s , n e w h av e n a n d l o n d o n
The essays in this volume are based on papers and lectures Page 40: Detail of gypsum alabaster banquet relief of
presented in conjunction with the exhibition “Assyria to Ashurbanipal (see Gansell, p. 55, ig. 1 and Winter,
Iberia at the Dawn of the Classical Age” on view at The p. 182, ig. 4)
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, from September
27, 2014, though January 4, 2015. Page 86: Syrian-style ivory plaque with hunter slaying a
griin. Nimrud, Fort Shalmaneser, Room SW 37. Neo-
This publication is made possible by The Adelaide Milton Assyrian period. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
de Groot Fund, in memory of the de Groot and Hawley York, Rogers Fund, 1961 (61.197.11)
families.
Page 204: Bronze horse frontlet with nude females. Samos,
Published by The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Heraion, area to the southeast of the Great Altar. Syrian,
New York 9th century b.C. Archaeological Museum, Vathy, Samos,
Mark Polizzotti, Publisher and Editor in Chief Greece (B2579/A1306)
Gwen Roginsky, Associate Publisher and General Manager
of Publications Page 322: Bronze cauldron and iron stand. Salamis,
Peter Antony, Chief Production Manager dromos of Tomb 79. Cypro-Archaic, ca. 8th–7th century
Michael Sittenfeld, Senior Managing Editor b.C. Cyprus Museum, Nicosia (T.79/202, 202[b])

Edited by Elizabeth Franzen The Metropolitan Museum of Art endeavors to respect

Designed implemented by Duke & Company, Inc., copyright in a manner consistent with its nonproit
Devon, Pennsylvania, based on a format established by educational mission. If you believe any material has been
Tsang Seymour Design Inc. included in this publication improperly, please contact the
Production by Christopher Zichello Publications and Editorial Department.
Bibliography edited by Philomena Mariani
Image acquisitions and permissions by Blair Fowlkes- Copyright © 2016 by The Metropolitan Museum of Art,
Childs and Jane Tai New York
Maps on pp.x-xvi, 34, 89, 102, 196, and 209 by
Anandaroop Roy First printing

Photographs of works in the Metropolitan Museum’s All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
collection are by the Imaging Department, reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, unless otherwise electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
noted. recording, or any information storage and retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.
Additional photography credits appear on page 349.
The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Typeset in Monotype Bembo 1000 Fifth Avenue
Printed on 128 gsm Neo Star New York, New York 10028
Separations by Embassy Graphics, Winnipeg, Canada metmuseum.org
Printed and bound by SICP, Guangzhou, China
Jacket illustration: Gilded silver bowl with Egyptianizing Distributed by
motifs. Said to be from Kourion (the Kourion Treasure). Yale University Press, New Haven and London
Cypro-Phoenician, late 8th–early 7th century b.C. The yalebooks.com/art
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, The Cesnola yalebooks.co.uk
Collection, Purchased by subscription, 1874–76
(74.51.4554) Cataloguing-in-Publication Data is available from the
Library of Congress.
Frontispiece: Phoenician-style ivory plaque with gold leaf ISBN 978-1-58839-606-8
and inlaid semiprecious stones and vitreous material
depicting a lioness attacking a youth. Nimrud, Northwest
Palace, well in Room MM. Neo-Assyrian period, 9th–8th
century b.C. The Trustees of the British Museum, London
(ME 127412)

Page 2: Detail of gypsum alabaster relief showing ships

transporting cedar logs from Tyre. Khorsabad, palace of
Sargon II, facade n. Neo-Assyrian, reign of Sargon II.
Musée du Louvre, Paris (AO 19889)

Page 12: Bronze wheeled vessel stand. Cyprus. Late

Bronze Age, 1250–1100 b.C. The Trustees of the British
Museum, London (GR 1946,1017.1)
Contents
Contributors to the Volume vii
Acknowledgments viii
Maps x
Chronology xvi
Introduction
Joan Aruz 3

i. froM bronze To iron

Joan Aruz
Bronze to Iron: Art in Transition 14
Ann E. Killebrew
The World of the Philistines and Other “Sea Peoples” 30

ii. assYria and babYlonia

Paul Collins
The Face of the Assyrian Empire: Mythology and the Heroic King 42
Amy Rebecca Gansell
Imperial Fashion Networks: Royal Assyrian, Near Eastern, Intercultural, and Composite Style
Adornment from the Neo-Assyrian Royal Women’s Tombs at Nimrud 54
Michael Seymour
The Empire in the Palace: Campaign Reliefs in the Southwest Palace at Nineveh
and an Assyrian Microcosm 65
Marc Van De Mieroop
Scholars and Scholarship in Assyria and Babylonia, or: What If Socrates Had
Studied Cuneiform? 81

iii. sYria, The levanT, and The phoeniCian expansion

Jonathan N. Tubb
A New Millennium —A New Order: Philistines, Phoenicians, Aramaeans, and the
Kingdom of Israel 88
Ronny Reich
The City of David in Jerusalem and Its Phoenician Connection 104
Israel Finkelstein
The Levant and the Eastern Mediterranean in the Early Phases of the Iron Age:
The View from Micro-Archaeology 112
Mirko Novák
Assyrians and Aramaeans: Modes of Cohabitation and Acculturation at Guzana (Tell Halaf ) 123
Aslı Özyar
Phoenicians and Greeks in Cilicia? Coining Elite Identity in Iron Age Anatolia 136
María Eugenia Aubet
Phoenician Politics in Colonial Context: Pyrgi Again 147
Marsha Hill
Tribal Dynamics, Child Gods, Festivals, and the Faraway Goddess: Mingling in the Egyptian
Delta in the Third Intermediate Period 154
Eric Gubel
Crossing Continents: Phoencian Art and How to Read It 168
Irene J. Winter
The “Woman at the Window”: Iconography and Inferences of a Motif in First-Millennium b.c.
Levantine Ivory Carving 180
Sarah B. Graf
The Art of the Elephant and Its Consequences 194

iv. arT of The “orienTalizing” period: greeCe, CYprus,

and iTalY
John Boardman
The Age of Heroes: Greeks and Phoenicians on the Wine-Dark Sea 206
Ann C. Gunter
Contemplating an Empire: Artistic Responses to the Neo-Assyrian World 216
Marian H. Feldman
Consuming the East: Near Eastern Luxury Goods in Orientalizing Contexts 227
Wolf-Dietrich Niemeier
Greek Sanctuaries and the Orient 234
Annie Caubet
Between Orient and Occident: The Iconography of Cyprus (ca. 800 – 600 b.c.) 251
Nassos Papalexandrou
From Lake Van to the Guadalquivir: Monsters and Vision in the Pre-Classical Mediterranean 263
Hartmut Matthäus
Metalwork from the Levant to Iberia during the Early First Millennium b.c. 273
Nicholas Chr. Stampolidis
Eleutherna on Crete: The Wider Horizon 283
Maurizio Sannibale
The Etruscan Orientalizing: The View from the Regolini-Galassi Tomb 296
Carolina López-Ruiz
Greek Literature and the Lost Legacy of Canaan 316

v. epilogue
Zainab Bahrani
Assyria to Iberia: Closing Remarks 324
Bibliography 332
Photograph and Illustration Credits 359
Contributors to the Publication
Joan Aruz, Curator in Charge, Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art, The Metropolitan Museum
of Art
María Eugenia Aubet, Professor and Chair of Prehistory Department, Universitat Pompeu Fabra,
Barcelona
Zainab Bahrani, Edith Porada Professor of Ancient Near Eastern Art and Archaeology, Department of
Art History and Archaeology, Columbia University
John Boardman, Emeritus Lincoln Professor of Classical Art and Archaeology, Classical Art Research
Centre and The Beazley Archive, University of Oxford
Annie Caubet, Professor, Ecole du Louvre, and Curator Emerita, Département des Antiquités
Orientales, Musée du Louvre
Paul Collins, Jaleh Hearn Curator for Ancient Near East, Department of Antiquities, Ashmolean
Museum of Art and Archaeology, University of Oxford
Marian Feldman, Professor, Departments of the History of Art and Near Eastern Studies,
Johns Hopkins University
Israel Finkelstein, Professor of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University
Amy Rebecca Gansell, Assistant Professor, Art and Design, St. John’s University
Sarah B. Graf, Associate Curator, Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art, The Metropolitan
Museum of Art
Eric Gubel, Director, Musées Royaux d’Art et d’Histoire, Brussels
Ann C. Gunter, Bertha and Max Dressler Professor in the Humanities, Department of Art History,
Northwestern University
Marsha Hill, Curator, Department of Egyptian Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Ann E. Killebrew, Associate Professor of Classics and Ancient Mediterranean Studies, Jewish Studies,
and Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University
Carolina López-Ruiz, Associate Professor, Department of Classics, The Ohio State University
Hartmut Matthäus, Senior Fellow, Institut f ür Klassische Archäologie, Friedrich-Alexander-
Universität, Erlangen-Nürnberg
Wolf-Dietrich Niemeier, Director Emeritus, Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Abteilung Athen
Mirko Novák, Professor, Institut f ür Archäologische Wissenschaften, Universität Bern,
Aslı Özyar, Director of Tarsus-Gözlükule Excavations, and Professor, Department of History, Boğaziçi
University, Istanbul
Nassos Papalexandrou, Associate Professor, Department of Art and Art History, The University of
Texas at Austin
Ronny Reich, Professor, Department of Archaeology, University of Haifa
Maurizio Sannibale, Curator, Reparto per le Antichità Etrusco-Italiche e il Museo Gregoriano
Etrusco dei Musei Vaticani
Michael Seymour, Assistant Curator, Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art, The Metropolitan
Museum of Art
Nicholas Chr. Stampolidis, Professor of Archaeology, University of Crete, and Director, Museum of
Cycladic and Ancient Greek Art, Athens
Jonathan N. Tubb, Keeper, Department of the Middle East, The British Museum
Marc Van De Mieroop, Professor, Department of History, Columbia University
Irene J. Winter, William Dorr Boardman Professor of Fine Arts Emerita, Department of History of
Art and Architecture, Harvard University

vii
 Acknowledgments

The exhibition “Assyria to Iberia at the Groot Fund, in memory of the de Groot and
Dawn of the Classical Age,” on view in Hawley families. Our colleagues in the Edu-
2014–15, and its extensive catalogue, focused cation Department and Concerts and Lec-
attention on the varieties of interaction across tures at The Met helped ensure the success of
western Asia and the Mediterranean during the various programs, and special thanks go
the early centuries of the irst millennium to Joseph Loh and Jennifer Mock.
b.C. The success of the project relied to a We are very pleased that, with these essays,
great extent on the ability to secure extraor- we are able to make another contribution to
dinary loans from museums across the vast the Museum’s symposium series, three years
span of the Mediterranean region and on after the publication of Cultures in Contact:
contributions by many colleagues from these From Mesopotamia to the Mediterranean in the
institutions, thanks to the generosity of our Second Millennium b.c. We would like to
major donors: The Hagop Kevorkian Fund, thank Mark Polizzotti and Michael Sittenfeld
spearheaded by the commitment of Ralph D. of the Publications and Editorial Department
Minasian; the Stavros Niarchos Foundation; for their assistance in bringing this volume to
Dorothy and Lewis B. Cullman; and an completion. As with the Assyria to Iberia
Anonymous Foundation, as well as to cata- catalogue, Christopher Zichello has done
logue supporters The Andrew W. Mellon masterful work in production and contrib-
Foundation, The Hagop Kevorkian Fund, uted his expertise with images and layout.
and the A. G. Leventis Foundation. For the Elizabeth Franzen devoted much time,
rich programming that accompanied this energy, and skill to the careful editing of this
show, we would irst like to thank the Direc- volume, with the assistance of Anne Rebecca
tor of The Met, Thomas P. Campbell, for his Blood, Elizabeth Gordon, Frances Malcolm,
support. The major event was a two-day and Amelia Kutschbach. Anandaroop Roy
symposium, which was preceded by the created the exhibition catalogue maps and
Charles K. Wilkinson lectures, both made has kindly adapted them for the purposes of
possible by the many friends of Charles K. this volume, Philomena Mariani prepared the
Wilkinson and of The Metropolitan Museum bibliography and endnotes, and Jane Tai han-
of Art. The keynote address for the sympo- dled image rights. Special thanks to Anne
sium was part of the Armand Brunswick Rebecca Blood who, as project manager,
Distinguished Lectures in Archaeology of ensured that the volume moved forward.
The Raymond and Beverly Sackler Founda- In the Department of Ancient Near
tion, Inc. Our loyal Friends of Inanna, who Eastern Art, we are extremely grateful for
also contributed to the exhibition funding, the careful work and dedication of Blair
supported a Scholar’s Day Workshop. The Fowlkes-Childs, who provided expert assis-
publication of papers presented during these tance and support on many aspects of this
events and a series of lectures dedicated to volume, particularly image and bibliographic
topics related to the show — including the research, and Elizabeth Knott, Hagop
work of Ronny Reich, funded by the Friends Kevorkian Research Associate, who dili-
of the Israel Antiquities Authority — are gently researched the maps for both the
collected in this volume and published with exhibition catalogue and the present volume,
the support of The Adelaide Milton de while providing other essential research

viii
assistance. Anne Elizabeth Dunn-Vaturi, always responding to our queries with expe-
Hagop Kevorkian Research Associate, helped dience and good cheer. Their contributions
with French to English accurate translation. enriched the presentation of the exhibition
Tim Healing and Cristina Velásquez Murri- and relect the complexities of an era of
eta provided critical support throughout the ancient civilization that is best understood
project, and their work on numerous phases when its various aspects are considered from
of the programing is greatly appreciated. a “global” perspective, as we endeavored to
Finally, we would like to thank all the con- do in our journey from Assyria to Iberia.
tributors to Assyria to Iberia: Art and Culture
in the Iron Age, who worked closely with us, Joan Aruz and Michael Seymour

ix
 Marseilles
ETRURIA
Vetulonia
Corsica Adriatic Sea
Pyrgi Caere
Alalia Rome Praeneste

Atlantic Ocean IBERIA

Sardinia Pontecagnano
Madrid nds
isla Tharros
ric
lea GR
Ba
Ibiza
Lisbon

da lquivir
Gua Bajo de la Campana
Motya Sicily
Huelva (Tartessos?) El Carambolo
Algiers Carthage
Gadir/Cádiz Tunis

of Gib raltar
Strait
Lixus

Rabat

Tripoli
Taucheira

LIBYA

S a h a r a D e s e r t

The Ancient Near East and the Mediterranean

in the First Millennium
With Select Second-Millennium Sites
Map showing place-names cited in the essays.

Archaeological site Modern city

Shipwreck
 Cauc
Black Sea asus Mountains

Caspian Sea

Istanbul

Troy Ankara Hattusa

Karmir Blur Yerevan
EECE Aegean Sea Gordion
Lefkandi A N AT O L I A Lake
Delphi Eretria Sardis Van
Van
Corinth Samos Ephesos
Athens Marash
OlympiaMycenae Miletos ASSYRIA
Tau Carchemish Arslan Tash Hasanlu
Sparta Cyclades r us M Musasir
t ns Amanus Tell Halaf Mosul Nineveh
Rhodes Mtns
Aleppo Tell al Rimah
Uluburun Nimrud
Crete Ugarit
Eleutherna Knossos CyprusSalamis SYRIA Tehran
M Ashur Kirkuk
Mount Ida Prinias Nicosia ES
Kition O
NT
PO
Byblos Eu TA
M e d Beirut ph MI
i t e r ra
VA

r a n e a Sidon te A Za
n Baghdad Tell Asmar
S e a gr

s
Damascus
LE

Tyre Tig os
Cyrene r is M
Megiddo Babylon ou
Samaria Dilbat Susa
Tobruk Amman
nt
BABYLONIA

ai
Jerusalem Uruk

ns
Lachish
Naukratis Tanis
Ur
Cairo
Memphis
Herakleopolis
EGYPT

Tell el-Amarna
Persian
Gulf
N
ile

Deir el-Medina Thebes

Medinet Habu
Tôd
ARABIA
Riyadh

Dakka Red Sea

Abu Simbel

NUBIA
Kerma

Jebel Barkal Nuri

el-Kurru
KUSH

Meroë

Khartoum
Sana'a

Arabian Sea
 Iberia

Atlantic
Ocean

ds
an
isl
r ic
Aliseda Berzocana ea
al
B
Ibiza

Medi terranean
quivir
adal Castulo Se a
Gu
El Carambolo Bajo de la Campana
La Joya
Huelva (Tartessos?) Seville/Spal

Málaga Toscanos
Gadir/Cádiz Cerro del Villar
ar
Gibralt
it of
Stra
Lixus Greece and
Western Anatolia

MACE D ONIA
CHAL KID IK E
Mount
Olympos

Troy PH RYGIA
Dodona TH E SSALY Gordion
Pherai
Aegean
Lesbos
Sea
LOKRIS Skyros LYDI A
Abai/Kalapodi Tragana
PHOKIS Ptoon Euboia
Ithaca Delphi B O I OT I A Lefkandi Sardis
Eretria
Kephallenia Thebes IO NI A
Perachora Eleusis
PE

Corinth
Isthmia Athens Ephesos
LO

Olympia Mycenae Lavrion Samos

Priene
PO

Argos Miletos
NN

Delos Didyma
Sparta
ES

CARI A
E

Cyclades Elmalı
D

Ialysos
od

Thera
Kameiros
ec

n Lindos
a

es
e Rhodes
Axos Fortetsa
Panormon Tylissos
M e d i t e r ra n e a n S e a Stavromenos Khaniale Tekke
Crete Eleutherna Knossos
Mount Ida Dreros
Phaistos Mochlos
Kommos Arkades/Afrati
Prinias
Ida Cave
 Bisenzio
Verucchio Central Mediterranean
Casale Marittimo San Severino Marche
Poggio Civitate
Vetulonia Sarteano
Poggio Buco
Corsica Marsiliana E TRURIA Adriatic Sea
Vulci Civita Castellana
Alalia Tarquinia Narce
Pyrgi Veii Monte Aguzzo
Caere Praeneste
Ficana LAT I UM
Rocca di Papa
Laurentina Acqua Acetosa
Satricum
Castel di Decima Capua CA MPANI A
Cumae
Pithekoussai Bay
Ischia of Pontecagnano
Sardinia Naples
Cala Gonone
Tharros
Francavilla Marittima

Monte Sa Idda

Bithia Nora

Palermo Solunto
Motya
Sicily Mediterranean Sea

Carthage

Malta
Urartu and the
Syro-Hittite States

COLCHIS

Black Sea

Lake
Abant

Karmir Blur
Hattusa
PHRYGIA URARTU
Gordion Mt. Ararat

Lake
Eski Acigöl crater Van

Amida Giricano
GURGUM
İvriz TUWANA Marash Kashiyari
Karatepe Incirli Mtns
Hasanlu
•
Adana Zincirli CARCHEMISH Arslan BIT BAHIANI Nisibis
QUE SAM'AL Carchemish Tash Harran Tell Fekheriye Tig
Çineköy Misis Deve Höyük Til Barsip Tell Halaf/Guzana ri s
Amanus Mtns Kahat Khorsabad
Arsuz ‘Ain Dara BIT Nineveh
Tell Bderi
ADINI Tell Sheik Hassan Tabete
PATIN BIT AGUSI
Tell Tayinat Nimrud
Balikh

Alalakh Aleppo Tell Šadikanni

Emar Munbaqa ASSYRIA
Ebla
r
O ro n t e

bu

Apameia Ashur
Kha

Cyprus HAMATH
s

Hamath Eu
Homs Terqa
ph

Sumur/Tell Kazel
ra
tes

Mari
Mediterranean Sea
ARAM-DAMASCUS
 Ugarit
Cyprus Apameia
Lapithos Platani Patriki Tweini
O
Kazaphani Tell Sukas r
Athienou Salamis

on
Idalion Enkomi Qadboun Hamath

tes
Marion
Tamassos KitionGolgoi
Larnaca Arwad Tartus Qatna
Paphos
Amathus Amrit
Kouklia/Palaepaphos Kourion Sumur/Tell Kazel Emessa/
Qadesh Homs
Tell ‘Arqa

Byblos
Nahr el-Kalb

IA
Beirut

IC
EN
Sidon Damascus
Sarepta

O
Mediterranean Sea

PH
Tyre Tel Dan

Kefer Varadim Hazor

Akko
Tel Hadar
Abu Hawam Tiberias Sea of Galilee
Atlith Nazareth
Tel Dor Jezreel
Megiddo Beth Shean Ramoth Gilead
Ta‘anach Pella
Jatt ISRAEL Tel Rehov
Samaria Tell es-
Tell Qasile Aphek Sa‘idiyeh
Joppa Beth
Tel Batash Gezer Shemesh Jericho
Tel Miqne-Ekron Jerusalem
Ashdod AMMON
Ramat Rahel
Ashkelon
IA JUDAH Dead
ST
Gaza Maresha
ILI

Lachish Sea
PH

Nile Delta Beersheba

Tell el-Far’ah (S) Arad
Aro‘er MOAB
Sais Tanis
Naukratis Mendes
Kom Firin Piramesse
EDOM
Avaris
N e g e v Khirbet en-Nahas
Bubastis/Tell Basta
Feinan

Heliopolis

Saqqara Memphis
S i n a i Timna
e
N il

Herakleopolis

Hermopolis

Levant, Cyprus, and the Nile Valley

 Gordion
PHRYGIA Karmir Blur

URARTU
Lake
Van Caspian Sea
SYRO-HITTITE Amida
Elmalı STATES
Tarsus Zincirli
C ILIC IA Carchemish Arslan Tash Nisibis Hasanlu
Nagidos Kelenderis Til Barsip Tell Halaf Khorsabad
Al Mina Qarqar Nineveh Ziwiye
Nimrud
Cyprus Hamath E Ashur

up
area of detail, below
MEDIA

hr
at
Byblos

es
M ed ite r ra nean Se a PHOENICIA
Sidon Damascus LU R I STA N
Tyre
Sippar Tig
r is
Samaria ISRAEL Babylon
PHILISTIA Jerusalem BABYLONIA Susa
Tanis Lachish JUDAH Nippur ELAM

Bubastis Uruk
Ur
Memphis
CHALDEA
LOWER
EGYPT
Persian
Gulf
Ni

UPPER ARAB I A
le

EGYPT
Red
Karnak Sea
Thebes

Assyrian World

Maltai
Khinnis/Bavian
Tell Deir Situn

Dur-Sharrukin/Khorsabad
ab
rZ
ate
Gre

Nineveh

Imgur-Enlil/Balawat Arbela/Erbil
T
ig

Kalhu/Nimrud
ris

b
Za
er
ss

Le

Ashur/Qal‘at Sherqat

Assyrian Heartland
C HRO NO LOGY, 1 20 0 – 4 0 0 B.C . (all dates are approximate)

Mesopotamia Iran Syria and the Levant Anatolia / North Syria

1200 BaBylonia Iron Age II, 1250 – 800 Iron Age I, 1200 – 900 Syro-Hittite and Aramaean
Nebuchadnezzar I (1125 – 1104) Sea Peoples incursions kingdoms, 1200 – 800

Assyria Traditional date of Trojan War,

Tiglath-Pileser I (1114 – 1076) 1184

1100

1000 Neo-Babylonian period, 1000 – 539 Neo-Elamite period, 1000 – 539 Philistine city-states founded in
10th century
Neo-Assyrian empire, 911 – 612
Adad-nirari II (911 – 891)

900 Assyria Iron Age II, 900 – 700

Ashurnasirpal II (883 – 859)
Assyrian capital moved to Nimrud / Kalhu,
878

Shalmaneser III (858 – 824)

Battle of Qarqar, 853
Sarduri I (840 – 830) founds royal
Hazael of Aram-Damascus dynasty of Urartu
(843 – 806)

800 Assyrian rule in Babylonia, 729 – 625 Iron Age III, 800 – 550 Urartu
Argishti I (785 / 780 – 756)
Assyria Sarduri II (756 – 730)
Tiglath-Pileser III (744 – 727) Rusa I (730 – 714 / 713)

Sargon II (721 – 705) Phrygia

Assyrian capital moved to Khorsabad / Midas (contemporary with Sargon II
Dur-Sharrukin, 717 of Assyria)

BaBylonia Assyria conquers Samaria, 722

Marduk-apla-iddina II, 721 – 711
Assyria conquers Philistine Assyrian sack of Haldi Temple,
Assyria city-states, 714 – 712 Musasir, 714
Sennacherib (704 – 681)
Assyrian capital moved to Nineveh / Assyrian sieges of Lachish and
Kuyunjik, 704 Jerusalem, 701

700 Iron Age III, 700 – 550 Urartu

Rusa II (irst half of 7th century)

Sennacherib destroys Babylon, 689 Lydia

Mermnad dynasty, 680 – 546
Assyria Battle of Til Tuba, 653
Esarhaddon (680 – 669)
Ashurbanipal (668 – 627) Assyrian sack of Susa, 646
War between Ashurbanipal and Shamash-
shuma-ukin, 652 – 649 Median empire, 625 – 550

Fall of Nineveh, 612

BaBylonia
Nabopolassar (626 – 605)

Neo-Babylonian kingdom, 626 – 612

Neo-Babylonian empire, 612 – 539

Nebuchadnezzar II (604 – 562) Babylonian rule, 605 – 539 Battle of Carchemish, 605

600 Babylonian sack of Jerusalem and Lydia

Nabonidus (555 – 539) destruction of Temple, 587 Croesus (560 – 546)

Persian conquest of Babylon, 539 Achaemenid dynasty, 559 – 330 Achaemenid rule, 550 – 330 Achaemenid rule, 546 – 330

Achaemenid rule, 539 – 330 Bisutun relief of Darius I, 521

500 Ionian Revolt, 499 – 498

 Egypt Cyprus Greece Western Mediterranean

Ramesses III (1184 – 1153) Late Bronze Age, 1600 – 1050 Late Helladic (LH) IIIC period on Spain
mainland / Late Minoan (LM) IIIC Middle and Later Bronze Age, 1500 – 700
period on Crete, 1200 – 1125

Third Intermediate Period, Phoenician colonies on Cyprus, Sub-Mycenaean period on

1070 – 712 (or 664)* ca. 1100 mainland / Sub-Minoan period on
Crete
Dynasty 21, 1070 – 945 Cypro-Geometric period, 1050 – 750

Libyan period / Dynasty 22, Protogeometric period, 1000 – 900 Italy

945 – 712 Iron Age, 1000 – 750
Lefkandi “heroon,” 950
Sheshonq I (945 – 924)

Osorkon I (924 – 889) Tekke bowl, late 10th – early 9th

century

Geometric period, 900 – 700 Italy

Villanovan culture, 900 – 500

Osorkon II (874 – 850)

Phoenician colony at Kition founded,
mid-9th century Sardinia
Earliest possible date for Nora stele
(see cat. 98)

North AfriCa
Traditional date of foundation of Carthage,
814

Iliad and Odyssey composed, Spain

8th – 7th century Tartessian rule, 800 – 540
Salamis “royal” tombs, 8th – 7th
century
Olympic games established, 776
Italy
Cypro-Archaic I period, 750 – 600 Etruscan culture, 750 – 90
Orientalizing period, 750 – 600 Orientalizing period, 750 – 575
Nestor’s cup inscription, 750 – 725

Kushite period / Dynasty 25,

712 – 664
Cypriot kings pay tribute to Sargon II,
Late period, 712 – 332 707

Spain
Iron Age, 700 – 200

Taharqo (690 – 664)

Assyria invades Egypt, 671 – 663

Saite period / Dynasty 26, 664 – 525

Mazarrón shipwrecks, second half of
7th century
Greek settlement at Naukratis,
second half of 7th century

Bajo de la Campana shipwreck,

Necho II (610 – 595) late 7th – early 6th century

Cypro-Archaic II period, 600 – 480 Archaic period, 600 – 480 Italy

Archaic period, 575 – 490
Amasis (Ahmose II) (570 – 526) Egyptian rule, 570 – 526 Polykrates of Samos (538 – 522)
Achaemenid rule, 526 – 333
Achaemenid rule, 525 – 404

Cypro-Classical period, 480 – 310 Classical period, 480 – 323 Italy

Classical period, 490 – 300

*See Hill in Aruz et al. 2014, pp. 198 – 201.

I nT roduC Ti on María Eugenia Aubet
On July 8, 1964, at the Etruscan sanctuary of
Pyrgi, three gold plaques were discovered,
bearing inscriptions in both Phoenician and
the Etruscan language. The archaeological
context was clear and consistent: Pyrgi, con-
sidered the main harbor associated with the Phoenician Politics in
Etruscan city of Caere, housed the most im-
portant sanctuary of southern Etruria, and it
was the site of worship of a female goddess
Colonial Context:
Pyrgi Again
identiied as Leukothea in the Classical
sources.1
The sanctuary, located 13 kilometers from
Caere on a coastal plain near the natural port
of the modern city of Santa Severa, has been
excavated continuously since 1957 by the
University of Rome under the direction of
Giovanni Colonna. The sacred area con- which was the original text. Do we have an
tained two large sixth-century b.C. buildings, Etruscan original text with a Phoenician
the so-called Temple A, with a tripartite plan translation, or vice versa, or are they simply
and Temple B (ig. 1). Between these two two independently composed versions?4
monumental structures we ind Area C, a Obviously the historical and political
rectangular pit or bothros (ig. 2), possibly an interpretation of both texts depends on the
altar, where architectural remains, including answer to these signiicant questions. Here,
terracottas, and the famous gold plaques were however, I do not intend to deal with the
found. philological aspects of the texts, but instead
The plaques with engraved inscriptions on would like to discuss some of the historical
them appeared to have been carefully rolled interpretations that have been ofered regard-
up and still had tiny holes, suggesting that ing the texts on the gold plaques from the
they were once aixed to a wall, probably point of view of Phoenician archaeology.
belonging to Temple B. Of the three plaques, In the Phoenician text (igs. 3a, b), we can
one had a very brief Etruscan inscription, easily identify the name of the ofering
clearly of a later date and with no apparent bearer, Thefarie Velianas (tbry’ wlnš), and the
relation to the other two, which bore longer Phoenician name of the city (Kishriyye [=
texts of greater signiicance (igs. 3a, b; Caere/Cerveteri]), called “the city” in the
4a, b). One of these two was written in Etruscan text (igs. 4a, b). It seems that The-
Phoenician and the other in Etruscan, but farie Velianas, written in Phoenician script as
their contents seemed to be equivalent, lead- mlk ’l, that is, “reigning over” Caere, had
ing to their description as “quasi-bilingual” built and dedicated a holy place to the god-
by Massimo Pallottino.2 dess to thank her for his three years of rule.
More than ifty years later, numerous Nor does the transcription of the name of
articles have been published about these two the goddess to whom the inscription is dedi-
texts with endless and heated debate among cated present the slightest doubt: Phoenician
epigraphists who have thus far reached no Astarte (‘strt), who in the Etruscan text
agreement on the interpretation of the texts appears as Uni, the main female deity of the
or their religious and/or political meaning.3 Etruscan pantheon, goddess of heaven, and
While both Etruscan and Phoenician are the future Roman goddess Juno.
well-known languages, neither Etruscologists The diiculties posed by the plaques’ read-
nor Semitists have been able to determine ing and by the transcription of some of the

147
 Fig. 1. Plan of Temples A (ca. 540 – 530 b.C.) and B (ca. 510 b.C.), Pyrgi

paragraphs have created an endless and rather H i sTori Cal I nTe rp reTaTi on : Th e
disappointing debate about the particular R oM e - CarThag e TreaTY of 5 0 9   b.C.
motives that led the sovereign of Caere to The date range attributed to the gold plaques
build the monument, and about the religious based on paleographic criteria matches that
meaning of the ofering. Some of the best of the archaeological context. Colonna dates
accepted hypotheses are: (a) that the Pyrgi the construction of Temple A to ca. 540 –
inscriptions mention, in the form of 530 b.C., and that of Temple B, associated
ex-votos, Velianas’s gratitude to the goddess with the “chapel” or Area C where the
for his three years on the throne or for some plaques were discovered, to ca. 510 b.C.8 The
other favor;5 (b) they refer to a hieros gamos, a texts can be dated between late sixth and
sacred marriage between goddess and king;6 early ifth centuries b.C., thus relating them
or (c) they commemorate in the form of a directly with Temple B of Pyrgi.9
shrine or a chapel the day or month of the This dating of the gold plaques to around
burial of a god — perhaps Melqart or 500 b.C. has proven to be very useful for
Adonis.7 those seeking to link the event mentioned in
the texts with a contemporary historical real-
ity: the treaty between Rome and Carthage
signed in 509 b.C., described by Polybius.10
However, interpretation of the diferent

148 Aubet
Fig. 2. Area C (altar or deposit where gold plaques were found), Pyrgi. Late
6th century b.C.

pieces of information needs to be somewhat Etruscan friendship, the irst Roman-

forced if one seeks to correlate the chronol- Carthaginian treaty would have been signed
ogy of the two, so as to transform the Rome- in 509 b.C.13
Carthage alliance into a Caere-Carthage Some authors have tried to make the evi-
treaty. The main arguments in favor of doing dence it even more directly with the
so, accepted by a number of authors, would 509 b.C. treaty. In this case, Uni (Juno), here
be the following: a goddess more Roman than Etruscan, would
Classical sources tell us about the friendly have joined with Carthaginian Astarte to
relations between Carthage and Etruria at promote Thefarie Velianas (that is, Tiberius,
around this date.11 The texts would thus rep- Caere’s Latin king) to the throne — and this
resent the expression, in the guise of a reli- at precisely the moment when Tarquinian’s
gious act, of an agreement of friendship and/ Etruscan Rome had its main naval base in
or alliance — not a treaty — with Carthage, Caere.14 Thus the connection Carthage-
the main power during that period. This Rome-Caere could inally be established.
religious act, under the protection of Uni, Historians of religion have suggested the
the Etruscan goddess, and of Astarte, the existence of religious syncretism at Pyrgi,
Phoenician divinity, would have served spe- with Phoenician cultic activity within Etrus-
ciically to commemorate the defeat inlicted can lands relecting Carthage’s political
by the Etruscan-Carthaginian leet on Pho- supremacy after the Battle of Alalia.15 This
kaean Greeks during the famous naval battle argument is again based on the plaques’
of Alalia in 535 b.C.12 Once the prevailing apparent identiication of the Caeretan god-
power of Carthage over the western Medi- dess Uni with Astarte. Some authors go as far
terranean was consolidated, supported by as to identify the name of Unialastres as an

Phoenician Politics in Colonial Context: Pyrgi Again 149

 Figs. 3a, b. Gold plaque inscribed with Phoenician script and drawing. Caere, Pyrgi. Ca. 500 b.C.
Museo Nazionale Etrusco di Villa Giulia, Rome

oicial recognition of a single composite Etruscan imports from the ifth century dis-
divinity at Pyrgi.16 This view is certainly covered in Carthage, have been considered
speculative and based on a supposed signs if not proof of intense trade and eco-
Caere-Carthage treaty. nomic exchanges between Carthage and
Archaeological evidence has also been used Caere-Pyrgi.
to support the treaty hypothesis. For instance,
the presence of Etruscan bucchero ware from Several objections can be made to these his-
Vulci workshops in early Carthaginian graves torical interpretations:
at Junon, Douimès, and Byrsa, an Etruscan
inscription on ivory from the sixth century 1. Nowhere do Herodotos, Diodorus
b.C. found by Delattre in 1898, and several Siculus, or Polybius assert that the

150 Aubet
Figs. 4a, b. Gold plaque inscribed with Etruscan script and drawing. Caere, Pyrgi. Ca. 500 b.C.
Museo Nazionale Etrusco di Villa Giulia, Rome

Etruscan leet in Alalia was of Caeretan at that time, around 500 b.C., it was the
origin, nor do they suggest that the only reasonable possibility: Carthage
friendly relations between Carthage was then reaching its height and was
and Etruria pertained only to the city therefore the only possible partner of
of Caere. the Etruscan world.17 This hypothesis,
2. All speculative attempts aiming to however, has not taken into account
link the Pyrgi texts with the Battle of the views of scholars who have ques-
Alalia and/or with the Rome-Carthage tioned the Carthaginian or Punic ori-
treaty assume that the language gin of the Phoenician text. These
engraved in the Phoenician inscription authors observe, among other things,
is Carthaginian, that is, “Punic,” since that many expressions and phrases are

Phoenician Politics in Colonial Context: Pyrgi Again 151

 more Near Eastern than Carthaginian, presence of Etruscan goods in the
closer to the Phoenician dialect or a western Mediterranean does not
variant spoken in Cyprus or Byblos.18 appear to be a response to a speciic
Further, the name of a goddess Astarte historical event — whether a battle or a
is actually rather unusual in Carthagin- treaty — but seems instead to relect a
ian contexts, whereas it is very com- clear integration of Etruscan commer-
mon in Phoenician ones. cial interests in the international
3. There is no archaeological evidence exchange networks of the period.
for the frequent presence of Phoenicians
or Carthaginians at the Etruscan port
of Pyrgi, or at its sanctuary, nor are PY rg i and U ni - A sTarTe : A n
there are any signs of the existence of E xaM p le of R e l i g i ou s SY nC reTi sM ?
Phoenician cults in Etruscan territory. Having addressed the political context, we
4. The Etruscan elements found at are better placed to understand the religious
Carthage represent very poor material meaning of the plaques. Religious syncretism
evidence for special relations between implies something other than a simple
Carthage and Caere-Pyrgi.19 It should semantic game. It suggests a close and deep
be recalled that the presence of Etrus- cultural involvement and the search for
can bucchero ware in Carthage is any- means of coexistence through a symbiotic
thing but special or exclusive to this resolution or a new cultural identity in times
city, but rather is part of a much more of crisis or stress. Religious syncretism, in
generalized phenomenon of Etruscan other words, does not occur through a single
goods circulating within Phoenician political pact but through the long coexis-
areas. In this connection, the discovery tence of two diferent traditions, ultimately
of Etruscan and East Greek pottery in leading to assimilation or amalgamation. At
unequivocally Phoenician contexts in Pyrgi we do not observe such a process cul-
the central and western Mediterranean, minating with two religious traditions —
dated to the sixth to ifth centuries Carthaginian and Etruscan — merging into
b.C., has enriched our picture of inter- one. Instead, I suggest, we see a phenome-
national trading networks in the west at non whereby Phoenician Astarte came to be
the end of the Phoenician colonial era. recognized in or equated with many local
For example, in Iberia at Huelva, the divinities across the Mediterranean world.
bay of Gadir (Cádiz), Toscanos, Malaka Since Astarte’s main function as patron god-
(Málaga), and Cerro del Villar, new dess was to mediate and grant success to
inds of homogeneous assemblages of Phoenician maritime commercial and cul-
Etruscan bucchero ware, in association tural enterprises and to protect Phoenician
with East Greek pottery and Carthag- merchants and sailors, her presence at other
inian amphorae, suggest a complex Mediterranean sanctuaries was essential. At
phenomenon of interregional interac- Rhodes, for instance, Phoenician sailors rec-
tion.20 The same can be seen in other ognized their goddess overseas through a
Punic cities, including Carthage, local goddess, Athena Lindia, sharing in her
Ebusus (Ibiza), Tharros, Bithia, Nora, worship, oracles, and common oferings.21
Palermo, and Solunto. In the bay of Important though this phenomenon was, a
Málaga, the majority of Etruscan pot- sanctuary was more than a place of worship
tery comes from workshops in south- and religious syncretism. From the eighth
ern Etruria (Caere). An international century b.C., or even before, the main Medi-
trade network of huge scope ultimately terranean sanctuaries — of Hera on Samos,
involved all of the Phoenician cities, Melqart at Gadir, and Astarte at Kition —
from Tyre to Gadir and Carthage. The were, above all, cosmopolitan places for

152 Aubet
encounter, exchange, and intercultural con- 1964; Dupont-Sommer 1964; Amadasi Guzzo 1967,
pp. 158 – 69; Friedrich 1969) and Etruscologists
tact. The sanctuary of Pyrgi would certainly
(Piig 1965; Heurgon 1966; Torelli 1967). See
have played a similar cultural and interre- recently Bellelli and Xella 2016.
gional role, at a time when Caere was gain- 4. Kropp 1994, p. 189.
ing international prestige among political, 5. Dupont-Sommer 1964; Garbini 1989, p. 183; Kropp
commercial, and economic elites. The 1994, p. 193; Schmitz 2012, p. 90.
6. Février 1965; Delcor 1968, pp. 247 – 50; Ferron
attempt to place its local divinity, Uni, on the
1972, pp. 199 – 200.
same level as the Phoenician Astarte, known 7. Ferron 1970, p. 429; Schmitz 2009a, pp. 65 – 66.
across the entire Mediterranean, suggests that 8. Colonna 1996.
the oicials running the port of Caere had a 9. Moscati and Pallottino 1966, p. 15; Moscati et
clear ambition to participate in international al. 1970, p. 11; Ferron 1970, p. 429; Ferron 1972,
p. 191; Schmitz 2009a, p. 65.
relations, and to be part of the strategic
10. Polybius, Histories 3.22.
game that the Phoenician institutions had 11. Aristotle, Politics 3.9; Diodorus, Library of History
played during their long experience of 5.20.4.
long-distance trade, coordinating diferent 12. Herodotos, Histories 1.166.1 – 2.
commercial circuits. This involved mutual 13. Moscati and Pallottino 1966, pp. 11 – 12; Ferron
1970, p. 434; Ferron 1972, p. 212; Bernardini et
recognition through shared ideology and reli-
al. 1999.
gious exchange, as could be witnessed by 14. Garbini 2011, pp. 226 – 30.
Baalat-Hathor in Byblos, in the relationship 15. Moscati and Pallottino 1966, p. 16.
between Astarte and Athena Lindia on 16. Delcor 1968, p. 245; Moscati et al. 1970, pp. 29 – 30;
Rhodes, or in that between Astarte and Uni Ferron 1972, p. 193; Garbini 2011, p. 224.
17. Moscati and Pallottino 1966, p. 16; Ferron 1970,
at Pyrgi.
p. 429.
18. Garbini 1964; Moscati et al. 1970, pp. 12, 27;
1. Colonna 1965, 1996, 2002. Schmitz 1995, pp. 570 – 71; Schmitz 2012, p. 90.
2. Moscati and Pallottino 1966, p. 15. 19. Moscati and Pallottino 1966, p. 12; Ferron 1972,
3. The debate would have started virtually on the day pp. 190 – 91.
of their discovery (Moscati and Pallottino 1966; 20. Aubet 2007.
Moscati et al. 1970) between Orientalists (Garbini 21. Bonnet 1996, p. 96; Alvar 2014, p. 62.

Phoenician Politics in Colonial Context: Pyrgi Again 153

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Photograph and
Illustration Credits
Photographs of objects in museums fig. 14: © The Israel Museum, Roy, after Tubb 2006, with modifi- Aubet: fig. 1: Moscati and
in Greece are courtesy Hellenic Jerusalem, photo: Elie Posner cations by Jonathan N. Tubb Pallottino 1966, fig. 2: Moscati
Ministry of Culture and Sports. and Pallottino 1966, pl. II; figs. 3a,
Photographs of objects in museums Collins: figs. 1, 5: bpk, Berlin / Reich: fig. 1: Megalim—The City 4a: Universal Images Group / Art
in Iraq are courtesy State Board of Vorderasiatisches Museum, of David Institute for Jerusalem Resource, NY; figs. 3b, 4b: Moscati
Antiquities and Heritage, Baghdad. Staatliche Museen, Berlin / Art Studies; fig. 2: © The Israel et al. 1970
Resource, NY; figs. 2 – 4, 6 – 9: Museum, Jerusalem/Israel
Aruz, “Introduction”: figs. 1 – 7: © Trustees of the British Museum; Antiquities Authority; figs. 3 – 9: Hill: fig. 1: After Grimal 1981, pl.
Images © The Metropolitan fig. 10: Knapp and van Dommelen © The Israel Museum, Jerusalem / V; fig. 2: The Art Archive at Art
Museum of Art 2014, drawing: Alberto Cova Israel Antiquities Authority, Resource, NY, photo: Gianni Dagli
photos: Vladimir Naikhin Orti: figs. 3a, 3b: reproduced by
Aruz, “Bronze to Iron: Art in Gansell: fig. 1: © Trustees of the Permission of the Provost and
Transition”: fig. 1: © British British Museum; fig. 2: Damerji Finkelstein: fig. 1: Langgut et al. Fellows of Eton College; fig. 4:
School at Athens, courtesy Irene 1999, fig. 30; fig. 3: Damerji 1999, 2013; fig. 2: Yahalom-Mack © The Israel Museum, Jerusalem/
Lemos and Andres Reyes; figs. 2, 5: fig. 14; fig. 4: Damerji 1999, fig. 11; et al. forthcoming; fig. 3: Gilboa Israel Antiquities Authority, photo:
Bruce M. White; figs. 3, 9a, 9b: fig. 5: Image © The Metropolitan and Namdar 2015, Courtesy Ayelet Elie Posner; fig. 5: © Musée du
Images © The Metropolitan Museum of Art; fig. 6: Damerji Gilboa; fig. 4: Meiri et al. 2013 Louvre, Dist. RMN-Grand Palais /
Museum of Art; fig. 4: Courtesy 1999, fig. 25; fig. 7: J. Curtis et al. Art Resource, NY, photo: Raphael
National Museum, Aleppo; fig. 6: 2008, pl. 1b; fig. 8: Damerji 1999, Novák: figs. 1, 5, 10: © Mirko Chipault; fig. 6a: Flores 2004,
Courtesy Archaeological Museum, fig. 43; fig. 9a: Damerji 1999, p. 55, Novák; fig. 2: bpk / pl. 23b, drawing: Diane Flores;
Argostoli; fig. 7: © N. & D. top; fig. 9b: drawing: Lamia al- Vorderasiatisches Museum, fig. 6b: © Trustees of the British
Goulandris Foundation—Museum Gailani Werr Staatliche Museen, Berlin, photo: Museum; figs. 7a, 7b, 8a – 8g:
of Cycladic Art; figs. 8a, 10a: Olaf M. Teßmer; fig. 3: © Kunst- Images © The Metropolitan
© British School at Athens, photos: Seymour: figs. 2, 3b – 9: und Ausstellungshalle der Museum of Art; figs. 9a, 9b:
Bruce M. White; figs. 8b, 10b: © Trustees of the British Museum; Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Courtesy University of
© British School at Athens, draw- fig. 3a: Image © The Metropolitan Vorderasiatisches Museum, Pennsylvania Museum of
ings after Popham and Lemos Museum of Art Staatliche Museen, Berlin, Archaeology and Anthropology,
1996, pls. 134, 133; figs. 11a, 11b, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Philadelphia; fig. 10: Courtesy
12: © Trustees of the British Van De Mieroop: fig. 1: Fachgebiet Digitales Gestalten, in Cyprus Museum, Nicosia /
Museum; fig. 13: © The Israel © Trustees of the British Museum; cooperation with Architectura Department of Antiquities, Cyprus,
Museum, Jerusalem / Israel fig. 2: Image © The Metropolitan Virtualis GmbH; fig. 4: Based on a photo: Bruce M. White; figs. 11,
Antiquities Authority; fig. 14: Museum of Art Wikimedia image; fig. 6: Cluzan 12: Images © The Metropolitan
Courtesy Directorate General of 1993, no. 225a; fig. 7: Courtesy Museum of Art
Antiquities, Beirut; figs. 16, 17: Tubb: fig. 1a: Baly and Hartmut Kühne; fig. 8: Marzahn
Courtesy Nicholas Chr. Tushingham 1971, map XII; fig. 1b: and Salje 2003, p. 156; figs. 9a – d: Gubel: fig. 1: © Aleppo, National
Stampolidis, photos: Bruce White Anandaroop Roy, after Tubb 2006, © Tell H. alaf Project, Berlin, pho- Museum; fig. 2: Museo
(figs. 16a, 16b, 16d, 17) and Joan with modifications by Jonathan N. tos: Laura Simons, drawings: Arquelógico de Sevilla, photo:
Aruz (figs. 16c, 16e, 16f ) Tubb; fig. 2: University of Gabriele Elsen-Novák Bruce M. White; fig. 3: Image
Pennsylvania Museum of © The Metropolitan Museum of
Killebrew: fig. 1: Steve F. E. Archaeology and Anthropology, Özyar: fig. 1: Map after Erhan Art; fig. 4: © Royal Museums of
Cameron via Wikimedia Philadelphia; fig. 3: Courtesy Bıçakcım in Çambel and Özyar Art & History, Brussels; fig. 5:
Commons; figs. 2, 3a, 3b: Ann E. Oriental Institute of the University 2003, pl. 2b; fig. 2: Plan by M. Cyprus Museum, Nicosia /
Killebrew; fig. 4: © Museum of of Chicago; fig. 4: Erich Lessing / Sicker-Akman in Çambel and Department of Antiquities, Cyprus,
Fine Arts, Boston; fig. 6: Courtesy Art Resource, NY: fig. 5: T. Özyar 2003, pl. 5; fig. 3: Plan and photo: Bruce M. White; fig. 6:
Ann E. Killebrew; figs. 7, 8, 10, 11: Dothan and M. Dothan 1992, pl. 6; photos: Çambel and Özyar 2003; Crowfoot 1938, p. 15, fig. 2a; fig. 7:
Ilan Sztulman, courtesy Tel figs. 6, 7: Jonathan N. Tubb; fig. 8: fig. 4: © Musée du Louvre, Dist. Erich Lessing / Art Resource, NY;
Miqne-Ekron Publication Project; drawing by Jonathan N. Tubb; RMN-Grand Palais / Art fig. 8: © Eric Gubel; fig. 9: Caubet
fig. 9: Moshe Cohen, courtesy Ann fig. 9: Kenyon 1971; fig. 10: © The Resource, NY, photo: Raphael et al. 2002, drawing: C. Florimont;
E. Killebrew; fig. 12: © The Israel Israel Museum, Jerusalem, photo: Chipault; fig. 5a: Çambel and fig. 10: Image © The Metropolitan
Museum, Jerusalem, photo: Yoram Elie Posner; fig. 11: Courtesy Özyar 2003, pl. 61; fig. 5b: Çambel Museum of Art; fig. 11: Perrot &
Lehmann; fig. 13: Image © The Oriental Institute of the University and Özyar 2003, pl. 59; fig. 6: Chipiez III, p. 97, fig. 36; figs. 12,
Metropolitan Museum of Art; of Chicago; fig. 12: Anandaroop Çambel and Özyar 2003, pl. 97 13: drawings: Eric Gubel; fig. 14:

Photograph and Illustration Credits 359

 Courtesy Direction Générale des Art; fig. 7: Boardman 2002, Geske; fig. 3: © RMN-Grand Images Group / Art Resource, NY;
Antiquités, Beirut fig. 118; fig. 8: Bruce M. White; Palais/Art Resource, NY, photo: fig. 21: Courtesy Nicholas Chr.
fig. 9: Boardman 2002, fig. 126 Raphael Chipault; fig. 4: © Cyprus Stampolidis, with permission
Winter: fig. 1: © RMN-Grand Museum, Nicosia / Department of granted by Department of
Palais / Art Resource, NY; figs. 2, Gunter: fig. 1: © Trustees of the Antiquities, Cyprus; fig. 5: Antiquities, Cyprus
4: © Trustees of the British British Museum; fig. 2: Scala / © Musée du Louvre, dist. RMN-
Museum; figs. 3, 5, 10: Images Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Grand Palais / Thierry Ollivier; Sannibale: fig. 1: Canina 1846,
© The Metropolitan Museum of Culturali / Art Resource; fig. 3: figs. 6, 7: © RMN-Grand Palais / pl. LII; fig. 2: Grifi 1841;
Art; fig. 6: Wikipedia “Baluster”; © Staatliche Antikensammlungen Art Resource, NY; fig. 8: Image figs. 3 – 12, 15, 16, 19: © Vatican
fig. 7: © The Israel Museum, und Glyptothek München, photo: © The Metropolitan Museum of Museums. All rights reserved;
Jerusalem, photo: Elie Posner; Renate Kühling; fig. 4: Hopkinson Art; fig. 9: Courtesy Department of fig. 13: Herrmann 1986, no. 499;
fig. 8: © Museum of Fine Arts, and Baker-Penoyre 1902, pl. V; Antiquities, Cyprus fig. 17: Pf älzner 2008; fig. 18:
Boston; fig. 9: © Trustees of the figs. 5, 6: © RMN-Grand Palais/ © Trustees of the British Museum
British Museum Art Resource, NY; fig. 7: Papalexandrou: figs. 1a, 1b:
University of Pennsylvania Image © The Metropolitan López-Ruiz: fig. 1: © Trustees of
Graff: fig. 1: Courtesy Jennie Choi Museum of Archaeology and Museum of Art; fig. 2: bpk, the British Museum; fig. 2:
(top) and Veena Jayadeva (bottom); Anthropology, Philadelphia; Berlin / Antikensammlung, Courtesy Archaeological Museum,
fig. 2: Anandaroop Roy, after figs. 8a, 8b: Rathje 2007, p. 107, Staatliche Museen, Berlin, Pithekoussai, Ischia, Italy
Becker 2005, fig. 5, with additional drawings: Margaret George Preussicher Kulturbesitz / Art
sites added by Graff; fig. 3: Resource, NY; fig. 3: Walter 1959a, Bahrani: fig. 1: bpk, Berlin /
Frankfort 1955, pl. 61, no. 642; Feldman: fig. 1: Marian H. pl. 114, top; fig. 4: Amy Vorderasiatisches Museum,
fig. 4: Woolley and Mallowan 1976, Feldman; fig. 2: © Vatican Papalexandrou; fig. 5: DAI-Athens; Staatliche Museen, Berlin / Art
p. 182, no. 250; fig. 5: Image © The Museums. All rights reserved; fig. 6: Montelius 1904, pl. 322, Resource, NY; fig. 2: J. Curtis et al.
Metropolitan Museum of Art; fig. 3: Image © The Metropolitan no. 2; fig. 7: Rathje 1983, p. 13, 2008; figs. 3, 6: Bruce M. White;
fig. 6: Luschan 1943, figs. 80 – 81, Museum of Art; fig. 4: Courtesy fig. 5; fig. 8: Nassos Papalexandrou figs. 4, 5, 8: © Trustees of the
pls. 35a, 35b; fig. 7: University of Nicholas Chr. Stampolidis, photo: British Museum; fig. 7: Image ©
Pennsylvania Museum of Bruce M. White Matthäus: figs. 1, 2: drawings: The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Archaeology and Anthropology, Hartmut Matthäus; fig. 2: Image
Philadelphia, photo: Katherine Niemeier: figs. 1a, 1b, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9: © The Metropolitan Museum of Cover, p. 86: Images © The
Blanchard; figs. 8, 9: © Trustees of Wolf-Dietrich Niemeier; fig. 2: Art; figs. 3, 4, 5: Courtesy Hartmut Metropolitan Museum of Art;
the British Museum Kilian-Dirlmeier 1985, p. 233 Matthäus; fig. 6: Sakellarakis 1983, frontispiece, pp. 12, 40: © Trustees
fig. 15; fig. 3: Kilian-Dirlmeier p. 440, fig. 1; figs. 7, 10, 11, 12: of the British Museum; p. 2:
Boardman: fig. 1: After 1985, p. 239, fig. 20; figs. 7, 8: Bruce M. White; fig. 8: DAI- RMN-Grand Palais / Art
Herrmann 1972, p. 82, fig. 49; Bruce M. White Athens; fig. 9: Image © The Resource, NY; pp. 204, 322: Bruce
fig. 2: Anandaroop Roy, after Metropolitan Museum of Art M. White
Boardman 1999, fig. 314B; fig. 3: Caubet: fig. 1: Courtesy
Boardman 2002, fig. 22; fig. 4: Marguerite Yon; fig. 2: bpk, Stampolidis: figs. 1, 13a, 14, 17,
© Trustees of the British Museum; Berlin / Museum für Vor- und 19: Bruce M. White; figs. 2, 3a, 3b,
fig. 5: Boardman 2002, fig. 32; Frühgeschichte, Berlin / Art 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13b, 15, 16,
fig. 6: © The Cleveland Museum of Resource, NY, photo: Ingrid 18, 20: Courtesy Nicholas Chr.
Stampolidis; fig. 5: Universal

360 Assyria to Iberia