OES Aquaculture and Ocean Energy (Apr-2022)

STUDY
OFFSHORE
AQUACULTURE
A MARKET
FOR OCEAN
RENEWABLE ENERGY
This report was prepared by Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, the Blue Economy Cooperative
Research Centre (BE CRC), and the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization
(CSIRO) for the International Energy Agency Ocean Energy Systems (OES) Technology Collaboration
Program.
The funding to prepare this report was provided by OES, the United States Department of Energy
(US DOE) Water Power Technologies Office (WPTO), and the Blue Economy CRC.
Disclaimer
OES, also known as the Implementing Agreement on Ocean Energy Systems, functions within a
framework created by the International Energy Agency. Views, findings, and publications of the OES
do not necessarily represent the views or policies of the International Energy Agency Secretariat or its
individual member countries.
Suggested citation
Freeman, M.C., Garavelli, L., Wilson, E., Hemer, M., Abundo, M.L., Travis, L.E. 2022. Offshore Aquaculture:
a Market for Ocean Renewable Energy. Report for Ocean Energy Systems (OES). April 2022.
Authors
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (United States):
Mikaela C. Freeman and Lysel Garavelli, Ph.D.
Blue Economy CRC (Australia):
Eloise Wilson
CSIRO (Australia):
Mark Hemer, Ph.D.
OceanPixel Pte. Ltd. (Singapore):
Michael Lochinvar Sim Abundo, Ph.D., and Leonard Edward Travis
Contributors
Aquatera Ltd. (United Kingdom):
Fiona MacIssac and Sarah Murray
Austral University of Chile (Chile):
Gonzalo Tampier, Ph.D.
April 2022
2 Offshore Aquaculture: a Market for Ocean Renewable Energy

CONTENTS
5.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY............................................................ 06
1.
OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES
FOR ORE AND OFFSHORE
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 08 AQUACULTURE................................................................................ 37
5.1 Opportunities ......................................................................... 38
2. 5.2 Challenges ............................................................................... 40

OVERVIEW OF RENEWABLE ENERGY
TECHNOLOGIES AND ATTRIBUTES FOR 5.3 Examples Around the World..................................... 41
CO-LOCATION WITH AQUACULTURE..................... 10
5.4 S
ummary of Opportunities
2.1 Description of Renewable Energy and Challenges.................................................................... 45
Technologies ........................................................................... 11
2.2 Technology Readiness Levels of ORE ................ 13

6.
2.3 Advantages and Challenges of Using RECOMMENDATIONS .............................................................. 46
Renewable Energy Technologies to Power
6.1 Technical and Operational Processes................. 47
Aquaculture............................................................................. 13
6.2 Regulatory Processes...................................................... 48
3. 6.3 Economic Impact............................................................... 49
OVERVIEW OF AQUACULTURE
7.
AND ENERGY NEEDS ............................................................... 16
3.1 Aquaculture Overview..................................................... 17 CONCLUSION .................................................................................... 50
3.2 Energy Needs of Aquaculture.................................. 20
3.2.1 Finfish Aquaculture.............................................. 20

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ........................................................ 52
3.2.2 Shellfish Aquaculture........................................ 25
REFERENCES ................................................................................ 53
3.2.3 A
quaculture Energy Demand
APPENDIX ....................................................................................... 60
by Species and Country..........................27
4.
CO-LOCATION CASE STUDIES
AND LESSONS LEARNED...................................................... 28
Ocean Energy Systems 3

Acronyms
BE CRC Blue Economy Cooperative Research Centre

CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization
ERSEO Énergies Renouvelables au Service des Exploitations Ostréicoles
FLUPSY Floating Upweller System
HOST Hawaii Ocean Science and Technology
MARIBE Marine Investment for the Blue Economy
MFF multilevel floating farm
MUSES Multi-Use in European Seas
OES Ocean Energy Systems
ORE ocean renewable energy
OTEC ocean thermal energy conversion
PV photovoltaic
TRL technology readiness level
US DOE US Department of Energy
WEC wave energy converter
WPTO Water Power Technologies Office
Units
GW gigawatt(s)
GWh gigawatt-hour(s)
HOG head-on-gutted
km kilometer(s)
kg kilogram(s)
kW kilowatt(s)
kWh kilowatt-hour(s)
m meter(s)
MWh megawatt-hour(s)
TW terawatt(s)
TWh terawatt-hour(s)
V volt(s)
W watt(s)

ABOUT OCEAN ENERGY SYSTEMS
OES is an intergovernmental collaboration whose purpose is to accelerate the viability, uptake, and acceptance
of ocean energy systems in an environmentally responsible manner. OES advances research, development, and
demonstration of technologies to harness energy from the ocean through international cooperation and information
exchange. OES covers all forms of energy generation, in which seawater forms the motive of power, through its
physical and chemical properties. OES does not currently cover offshore wind generation because seawater is not
the motive of power. This effort documented in this report falls under OES’s ongoing project to find alternative
markets for ocean energy.
ABOUT THE US DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY

WATER POWER TECHNOLOGIES OFFICE
The US DOE WPTO enables research, testing, development, and commercialization of emerging technologies to
advance marine energy as well as next-generation hydropower and pumped storage systems for a flexible, reliable
grid. To reduce marine energy costs and fully leverage hydropower’s contributions to the grid, WPTO invests in early-
stage research and technology design, validates performance and reliability for new technologies, develops and
enables access to necessary testing infrastructure, and disseminates objective information and data for technology
developers and decision-makers. WPTO is also increasing its focus on shorter-term water power technology
application and adoption, particularly by considering the specific needs of diverse sectors and communities.
ABOUT THE BLUE ECONOMY COOPERATIVE

RESEARCH CENTRE
Established in 2019, the BE CRC-Co Ltd (ABN 64 634 684 549) is an independent not-for-profit company limited by
guarantee and a Cooperative Research Centre under the Australian Government’s CRC Program. With a 10-year life
and a budget of more than $329 million, the BE CRC brings together 40 industry, government, and research partners
from 10 countries with expertise in aquaculture, marine renewable energy, maritime engineering, environmental
assessments, and policy and regulation. Through targeted industry-focused research and training, the BE CRC
paves the way for innovative, commercially viable, and sustainable offshore developments and new capabilities.
The BE CRC’s research is focused on partner needs, is environmentally and socially responsible, and will have a
demonstrable commercial impact. Their research portfolio is structured into five integrated programs: Offshore
Engineering and Technology, Seafood and Marine Products, Offshore Renewable Energy Systems, Environment
and Ecosystems, and Sustainable Offshore Developments. Combined, these programs will deliver the knowledge
needed to enable current and new industries to increase seafood and renewable energy production. This includes
developing technologies and production systems that can withstand both regular and extreme weather events
while being safely and economically managed. It will deliver knowledge to underpin new planning, regulatory,
and monitoring systems that encourage and support sustainable capital-intensive operations while giving the
community confidence that the operations will be environmentally sustainable and socially responsible.
The BE CRC is established and supported under the Australian Government’s CRC Program, grant number
CRC-20180101. The CRC Program supports industry-led collaborations between industry, researchers, and the
community. Further information about the CRC Program is available at www.business.gov.au.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
As ocean-based development continues to increase, sustainable growth and
solutions derived from marine activities offer opportunities to mitigate climate
change and other sustainability challenges, such as resource exploitation and
pollution. The possibility to co-locate marine infrastructure, or bring together
compatible activities, will provide solutions for efficient and sustainable use of the
ocean.
Ocean renewable energy (ORE) and offshore aquaculture though the flow speed of tidal currents in energetic
are two industries that are likely compatible for co- tidal channels could be a challenge for aquaculture
location; ORE has the potential to provide power for operations. Both wave and tidal device technologies are
offshore aquaculture and can decrease the environmental more advanced than the other ORE technologies. Ocean
impact of operations by providing power at sea and current energy is generally located in offshore areas that
replacing the reliance on diesel. This report defines feature high current velocities. For this reason, ocean
co-location as the sharing of marine space between current technology may not be suitable for offshore
aquaculture and ORE as well as ORE providing power to aquaculture because these locations present challenges
aquaculture operations. for underwater operations such as net repairs and diving.
Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) has the
All forms of energy that can be derived directly from the
potential to be used for onshore, nearshore, and offshore
seas and oceans are collectively known as ORE. Energy
aquaculture in tropical and subtropical regions. OTEC can
resources from the ocean are large, geographically
provide cold, nutrient-rich water with fewer pathogens
diverse, and can be a sustainable alternative to providing
and bacteria and can produce desalinated water for use
power for offshore aquaculture. Each technology used
in aquaculture production. Salinity gradient technologies
to extract energy from waves, tides, ocean currents, or
are usually located nearshore and provide brackish water
thermal and salinity gradients presents both advantages
that can be supplied to aquaculture operations; however,
and challenges for aquaculture. Wave energy devices can
these technologies are less developed than other forms of
be used for onshore, nearshore, or offshore aquaculture.
ORE. Solar photovoltaic (PV) and offshore wind are also
They are particularly well suited for offshore aquaculture,
assessed in this report as alternative renewable energy
though co-located wave and aquaculture projects will
sources for powering aquaculture operations.
need to be in areas that avoid waves that are too large
for the aquaculture system or too small for the wave Worldwide, the aquaculture industry continues to
energy device to be effective. Tidal energy devices may increase. This expansion, coupled with increased
be more suitable for nearshore aquaculture operations, competition for space among various marine uses, has
led to an interest in shifting operations farther offshore. have been categorized under three themes: technical and
By moving away from coastal areas, aquaculture offers operational processes, regulatory processes (including
an important market opportunity for ORE. To develop environmental and social aspects), and economic impact.
appropriate ORE power systems for aquaculture and Examples of opportunities under the theme of social
advance the co-location of the ORE and offshore acceptance are the sustainable and efficient use of marine
aquaculture industries, understanding the energy space and the development of multi-use platforms.
demands and energy-intensive resource requirements Examples of challenges under the theme of technical and
for different aquaculture operations is crucial. Currently, operational processes are limited energy storage and the
data from the aquaculture industry on specific energy low levels of ORE device commercialization.
needs is limited, particularly for offshore aquaculture.
To overcome the challenges and capitalize on the
This report presents the available energy information opportunities identified in this report, recommendations
for several operations within the global aquaculture are provided to expand the potential for co-location and
sector, including nearshore and offshore Atlantic salmon, further understanding of powering offshore aquaculture
nearshore Asian seabass or barramundi, and nearshore with ORE. The recommendations are classified using
oyster and mussel operations. As this report demonstrates, the same themes identified from the opportunities and
energy demands vary greatly by operation and species. challenges. These recommendations include increasing
Additionally, each source of energy information reports the accessibility of information about energy demands for
energy requirements differently, making it difficult to all types of aquaculture (nearshore and offshore; finfish,
compare systems. The available energy information shellfish, seaweed, etc.; at varied geographic locations),
from marine-based aquaculture operations described creating partnerships between ORE and aquaculture
in this report helps to provide a picture of the energy industries to generate pilot project opportunities,
requirements worldwide. conducting research on the environmental and social
effects of co-location, identifying countries with planning
Aquaculture projects that are being developed have
and licensing frameworks that may foster co-location,
begun to include renewable energy technologies (ORE as
and encouraging governments to provide funding for
well as solar PV and offshore wind energy) in their designs
research efforts and industry development.
and planning. The synergistic opportunities for co-
located aquaculture and renewable energy can provide Overall, this report provides a comprehensive look into
a multifunctional use of space and resources, creating offshore aquaculture as a market for ORE by identifying
opportunities to automate operations for safety and ORE technologies to be used, aquaculture energy
sustainability. Several projects, both past and present, are demands, case studies and lessons learned, opportunities
researching or have successfully implemented renewable and challenges, and finally recommendations to advance
energy to meet the identified energy demands of a the potential for co-location.
variety of aquaculture operations. This report highlights
12 case studies, exploring projects that have used ORE,
solar PV, offshore wind technologies, or hybrid solutions
»
to meet energy demands of aquaculture. These case
studies include all marine-based aquaculture types
(finfish, shellfish, crustacean, and seaweed; nearshore
and offshore) and a diverse range of renewable energy
As this report demonstrates,
technologies. The key lessons learned from these
energy demands vary greatly by
projects are related to the lack of funding and the high
cost of renewable energy technologies, long and costly
operation and species. Additionally,
consenting and regulatory processes, and uncertainty each source of energy information
among stakeholders and regulators about the effects of a reports energy requirements
device on aquaculture operations. dfferently, making it diffcult to
Both offshore aquaculture and ORE are relatively new
compare systems. The available
industries, but the opportunities and challenges related energy information from marine-based
to co-locating these marine uses can be identified from aquaculture operations described in
existing and planned projects. The opportunities and this report helps to provide a picture of
challenges for co-locating ORE and offshore aquaculture the energy requirements worldwide.

1.
INTRODUCTION
Strategic planning for the growing ocean and coastal industries, as part of the blue economy, offers solutions
to combat climate change and other sustainability challenges, from resource exploitation to pollution (Bax et
al. 2021). Globally, the blue economy is worth an estimated US$1.5 trillion and continues to flourish rapidly
(OECD 2016). As coastal and ocean-based development grows, the conflict between uses is likely to intensify,
especially as new industries, such as ocean renewable energy (ORE) or aquaculture, increasingly compete
for space. Managing the spatial use of marine resources comprehensively, via marine spatial planning
processes, has typically involved distributed zones for different sectors, excluding activities to enable
another (Smith et al. 2012; Jones et al. 2016). An alternative for sustainable and efficient use of the marine
domain is co-locating compatible activities to share space. Some examples of co-location include marine-
based tourism and offshore wind farms, offshore wind and ORE, and ORE and aquaculture (Schultz-Zehden
et al. 2018; van den Burg et al. 2019). In this report, co-location is defined as marine uses developed within
the same space and timescales and it specifically focuses on both integrating and powering aquaculture
with ORE.
Globally, there is great potential to harvest energy from the ocean (Melikoglu 2018). ORE provides low-
carbon emission renewable energy, and although it is a developing industry, it offers a viable alternative
in the energy transition away from traditional fossil fuels. ORE has primarily been thought of as exporting
power to the grid, but it can also provide power at sea or for off-grid coastal communities, especially for
uses that are currently powered by diesel or other nonrenewable sources and are facing limitations (e.g.,
distance to shore) or high costs of traditional energy sources (LiVecchi et al. 2019). A preliminary assessment
of the opportunities for ORE to power existing or new ocean-based activities identified offshore aquaculture
as a promising market (LiVecchi et al. 2019). This assessment included detailing energy-specific uses and
demands in offshore aquaculture and highlighted the relative scarcity of data in the available literature and
the need for a more focused effort to quantify the energy needs for aquaculture and available ORE resources.
Marine-based aquaculture provides a low-impact protein source and support to coastal communities
through job creation, economic development, and food security (Olaganathan and Kar Mun 2017; Lester
et al. 2018a). As the aquaculture industry continues to grow globally due to an increasing need for global
food access and security (FAO 2020), it is moving farther offshore to accommodate larger operations,
avoid competing uses for space, and reduce environmental effects often seen with nearshore operations
(Di Trapani et al. 2014; Soto and Wurmann 2019; FAO 2020). Typically powered by diesel generation, the
aquaculture industry is beginning to utilize power from renewable sources, mainly solar installations with
onsite battery storage (Vo et al. 2021; Chang et al. 2022). ORE represents another opportunity for alternative
energy sources to power aquaculture operations, especially in new, more exposed offshore environments.
This International Energy Agency Ocean Energy Systems (OES) report aims to assess the potential
of offshore aquaculture as a market for ORE. Because offshore aquaculture is still emerging, little
information is available about this sector of the aquaculture industry. Therefore, this report also includes
information and data from studies and projects related to onshore and nearshore aquaculture. Chapter 2
introduces the different types of ORE by resource and technical attributes for co-location with aquaculture
and details advantages and challenges for each technology to power aquaculture. Chapter 2 also includes
information about other renewable sources—offshore wind and solar energy—that are either being used
or considered for aquaculture. Chapter 3 provides an overview of the status of the aquaculture industry in
a few key countries—mainly OES member nations, large aquaculture-producing nations, or those who are
interested in offshore aquaculture—and includes examples of energy requirements for different aquaculture
operations around the world. Chapter 4 highlights case studies from projects that are conducting research
on or have successfully implemented renewable energy, both ORE and other renewable sources, to meet the
energy demands of aquaculture operations. These case studies provide examples of past and current efforts
and lessons learned. Chapter 5 discusses both general and country-specific opportunities and challenges
for co-locating offshore aquaculture with ORE. Chapter 6 offers recommendations for further research
needs and for identifying potential pathways for the expansion of co-location opportunities based on the
findings of this report.

Image courtesy of Nova Innovation
2.
OVERVIEW OF
RENEWABLE ENERGY
TECHNOLOGIES AND
ATTRIBUTES FOR
CO-LOCATION WITH
AQUACULTURE
All forms of energy that can be derived directly from the seas and oceans are
collectively known as ORE, which includes waves, tides, thermal and salinity
gradients, and ocean currents. Each resource is extracted differently, making ORE
technologies suitable for a large range of locations and applications. This chapter
focuses primarily on ORE and its application to aquaculture installations (both
nearshore and offshore) but also explores the potential of other renewable energy
sources, such as offshore wind and solar photovoltaic (PV) energy. This chapter
outlines the basic function of each renewable energy technology and describes the
technical attributes that offer advantages or potential challenges for application to
the aquaculture sector.
2.1 Description of Renewable Energy Technologies
Wave energy is generated by absorbing the energy current, and tidal impoundment. Tidal stream devices use
from ocean waves and converting it into electricity. the rotation of turbines from tidal currents to capture and
Wave energy is a relatively continuous source of energy convert the kinetic energy of the tides to electricity, while
depending on the location (Pelc and Fujita 2002). The tidal impoundment technologies (barrage, lagoon) use
total wave resource is estimated to be 2,000 GW globally, retaining walls with low-head turbines to create a reservoir
equivalent to the world’s electricity consumption (Barstow that captures the potential energy in the height difference
et al. 2008). Technologies used to extract wave energy are of rising and falling tides (Jo and Hwang 2020; Tethys
known as wave energy converters (WECs). WECs extract 2022a). Both tidal stream and impoundment technologies
energy from waves according to their height, length, or can provide continuous and predictable power from tidal
direction of propagation. There are several categories energy, but tidal impoundment technologies have a bigger
of WECs (e.g., point absorber, oscillating water column, footprint and have a larger impact on the surrounding
etc.) and many different technology designs, purposely environment (e.g., reduced habitat, low water quality) (Jo
built to suit a specific method of energy extraction and and Hwang 2020). Currently, tidal stream devices under
for specific applications, such as defined water depths development span a range of technologies, including
or locations (shore-based, nearshore, or offshore). Wave horizontal and vertical axis turbines and tidal kites. Tidal
energy devices can be placed on the seabed or can float stream devices can be stationed on the seafloor, floating
within the water column or on the surface, and can also be with moorings attached on the seafloor, or attached to a
attached to structures, such as piers. As the aquaculture floating platform. Because tidal energy devices are typically
industry continues to move offshore, aquaculture sited closer to shore and in restricted channels, these
operations will become exposed to more energetic wave devices could be placed in energetic tidal streams adjacent
conditions. Harvesting wave energy via WECs can exploit to nearshore aquaculture operations to meet associated
these environmental conditions to provide power to the power requirements. The use of tidal energy may be more
required aquaculture systems (OES 2021a). Wave energy relevant for nearshore operations and particularly for
devices could provide shelter from waves for aquaculture bivalves and seaweed aquaculture (see case studies in
operations (Silva et al. 2018), but more research will be Chapter 4). Tidal energy may not be suitable for finfish
needed to fully understand this opportunity. Several aquaculture because fast-moving tides are challenging
commercial WECs have been developed to power specific for fish feeding. Both wave and tidal energy devices are in
aquaculture installations (see case studies in Chapter 4). more mature stages of development compared to other
forms of ORE (Pelc and Fujita 2002), making them more
Tidal energy is a predictable source of ORE (Pelc and
likely to provide solutions for powering aquaculture.
Fujita 2002) with the total tidal resource estimated to be
around 120 GW globally (Offshore Energy 2015). There are Ocean currents (wind- and density-driven) are
two main categories of tidal technologies: tidal stream, or predictable and constant and carry large amounts of

energy. Worldwide, the total ocean current energy is mechanical or electrical energy via a turbine or generator
estimated to be 5,000 GW (Burman and Walker 2009). The (or a combination of both). Besides generating electricity,
turbines extracting ocean current energy have a design these processes also create brackish water that can be
similar to tidal stream turbines but are usually larger. supplied to aquaculture operations. To date, salinity
These devices can be suspended from moored surface gradient technologies have mostly been used for energy
platforms or attached to buoyant structures tethered to recovery in desalination systems (OES 2021c).
the seabed. Because high ocean current velocities can
While the purpose of this report is to highlight the market
affect underwater operations, such as diving to inspect
for ORE to power aquaculture installations, it is important
net pens and fish feeding, ocean current energy may
to also consider other renewable energy resources and
not be suitable for offshore aquaculture though it may
their potential to meet these energy demands. Solar
depend on a species feeding behavior. Because of the
energy is the most abundant renewable energy source
early development stage of ocean current energy devices,
and is harnessed through PV systems (Kannan and
their uses for aquaculture may be limited.
Vakeesan 2016). Solar PV systems are electronic devices
Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) is a process that convert sunlight into electricity (Oliveira-Pinto and
that uses the temperature difference (20oC minimum) Stokkermans 2020). In recent years, the floating solar PV
between warm waters from the ocean surface and cooler industry has seen a rise in installations. As of August 2020,
waters from the deep ocean to capture energy through the total installed capacity of floating solar PV worldwide
thermal heat engines. Such temperature differences can reached 2.6 GW, with more than 60 countries exploring
be found in tropical and subtropical oceans. There are the possibility of utility-scale projects (Gray 2020). These
large areas of the ocean with temperature differences installations are primarily located within man-made,
suitable for OTEC, including about 60 million km2 freshwater systems, but marine deployed systems also are
deemed to be most suitable, with an estimated power emerging (Hooper et al. 2021). Although the use of non-
of 0.2 MW per km2 (Golmen et al. 2005). The globally floating solar PV is more common, floating solar PV has
available resource for OTEC could be up to 30,000 GW been used to power aquaculture installations (see case
(Rajagopalan and Nihous 2013). Many different OTEC studies in Chapter 4).
archetypes have been assessed—from floating offshore
Offshore wind energy consists of harnessing kinetic
platforms to onshore systems with pipelines to transport
energy from the wind to generate power in bodies of
the water to and from the ocean (Tethys 2022b). The
water. Offshore wind turbines are similar to land-based
process of deriving energy from an OTEC plant brings deep
wind turbines, but they are larger to harness the stronger
seawater to the surface and could provide cold, nutrient-
and more consistent winds offshore. Turbines can be
rich water with fewer pathogens and bacteria for use in
fixed to the seafloor (bottom-mounted) or floating. As
aquaculture production (Daniel 1985; OES 2021b). OTEC
of 2020, the total offshore wind power capacity was
can also provide desalinated water, which is suitable for
33.3 GW worldwide (GWEC 2021). Currently, the vast
aquaculture operations that require freshwater (Herrera
majority of offshore wind energy is fixed, but floating
et al. 2021). OTEC has been used to power aquaculture
operations are emerging. To date, efforts to pair offshore
installations (see case studies in Chapter 4).
wind with aquaculture have mainly focused on the shared
Salinity gradient technologies use the chemical pressure use of space and have only occasionally focused on the
differential from the ionic concentrations of fluids (i.e., ability to provide power for aquaculture (CORDIS 2019;
difference in the salt concentrations of fresh and saltwater, MUSES 2022). Because large vessels are typically excluded
such as river and seawater) to generate power (IRENA from offshore wind sites, co-locating aquaculture and
2014; Tethys 2022c). The main applications for salinity offshore wind could reduce the risks of vessels colliding
gradient technologies are plants in estuaries and hybrid with aquaculture farms (MARIBE 2018). Fixed platform
energy generation processes in high salinity waste streams offshore wind farm facilities could be used as feed barges
(IRENA 2014). Reverse electrodialysis and pressure- for aquaculture. For offshore sites, the use of offshore
retarded osmosis are the two main technology types wind has challenges similar to those of ORE technologies,
for salinity gradients. Reverse electrodialysis generates in that floating technologies have limited development
electricity from the controlled mixing of two fluids with or unknown cumulative effects. However, smaller-scale
different salinities. Pressure-retarded osmosis generates micro-wind turbines could offer additional opportunities
electricity by converting the osmotic pressure between to meet offshore energy demands associated with
fluids/solutions with different salt concentrations to smaller-scale aquaculture electricity requirements (e.g.,
hydraulic pressure, which can then be converted to monitoring systems) (SARF 2014).

2.2 Technology Readiness Levels of ORE
Technology readiness levels (TRLs) are globally sectorial challenges, mainly by focused research and
adopted metrics used for tracking the progress of ORE development, innovation, and development of the supply
technologies, and aiding in their systematic development chain.
for in situ use. TRLs are used throughout the development
As outlined in this chapter, there are numerous forms of
chain, from early, primarily research levels (TRL1–3) to
ORE technologies, each at a different stage of technology
full-scale system demonstrations (TRL7–9). Differences
readiness. Figure 1 demonstrates the TRL for each ORE
in TRLs are related to technology-specific challenges
technology, considering its relative progress throughout
such as reliability, survivability, maintainability,
development and operation. Salinity gradient and ocean
and affordability. While higher TRLs are related to
current technologies have the lowest TRL (between 4 and
technologies that have more cumulative experience (e.g.,
5), and tidal technologies have the highest TRL (between
in terms of total installed power) and a more developed
7 and 9).
supply chain, lower TRLs show the need to overcome
Increasing Readiness
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Salinity Gradient WEC Tidal Tidal

Stream Range
Ocean OTEC
Currents
Figure 1. Technology readiness level of ocean renewable energy technologies (Ji et al. 2016). OTEC = ocean thermal
energy conversion; WEC = wave energy converter.
2.3 Advantages and Challenges of Using Renewable Energy Technologies

to Power Aquaculture
Table 1 outlines the potential advantages and challenges of • Scaling technologies to be suitable for large and
using each ORE technology, as well as solar PV and offshore small aquaculture installations (except for tidal
wind, and its application to aquaculture installations. impoundment); and
There are several common advantages for using renewable • Offering a diversity of technologies that allows for
sources of energy for aquaculture including: various applications and location-specific uses
(except for OTEC and tidal impoundment).
• Reducing or removing requirements for fuel;
• Contributing to cost savings due to energy being While the various ORE technologies present specific
supplied by onsite resources; advantages and challenges for aquaculture applications
• Avoiding potential for fuel spills and associated (Table 1), the inclusion of such technologies is not a
environmental effects; straightforward process. Integrating ORE technologies
• Minimizing noise by running generators for fewer with aquaculture systems requires several pre-
hours; development activities including, but not limited to,
• Providing opportunities to integrate with other offshore techno-economic analysis, engineering design, and
renewable energy systems, including hydrogen, solar, optimization (e.g., sizing) to ensure a good fit with
and batteries;

the aquaculture energy system and the application/ developers are exploring, especially as they move toward
user needs. Existing aquaculture operations may have sustainability, both for operations and for marketed
limited options for co-location due to certain practical products. Aquaculture projects that are being developed
constraints such as the scale of operation or the location have begun to include renewable energy technologies in
of the aquaculture site. However, aquaculture sites their designs and planning, which may add some layer
that have the necessary approvals to use the licensed of complexity to the licensing process. Some of these
area may present an easier opportunity for deploying existing and new co-located projects are presented as
an ORE device. Nevertheless, the application of ORE case studies in Chapter 4.
technologies is a consideration that many aquaculture
Table 1. Potential advantages and challenges of ocean renewable energy (wave, tidal, ocean current,
thermal gradient, salinity gradient), solar photovoltaic, and offshore wind technologies for powering
aquaculture operations.
Renewable
energy Potential advantages for aquaculture Potential challenges for aquaculture
technology
• Suitable for onshore, nearshore, and • High cost of technology installation.

offshore aquaculture sites. • Resource variability and intermittency.
Wave Energy
Converters • High-energy sites may not be ideal/
suitable for certain types of aquaculture
operations.
• Resource predictability and power • High cost of technology installation.

scheduling with a high degree of • High-energy sites may not be ideal/
accuracy. suitable for certain types of aquaculture
• Resources available year-round. operations.
• Suitable for onshore and nearshore
Tidal Stream
aquaculture sites.
• Natural water flow at sites may
facilitate flushing of organic waste from
aquaculture.
• Baseload power is possible.

scheduling with a high degree of • Environmental effects are likely with
accuracy. tidal impoundment technologies.
• Resources available year-round.
Tidal
• Suitable for onshore and nearshore
Impoundment
aquaculture sites.
• May readily provide a brackish water
environment useful for aquaculture.

Renewable
energy Potential advantages for aquaculture Potential challenges for aquaculture
technology

scheduling with a high degree of • Remoteness of some offshore sites may
accuracy. increase operating expenses.
• Resources available year-round. • High-energy sites may not be ideal/
Ocean
• Suitable for offshore aquaculture sites. suitable for certain types of aquaculture
Current
• Natural water flow at sites may operations.
facilitate flushing of organic waste from
aquaculture.

scheduling with a high degree of • Only suitable in tropical and subtropical
accuracy. regions.
• Resources available year-round.
• Suitable for onshore, nearshore, and
Ocean offshore aquaculture sites.
Thermal • Increased access to cold, nutrient-rich
Energy waters.
Conversion • Access to desalinated water.
• Infrastructure could be used to
implement feeding systems and other
components of aquaculture installations
that require platforms.

scheduling with a high degree of • Technology still in early stages of
accuracy. development.
Salinity
• Suitable for nearshore areas.
Gradient
• Can provide access to freshwater,
saltwater, and brackish water.
• Solar technology is more advanced. • Resource variability and intermittency.

• Infrastructure could be used to • May need to mitigate effects of heat/
Solar
implement feeding systems and other radiation on the sea surface.
Photovoltaic
components of aquaculture installations • Requires large areas of the ocean to
that require platforms. deploy.
• Fixed offshore wind technologies are • Resource variability and intermittency.

more advanced. • High-energy sites may not be ideal/
• Infrastructure could be used to suitable for certain types of aquaculture
Offshore implement feeding systems and other operations.
Wind components of aquaculture installations • Wind farm setup may constrain
that require platforms. certain operations (i.e., limited vessel
• Can reduce risk of vessel collision. movements around aquaculture
operations).

3.
OVERVIEW
OF AQUACULTURE
AND ENERGY NEEDS
Broadly defined, aquaculture can include the cultivation of seaweed (e.g., Eucheuma,
dulse, Japanese kelp, Wakame, etc.), crustaceans (e.g., crab, lobster, shrimp, etc.),
shellfish (e.g., oysters, mussels, scallops, abalone, etc.), and finfish (e.g., salmon,
tilapia, seabass, etc.) for human consumption, protein for aquaculture or agriculture
feed, ornamental trade, cosmetics, or other purposes such as biofuels.
3.1 Aquaculture Overview
Aquaculture (both land-based and marine-based shore or generally by an environment exposed to ocean
operations) on a global scale has continued to increase waves (Ryan 2004; Lester et al. 2018b; Morro et al. 2021).
over time. As of 2018, aquaculture accounted for 46% of Some examples of offshore aquaculture include Ocean
world fish production, producing 82.1 million tonnes Farm 1, Deep Blue 1, and Aquatraz. Ocean Farm 1, the
of live weight (FAO 2020). Globally, aquaculture is most first offshore fish farm, was designed in China and
prevalent in northern temperate areas, followed by the deployed 30 km off the coast of Norway in 2017 with a
equator, arctic, and southern temperate areas (Kapetsky capacity of about 1 million salmon (about 6,000 tonnes)
et al. 2013). The amount produced varies by region; (Jin et al. 2021; SalMar 2021). Rizhao Wangzefeng Fishery
aquaculture accounted for 42% (30 million tonnes) of and China Ocean University developed the Deep Blue
total fish production (both aquaculture and capture 1 system that was launched in 2018 in China 48 km off
fisheries) in Asia in 2018 (excluding China, which is the coast in Shandong Province (Evans 2021). Deep
76.5% or 47 million tonnes); 16 – 18% (3-4 million tonnes) Blue 1 can hold 200,000 salmon (around 1,000 tonnes)
in Africa, North and South America, and Europe; and with further iterations (Deep Blue 2) able to hold up
12.7% (2 million tonnes) in Oceania (FAO 2020). Marine to 420,000 salmon (Evans 2021). Midt-Norsk Havbruk
aquaculture (operations in coastal/nearshore or offshore and Seafarming Systems have developed the Aquatraz
areas) makes up a smaller portion of total aquaculture salmon farming system that has been tested in Norway
production, because the majority of current operations since 2018 and to date has four iterations (G1, G2, G3, and
occur inland (FAO 2020). In 2018, marine aquaculture G4) of the cage system (Aquatraz 2022). Other offshore
produced approximately 30 million tonnes worldwide, developments are being considered, including many new
which was dominated by shelled mollusks contributing designs and ideas for offshore farming, such as Ocean
18 million tonnes, followed by 7 million tonnes of finfish Arks Tech’s offshore aquaculture vessel in Chile that
and 6 million tonnes of crustaceans (FAO 2020). These could have a capacity to produce up to 3,900 tonnes of
numbers did not include seaweed and aquatic plant salmon, or other commercial finfish species (Ocean Arks
production, which alone accounted for around 30 million Tech 2017).
tonnes produced, though this included both land-based
As the aquaculture industry continues to expand
and marine-based production (FAO 2020).
worldwide and seeks to shift marine operations
Offshore aquaculture is a novel and evolving aspect of farther offshore, there is great potential for co-locating
the aquaculture sector and there have only been a small aquaculture with ORE (LiVecchi et al. 2019). Table 2
number of operations to date (California Environmental summarizes the current state of aquaculture by country,
Associates 2018). Note that there is no standard definition focusing mainly on OES countries; plans for offshore
of “offshore” aquaculture (Froehlich et al. 2017), although expansion of the aquaculture sector; and suitability of
a few sources define offshore by depth or distance from ORE for current and future aquaculture operations.

Table 2. Overview of aquaculture by country, including the existence of current offshore aquaculture
operations, expansion plans to move aquaculture offshore, and suitability for ocean renewable energy.
Data were collected from aquaculture experts in each country and supplemented with provided reports
and additional information. Blank cells in the last three columns mean no information was provided by the
aquaculture experts. More information collected from aquaculture experts by country can be found in the
Appendix.
Current Expansion Suitability

offshore plans for for ocean
Country Finfish Shellfish Crustacean Seaweed
aquaculture offshore renewable
operations aquaculture energy
Industry
planning
Australia Yes Yes
for offshore
operations
To be
determined,
dependent
Expansion
Belgium Yes on operation
plans in place
but likely
wave or solar
photovoltaic
Canada Yes Yes
The Chilean
government
and Yes, but will
aquaculture depend; large
industry potential for
Chile No
intend to floating wind
expand and wave
offshore energy
finfish
operations
Currently
working on
Yes, very
China Yes expansion
suitable
plans for
offshore
Yes, but may
Yes, estuarine
be limited
current
to shellfish
France No energy
within
suitable for
offshore wind
shellfish
farms
No plans
to move
Yes, but site
Ireland No offshore due
dependent
to licensing
backlog
Japanese
government
Suitability
published an
Japan is currently
aquaculture
unclear
growth
strategy
Potential to Yes, wave
Norway Yes move further energy
offshore possible

Current Expansion Suitability
offshore plans for for ocean
Country Finfish Shellfish Crustacean Seaweed
aquaculture offshore renewable
operations aquaculture energy
Yes, off-grid
areas and
some offshore
aquaculture
operations
Selected sites will be the
and growers first markets
studying for ocean
Philippines Very few
potential renewable
for offshore energy (e.g.,
expansion tidal currents,
wave, and
ocean
thermal
energy
conversion)
Expansion
Yes, selected
plans in place.
sites with
Using self-
ocean
contained
renewable
Singapore Yes platforms
energy
may
potential (e.g.,
accelerate
tidal current,
offshore
wave)
expansion
Expansion
Spain No
plans in place
Extensive
Yes, wave
United plans in place
No energy
Kingdom to increase
possible
production
Yes, wave
Government energy
and industry possible;
United
No planning potential for
States
for offshore tidal energy
expansion for nearshore
operations
Information was reported for Ocean Energy System member countries, and a few non-member countries, that had available information
about offshore operations, expansion plans, and/or suitability for ocean renewable energy.

3.2 Energy Needs of Aquaculture
A key component of advancing the co-location of ORE location, even when farming similar species. Growing
and offshore aquaculture is understanding the energy cycles, particularly for finfish, can also change the
demands and energy-intensive resource requirements operational demand for energy over the year, such
for different aquaculture operations. This information as the energy need for lighting during winter seasons
is crucial for developing appropriate renewable energy (SARF 2014).
power systems for aquaculture and identifying feasible
Overall, limited data are available from the aquaculture
markets for these systems. Within the aquaculture sector,
industry about specific energy needs, particularly
the energy-intensive resource demands can vary greatly
for offshore systems. When available, data are often
by operation and species. Energy requirements include,
inconsistent, use different metrics, or are tracked by fuel
but are not limited to, lighting, pumps, feeding, aeration,
consumption rather than by electricity usage. This report
desalination, cleaning, refrigeration, monitoring, and
has gathered available energy information from marine-
support (barge) operations. Based on the species (e.g.,
based operations to provide a picture of aquaculture
finfish, crustaceans, shellfish, or seaweed), there may
energy requirements, including bulk energy demands per
be different optimal power solutions to meet specific
aquaculture operation and demand profile information
operational needs. Furthermore, based on site-specific
where available.
requirements, energy needs may also vary by geographic
3.2.1 Finfish Aquaculture
Finfish aquaculture includes a variety of equipment and operations which can lead to larger energy demands than for
other farmed marine animals. In this section, energy demands for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in Australia, Chile,
Norway, and Scotland are reported as well as Asian seabass or barramundi (Lates calcarifer) in Singapore.
Atlantic Salmon
Atlantic salmon are farmed and grown for about 10 to 16 months in freshwater and are then transferred to the marine
environment via specialized well boats, in which they are grown for 12 to 24 months (MOWI 2020). Upon completion of
the grow-out period, the salmon are removed from the net pens and processed. This study presents the energy demands
associated with the 1- to 2-year marine grow-out period that uses large sea cages or nets suspended from various floating
systems that are anchored to the seabed (MOWI 2020). During this period, examples of energy use include, but are not
limited to, lighting (both ongoing and intermittent), feed systems, net cleaning systems, and monitoring equipment.
Salmon aquaculture operations differ by country. For example, in Chile, grow-out operations generally range from 16
to 40 square cages with a typical 16-cage operation producing up to 4–5 tonnes of fish (Subpesca 2012). In Norway, the
stocking densities and sea cage configurations are often varied across different farms. Although the offshore Australian
Atlantic salmon sector is currently being developed, it is expected that these offshore farms will, in general, employ 12 sea
cages, with each cage containing around 150,000 individual salmon (Hemer et al. 2020).
Australia
Aquaculture is Australia’s fastest growing primary seeking to expand operations offshore into more exposed
industry, and salmonids represent the largest and energetic sites. Australian salmon operations are
aquaculture sector. Within Australia, the island state of currently powered by diesel and electricity connected
Tasmania accounts for 98% of the salmonoid production via the grid. While the production cycle for Australian
(ABARES 2018). Currently, marine-based Atlantic Atlantic salmon is similar to that of other countries, it
salmon farming operations are predominantly based includes bathing and venturation (a process of raising
at sheltered nearshore sites. Increasingly, the sector is dissolved oxygen levels in the water for fish health

management purposes) operations that are unique to production of 10,000 head-on-gutted (HOG) tonnes
Tasmania. In Tasmania, amoebic gill disease is a gill (Hemer et al. 2020). This study estimated that energy
disorder known to affect juvenile Atlantic salmon (Young inputs associated with transporting the various feed
et al. 2007). To prevent and mitigate the severity of this components and diesel for power generators onsite
disease, whole sea cages are bathed in freshwater, despite would be approximately 9,000 kWh/day. Additionally,
this method being recognized as both expensive and the daily stationary electrical demands of feed barge
technically difficult to achieve (Hemer et al. 2020). In operations, lighting, venturation, bathing, monitoring,
addition to bathing, the sea cages undergo venturation in and domestic use were estimated to total around 6,000
the summer months, a process that can operate 24 hours kWh/day (Hemer et al. 2020). A further breakdown of
per day depending on environmental conditions. modeled energy requirements is presented in Figure 2,
with detailed information about the average kilowatt-
A study led by the Blue Economy Cooperative Research
hour per day and percentage of total of daily energy use.
Centre (BE CRC) in 2020 modeled the energy demands
for an offshore salmon operation with an annual
336
1,627 2% 2,190
10% 13%
1,418 Lighting
2,118 8% Feeding
13%
Vessel movements
Venturation
On-site bathing
Other
8,883
54%
Figure 2. Modeled daily electrical energy requirements of an Australian Atlantic salmon offshore grow-out operation
by kilowatt-hour (and percentage of total energy use). Data were modeled assuming 10,000 HOG tonnes/year
(Hemer et al. 2020).
Chile
Salmon make up approximately 70% of the total operations in Chile. The main generator that supplies
production of aquaculture in Chile, which has about 330 power to productive and domestic activities has an
active fish farms (SERNAPESCA 2020). Atlantic salmon installed power ranging typically between 100–250
produced in Chile spend between 14 to 18 months in kW. For domestic activities such as heating, hot water,
the grow-out period at sea before they are harvested at water pumps, sewage, and other activities related to
weights between 4–6 kg. Finfish farms in Chile typically the permanent crew quarters, daily consumption varies
comprise floating net pens (pontoons) stocked with 8–17 between 35–115 kWh. Similarly, the seasonal variation of
kg/m3 of fish. The energy demand of operations changes light availability and fish size results in different energy
with fish growth, health requirements, and season, requirements for productive activities such as feeding
and differs by company. Because of this variation, and photoperiod operations, ranging between 130–450
Figure 3 represents a reference energy consumption for kWh daily.

75
20%
Feeding
Lighting
230
66 62% Monitoring and Domestic
Activities
18%
Figure 3. Average daily energy demand by operation for a Chilean Atlantic salmon farm by kilowatt-hour (and
percentage of total energy use). Feeding, lighting, domestic activities, and monitoring energy estimates are averaged
across the year to account for the seasonal demand for photoperiod and increased feeding operations. Energy
consumption is based on a production capacity of 25,000–60,000 fish (or between 113–270 tonnes of salmon based
on 222 salmon per tonne) and a cumulative energy demand of 371 kWh/day (pers. comm. Gonzalo Tampier, 2021).
Norway
In Norway, salmon farming is the second largest out each day, the operational stage of the grow-out, and
exporting industry; with 837 active farming locations across different seasons. The feed system (feed barge
in 2018 (Møller 2019). Some farms are grid-connected, compressor) was found to account for more than 50% of
while others rely on diesel generators to provide power the daily energy use within the farms.
to farm operations; for example, in one county on the
Møller (2019) mapped the energy demand across the
central coast of Norway about half of the salmon farms
entire Norwegian Atlantic salmon aquaculture industry
are grid-connected (Møller 2019). A typical salmon
using data from grid-connected and diesel-reliant farms.
farm includes nearshore net pens of various sizes and
The results from that study highlighted energy variations
numbers, a feed barge, lighting, monitoring systems,
based on the different operations and between seasons.
living quarters, additional equipment, and two vessels
The greatest point of difference in the energy profiles
(often a transport and a work vessel). Daily and seasonal
across summer and winter operations was the energy
energy consumption vary across salmon farms in
demand for cage lights and feed systems. Typically, there
Norway, as detailed by Syse (2016) and Møller (2019),
is no energy demand for cage lights in summer when
who assessed the energy demands of salmon aquaculture
daylight hours are extended, and a higher demand for
in Norway.
lighting during winter when daylight hours are limited.
Syse (2016) studied the electrical demands of three In contrast, feed system energy demand is higher in
salmon aquaculture farms across southwest Norway. The summer when salmon are growing at a faster rate and
farms used in this study ranged in size, using between 3 require more feeding, compared to winter when there are
and 8 sea cages, and were stocked with 150,000 salmon lower feed requirements. The average cumulative energy
per cage. Because the farms were grid-connected, demand across summer and winter operations was
hourly demand data were obtained from the electricity approximately 700 kWh/day, and Møller (2019) outlined
provider and the daily average electricity consumption an analysis of onsite energy demand to distinguish
was mapped across multiple components, excluding contributions (Figure 4). Operations were found to have
transport. The findings demonstrated that energy an average energy demand of 0.35 kWh/kg of salmon
demand varied widely depending on operations carried produced (Møller 2019).

42
6%
119
17%
Feeding (feed barge)
Vessel movements
385
55% Lighting
Other equipment
154
22%
Figure 4. Daily energy demand profile for a Norwegian salmon farm by kilowatt-hour (and percentage of total daily
energy use). Energy consumptions are based on a farm with a production capacity of 3,120 tonnes and an average
cumulative energy demand of 700 kWh/day (Møller 2019).
Scotland
Energy requirements for salmon aquaculture in Scotland monitoring, and other equipment (SARF 2014). This
were gathered from several of the largest salmon energy was typically provided by a generator on a
farms (SARF 2014). Marine-based salmon sites, with nearby pontoon or feed barge. The peak load, including
average annual production volumes of approximately lighting, crew facilities, and other operations, was
1,000 tonnes (Marine Scotland Science 2021),1 were estimated to be 62 kW. Additional figures for the salmon
reported to use on average 91 kWh/day for site offices industry, including hatcheries, freshwater loch cages,
and buildings and around 629 kWh/day (assuming and processing facilities, are presented by the Scottish
a generator size of 150 kW with three-quarter load) Aquaculture Research Forum (SARF 2014).
for feeding, lighting, aeration, acoustic deterrents,
Asian Seabass/Barramundi
Asian seabass or barramundi are catadromous fish that grow rapidly, reaching a harvestable size (350 g–3 kg) in 6 months
to 2 years (FAO 2009). Most barramundi operations use both floating and fixed net cages (Towers 2010). The cages range
in size from 3 × 3 m up to 10 × 10 m and 2–3 m in depth. Most marine-based production of barramundi occurs in Southeast
Asia, generally using small nearshore cage farms (Towers 2010). These farms often grow a mixture of species, including
barramundi, grouper (Family Serranidae, Subfamily Epinephelinae), and snapper (Family Lutjanidae).
1 The 1,000 tonnes average production volume of salmon is an estimate based on the total salmon production of 236,000 tonnes across 232 sites
in Scotland, as reported by Marine Scotland Science (2021).

Singapore
In Singapore, the Aquaculture Centre of Excellence has activities, and a post-harvest factory for packaging.
developed the Eco-Ark, a marine-based floating, closed Figure 5 details the annual energy demand of the Eco-
system used to produce around 166 tonnes of fish per Ark and demonstrates that the greatest daily demand
year (mainly barramundi) (Leow 2021). The Eco-Ark is from feeding, which accounts for approximately 37%
platform is 48 m x 28 m, automated, and comprises four (3,500 kWh) of the total energy required (21,000 kWh/
tanks (500 m3 each), each producing around 20 tonnes tonne of fish) (Leow 2021). Eco-Ark has a future target of
of fish per tank. Operations also include a nursery, two 5,700 kWh/tonne that they aim to achieve in the next few
sea intake pumps, dissolved oxygen pumps, ice-makers, years (Leow 2021).
harvest preparation, monitoring equipment, domestic
1,000
200 11% 1,500
2 % 16% Lighting
400
4% Feeding
816 Other domestic
8% Oxygen/Air
Pumps
1,000 Vessel movements
11%
3,500 Monitoring
37%
Packing
1,000
11%
Figure 5. Average daily energy demand profile of the marine-based, enclosed system Asian seabass farm, Eco-Ark, in
Singapore in kilowatt-hours (and percentage of total daily energy use) (pers. comms. Ban Tat Leow, October 2, 2021).
The energy consumption is based on an annual production capacity of 166 tonnes and a cumulative energy demand
of 9,416 kWh/day. The current bulk energy demand per tonne is 21,000 kWh/year (Leow 2021).
Singapore Aquaculture Technologies, with funding (Megawatts 2020). As an alternative to diesel fuel, this
from the Singapore Food Authority, have developed PV-battery system has allowed Singapore Aquaculture
a fish farm on the east coast of Singapore, called the Technologies to generate energy onsite and, in turn, avoid
Smart Floating Fish Farm. This facility consists of a buying and transporting fuel (Megawatts 2020). The bulk
3,000 m2 offshore, closed-containment, floating barge energy demand for the Smart Floating Fish Farm can be
with 10 tanks that can produce up to 350 tonnes of fish calculated assuming 0.2 kW peak power can be produced
annually, farming both barramundi and red snapper per square meter and using Singapore’s baseline yield of
(L. campechanus) (Singapore Food Authority 2022). 1,250 kWh/kW peak per year (Luther and Reindl 2014).
Operations include water treatment systems (filtration, Based on these assumptions and the 3,000 m2 area of the
oxygenation, etc.) and systems to monitor fish health farm, this would produce about 0.75 GWh/year of energy
and growth; and automation and artificial intelligence from solar PV supplying 50% of the power for an annual
are used to aid aquaculture operations (Singapore total energy requirement of approximately 1.5 GWh/year
Aquaculture Technologies 2022). Of these operations, (0.75 GWh/year from solar PV and 0.75 GWh/year from
a minimum of 50% are powered using solar PV units, other sources). Therefore, it is estimated the farm could
which are mounted on the barge and include an energy have an annual energy demand of about 4,285 kWh/
battery storage system to achieve a stable power supply tonne.

3.2.2 Shellfish Aquaculture
Shellfish aquaculture operations are a bit more simplified than those for finfish, though they may still include a variety
of equipment depending on the grow-out technique used. In this section, energy demands for oysters (Crassostrea gigas
and C. virginica) are reported for Scotland and the United States and energy demands for blue mussels (Mytilus edulis)
are reported for Scotland.
Oysters – Pacific Oyster and Eastern Oyster
Oyster production relies on the settlement of oyster larvae on a substrate (oyster shells, ceramic tiles, etc.) in a hatchery
or in the wild (NOAA 2021). Once settled, oysters will grow within a farm for several months until they reach market size
(i.e., adult stage). The grow-out duration varies depending on the food availability from the natural environment (SARF
2012). Based on environmental conditions (e.g., water depth, tidal range, bottom substrate), three methods can be used
to farm oysters: off-bottom culture in the intertidal zone, on-bottom culture in the intertidal zone or in deep water, and
suspended culture in the open sea (Buestel et al. 2009).
Scotland
Pacific oyster aquaculture in Scotland follows the (SARF 2014). The Scotland oyster farms assessed for this
traditional bag and trestle method with the oysters report use both electricity for seawater pumps, grading
suspended near the surface of the water in baskets, trays, machines, lighting, and other services, and diesel for
racks, or cages. Throughout their 3.5- to 6-year grow- vessels and vehicles and generators (Figure 6). For this
out period, the oysters feed on the naturally occurring report, the liters of diesel reported by SARF (2012) were
plankton and are continuously re-graded (i.e., sorted converted to kilowatt-hours to remain consistent with
according to size) to optimize their growth. Once they other examples presented in this chapter. It is assumed
are ready for harvest, the oysters are removed from the that 1 L of diesel fuel would be equivalent to 10.6 kWh
water, washed, sorted, graded, and transported to market (Krysinski and Malburet 2020).
46
13%
Vessel, vehicle movements

and generators
Seawater pumps, grading

machines, lighting and other
services
297
87%
Figure 6. Annual energy demands for oyster farming in Scotland by kilowatt-hour (and percentage of total energy
use). Energy consumption is based on oysters produced (per tonne) (SARF 2012).
United States
In the United States, Williamson et al. (2015) provided cage operation uses a customized boat for harvesting
an assessment of two types of oyster farms—bottom and maintaining cages, nursery systems (both floating
cage cultures and floating rafts—on the east coast. Both and onshore), process equipment (power-winch,
farms are located within the Chesapeake Bay estuary and tumbler, pressure washer), and a diesel fuel generator.
grow the native Eastern oyster. The bottom cage system The floating raft system, in contrast, does not use boats,
grows oysters in cages placed on the seafloor, whereas a nursery system, or power winches because the oysters
the floating raft system grows oyster in mesh bags within are grown close to shore along a pier and on the surface,
buoyant, enclosed plastic pipes that float at the surface. eliminating the need for such equipment. The bottom
The bottom cage operation is 23,216 m2 in area and uses cage farm was estimated to use about 5 kWh of electricity
2,000 cages that each can hold 1,500 to 3,000 oysters, with and 10 kWh of fuel and gasoline inputs annually per m2,
a stocking density of 194 oysters/m2. The floating raft whereas the raft culture farm was estimated to use about
operation is 9,812 m2 in area and uses 2,380 floating rafts 2 kWh of electricity and 0.4 kWh of fuel and gasoline
with a stocking density of 153 oysters/m2. The bottom inputs annually per square meter.
Blue Mussel
Scotland
The blue mussel (also known as the common mussel) is While stocking capacity may differ, generally a rope that is
a widely distributed shellfish that is naturally occurring 200 m long can grow up to 30 tonnes of blue mussels. The
in intertidal regions of sheltered coasts, bays, and inlets energy demands of blue mussel farming are significantly
as well as in tide-swept sheltered sea lochs (MarLIN less than other aquaculture operations. A study in 2011
2008). In the United Kingdom, mussel farmers rely on indicated that the energy consumption for blue mussel
the annual cycle of mussels to facilitate “rope grown aquaculture typically includes diesel for vessels, vehicles
mussels,” which involves a process in which drifting (forklift), and generators, as well as electricity for
mussel larvae attach to ropes suspended in the water. seawater pumps, a grading machine (unless stationed on
Once attached, the mussels remain there for 2 to 3 years the vessel), and general lighting and services (Figure 7;
before they reach marketable size and are harvested. SARF 2012).
Vessel, vehicle movements

and generators
508 716
Seawater pumps, grading
42% 58% machines, lighting and other
services
Figure 7. Annual energy demand for blue mussel farming in Scotland by kilowatt-hour (and percentage of total
energy use). Energy consumption is based on mussels produced (per tonne) (SARF 2012).

3.2.3 Aquaculture Energy Demand by Species and Country
Figure 8 summarizes the energy demand (kWh/tonne) for several farmed aquaculture species across countries based on
the numbers presented in Sections 3.2.1. and 3.2.2. and standardized by kilowatt-hours/tonne per year for comparison.2
The summary of energy per standard weight of product (kWh/tonne) per year is a useful metric for better understanding
the energy demand of different aquaculture operations and assessing the variability. As Figure 8 demonstrates, there is a
notable difference in the energy demand across countries that farm the same species (as shown for salmon and oysters)
and across farmed species. The differences across countries may be explained by practices. For example, the energy
demands for Australia salmon operations were modeled after an offshore farm compared to the nearshore farms of
Chile, Norway, and Scotland that may require less energy, such as fuel. The differences in energy demand across species
reflect the different operational needs and the variability of operations reported (especially when vessels are included
in the energy demands). For barramundi aquaculture in Singapore, the high value reported is due to the large energy
demands of the Eco-Ark and the Smart Floating Fish Farm. Both operations include automated systems and the need
for water filtration and sterilization because they are closed-containment aquaculture systems. The Eco-Ark also has
a nursery and a post-harvest factory in addition to grow-out and harvest operations. Some of the energy demands for
oyster and mussel aquaculture are unexpectedly higher than for finfish aquaculture. This difference may be explained
by the vessels use included in all shellfish operations compared to salmon farms, that do not all include vessel use.
Gaining a more detailed, finer-resolution understanding from a wider diversity of aquaculture farms and having reports
on all operations and systems will help shed light on these differences. Further research is needed on estimating energy
demands across farmed species and countries, including using standard units, to allow for more confident comparisons
across aquaculture operations. This will also aid in understanding which type of aquaculture is best paired with which
ORE technology.
Energy Use for Aquaculture by Species and Country

(kWh/tonne)
12,643
930 1224
371 572 82 263 343
Chile Australia Norway Scotland Singapore Scotland United Scotland

States
Atlantic Salmon Asian Seabass Oysters Blue mussel

/ Barramundi
Figure 8. Comparison of the yearly annual energy demand per tonne (kWh/tonne) of aquaculture product across
finfish and shellfish operations. Aquaculture operations considered in this analysis vary for each species and
country. For example, Australian Atlantic salmon, Singapore Asian seabass, oyster, and Scotland blue mussel all
include energy demands for vessels, whereas Chile, Norway and Scotland Atlantic salmon do not.
2 For countries where energy demands were available for more than one aquaculture operation per species (Singapore barramundi and United
States oysters), the energy information for the two operations were averaged to report one number for Figure 8.

4.
CO-LOCATION
CASE STUDIES AND
LESSONS LEARNED
As mentioned in previous chapters, the development of co-located aquaculture
and ORE can help aid the continued expansion of the global aquaculture industry.
Synergistic opportunities for co-located aquaculture and ORE can provide a
multifunctional use of space and resources. This chapter includes summaries of
12 case studies across 5 OES countries (Australia, China, France, Singapore, United
States,) and 3 non-OES countries (Cabo Verde, Scotland, Wales), exploring past
and present aquaculture projects that have used ORE, solar PV, offshore wind
technologies, or hybrid solutions to meet energy demands (Figure 9). These case
studies include all marine-based aquaculture types (finfish, shellfish, crustacean,
and seaweed; onshore, nearshore, and offshore) and a diverse range of renewable
energy technologies, with a focus on ORE, to provide examples and lessons learned
for co-locating ORE and offshore aquaculture.
1
2 4
11 10
ATLANTIC 6
OCEAN
8
7
3
12 PACIFIC
9 OCEAN
PACIFIC
OCEAN INDIAN
OCEAN 5
WEC OTEC Hybrid Solar PV

1. Albatern and Marine 7. Hawaii Ocean 8. Penghu 11. Copper
Harvest Science and 9. M
ulti Level Floating Beech Farm
2. MARIBE Technology Park Platform 12. Eco-Ark
3. SINN Power 10. ERSEO
4. Aquapower Technologies
5. Carnegie Clean Energy
6. BLUE DEAL Med
Figure 9. Geographic distribution of aquaculture and renewable energy case studies. The color of pins represents the
renewable energy technology used within aquaculture operations: orange represents wave energy converters (WEC),
yellow represents ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC), green represents hybrid, and red represents solar
photovoltaic (PV).

Wave Energy
Albatern and Marine Harvest Scotland

Offshore finfish aquaculture and wave energy – Scotland
Through a collaboration between Albatern and Marine array (Campbell 2017). Lessons learned from the project
Harvest Scotland, a 14-week pilot study in Scotland were the high survivability of the SQUID generating units
was undertaken to assess the potential for wave energy during large wave events, the reliability of the WaveNET
to power offshore finfish aquaculture operations. Two arrays irrespective of individual component or device
Albatern WaveNET arrays, known as SQUID generating failures, and the high cost of the technology prototypes
units, were deployed off the Isle of Muck in 2013 (Campbell that became a challenge regarding funding.
2017). The WaveNET is a floating, array-based WEC that
In 2015, the positive outcomes from the Isle of Muck
tracks the orbital motion of fluid particles, capturing
project led to another deployment of the WaveNET in
energy as it moves with the motion of the waves and
Mingary Bay on the west coast of Scotland, to power
converting it to electricity, and it is configurable to match
an active offshore fish farm site owned by Marine
site and power requirements. For example, increasing the
Harvest Scotland. The marine license and seabed lease
length of the array can capture more energy from longer
applications took about 6 months to acquire, and involved
waves, and increasing the width of the array can capture
several groups of stakeholders, including fishermen who
more energy from lower density sites (Campbell 2017).
voiced some concerns. As a mitigation measure to avoid
SQUID generating units have a rated capacity of 7.5 kW
any potential risk to the fish farm, the power generated
and can be scaled up with modules rated up to 750 kW and
from the WaveNET was transmitted to a shore station,
deployed in arrays of over 10 MW in capacity (Paschoa
and then to the fish farm barge via a cable. Campbell
2011). The Isle of Muck project demonstrated nonlinear
(2017) stated that the reliability of the electrical systems
energy yield enhancements in the array, improving the
onshore was a challenge for Albatern in this project and
economy of future wave technology development, and
the possibility of adding storage was being investigated.
reduced the costs of deploying and maintaining the array
Updates on this project are not available currently.
by using small recurrent components to build the large
MARIBE
Offshore seaweed aquaculture and wave energy – Wales
Wave Dragon and Seaweed Energy Solutions worked
collaboratively on the Marine Investment for the Blue
Economy (MARIBE) project, which aimed to combine
wave energy and seaweed production offshore. Using
an array of WECs, the overtopping technology of Wave
Dragon will harness the energy of waves and may act as
a buffer and, in turn, create an area with reduced waves
that is suitable for farming seaweed (MARIBE 2016).
Wave Dragon is a scalable, floating WEC developed
to operate in intermediate water depths of 30 m and
deeper. The central front face of a Wave Dragon device
is a doubly curved ramp, that allows incoming waves
Wave Dragon overtopping wave energy converter
to surge up the ramp, and a reservoir collects the water (image courtesy of Wave Dragon).
that overtops. The water in the reservoir is then drained
back into the sea, with energy extracted as the water
passes through multiple low-lead hydro turbines during
the draining process. Wave Dragon’s long mounted project, the proposed Wave Dragon WEC would be a
reflector arms allow the device to turn into the principal 4 MW device producing up to 12 GWh/year. Wave Dragon
wave direction, increasing the amount of energy that plans to continue efforts to deploy a pilot wave energy
is captured (MARIBE 2016; State of Green n.d.). In this and offshore aquaculture system in the future.

SINN Power
Shrimp and prawn aquaculture and wave energy – Cabo Verde
Renewable energy developer SINN Power and local the waves. It has an installed power capacity of 36 kW
aquaculture firm Fazenda de Camarão started a within a 10 m2 area and can be installed in offshore,
collaborative project that aimed to assess the feasibility of open environments, as well as on fixed platforms and
using wave energy to power local shrimp farm operations structures (Offshore Energy 2018a). Upon completion of
in São Vicente, Cabo Verde. During the preliminary stages the preliminary research, SINN Power aimed to provide a
of the project, SINN Power measured local wave data, customized off-grid power system tailored to the shrimp
produced wave profiles, and worked with the aquaculture farm. This project is in line with the island country’s plans
operators to develop a prototype. The SINN Power point to obtain 100% of its electricity from renewable energy
absorber WEC has been developed to generate electrical by 2025 (Davis 2018). Currently, there is no information
energy as the 10 m lifting rod is raised by the motion of about the continuity of this project.
Aqua Power Technologies

Nearshore finfish aquaculture and wave energy – Scotland
Aqua Power Technologies’ 4.6 kW MANTA is a (pers. comm. Sam Etherington, February 22, 2022).
submersible wave energy device specifically designed The MANTA device was installed for 18 months, during
for remote installations, including offshore fish farms which it produced more than 11 MW of power, and a
(Aqua Power Technologies Limited 2022). MANTA number of different power profiles were tested (pers.
is a small and low-cost WEC intended to be installed comm. Sam Etherington, February 22, 2022). During
in arrays. Deployed at depths between 10 to 20 m, this test deployment, Scottish Sea Farms maintained use
MANTA has large hydrodynamic “wings” that move up of their generators, but used the WEC to feed into their
and down, using the power of the waves to generate system for low-power operations. This project by Aqua
electricity and charge battery banks. The battery banks Power Technologies and Scottish Sea Farms aimed to
are then used to power offshore operations, including determine the opportunities associated with ORE in
computers, lights, communication systems, sensors, and the region, assess the feasibility of using the MANTA
desalination units. In 2018, a single MANTA WEC was to produce consistent energy throughout the year, and
installed in Scottish Sea Farms’ Teisti Geo finfish farm in reduce Scotland’s reliance on diesel generators (Offshore
Clift Sound, Scotland. Installation of the MANTA device Energy 2018b). The project ended in 2020. Aqua Power
did not require additional licensing because it was sited Technologies is continuing efforts to provide power to
within the already-consented area of the salmon farm aquaculture systems.
Aqua Power Technologies MANTA wave energy device installed at a Scottish salmon farm (image courtesy of Aqua
Power Technologies).

Carnegie Clean Energy
Offshore aquaculture and wave energy – Australia
The Carnegie Clean Energy project, MoorPower™, was

developed in collaboration with BE CRC and industry
partners in 2021. This 3-year project includes a design,
installation, and operational phase to create a novel WEC
system for use in offshore environments. The MoorPower
wave converter system is intended to secure clean and
reliable energy, replacing the diesel generators that would
otherwise be used in operations that cannot access shore-
based power. The primary market for MoorPower would
be energy-intensive offshore aquaculture operations,
such as feed barges, and diesel-powered vessels that
Carnegie’s MoorPower wave converter system
require energy for electrical loads operating offshore. The (image courtesy of Carnegie Clean Energy).
technology is based on the design principle of Carnegie’s
CETO point absorber WEC buoys (Carnegie Clean Energy
2022a). The CETO buoys are submerged a few meters
below the surface of the ocean, where the device moves CETO 6, is planned to have a power capacity of 1.5 MW
with the motion of the waves (Carnegie Clean Energy per buoy (Carnegie Clean Energy 2022b). The current
2022a). This orbital motion drives a power take-off system 3-year project will see the deployment of a demonstration
that converts the physical motion of the device into MoorPower wave energy device offshore of the Carnegie
electricity. Carnegie’s latest iteration of the CETO buoy, research facility, in North Fremantle, Western Australia.
BLUE DEAL Med

Finfish aquaculture and wave energy – Cyprus
As part of the BLUE DEAL Interreg Mediterranean

Project, BLUE DEAL Med is creating opportunities to
promote the Blue Energy sector by creating connections
among industries, governments, and institutions (BLUE
DEAL Med 2022a). One aspect of BLUE DEAL Med is
an Open Innovation Challenge to incorporate ORE and
aquaculture (BLUE DEAL Med 2022b). Levantina Fish Ltd.
currently operates two European seabass (Dicentrarchus
labrax) and sea bream (Sparus aurata) grow-out farms in
the gulf of Limassol both with their own feeding platforms.
Resen Waves’ Power Buoy (image courtesy of Resen
One farm is located at 20 m depth and uses the SILO
Waves).
platform, which is bottom-mounted with an electrical
generator that uses 132 kWh of energy, and another farm
is located 1.5 km southeast and uses the FISH FEEDER Smart Power Buoy that provides power and can facilitate
floating barge platform with an electrical generator and data communication and automated/remote monitoring
a diesel engine that uses 160 kWh of energy (BLUE DEAL (Resen Waves 2021). Resen Waves estimated the SILO
Med 2022b; BLUE DEAL Med 2022c). Levantina Fish Ltd. would require a WEC of 12 kW nominal power with a 150
is committed to sustainable fish farming and, in addition kWh battery pack and the FISH FEEDER would require a
to their Friend of the Sea’s Sustainable Aquaculture WEC of 15 kW nominal power with a 190 kWh battery pack
Certification, they are currently looking to integrate ORE (BLUE DEAL Med 2022c). The wave buoy is well suited for
into their feeding platforms via BLUE DEAL Med’s open offshore environments, would be situated independent of
call to ORE developers. As of late 2021, they had received the aquaculture farms, and would be tension-moored to
seven proposals, six of which are for wave energy devices. the seabed, providing power to a battery pack that can be
One proposal from Resen Waves would employ their located on the seabed or attached to the net pens.

Aerial view of Hawaii Ocean Science and Technology Park (image courtesy of the Natural Energy Laboratory of
Hawaii Authority).
OTEC
Hawaii Ocean Science and Technology Park

Onshore aquaculture and OTEC – United States
The Hawaii Ocean Science and Technology (HOST) Park waters to convert anhydrous ammonia from a fluid into
is a research facility that uses sustainable and innovative a gas. From there, the cold water was used to convert the
ORE to support approximately 80% of the state’s gas into a liquid, which was then recycled back through
aquaculture and marine production (Deringer 2018). The the system. This functioning prototype for a large scale
HOST Park was founded in 1974 by the Natural Energy commercial OTEC generated 105 kW and was integrated
Laboratory of Hawaii Authority. Over time, the park has into the grid. After fulfilling its research and development
expanded to cover an 870-acre area with more than 50 purpose, it was decommissioned due to high operating
tenants using the facility for scientific research, energy costs. The data collected from this project has formed
and ocean technology research and development, the basis for a variety of new heat exchanger projects
conservation, food production, water desalination, that aim to reduce the operating costs for OTEC through
cooling, and aquaculture operations. The HOST Park is miniaturization of the heat exchangers. The seawater
designed to take advantage of the ocean-bound nature distribution system that feeds into the OTEC projects
of Hawaii, with site operations powered using a range also provides cold, deep, nutrient-rich water which
of renewable energy technologies, including OTEC. supports the healthy production of numerous onshore
The temperature difference between the warm surface aquaculture production sites, including those for
waters and the deep ocean waters is greater than 20°C, crustaceans, microalgae, and shellfish. Solar PV is also
making Hawaii an ideal location for OTEC. Within HOST being used as another renewable source of power within
Park, several OTEC projects were developed including a the HOST Park to power microalgae production.
closed-cycle OTEC system to use the warm, surface-level

Penghu aquaculture platform (image courtesy of Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion Chinese Academy of
Sciences).
ORE and Solar PV
Penghu
Offshore finfish aquaculture and wave energy with solar PV – China
With government support for using ORE for aquaculture provide power for crew quarters, automatic bait casting,
in China, the Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion monitoring, fish transmission, ice making, and other
Chinese Academy of Sciences developed a WEC production equipment, including seawater desalination.
power system—Sharp Eagle—designed for offshore The at-sea trials have been successful and have shown
aquaculture. The WEC integrated with the aquaculture that a 50–100 kW WEC can fulfill the energy needs of a
platform “Penghu” was deployed in 2019 (Ma et al. 10,000–20,000 m3 offshore cage (OES 2021c).
2022); 60 kW of wave energy and 60 kW of solar energy
Multilevel Floating Farm

Offshore aquaculture and agriculture with solar PV, tidal energy, and wave energy – Singapore
The multilevel floating farm (MFF) concept integrates vegetables such as tomatoes. The key challenge for the
previous efforts of floating farming methods into a MFF is power; it has an annual projected demand of
single consolidated unit with accommodation for many 22,210,000 kWh/year or about 61,000 kWh/day (Asgarov
types of farm products (Asgarov et al. 2020). The MFF et al. 2020). Solar energy (via rooftop PV panels) is being
combines many basic modes of farming, including considered as an option for power generation. However,
aquaculture for finfish, aquaponics for vegetables, and it would only support about 3–5% of the energy demand.
agriculture for soil-based products such as mushrooms. A marine area of more than 9 hectares covered by
Each level of the MFF is focused on a distinctive farming floating solar PV would be needed to power the MFF—
type. For example, lower levels would be dedicated to an untenable scenario. ORE options (including tidal
aquaculture products; mid-levels would be dedicated to current and wave energy) are being studied in Singapore
products requiring low light, such as mushrooms, eggs, to hybridize the energy system and potentially improve
and poultry; and higher levels with more direct access the financial operating metrics of the MFF.
to sunlight would be dedicated to leafy greens and other

River Current and Solar PV
ERSEO
Nearshore oyster aquaculture and river current with solar PV – France
Since 2020, Guinard Énergies Nouvelles has developed

the Énergies Renouvelables au Service des Exploitations
Ostréicoles (ERSEO) project to provide renewable energy
for oyster farms. The company has been investigating the
energy needs of oyster farms in the northwest of France.
Guinard Énergies Nouvelles tested and validated their
20 kW P154 tidal turbine for this application in an estuary
environment in 2019 (FARNET 2021). In the ERSEO
project, the second trial test to power an electric oyster
barge with a coupled solar PV–river current turbine will
occur in 2022. From the information collected during the
project, recommendations for reducing energy use and
Guinard Énergies Nouvelles’s P154 tidal turbine being
developing renewable energy to power each farm will be installed in Ria d’Etel (image courtesy of Guinard
provided. Énergies Nouvelles).
Solar PV
Copper Beech Farm

Oyster aquaculture and solar PV – United States
Copper Beech Farm and Roger Williams University panels, an electrical distribution box, a charge controller
designed and implemented an off-grid PV solar system that transfers the current from the PV solar panels to
for aquaculture use. This off-grid, renewable energy the nine 12 V battery bank, a 1/3 horsepower direct
installation combines PV solar panels, battery storage, current motor, a belt, a shaft, and a propeller. The off-grid
and a Floating Upweller System (FLUPSY)—used to setup has been successful in providing enough power
increase water flow for aquaculture grow-out—to to operate the FLUPSY, and the battery bank has the
promote accelerated shellfish growth (Palano 2013). capacity to power operations for 3 days without requiring
The installation consists of six mounted 245 W PV solar any recharge from the PV solar panels (Palano 2013).
Eco-Ark
Nearshore finfish aquaculture and solar PV – Singapore
The Eco-Ark is an existing nearshore structure currently

operational in Singapore. The Eco-Ark is a purpose-built,
floating, closed-containment aquaculture system that
covers an area of about 1,400 m2. It requires only two
workers and demonstrates the practical application of
a floating closed-containment system for fish farming.
There are four fish grow-out tanks with a combined Eco-Ark aquaculture system (image courtesy of Michael
475–500 m3 capacity, plus 30 additional nursery tanks L.S. Abundo).
each having 6.5 m3 capacity. Production is about
166 tonnes of seabass per year, based upon two completed currently supplied by diesel generators. The next step
harvest cycles. Currently, rooftop solar panels supply in the immediate future includes the installation of a
about 352–440 kWh of the about 9,416 kWh total average “power barge” composed of floating solar PV units that
energy requirement per day (pers. comm. Ban Tat Leow, will increase the use of renewable energy in the fish farm’s
October 2, 2021). The balance of the energy needed is operations.

Lessons Learned from Case Studies
Some lessons learned can be extracted from these case studies. One of the main challenges to pursuing research
or pilot projects is the lack of funding and the high cost of renewable energy technologies. In addition, while ORE
devices are in their early stages of powering aquaculture operations, farms are likely to still need to employ their
generators to avoid any issues with intermittency or security of supply until this novel application of ORE devices
can be better understood. Consenting (or permitting) and regulatory processes for gaining approval to deploy an
ORE device in situ are also often long and costly, though this may be eased by deploying an ORE device within
an existing aquaculture site. Uncertainty among stakeholders remains relative to the effects of a device on the
aquaculture system and the animals farmed. However, mitigation measures can be taken to prevent or reduce any
adverse environmental effects of ORE.
These case studies highlight several projects, both past and present, that are conducting research on or have
successfully implemented renewable energy to meet identified energy demands of finfish, shellfish, crustacean,
or seaweed aquaculture. A number of these projects are currently in situ and have demonstrated the success and
overall viability of delivering consistent power for operations, including wave energy for finfish aquaculture, OTEC
for onshore aquaculture, and solar PV energy for both finfish and oyster aquaculture. Other projects are in planning
phases and more updates should be available in the coming years about potential lessons learned, including wave
energy for seaweed and shrimp/prawn aquaculture; wave, tidal, and solar PV use for the MFF agriculture and
aquaculture system; and river current and solar PV use for oyster aquaculture.

Image courtesy of Seaweed Solutions AS
5.
OPPORTUNITIES
AND CHALLENGES FOR
ORE AND OFFSHORE
AQUACULTURE
Although both offshore aquaculture and ORE are relatively new industries,
opportunities and challenges related to combining these marine uses can be
identified from previous research projects, such as multi-platform or multi-use
studies; analogous industries; and case studies from marine-based aquaculture,
such as those detailed in Chapter 4. This chapter also highlights potential
opportunities and challenges for co-location in several countries based on current
or planned efforts.
5.1 Opportunities
By moving away from coastal waters, offshore aquaculture for pollution from oil/fuel spills by using clean energy
can reduce its impacts on marine ecosystems, decrease (Schultz-Zehden et al. 2018);
the potential for stakeholder conflict, and contribute
•
Potential for reduced environmental effects (e.g.,
to the growth of the seafood sector (Buck et al. 2018).
nutrient pollution, disease/parasite load, etc.) by
With aquaculture operations requiring energy to power
moving offshore to more energetic sites viable for ORE
standard safety equipment, fish feeders, seawater pumps
(Froehlich et al. 2017);
or aeration, lighting, mechanical equipment (regrading
machines, cranes, etc.), refrigeration, marine sensors, • Reduced noise compared to diesel generators that may
and/or domestic activities for a crew, there are synergistic lessen impacts on the marine ecosystem;
opportunities for co-locating offshore aquaculture and •
Low visibility of ORE devices paired with offshore
ORE (LiVecchi et al. 2019). Benefits are diverse and may aquaculture;
include the following:
•
Decreased conflict within and impact on coastal
•
Increased potential for co-location because areas as aquaculture moves to offshore sites with less
offshore aquaculture is likely to be in higher-energy competition for space and resources; and
environments where ORE may be more feasible;
• Excess power from ORE could provide power to the
• Cost savings on energy use by providing power at sea, grid or to onshore marine aquaculture facilities (such
especially because diesel costs are likely to increase as hatcheries).
with distance to shore;
Combining ORE and aquaculture or other marine uses
• Cost savings by shared operations and maintenance, can also lead to the sustainable and efficient use of ocean
including installation of system and monitoring space. In recent years, several research initiatives and
operations; projects have been undertaken to reduce spatial pressure
• Synergies or shared structural support with cables, by employing multi-use platforms (Schultz-Zehden et al.
anchors, offshore platforms, and vessels (SARF 2014); 2018). Zaucha et al. (2016) define multi-use platforms
as the “joint intentional use of resources in close
•
Potential to use ORE to power autonomous and
geographic proximity. This can involve a single user or
automated systems (e.g., oceanographic sensors,
multiple users.” Multi-use platforms can include several
control of remote operated vehicles, and autonomous
combinations of marine uses (e.g., fisheries, aquaculture,
underwater vehicles) as operations move farther
tourism, ocean energy, etc.) and are characterized by
offshore (Gardner Pinfold Consultants Inc. 2019);
the sharing of the same resources. For instance, multi-
• Ability to minimize environmental effects in terms of use platforms can integrate ORE and aquaculture
lower greenhouse gas emissions and reduced potential operations with other uses. One example is tourism,

which has been considered by exploring the benefits of offshore wind and aquaculture, and wave energy and
implementing diving or snorkeling in proximity to or aquaculture, was analyzed. Project outcomes showed
within aquaculture operations or sport fishing next to a that the main driver for combining wave energy and
farm (Schultz-Zehden et al. 2018). In addition to aiding aquaculture was the potential reduction in initial
tourism, this can also provide an alternative income for investment requirements for both developers due to
aquaculture developers. For the multi-use studies in shared operational and maintenance costs (Schultz-
this section, those considering renewable energy do not Zehden et al. 2018).
necessarily address providing power to the other use, but
• MARIBE was funded in 2015 under the Horizon 2020
rather focus on assessing the shared use of space. Several
program to promote growth and jobs within the blue
projects on offshore multi-use platforms have been
economy by sharing marine space (MARIBE 2018).
developed in Europe:
Several case studies were developed to identify “Blue
• The TROPOS project was funded in 2012 for 3 years Growth” sectors. The case study on combining offshore
by the European Commission (CORDIS 2019). This finfish aquaculture and wave energy highlighted
project aimed to develop a floating modular multi- several advantages: achieving cost savings related
use platform system in deep waters that integrated to energy delivery, storage, and supply; enabling
transportation, renewable energy, aquaculture, and aquaculture farms to be farther offshore in nutrient-
tourism. Locations for development were identified rich environments; limiting environmental effects by
for different scenarios such as wind energy and moving offshore; and guaranteed sale of electricity to
aquaculture in Crete, tourism and solar energy in Gran the aquaculture customer.
Canaria, and transport and offshore wind energy in • The UNITED project was funded in 2020 to demonstrate
the United Kingdom. Outcomes of the project were business synergies and benefits of ocean multi-use,
the development of methodologies to conduct impact and to provide a roadmap for future developments
assessments and to aid decision-making. (UNITED 2022). The activities for this project are based
• The MERMAID project was funded in 2012 for 4 years on five multi-use pilot sites, three of which combine
to assess different concepts for the next generation of renewable energy and aquaculture: blue mussel and
offshore multi-use platforms for energy extraction, seaweed aquaculture and offshore wind in Germany;
aquaculture, and platform-related transport (CORDIS offshore seaweed and floating solar in the Netherlands;
2016). Case studies were completed in the Atlantic and flat oyster and seaweed aquaculture and offshore
Ocean, Baltic Sea, Mediterranean Sea, and North wind in Belgium. An additional pilot will explore the
Sea. Stakeholders (such as companies, agencies, combination of offshore aquaculture and tourism in
researchers, and nongovernmental organizations) Greece. The UNITED project is currently active and will
participated in the development of the platforms’ continue until 2023.
design (van den Burg et al. 2016). All designs included
Some of the main benefits of co-locating offshore
offshore wind as energy sources, and WECs were also
aquaculture and ORE are the collective use of space; the
used in the design of the Atlantic site. Guidelines were
ability to share equipment, systems, and operations; and
developed within the project for the safe management
reduced environmental effects from using a sustainable
of multi-use platforms and stakeholder involvement
source of energy that can be provided at sea. Co-locating
during the design process. It was found that the
offshore aquaculture and ORE can also help resolve
selection and planning methodologies of a site were
infrastructure issues and the reliability of power supply,
transferable between locations, but the use of technical
particularly in remote and isolated areas such as islands,
methodologies was site specific and strongly dependent
where there is often a lack of electrification. This would
on social components and licensing regulations.
also improve energy security in such areas that are often
•
The Multi-Use in European Seas (MUSES) project affected by climate-driven events. As more aquaculture
was funded by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 operations use ORE, there could also be an opportunity to
research and innovation program and was completed label aquaculture products originating from sustainable
in 2018 (MUSES 2022). The project aimed to explore renewable powered operations (for example through
the opportunities for multi-use platforms in the Baltic Aquaculture Stewardship Council or Friend of the Sea
Sea, Black Sea, Eastern Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean certifications), thereby increasing their market values
Sea, and North Sea. The feasibility of various multi- (Schultz-Zehden et al. 2018).
use combinations, such as tourism and aquaculture,

5.2 Challenges
While moving aquaculture farther offshore may present and operation-specific. The use of ORE for offshore
opportunities for co-location with ORE, it may also aquaculture is likely better suited for finfish aquaculture,
introduce some challenges. Because ORE is often which has larger energy demands due to the various
intermittent, energy storage systems are needed onsite. equipment and systems that require power. Because
However, storage of energy onsite may be difficult offshore finfish aquaculture will require continuous
because of limited space on the aquaculture platform. power to keep fish alive or maintain refrigeration, most
Safety risks may be increased with offshore operations ORE devices will need backup batteries and possibly
because they will be located in higher-energy and more generators, which may involve additional associated
exposed environments, which may lead to added costs costs. ORE could also be feasible for integrated multi-
and challenges for obtaining insurance (Schultz-Zehden tropic aquaculture (i.e., farming multiple species such
et al. 2018). To advance the industries to full-scale as finfish, shellfish, and seaweed in one system), another
ORE-aquaculture operations, pilot and demonstration developing sector of the aquaculture industry, but more
projects are needed but they can be costly. The difficulty information is needed about the energy requirements of
to secure adequate funding for such projects can provide these systems. For all aquaculture, more information is
a barrier to technology advancement and could hinder needed about energy demands to fully understand and
both industries as they strive to progress. mitigate challenges and increase the opportunities for
using ORE.
In the European MERMAID project, several challenges
for combining aquaculture and energy at offshore sites Overall, for all types of ORE, a key barrier to its
were described (Christensen et al. 2015): development with offshore aquaculture is the lack of
clear regulatory frameworks within existing legislative
•
Limited available technologies to prevent systems
regimes, and the fact that these may contradict each
failure due to offshore wave climate;
other. Given that ORE and offshore aquaculture are
•
High cost of offshore equipment inducing limited both developing industries, individual consenting
investment; processes are complicated and uncertain, which may
compound the challenges associated with the co-
• Stakeholder concerns related to environmental effects location of projects. Additionally, there are concerns
(e.g., pollution, fish escape from nets) and visual about the potential cumulative effects of both ORE and
impacts of offshore aquaculture; and aquaculture industries on the environment. Monitoring
environmental effects within pilot and demonstration
• The potential for unclear and/or long licensing and
projects will be necessary to combat and mitigate
consenting procedures.
potential challenges. For the development of co-located
A challenge for using ORE for smaller aquaculture ORE and aquaculture projects, the main challenges
operations, such as for shellfish or seaweed production, are the low levels of ORE device commercialization,
may be the low energy requirements. While there may be unknown consequences of the interactions between the
opportunities to power lower-energy operations as shown two uses, and a lack of knowledge about technical and
in the case studies in Chapter 4, doing so may be location- financial risks.

5.3 Examples around the World
In addition to the general opportunities and challenges for co-location, examples of opportunities and challenges
in several countries (Australia, Chile, China, Indonesia, the Philippines, and the United States) were identified and
are detailed below. Examples of offshore aquaculture and ORE are the main focus, but because these industries are
nascent, opportunities and challenges also include nearshore aquaculture as well as other renewable energies because
associated similarities and learnings may be applicable.
Australia
Australia has large ORE resources within reasonable (ABARES 2018). While existing at-sea grow-out sites
proximity to population centers and potential industry are located primarily within sheltered sites, the current
users. For example, Australia’s wave energy flux across intent suggests that future salmon farming expansion
the 25 m contour of approximately 1,800 TWh/year is the plans will shift operations to more exposed energetic
largest of any country in the world, and the tidal range and offshore sites (Duniam and Barnett 2021). Moving
resource of approximately 2,000 TWh/year represents production offshore will also help inform the integration
over 20% of the global resource (Hemer et al. 2017). of farming multiple species offshore (Carter et al. 2020).
In Australia, the aquaculture sector accounts for 36% A major long-term challenge for offshore salmon
of total seafood production (97,406 tonnes of 265,975 aquaculture production will be to successfully resolve
tonnes total), of which salmonids are the most valuable the priorities of different stakeholders, to grow multiple
species. The Tasmanian salmon industry presents a species, and to co-locate aquaculture with renewable
promising market for co-location with ORE because energy systems (Carter et al. 2020).
it accounts for over 98% of salmonid production value

To reduce the sectors’ reliance on diesel fuel and increase feed and lighting barges that are operational in nearshore
energy efficiency, the BE CRC has proposed offshore environments. The results from these studies will allow
developments with integrated systems for Atlantic the BE CRC to estimate profiles for other key energy loads
salmon production that will recycle waste streams and successfully estimate the annual energy demand
and use ORE and/or other types of renewable energy. based on operational information obtained from salmon
The BE CRC’s Offshore Renewable Energy Systems producers in Australia (see Figure 2 in Chapter 3). This
program aims to advance the technological and research is ongoing, and the BE CRC aims to publish the
commercial readiness of emerging ORE technologies to results of this project in late 2022. Other major projects
decarbonize offshore industries, including aquaculture at the BE CRC include the design, manufacturing,
(Penesis and Whittington 2021). Several efforts are deployment, operation and maintenance, and
ongoing to understand energy demand from Atlantic decommissioning of a scaled M4 (short for “Moored
salmon aquaculture. These include the MoorPower MultiModal Multibody”) WEC prototype in Albany,
project (see case study in Chapter 4) that will collect data Western Australia, to test and validate the infrastructure
to provide energy estimates from a feed barge operating and supply chain for emerging ORE markets, including
in the offshore area of Tasmania, and a scoping project the aquaculture industry in the region.
that records the energy demand profiles for two different
Chile
Chile is among the top 10 aquaculture exporters and The potential for ORE in Chile is large (Guerra et al. 2017;
the second largest salmon producer globally (FAO Lucero et al. 2017), and its development has been sup-
2020). Currently, Chilean aquaculture includes finfish, ported by the creation of the Marine Energy Research
shellfish, and algae, and most aquaculture operations are and Innovation Center in 2015. This center currently op-
concentrated in the sheltered channels and fjords of the erates and monitors a WEC pilot project (OpenSeaLab),
southern regions of Los Lagos, Aysén, and Magallanes. alongside the execution of different applied research and
While these operations are currently located within innovation projects. One project is currently analyzing
protected environments, there is an increased interest in the integration of ORE and aquaculture under the local
cultivating salmon in more exposed areas (Chávez et al. conditions found in Chile. This project includes aspects
2019). The need for clean energy in the aquaculture sector related to mooring, structural design, hydrodynamic
(including wave and tidal energy) and energy storage response, seabed mechanics, construction, transport,
solutions such as green hydrogen have been identified installation, operation, maintenance, and decommis-
and are currently part of the secretarial roadmaps and sioning, and is expected to provide a decision matrix
long-term strategies for Chile (e.g., Alvial et al. 2021). for different scenarios by 2023. In the short term, wider
Integrating ORE and aquaculture has been explored knowledge about the challenges and opportunities of
within the last decade as a part of these roadmaps and ORE and aquaculture co-location is expected, which can
strategies (e.g., Prospectus Consulting 2016). in turn act as a driver for applying policies and instru-
ments to support these sectors in the mid-term.
China
As a leader in the global aquaculture industry, China level wave energy demonstration project has begun, and
has a growing market and significant potential to move two WECs were constructed and tested at sea (Tethys
the industry into deeper, offshore waters. China has also 2022d). These ORE projects have the potential to be
been testing the use of ORE for several years throughout combined with aquaculture operations.
the country, mainly targeting islanded areas. Since 2010,
However, the development of co-located offshore
China has successively launched a series of wave energy
aquaculture and ORE projects in China involves some
and tidal current energy demonstration projects in
challenges. Offshore ORE projects in China face a much
Shandong, Zhejiang, Guangdong, and Hainan, and has
harsher environment than nearshore projects because
gradually formed the Guangdong Wanshan Islands Wave
of the frequent occurrence of typhoons in the China
Energy Demonstration Zone and Zhejiang Zhoushan
Sea (Jiang et al. 2020; Li et al. 2022). From a policy and
Islands Tidal Current Energy Demonstration Zone (IEA-
regulatory perspective, China has only recently begun
OES 2021; Liu and Bahaj 2021). China’s first megawatt-

to address opportunities for ORE development (Liu competitiveness (IEA-IRENA 2021). Additionally, China
2019). In 2021, ORE was recognized as a key opportunity has provided financial support for powering aquaculture
and thus was included in the 14th Five-Year Plan for with ORE, which supported the development of a WEC
National Economic and Social Development and Long- power system for offshore aquaculture that was deployed
Range Objectives for 2035 (CSET 2021). This helps ensure with the aquaculture platform Penghu (see case study in
the development of China’s ORE sector at the national Chapter 4). This investment in developing aquaculture-
policy level. China is also currently investigating tax specific ORE technologies shows the potential for
preferential policies to attract more private enterprises to opportunities in China to advance co-location.
enter the ocean energy sector and improve their market
Indonesia
Indonesia is one of the top exporters of farmed seafood in renewable energy is a key part of these efforts to provide
the world, and aquaculture is increasingly being looked power in remote areas. The aquaculture industry has
upon as a vast, resource-rich opportunity to address welcomed the government initiative, although industry
food supply and security challenges (Diedrich et al. proponents indicate the program must be supported by
2019; Rimmer et al. 2021). In Jakarta, remote northern sound environmental planning, particularly avoiding
islands are playing an important role in the growth the clearing of mangrove forests and avoiding polluting
of aquaculture as an opportunity to mitigate these the surrounding areas through careful use of renewable
challenges. The United Nations Habitat program selected energy versus fossil fuels and proper waste management.
Pangang Island, one of these northern islands, as a focus
Indonesia’s ORE potential is vast with thermal energy
area for the development of an initial “aquaculture
gradient, tidal current, and wave energy amounting
village” to farm grouper. This development includes solar
to more than 700 GW of ORE resource potential that is
PV energy integrated with the floating finfish net cages as
spread among numerous sites and areas in the country
an energy source, thereby providing a model for future
(Quirapas et al. 2015). In line with Indonesia’s various
aquaculture villages to use renewable energy (Hendarti
thrusts for achieving a sustainable ocean economy
et al. 2018). Indonesia has seen the success of the
(OECD 2021), ORE and aquaculture are among the
aquaculture village concept and plans to have a national
marine sectors that the country is looking to develop
network of 136 similar villages dedicated to aquaculture
further.
by the end of 2022 (Suriyani and Ambari 2022). The use of
Philippines
In the Philippines, aquaculture is increasingly and livelihoods in the Philippines. Examples are the
demonstrating the ability to help address the challenges Philippines’ Department of Energy National Renewable
of poverty (Irz et al. 2007; Palanca-Tan 2018). With a vast Energy Program studying ocean energy applications; the
archipelago of more than 7,000 islands, the most suitable Philippines Energy Plan 2020 to 2040, which includes
areas for aquaculture are often the most remote, off-grid the productive use of renewable energy, highlighting
areas. Several islands and coastal areas in the Philippines agriculture and aquaculture as sectors where sustainable
have various forms of aquaculture operating on a wide energy should be incorporated (Department of Energy
range of scales that serve a spectrum of markets (e.g., 2020); the European Union-funded “Renewable energy
export, local/domestic products). Although aquaculture in Tawi-Tawi for seaweeds” project (Padillo 2021); the
and other farming activities have been stunted due NAMA Facility-supported “Decarbonization of electricity
to the lack of power available for the “off-grid” island generation on Philippine Islands - Using tidal stream and
communities, the use of renewable energy in aquaculture solar PV” project (NAMA Facility 2022); and the overall
in the Philippines has been increasing. push for blue economy industries (Verdejo 2022).
Several programs, projects, and initiatives are positive With an estimated ORE resource potential of 170 GW,
indicators that the use of sustainable energy in sectors which includes thermal energy gradients, tidal current,
such as aquaculture is being explored as part of a and wave energy (Quirapas et al. 2015), there is potential
wider sustainable development agenda that looks for ORE to support aquaculture in the Philippines.
at the synergy of energy, food, water, environment, However, the development of ORE to support

aquaculture in remote areas faces several challenges that infrastructure, and trained professionals needed for the
will need to be overcome. These include the burden of installation, operation, and maintenance of both ORE
high capital cost to initiate renewable energy alternatives and aquaculture systems. Nevertheless, the Philippines
and to install, maintain, and repair ORE infrastructures. presents an important opportunity for ORE growth in
Another challenge is the lack of equipment, support support of aquaculture.
United States
In 2018, the value of aquaculture production in the to harness energy from wave, tidal, ocean current,
United States represented 21% of the total value of and ocean thermal gradients (Kilcher et al. 2021),
seafood production in the country (NMFS 2021). The and additional potential for ORE across the United
total production of marine aquaculture was 44,000 States territories. Finding alternative markets for ORE
tonnes, which includes the production of species has recently been supported by the US DOE through
such as Atlantic salmon, clams, mussels, and oysters. their “Powering the Blue Economy” initiative, which
Aquaculture production in the United States is low specifically includes powering offshore aquaculture with
(17th in 2018 worldwide) and between 70 to 85% of the ORE (LiVecchi et al. 2019). One example of such efforts
seafood is imported, but there is continued interest in includes a preliminary analysis of co-location focused
growing the sector in the United States. Reflecting the on wave energy and offshore finfish aquaculture. Two
aquaculture industry trend of moving from nearshore United States regions, off the coast of California and
to offshore operations, there has recently been Hawaii, were assessed based on relevant environmental,
increased support from the United States government regulatory, and logistical parameters for both aquaculture
for offshore aquaculture, including calls to expand and wave energy. The preliminary study identified
sustainable seafood production, create jobs, and explore suitable locations for co-location offshore of O’ahu,
opportunities for offshore projects (Executive Order Hawaii, and Northern California that have both adequate
13921). This also includes efforts by the government to wave resources for wave energy and favorable conditions
identify study areas for Aquaculture Opportunity Areas for aquaculture operations. Other research undertaken
to aid in the siting of offshore aquaculture (Morris et al. under Powering the Blue Economy includes co-locating
2021; Riley et al. 2021). However, consenting processes offshore integrated multi-trophic aquaculture with
for both aquaculture and ORE developments still are wave energy, using tidal energy to tumble oysters, and
complex challenges. powering kelp processing with tidal energy.
The annual potential of United States ORE resources is

2,300 TWh across all 50 states, including the possibility

5.4 Summary of Opportunities and Challenges
Because few in situ projects exist, testing the opportunities and challenges identified in this chapter to co-locate ORE
and offshore aquaculture is limited. As more initiatives employ ORE for aquaculture and co-located projects increase,
additional opportunities and challenges will become apparent. Those described in this chapter are categorized into three
main themes: technical and operational processes, regulatory processes (including environmental and social aspects),
and economic impact, and are summarized in Table 3.
Table 3. Summary of opportunities and challenges for co-locating ocean renewable energy (ORE)
and offshore aquaculture.
Theme Opportunities Challenges
• Shared operation and maintenance. • Limited energy storage.

• Shared systems and equipment (e.g., • Increased safety risks at offshore/high-
cables, anchors). energy sites.
Technical
and Operational • Improved energy security and • Low levels of ORE device
Processes reliability. commercialization.
• Government funding increasing for • Unknown interactions between
research and pilot projects to co- aquaculture and ORE systems.
locate.
• Reduced environmental effects (e.g., • Potential cumulative effects.

carbon emissions). • Potential stakeholder concerns (e.g.,
• Reduced pollution from oil/fuel spills. environmental effects, conflicts with
• Sustainable and efficient use of existing uses, etc.).
marine space. • Resolve the different priorities of
Regulatory various stakeholders.
Processes • Potential to develop multi-use
platforms. • Unclear and long licensing procedures.
• Low visibility of ORE devices paired • Need for political/policy support.
with offshore aquaculture.
• Reduced conflict/competition for
coastal areas by moving offshore.
• Cost savings associated with • More financial support needed (e.g.,

sharing equipment, operations, and funding, investment, etc.).
technologies. • High cost of offshore equipment.
• Cost savings from onsite power • High upfront capital expenditure.
Economic Impact
generation.
• Potential for increased market value
of aquaculture products grown using
ORE.

6.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the information presented in the previous chapters, several
recommendations to expand the potential for co-location and further
understanding of powering offshore aquaculture with ORE have been identified.
The recommendations below are not exhaustive, but rather provide initial steps
to advance co-location of these novel industries. Based on the categories of
opportunities and challenges identified in Chapter 5, the recommendations are
combined within these same three themes: technical and operational processes,
regulatory processes, and economic impact.
6.1 Technical and Operational Processes
This theme includes any aspect of ORE, aquaculture, or shared processes falling under operational or technical needs of
the co-located system and includes but is not limited to daily operations, monitoring, maintenance, safety, and device
and system technology. Within these technical and operational processes, two areas stand out for future efforts and
research – understanding energy needs more thoroughly and assessing hybrid solutions that can make ORE more viable
to pair with offshore aquaculture.
Energy Needs of Aquaculture Operations
More information, including finer-resolution data, about to determine the suitability of their devices within the
energy demand and the associated energy demand aquaculture operations.
profiles (e.g., daily, monthly, seasonally, for specific
Assessing the ORE resource (e.g., type of resource
stages/processes) for offshore aquaculture operations
available to provide power, seasonality of the resource,
is needed. The construction and operation of large-
etc.) and the energy demands at existing aquaculture
scale, semi- or fully autonomous, and/or submersible,
facilities will also inform the design and/or selection
offshore aquaculture operations, particularly finfish
of devices adapted to available resources. Creating
farming, require high-energy use and will likely
partnerships between aquaculture and ORE developers
increase total energy demands. While the energy
for pilot project opportunities will advance this effort.
demands reported in this report focus mainly on
Identifying the region and species of interest for
at-sea operations, there is also potential for ORE to
co-locating ORE and aquaculture is key to better
provide an alternative to diesel fuel for powering
understanding what types of ORE resource and
vessels. This potential should be considered as energy
technology are adapted to the type of aquaculture. As
data are collected. As more offshore aquaculture
more pilot or demonstration projects are conducted,
operations are developed, gathering data about the
additional lessons learned from operational setup and
associated energy demands is necessary to better
providing power for aquaculture can be gained and
identify the potential for ORE to provide power for
should be shared within and across these industries.
offshore aquaculture and will allow ORE developers
Hybridization
Hybrid energy solutions (e.g., solar PV and tidal energy, operations by offering more reliable and clean ways to
solar PV and wave energy, diesel and wave energy, etc.) supply power than depending on one source of energy.
could contribute to the development of the ORE and Hybrid solutions may also be necessary to ensure a
aquaculture sectors. These synergies have the potential continuous supply of energy and replace current diesel
to increase the use of ORE technologies for aquaculture use. Hybridization can also promote the productive

use of renewable energy in the food production sector management system where renewable energy sources
allowing for more energy solutions that can be paired can be used (AKVA 2020). An important next step
with aquaculture operations at a variety of locations. for assessing the ability of ORE to power offshore
aquaculture operations is exploring the specific designs
Hybrid barges provide an easy solution for using power
of ORE devices that can be incorporated with hybrid feed
generated by waves or tides for offshore aquaculture.
barges. Understanding energy needs and engineering
Typical feed barges serve as the control center, including
requirements to have the power produced from ORE feed
providing power, for offshore aquaculture operations.
into hybrid barges will bring this closer to reality.
Hybrid barges enable the use of batteries and a power
6.2 Regulatory Processes
Focusing on better understanding regulatory needs for co-location is important to help advance opportunities for ORE
and offshore aquaculture as regulatory regimes are complex, uncertain, and can be costly. Recommendations under
this theme include improvements regarding planning; siting; licensing, consenting (or permitting), and authorization;
understanding environmental and social effects; and other aspects. Aiding efficient and effective navigation of regulatory
processes will help bolster co-location success.
Environmental and Social Effects
Research on the environmental and social effects of Once collected, environmental and social data should be
co-locating ORE and offshore aquaculture is needed accessible to all parties interested in co-located or multi-
to promote the synergy of both sectors, to facilitate use projects. Developing online tools and databases can
consenting processes of co-located projects, and improve the accessibility of such data. For example, the
to support strategic marine spatial planning. Such development of integrated assessments (e.g., including
assessments will be informed through the collection of ecological, social, and economic aspects) will increase
baseline environmental and social data and gathering the understanding of multi-sector effects and facilitate
data over time around co-located or multi-use projects. planning and siting processes. These efforts can also
The development of consistent processes and guidance contribute to stakeholder engagement efforts, allowing
for data collection that are shared and used across for comprehensive planning that accounts for other
both industries will improve the accuracy of the data marine industries, culturally important resources
collected, the ability to compare data between projects to and locations, and potential stakeholder concerns.
increase learning, and the understanding of the potential Turschwell et al. (2020) identified some additional
environmental and social effects of both offshore needs and recommendations, including steps to provide
aquaculture and ORE. As more activities are sited in support for planning, site selection, and management of
the marine environment, this information will also aid cross-sector projects within the blue economy.
studies of cumulative environmental effects.
Engagement with Aquaculture Stakeholders
To increase the uptake of ORE for aquaculture-relevant co-locating aquaculture and ORE can provide access
applications, there is a need to engage with aquaculture to a local source of protein, improve food security, and
stakeholders (e.g., owners, facility managers, vessel reduce carbon emissions from seafood production, this
operators, technology providers of moorings/pens/feed may be of particular interest for islands and remote
barges, policy makers, regulatory agencies, financial coastal areas (OES 2020). Identifying communities where
organizations, communities, etc.) on a sustainable a co-located project would provide benefits and where
energy transition. Engaging with stakeholders early in a challenges are limited will be important for the initial
potential project is necessary to define the opportunities pilot and demonstration projects. Transparent and
for co-location, which may vary based on the spatial early engagement will help determine such locations,
scale of the project and the region targeted. Because and will also help understand local or regional benefits

derived from a project, environmental concerns, possible • Addressing stakeholder concerns through transpar-
conflicts with other marine-based industries, and how to ent outreach efforts and identifying benefits or neg-
mitigate these challenges. ative impacts and social perceptions of the industries
and/or a project.
Some suggested pathways for engaging with aquaculture
• Creating tools and toolkits that allow stakeholders
stakeholders may include the following:
to adopt the use of sensors, data collection methods,
• Establishing information, education, and communi- and energy-efficient interventions in their sustain-
cation campaigns for awareness, training, and con- ability journey.
sultation/feedback. • Developing ORE pilot projects that ramp up the par-
ticipation and on-boarding of the aquaculture sector
• Encouraging partnerships and cross-sector interac-
(e.g., fish farms as users).
tions between aquaculture and ORE developers to-
• Providing opportunities for local communities where
ward decarbonization of the marine food sector.
co-located projects are sited, including training pro-
• Conducting inclusive outreach and engagement with
grams and employment.
broad groups of stakeholders to develop policies and
• Encouraging financial support and allocating funding
regulations that enable ORE and aquaculture solu-
for the co-development of ORE and offshore aquacul-
tions and responsible development.
ture to advance co-location.
Planning and Licensing
Identifying licensing and planning frameworks in clear pathway toward licensing. This can be done by
different countries or regions that may foster co- researchers in collaboration with ORE and aquaculture
location will identify areas that have fewer barriers and industry partners. A roadmap can be developed on a
challenges. Such licensing regimes that may benefit broad scale for advancing co-location or within countries
co-location or reduce place-based challenges can or regions to provide opportunities for industries. Such
increase opportunities for both the ORE and aquaculture roadmaps could include identifying key stakeholders,
industries. For instance, assessing existing national or regulatory frameworks and policies, markets and
regional marine spatial plans to find those that specifically supply chains, available financing or investment,
call for co-location or offer pathways to development development opportunities (such as regional analyses
can aid industry planning efforts. The development or site assessments), and possible growth scenarios and
of a roadmap for co-location will help determine a recommendations.
6.3 Economic Impact
Development of projects for novel industries like ORE and offshore aquaculture often faces economic challenges due to
a lack of funding and the use of high-cost technologies, which is likely to be true for co-located projects. Internationally,
there is a need for governmental measures supporting co-location. These measures can create the impetus for both
industries to engage with one another and can generate better opportunities for siting, planning, and licensing a project.
Funding from governments can be directed to states, territories, and local governments for programs that will promote
research efforts and the development of pilot co-located projects at the regional or local scale. Government support in
making ORE a viable and cost-competitive alternative to diesel or other renewable energies would also greatly aid co-
location. It will aid co-location by providing a market for emerging ORE technologies where they can be competitive and
reduce costs via market development.
Creating opportunities for offshore aquaculture and ORE and sharing lessons learned will be
crucial to ramping up the possibility of offshore aquaculture as a market for ORE. These activities
will benefit from the development of international collaboration on projects and research.
International and cross-sector collaboration can help identify knowledge gaps, successes, failures,
challenges to overcome, and help develop research agendas. Creating international industry
forums and research consortiums could be a viable solution to tackling these challenges.

7.
CONCLUSION
As the aquaculture industry continues to expand and moves offshore, a new
market opportunity opens for ORE. From the technologies to the geographic
location, the diversity of energy resources from the ocean makes the ORE
industry a viable option to power offshore aquaculture. Co-locating offshore
aquaculture and ORE can promote expansion into offshore areas and increase
the sustainability of aquaculture operations, encouraging both the growth of
the blue economy and the needed decarbonization of the marine food sector.
One of the main constraints to increasing the use of ORE for offshore aquaculture is the lack of information about
energy demands from aquaculture. Aquaculture operations are diverse and differ depending on the species farmed
and the geographic location. This report provides available data and information about energy needs for a variety of
aquaculture operations in several countries. While energy data are limited at this time, the data aid in understanding
how energy demands may vary by aquaculture type, farmed species, and/or country. Offshore finfish aquaculture
is a likely candidate for co-location because these operations use a large range of systems and equipment, such as
for lighting, feeding, refrigeration, domestic activities, and monitoring, that need power. However, there are likely to
be opportunities to co-locate ORE and aquaculture operations that require less energy, as shown in the case studies
presented. A better estimate of the energy demands for these aquaculture systems across different projects (species-
and location-specific) is required to improve understanding of when ORE is best suited and to aid decision-making
when selecting the correct ocean resource for providing power. In addition, improving and testing ORE technologies,
especially those built to power aquaculture operations, will offer additional opportunities for co-location.
Both ORE and offshore aquaculture are new industries that are developing. While some projects and research studies
are starting to consider co-location, exploring the opportunity of offshore aquaculture as a market for ORE remains
in its infancy. As more ORE devices are successfully tested and the development of aquaculture, particularly offshore,
increased, new applications will be identified and demonstrated. Lessons can be learned from past and current co-
located projects and research studies, as well as projects using other renewable energy sources that have been paired
with aquaculture, such as solar PV or offshore wind.
This report details the various challenges to and opportunities for co-locating ORE and offshore aquaculture,
associated with technical and operational processes, regulatory processes (including environmental effects and
social acceptance), and economic impact. Current challenges include a lack of funding, low levels of ORE device
commercialization, and unclear licensing procedures. The ORE industry continues to tackle challenges associated
with device commercialization, aided by international test sites and continued research. Funding is also becoming
more available as countries are investing in the blue economy and multi-use planning and are targeting renewable
energy goals. Co-location offers great opportunities for both industries such as cost savings, shared maintenance and
operations systems, and sustainable and efficient use of marine space. Many pilot and demonstration co-location
projects are planned and additional research into co-location is being conducted. As new projects and research are
carried out, challenges are likely to be overcome and additional opportunities are likely to be identified.
Based on available data, lessons learned from case studies, and findings detailed in this report, recommendations to
aid synergies between ORE and offshore aquaculture and advance co-location are presented. These recommendations
are grouped into three main areas that require further understanding or provide opportunities for advancement:
technical and operational processes, regulatory processes, and economic impact. The needs identified are provided
for ORE and aquaculture developers, stakeholders, government agencies, and regulators to understand the existing
and future opportunities derived from combining these two industries and to help alleviate potential concerns. These
recommendations will help expand the potential for co-location and further the understanding of powering offshore
aquaculture with ORE. Although offshore aquaculture and ORE are nascent industries, there is much potential for
advancement to help tackle larger problems of feeding the growing population, reducing carbon emissions, and
contributing to a sustainable blue economy.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Ocean Energy Systems, the United States Department of Energy, and the Blue Economy Cooperative
Research Centre who provided funding for this study. We thank Ana Brito e Melo, Yann-Hervé De Roeck, and
the Ocean Energy Systems Cabinet for their support, guidance, and feedback in preparing the report. We also
thank the Ocean Energy Systems Executive Committee for their review and feedback on the report. We would
also like to acknowledge and thank all the aquaculture experts in many countries who contributed country-
specific aquaculture information and the aquaculture and ORE developers who provided information about their
experiences with aquaculture, ORE, or co-location. Thank you to Levy Tugade from Pacific Northwest National
Laboratory for his help in collating information about country-specific aquaculture. We also acknowledge the
encouragement and support from Jennifer Garson, Timothy Ramsey, and David Hume from the United States
Department of Energy Water Power Technologies Office, from Andrea Copping at Pacific Northwest National
Laboratory, and Irene Penesis at the Blue Economy Cooperative Research Centre.

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OFFSHORE
AQUACULTURE:
A MARKET FOR OCEAN
RENEWABLE ENERGY
APPENDIX
Information on aquaculture operations, locations, energy demand, suitability for ocean renewable energy, and regulatory
requirements was provided by aquaculture experts in several key nations. These nations are mainly members of Ocean
Energy Systems, large aquaculture producing nations, or have interest in expanding aquaculture offshore. The tables
below describe the information gathered per country within Asia, Europe, North America, South America, and Oceania.
Asia
China
Table 1. Information on aquaculture practices in China.
Other
relevant
Practice Expansion Suitability market
Species type Conditions plans for Energy for ocean Regulatory requirements
Location
(net pen, of operation offshore requirements renewable requirements (e.g., food
rack, etc.) operations energy safety criteria,
sustainability,
etc.)
Finfish, Sea-pen, Nearshore, Unknown Floating Wave Very Fisheries Leisure

shellfish, rack, offshore fish farm, energy1, suitable legislation, fishery, food
crusta- artificial aquacul- solar energy, marine safety criteria,
cean, reefs, etc. ture net diesel regulations sustainability,
seaweed, cage generator etc.
etc.
1 http://english.giec.cas.cn/ns/rp/201908/t20190809_213996.html

Japan
Table 2. Information on aquaculture practices in Japan.
Other
relevant
Species type plans for Energy for ocean requirements Annual
Location
(net pen, offshore requirements renewable (e.g., food production2
sustainability,
etc.)
Freshwater Ponds Inland, In 2021 Not clear Not clear Recently, the 31,329
fishes (carps, freshwater Fisheries demand for tonnes
barbels, others) Agency Japan food safety
fiadromous published criteria and
fishes (river New Plan sustainability
eels, salmons, is increasing
trouts, smelts) in Japan
Marine finfish Net pens Marine Same as Not clear Not clear 247,100
– salmons, locations above tonnes
flounders,
halibuts, soles,
others)
Algae – brown Marine Same as Not clear Not clear 345,500

and red locations above tonnes
seaweeds, and
other aquatic
plants
Crustaceans – Brackish Same as Not clear Not clear 1,400

shrimp, prawns water above tonnes
Other species – Hanging Marine Same as Not clear Not clear 305,500
clams, oysters, culture locations above tonnes
scallops, others
2 https://www.fao.org/fishery/en/statistics

Philippines
Table 3. Information on aquaculture practices in the Philippines from the OceanPixel Database of 2020
Philippines production.
Suitability for
Practice type
Conditions Energy ocean Annual
Species (sea-pen, rack, Location
of operation requirements renewable production
artificial reef, etc.)
energy
Finfish National all types; Fresh water and Calm waters Limited Low energy 717,701 tonnes
(includes rural settings – marine production; energy needs demands
milkfish, tilapia, traditional methods. brackish
grouper, signed, Brackish water operations usually
carp, catfish, and freshwater near marine
gourami, fishponds; brackish, coastal areas or
mudfish) freshwater, and river mouths; no
marine pens and offshore
cages; small farm
reservoirs or rice
fish farms
Shellfish National all types; Nearshore marine Calm waters Limited Low energy 72,261 tonnes
(includes oyster, rural settings – and brackish water energy needs demands
mussel) traditional methods
Crustaceans National all types; Nearshore marine Calm waters Limited Low energy 64,291 tonnes
(includes tiger rural settings and brackish energy needs demands
prawn, mud – traditional water (usually near
crab, endeavor methods. Brackish marine coastal
prawn, white water fishponds, areas or river
shrimp, marine pens or mouths)
freshwater cages
prawn, spiny
lobster)
Seaweed National all types; Nearshore marine Calm waters Limited Low energy 1,468,653
rural settings – and brackish water energy needs demands tonnes
traditional methods

Singapore
Table 4. Information on aquaculture practices in Singapore.3, 4, 5
Other relevant
market
Practice type Expansion Suitability
requirements
(sea-pen, rack, plans Energy for ocean Regulatory
Species Location (e.g., food safety
artificial reef, for offshore requirements renewable requirements
criteria,
etc.) operations energy
sustainability,
etc.)
Finfish Sea-pen, Nearshore Automation, Aeration, Yes (solar SFA License, Quality
(includes recirculating, (West Johor genetic im- pumping, photovoltaic) Temporary assurance,
milkfish, rack, open Strait, East provement, wastewater Occupation sustainability
mullet, pond, closed Johor); disease treatment, in- License badges
tilapia, tanks, vertical onshore prevention strumentation (starting
barramundi, farms (Lim Chu 2023)
grouper, Kang,
snapper, Murai,
pompano, Pulau
threadfin, Semakau);
silver offshore
grunter, (Singapore
pomfret, Straits)
marble
goby,
snakehead,
perch,
salmon)
Crustacean Sea-pen, Nearshore, Automation Aeration, Yes SFA License, Quality

(includes recirculating, onshore pumping (solar PV) Temporary assurance,
spiny rack Occupation sustainability
lobster, License badges
shrimp, (starting
prawn, crab) 2023)
Shellfish Sea-pen Nearshore Automation Aeration Yes SFA License, Quality

(mussel) (solar PV) Temporary assurance,
Occupation sustainability
License badges
(starting
2023)
3 World Aquaculture Society (2020). The Singapore Aquaculture Industry — Contributing to Singapore’s Food Security.
https://www.was.org/articles/The-Singapore-Aquaculture-Industry-Contributing-to-Singapores-Food-Security.aspx#.YkUMXzURW3A
4 Singapore Food Agency (2022). The Singapore Aquaculture Plan.
https://www.ourfoodfuture.gov.sg/uplifting-aquaculture-industry/sg-aquaculture-plan
5 Shen Y., Ma K., & Yue G.H. (2021). Status, challenges and trends of aquaculture in Singapore. Aquaculture 533, 736210.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2020.736210

Europe
Information provided for each country in the European Union (Belgium, France, Spain) was supplemented by information
from the European Union Aquaculture Sector – Economic Report 2020 (STECF 20-12).6
Belgium
Table 5. Information on aquaculture practices in Belgium provided by the Belgium Blue Energy Cluster on
aquaculture farms and potential pilot projects.
Other
relevant
Practice Suitability market
type Conditions Size Energy for ocean Regulatory requirements
Species Location
(net pen, of operation of operation requirements renewable requirements (e.g., food
rack, etc.) energy safety criteria,
sustainability,
etc.)
Oyster7 Long-line Inland – in High turbidity, 8 ha farm N/A None Sanitary Food safety
system with harbor; no waves, requirements
cages North Sea high nutrients,
brackish water
Oyster Oyster Windpark Less nutrients, 1 ha pilot N/A To be Signal boys -

tables (30 km high waves project determined security
and cages offshore); and currents, (TBD)
(bottom) Belgian strong wind,
coast – 30 m depth
UNITED
project8
Oyster, Long- Nearshore High nutrient, 1 ha pilot NA TBD Signal boys -

mussel, line with (5 km from currents and project security
seaweed, droppers shore); North waves, 10 m
passive Sea depth
fisheries9
Mussel Long- Nearshore High nutrient, 7 ha NA TBD Environmental Food safety

(seaweed, line with (5 km from currents and (2 steps) (remote (solar, wave impact, signal
oyster) droppers shore); waves, 10 m monitoring & energy) boys - security
North Sea depth data transfer
– warning
systems)
Seaweed 2D textile Windpark Less nutrients, 1 ha pilot NA TBD Signal boys -

substrates (30 km high waves, project security
(AtSeaNova) offshore) currents,
Wier & strong wind,
Wind10 30 m depth
6 https://stecf.jrc.ec.europa.eu/reports/economic/-/asset_publisher/d7Ie/document/id/2871698
7 http://www.aquacultuur.be/
8 https://www.h2020united.eu/pilots/2-uncategorised/42-offshore-wind-and-flat-oyster-aquaculture-restoration-in-belgium
9 https://www.blauwecluster.be/project/symapa-synergy-between-mariculture-passive-fisheries
10 https://www.grensregio.eu/projecten/wier-wind

England
Table 6. Information on aquaculture practices in England.
Other
Suitabil- relevant
Practice type Expansion ity for market
(sea-pen, rack, plans for Energy ocean Regulatory requirements Annual
Species Location
artificial reef, offshore requirements renew- requirements (e.g., food production
etc.) operations able safety criteria,
energy sustainability,
etc.)
Finfish Finfish open Marine, Strategic ob- Boats, Yes, Planning Per- Strategic 6,456
(salmon, net pens & land jectives: Ten- barge, lights, wave mission (local principles: tonnes
trout, bass, submerged based, fold growth feeding, RAS/ authorities), Aquaculture (2014)
bream, flat- cages. Pump freshwa- and diver- land-based marine license production
fish, etc.) ashore flow ter sification of facility (MMO), EIA/ should be
through aquaculture HRA (CEFAS), environ-
finfish farms, in England Authorization to mentally,
Aquapon- over the next operate economically
ics Farm, 20 years, an APB, au- and socially
Integrated with farmed thorization to sustainable.
Multi-Trophic production import livestock Effective
Aquaculture contributing (FHI), permitting co-existence
(IMTA), at least 15% farming of alien of aquacul-
recirculating of overall species (FHI), ture with oth-
aquaculture seafood con- Abstraction er maritime
system (RAS) sumption by & Discharge activities,
2040. Licenses. including
Encourage Fish supplier wild capture
the devel- permitting (EA), fisheries, is
opment of Seabed/Fore- key.
low trophic shore Lease (CE), A co-man-
species and Documentation/ agement,
the use of training of Sea- partnering
integrated farers, Seafarer approach is
multi-trophic Safety and developed
aquaculture Health, Counter between
to contribute Pollution, Envi- regulators,
to England’s ronmental Pol- the industry
netcarbon icy, Search and and other
zero ambi- Rescue, Survey stakeholders.
tions.11 and Inspection,
Ship Standards,
Enforcement,
Receiver of
Wreck (MCA),
etc.12
Seaweed Marine and Integrated Same as Boat, RAS/ Yes, Same as above Same as
and kelp land-based Multi-Tro- above land-based wave above
(though phic facility
does not Aqua-
seem to culture
be an (IMTA),
established Mac-
industry) ro-algae
Culture
11 https://www.seafish.org/about-us/working-locally-in-the-uk/working-with-the-seafood-industry-in-england/seafood-2040/english-
aquaculture-strategy-from-seafood-2040/
12 https://www.seafish.org/document?id=8d3f8157-7ad1-4b0b-a1d4-3e92bda65066

Shellfish On-bottom Marine Same as Boat, feeding, Tidal or Same as above Same as 2,456
(mussels, (trestles, and land above RAS/land- wave above tonnes
scallops, or ground based based facility, may be (2014)
oysters, cultured), barge possible
clams, off-bottom
lobster) (long line
or raft),
Crustacean
Cage Culture,
Integrated
Multi-Trophic
Aquaculture
(IMTA), RAS
France
Table 7. Information on aquaculture practices in France from the Fisheries and Aquaculture Sector in
France 2020 report.13
Other relevant
Practice type Expansion Suitability for
market require-
(sea-pen, rack, plans for Energy ocean Annual
Species Location ments (e.g., food
artificial reef, offshore requirements renewable production
safety criteria, sus-
etc.) operations energy
tainability, etc.)
Oyster Rafts, long No plans to Dredges, beam Yes, especially European Green 81,000 tonnes
lines, bottom move off- trawl, boats, oyster farming Deal, Farm to Fork
harvest shore equipment suitable for Strategy14, Euro-
river current pean Maritime,
energy Fisheries, and
Aquaculture Fund
(EMFAF)
Mussel Rafts, long No plans to Dredges, beam Yes Same as for 51,000 tonnes
lines, bottom move off- trawl, boats, oysters, plus Tradi-
harvest shore equipment tional Specificity
Guaranteed (TSG)
Other Rafts, long No plans to Dredges, beam Yes Same as for 3,000 tonnes
bivalves lines, bottom move off- trawl, boats, oysters
harvest shore equipment
Trout and Net pens, Trout – No plans to Boats, equipment, Depends on Same as for 36,000 tonnes
salmon lakes (trout) freshwa- move off- enclosure main- proximity oysters
ter shore tenance, hatchery
operations
Carp and Lakes, net freshwa- No plans to Boats, equipment, Depends on Same as for 8,100 tonnes
other pens ter move off- enclosure main- proximity oysters
freshwater shore tenance, hatchery
fish operations
Seabass, No plans to Same as for 3,900 tonnes

seabream, move off- oysters
and other shore
marine finfish
Macroalgae Longlines, Offshore, Boats, equipment Yes Same as for

rafts, tanks nearshore, for harvest, oysters
(land based) land seeding facilities
based
Microalgae Tanks Offshore, Facilities op- Depends on Same as for

and Spirulina nearshore, eration, water proximity oysters
spp. land pumps
based
13 https://www.franceagrimer.fr/fam/content/download/65441/document/CC%20p%C3%AAche%20aqua%20ANG%20web.pdf?version=1
14 https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=COM:2021:236:FIN

Ireland
Table 8. Information on aquaculture practices in Ireland is from the National Seafood Survey: Aquaculture
Report 201915. Additional information can be found in the Business of Seafood 2020: A Snapshot of Ireland’s
Seafood Sector.16
Other
relevant
Practice Expansion Suitability
market
Species type plans for Energy for ocean Regulatory Annual
Location requirements
(net pen, offshore requirements renewable requirements production
(e.g., food safety
rack, etc.) operations energy
criteria, sustain-
ability, etc.)
Atlantic Net pens, Near- Currently Boats, diving, Yes, for Marine aquacul- A number of 14,000
salmon sea cages shore, no plans feeding, offshore, ture operators schemes are tonnes
(Salmo typically in to move treatments nearshore must hold an used across
salar) bays or in offshore (energy for activities. Site aquaculture the marine
the lee of due to a freshwater dependent. license and aquaculture
an island licensing treatments – a foreshore sector:
backlog. pumps), and license, as Aquaculture
grading issued by the Stewardship
Department Council, Natur-
of Agriculture land, BioSuisse,
Food and the Irish Organic
Marine.17 Association
Finfish (salmon) (compliant
sites must not with EC Coun-
exceed their cil Regulation
maximum No. 834/200718),
tonnage, Certified
undertake Quality Aqua-
environmental culture (CQA)
monitoring, Programme19.
notify the Global Trust,
authorities on Carbon Trust,
health status of Bord Bia,
the stock, keep Origin Green20,
full records on ECOPACT,
chemicals and Bord Iascaigh
therapeutics, Mharas – cer-
keep the cul- tified quality
ture structures aquaculture
(cages etc.) in programme,
a proper state Global Salmon
of repair and Initiative (GSI),
condition and Global GAP,
demarcate the BRC Global
area with suit- Food standard,
able navigation Agriculture
aids. Biologique,
Bio-Siegel, Ko-
sher certified
(KLBD)
15 https://bim.ie/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/BIM-National-Seafood-Survey-Aquaculture-Report-2019.pdf
16 https://bim.ie/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/BIM-The-Business-of-Seafood-2020.pdf
17 https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/fcd20-aquaculture-foreshore-management/#aquaculture-licensing
18 https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32007R0834
19 https://bim.ie/aquaculture/sustainability-and-certification/certified-quality-aquaculture-cqa-programme/
20 https://bim.ie/aquaculture/sustainability-and-certification/irish-seafood-business-and-origin-green/

Pacific Trestles Intertidal Same as Machinery, Same as Mussel, oyster Similar to 10,000
oyster and regions above grading, above and seaweed above tonnes
(Crassost- longlines hatcheries sites must also
rea gigas) have an aqua-
culture and a
foreshore li-
cense and com-
ply with similar
environmental
and planning
requirements. 21
Blue mus- Bottom Deeper Same as Boast, diving, Same as Same as above Similar to Rope –
sel (Mytilus and rope coastal above machinery, above above 9,000
edulis) waters grading Marine Stew- tonnes
ardship Council Bottom
for bottom and – 6,000
rope grown22,23 tonnes
Seaweeds Longlines Nearshore Same as Boats, divers, Same as Same as above Similar to 40 tonnes
(Palmaria and ropes above grading, above above
palmata machinery
and
Laminaria
digitata)
Northern Ireland
Table 9. Information on aquaculture practices in Northern Ireland.
Other relevant
Practice type Suitability
market
(sea-pen, rack, for ocean Regulatory Annual
Species requirements (e.g.,
artificial reef, renewable requirement production
food safety criteria,
etc.) energy
sustainability, etc.)
Finfish (mainly salmon Land based Limited Under the Fisheries Act RSPCA assured, Label 750 tonnes (2014)
(Salmo salar), rainbow and coastal (Northern Ireland) 1966, as Rouge accreditation, In 2018, the two
trout (Oncorhyncus amended, DAERA Marine and Organic - Soil Asso- main finfish spe-
mykiss), brown trout Fisheries Division is respon- ciation, Aquaculture cies in produced
(Salmo trutta). sible for the licensing of fish Stewardship Council, just over 3,000
farms and shellfish farms. Code of Good Prac- tonnes
This includes the granting of tice (CoGP), Global
fish culture licenses, shellfish GAP
fishery licenses and marine
fish fishery licenses.24 The
Division is also responsible for
the registration and approval
of aquaculture establish-
ments under Regulation (EU)
2016/429 (The Animal Health
Law).
Shellfish (mainly mus- Coastal Wave or tide Same as above Same as above 3,238 tonnes (2014)
sels (Mytilus edulis) may be In 2019 the total
and Pacific Oysters possible tonnage of shell-
(Magallana gigas), fish (blue mussel,
and small quantity of pacific oyster) was
Native oysters (Ostrea 1,797 tonnes
edulis))
21 https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/fcd20-aquaculture-foreshore-management/#aquaculture-licensing
22 https://fisheries.msc.org/en/fisheries/ireland-rope-grown-mussel/
23 https://fisheries.msc.org/en/fisheries/ireland-bottom-grown-mussel/@@view
24 https://www.gov.uk/aquaculture-licence-northern-ireland

Norway
Table 10. Information on aquaculture practices in Norway.
Practice
type Expansion Suitability Other relevant market
Energy
(sea-pen, plans for for ocean Regulatory requirements Annual
Species Location require-
rack, offshore renewable requirement (e.g., food safety criteria, production
ments
artificial operations energy sustainability, etc.)
reef, etc.)
Finfish Sea pens, Near- Already Boats, Yes, wave Each farm must Many requirements 2018-201932:
(mainly land based, shore/ operations barge, possible; have a license of license to avoid 1,364,044
salmon recirculat- fjords in place; lights, Norwegian to operate and environmental tonnes
and ing aqua- government feeding, firm be located in effects and with strict salmon;
rainbow, culture sys- continuing process- developing open seas or monitoring28, 29 83,489
but also tem (RAS), to facilitate ing, pack- a floating fjord in an area Many Norwegian fish tonnes
cod and offshore offshore aging, solar project that protects farming companies rainbow
halibut) (niche aquacul- smolt pro- for offshore the environ- are certified under trout; 519
segment in ture25 duction, deployment ment and one or more tonnes
Norway) grow-out, to power native stocks standards30 Norwegian char; 1525
feed and small Permits are Accreditation serves tonnes
transport remote required for as public accreditation halibut
islands, the farming of body. Others
utility grids, broodstock and include Global G.A.P 202033:
oil and gas young fish, but Aquaculture standard almost
operations the permits do - Aquaculture 1.5 million
and fish not limit the Stewardship Council tonnes of
farms26 quantity. Each (ASC) farmed fish
commercial - Certifications for produced
permit for production of organic
grow-out gives salmon (e.g., Debio31)
the right to
have up to a
certain amount
(biomass) of
living fish in the
sea (780 tonnes
per permit,
but 945 tonnes
in Troms and
Finnmark).
Under Norway’s
traffic light
system, compa-
nies that meet
certain sea
lice thresholds
are allowed to
produce more
fish.27
25 https://svw.no/en/insights/an-introduction-to-the-governments-new-aquaculture-strategy
26 https://www.aquaculturealliance.org/advocate/renewable-energy-could-transform-offshore-aquaculture-but-what-about/
27 https://www.forskningsradet.no/siteassets/publikasjoner/2021/an-evaluation-of-the-scientific-basis-of-the-traffic-light-system-for-
norwegian-salmonid-aquaculture.pdf
28 https://seafoodfromnorway.co.uk/stories-from-norway/the-gift-keeps-on-giving/innovating-a-new-industry---aquaculture/
29 https://www.barentswatch.no/havbruk/areal-use
30 https://www.barentswatch.no/havbruk/certifications
31 https://debio.no/akvakultur/
32 https://www.ssb.no/en/fiskeoppdrett/
33 https://www.regjeringen.no/no/dokumenter/havbruksstrategien-et-hav-av-muligheter/id2864482/?ch=3

Shellfish Sea pens, Near- Government Boats, Tidal and Label Rouge 2018-2019:
(scallop, land based, shore/ continuing barge, wave pos- accreditation, 2,164
and blue RAS fjords to facilitate lights, sible Aquaculture tonnes of
mussels) offshore feeding Stewardship Council shellfish
aquaculture
Kelp/ Mac- Near- Government Algae is a new Harvest of seaweed 2020 (pre-
seaweed ro-algae shore/ continuing priority in is restricted in bird liminary
(sugar culture; fjords to facilitate aquaculture. reserves, where figures)36:
kelp previous offshore The first seaweed harvesting 96 tonnes
(Saccha- research aquaculture commercial can be totally banned, sugar kelp;
rina la- projects cultivation or partly allowed 88 tonnes
tissima), involving permits were outside of the bird winged
winged mono- awarded in breeding season. kelp
kelp culture 201434 Where areas are
(Alaria polyculture environmentally
esculen- or in fjord Regulatory protected, it has to
ta), red restoration bodies involved be specified in the
and pur- in aquaculture regulations related
ple laver licensing are to the specific area if
(Porphy- the Norwegian aquaculture activity is
ra spp.) Food safety allowed or not.35
and the Authority, the
red sea Ministry of
lettuce Health and
(Palmar- Care Services,
ia pal- the Ministry
mata)) of Agriculture
and Food and
the Norwegian
Agricultural
Authority.
Crus- Sea Near- Government Boats

tacean ranching shore/ continuing
(Euro- fjords to facilitate
pean offshore
lobster) aquaculture
34 https://www.fiskeridir.no/English/Aquaculture/Statistics/Algae
35 https://docplayer.net/21084209-The-norwegian-seaweed-industry-work-package-1-2.html
36 https://www.fiskeridir.no/English/Aquaculture/Statistics/Booklets/_/attachment/download/c83db45d-6da9-4b35-8c44-da03fea5424f:588
4ad22b5b148dfa175d2ac552e3220679661e0/nokkeltall-havbruk-2020-eng.pdf

Spain
Table 11. Information on aquaculture practices in Spain.
Other relevant
market
Expansion Suitability
Practice type requirements
Species plans for Energy for ocean Annual
(net pen, Location (e.g., food
offshore requirements renewable production37
rack, etc.) safety criteria,
operations energy
sustainability,
etc.)
Sea bream Sea pen General Yes Boats, Yes European Green 13,521 tonnes
(Sparus aurata) nearshore equipment, Deal, Farm to
enclosure Fork Strategy38,
maintenance, European
hatchery Maritime,
operations Fisheries, and
Aquaculture
Fund (EMFAF)
Sea bass Sea pen General Yes Boats, Yes Same as above 27,335 tonnes
(Dicentrarchus nearshore equipment,
labrax), enclosure
maintenance,
hatchery
operations
Corvina Sea pen General Yes Same as above 3,650 tonnes

(Argyrosomus nearshore
regius)
Bluefin tuna Sea ranching General Yes Boats, Yes Same as above 7,575 tonnes
(Thunnus and sea pen – nearshore equipment,
thynnus) trapping, on- enclosure
growing and maintenance,
enhancing in hatchery
sea pens operations
Oysters Racks, General No* Dredges, Yes Crassostrea

(Crassostrea baskets nearshore beam trawl, gigas – 1,425
gigas, Ostrea and boats, tonnes
edulis) intertidal equipment Ostrea edulis –
394 tonnes
Mussels (Mytilus Longline, raft General Yes Dredges, Yes Same as above, 245,655
galloprovincialis) nearshore beam trawl, plus Traditional tonnes
boats, Specificity
equipment Guaranteed
(TSG)
Note that, some commercially important marine species, such as turbot, sole and abalones have not been considered in
this table as they are produced in inland facilities (not at sea). Others such as clams, have not considered either as they
are cultured buried in estuaries. Oysters can be produced using several techniques, intertidal production in on growing
plots, or in vertical cultivation from platforms using hanging baskets.
Seaweed species are not included in the table, as their annual production is under 10 tonnes, being the sea lettuce
(Ulva lactuca) the most produced seaweed species, production reaching 4.28 tonnes in 2019. Although there is not clear
evidence of the aquaculture technique used for production.
*In the Basque Country, Matxitxako Moluskoak SL, local aquaculture company, is interested in the production of oyster
in offshore longlines as new species for the diversification of the aquaculture sector. Although there are not overall
expansion plans for oyster culture.
37 https://apromar.es/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Aquaculture-in-Spain-2020.pdf
38 https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=COM:2021:236:FIN

Scotland
Table 12. Information on aquaculture practices in Scotland.
Other
relevant
Practice type Expansion Suitability market re-
(sea-pen, plans for Energy for ocean Regulatory quirements Annual
Species Location
rack, artificial offshore requirements renewable requirements (e.g., food production39
reef, etc.) operations energy safety criteria,
sustainability,
etc.)
Atlantic Sea pen, General Plans to Boats, barge, Yes, wave Town and Coun- RSPCA 203,881
salmon freshwater nearshore. increase lights, feeding. possible try Planning assured, tonnes in
tanks for The marine aqua- Salmon hatch- (Scotland) Act Label Rouge 2019
hatchery, farms culture, ery:433,182 1997, Town and accreditation,
recirculating where including kWh per year, Country Plan- Organic - Soil
aquaculture fish are marine salmon fresh- ning (Environ- Association,
system (RAS) grown are finish, water loch mental Impact Aquaculture
limited situated on production cages: 74,781 Assessment) Stewardship
the West sustain- kWh per (Scotland) Reg- Council,
and North ably.40 year, salmon ulations 2017, Code of Good
Coasts Industry marine sites: Water Environ- Practice
of the looking to 33,070 kWh ment (Controlled (CoGP),
Scottish expand to per year+ Activities) (Scot- Global GAP
mainland offshore41 around 229, land) Regula-
and in the 500 kWh / tions 2011 (SEPA),
Western year2, salmon Marine (Scot-
Isles, Or- processing land) Act 2010,
kney and facilities Crown Estate
Shetland. 1,964,705 kWh Act 1961, Conser-
They are per year42 vation (Natural
normally Habitats, &c.)
positioned Regulations
in sea lochs 1994, Aquatic
and inlets Animal Health
where (Scotland) Reg-
some ulations 2009,
shelter is Protection of the
provided Marine Environ-
from the ment, Discharg-
worst of es from Marine
the weath- Pen Fish Farms:
er. A Strengthened
Regulatory
Framework
(SEPA), National
policy: Scotland’s
Third National
Planning
Framework
(NPF3), Scottish
Planning Policy,
National Marine
Plan, Regional
Policy: Local De-
velopment Plans
and strategies
39 https://www.gov.scot/publications/scottish-fish-farm-production-survey-2019/documents/
40 http://aquaculture.scotland.gov.uk/our_aquaculture/our_aquaculture.aspx
41 https://thefishsite.com/articles/scotland-set-for-first-open-ocean-farm
42 SARF (Scottish Aquaculture Research Forum). 2014. Renewable power generation on aquaculture sites. Scottish Aquaculture Research
Forum. November 2013. 498 pp.

Rainbow Sea pen, Same as Plans to Boats, barge, Yes, wave Same as above Same as 7,405 tonnes
trout freshwater above increase lights, feeding possible above in 2019
tanks for marine
hatchery, RAS finish
limited production
sustainably
Other Sea pen, RAS Same as Plans to Boats, barge, Yes, wave Same as above Same as 41 tonnes,
species limited above increase lights, feeding possible above excluding
– brown/ marine halibut
sea trout, finish
halibut, production
lumpsuck- sustainably
er, several
species of
wrasse
Seaweed, General Same as above Mussels –
kelp nearshore 6,699 tonnes
Pacific
oyster – 369
tonnes
Native oyster
– 8 tonnes
Scallop – 3 t
Queen
scallop –
1 tonne
Shellfish Mussels General Plans to Oyster farm- Tidal/wave Same as above Same as
– blue on vertical near shore. increase ing; 716 kWh may be finfish
mussel, single ropes Farming shellfish per tonne possible43
pacific or fabric, typically production Boats, barge
oyter, suspended takes place
native in the water in sea lochs
(European) from heavy and voes
oyster, horizontal on the
scallop, ropes and flo- West Coast
queen tation buoys of the Scot-
scallop, arranged in tish Main-
etc. long lines land, in the
normally Western
parallel to Isles and
the shoreline. Shetland,
Scallops can with the
be grown in a indented
similar fash- irregular
ion, hanging coastline
from lines of Scotland
or grown in offering
small sus- many ideal
pended net sites for
enclosures shellfish
known as lan- produc-
terns. Oysters tion.
are normally
grown in
bags made
from heavy
plastic mesh,
either lying
directly on
the shore
or set up on
platforms
known as
trestles.
43 https://www.offshore-energy.biz/guinard-energies-to-power-french-oyster-farm-with-tidal-turbine/?utm_source=marineenergy&utm_
medium=email&utm_campaign=newsletter_2021-08-13

Wales
Table 13. Information on aquaculture practices in Wales.
Other relevant
market
Practice type Suitability
requirements
(sea-pen, rack, Energy for ocean Regulatory Annual
Species Location (e.g., food
artificial reef, requirements renewable requirements production
safety criteria,
etc.) energy
sustainability,
etc.)
Finfish (salm- Net pens and Freshwater, Boats, barge, Yes, wave Planning Permis- RSPCA 497 tonnes
on, trout, bass, submerged marine, lights, feeding possible sion and Environ- assured, (2014)
bream, flatfish, cages, land based mental Health (local Label Rouge
etc.) Integrated authorities). Marine accreditation,
Multi-Trophic License, Planning Organic - Soil
Aquaculture permission advice Association,
(IMTA), pump and protected area Aquaculture
ashore flow advice, Abstraction Stewardship
through & Discharge Per- Council, Code
finfish farms, mits, Licenses fresh- of Good Prac-
recirculating water fish culture tice (CoGP),
aquaculture and introductions Global GAP
system (RAS), Manage Regulatory
flow through Orders (NRW).
and static Identification of
water farms, preferred areas for
aquaponics aquaculture, Autho-
farms rization to operate
an APB, Permitting
farming of alien
species, Inspections
on behalf of VMD
and APHA Habitats
Risk Assessment
(HRA) (FHI). Envi-
ronmental Impact
Assessment (EIA),
Habitats Risk
Assessment (HRA)
(CEFAS). Seabed/
Foreshore Lease (CE
and SE), safety of
navigation (mark-
ers).44
Shellfish (blue longline, Marine, Boats, barge Tidal and Same as above Same as above 7,945
mussel, Pacific trestle culture, inshore wave may be including classifi- tonnes
oyster, native on-bottom locations, possible cation of safe areas (2014; in-
oyster, mus- (trestles or freshwater, for shellfish aqua- cludes crus-
sels, scallops, ground cul- land based culture and biotoxin taceans)
oysters, clams, tured), off-bot- monitoring, Approv-
abalone) tom (longline al of purification
or raft), IMTA, plants for shellfish
RAS, Aquapon- (FSA), Shellfish Wa-
ics Farm ters management
& Consultee for FHI
APB licensing, WFD
shellfish waters
designation (WG).
Kelp/seaweed Macro-algae Marine, Boats

culture, land based
IMTA
44 https://businesswales.gov.wales/marineandfisheries/sites/marineandfisheries/files/documents/Aquaculture%20Regulators%20in%20
Wales.pdf

Crustaceans Crustacean Marine, Boats
(freshwater cage culture, inshore
crayfish, lob- IMTA locations,
sters) freshwater,
land based
North America
Canada
Table 14. Information on aquaculture practices in Canada from Fisheries and Oceans Canada 2019
Aquaculture production values45 and the State of Farmed Seafood in Canada 2020 report.46
Other
relevant
Practice Suitability market
type Conditions Energy for ocean Regulatory requirements Annual
Species Location
(net pen, of operation requirements renewable requirements (e.g., food production
rack, etc.) energy safety criteria,
sustainability,
etc.)
Trout Freshwater, New- Inland (lakes, Boats, Depending Fisheries Health of 8,618 tonnes
(steelhead, new pens, found- potholes, equipment, on proximity and Oceans Animals Act, (2019)
rainbow, lakes, closed land, river enclosure Canada Food and
artic, char, systems, Labrador, systems) maintenance, Drugs Act,
brook) tanks Prince hatchery Species at risk
Edward operations Act
Island,
Quebec,
Ontario,
Manitoba,
Saskatch-
ewan,
Alberta,
British
Columbia,
Yukon
Salmon Recirculating New- Both inland Boats, Yes Fisheries Health of 117,934
(Atlantic, aquaculture found- and offshore equipment, and Oceans Animals Act, tonnes
etc.) system, land, enclosure Canada Food and (2019)
hybrid Labrador, maintenance, Drugs Act,
offshore Nova Sco- hatchery Species at risk
and inland tia, New operations Act
systems, Bruns-
floating wick,
closed British
containment Columbia
systems
Other Freshwater, Alberta Inland (lakes, Boats, Depending Fisheries Health of 1,814 tonnes
finfish (e.g., net pens, potholes, equipment, on proximity and Oceans Animals Act, (2019)
tilapia, lakes, closed river enclosure Canada Food and
Grass carp) systems, systems) maintenance, Drugs Act,
tanks hatchery Species at risk
operations Act
45 https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/stats/aqua/aqua19-eng.htm
46 https://waves-vagues.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/Library/40864492.pdf

Clams Rafts, New- Onshore, Boats, Yes Fisheries Health of 1,814 tonnes
suspended found- nearshore harvesting and Oceans Animals Act, (2019)
lines, land, equipment, Canada Food and
netting, Labrador, water quality Drugs Act,
hatcheries Prince monitoring, Species at risk
for seed Edward Is- seeding Act
land, Nova
Scotia,
Quebec,
British
Columbia
Oysters Rafts, Prince Onshore, Boats, Yes Fisheries Health of 14,514

suspended Edward nearshore harvesting and Oceans Animals Act, tonnes
lines, Island, equipment, Canada Food and (2019)
netting, Nova Sco- water quality Drugs Act,
hatcheries tia, New monitoring, Species at risk
for seed Bruns- seeding Act
wick,
Quebec,
British
Columbia
Mussels Rafts, New- Onshore, Boats, Yes Fisheries Health of 26,308

(blue suspended found- nearshore harvesting and Oceans Animals Act, tonnes
mussel) lines, land, equipment, Canada Food and (2019)
netting, Labrador, water quality Drugs Act,
hatcheries Prince monitoring, Species at risk
for seed Edward Is- seeding Act
land, Nova
Scotia,
Quebec,
British
Columbia
Other Rafts, Prince Onshore, Boats, Yes Fisheries Health of 318 tonnes
shellfish suspended Edward nearshore harvesting and Oceans Animals Act, (2019)
(clams, lines, Island, equipment, Canada Food and
scallops) netting, Quebec, water quality Drugs Act,
hatcheries British monitoring, Species at risk
for seed Columbia seeding Act

United States
Table 15. Information on aquaculture practices in the United States.
Other
Practice relevant
type Expansion Suitability market
(sea-pen, plans for Energy for ocean Regulatory requirements Annual
Species Location
rack, offshore requirements renewable requirements (e.g., food production
artificial reef, operations energy safety criteria,
etc.) sustainability,
etc.)
Finfish Recirculat- Onshore, Yes - NOAA Building Yes (wave Projects sited Monterey Bay Salmon:
(salmon, ing aquacul- nearshore Aquaculture operations on- energy for in US waters Aquarium 17,000
trout, ture system Opportu- shore, feeding offshore/ must meet Seafood watch tonnes
etc.)47, 48 (RAS) nity Areas, systems, RAS nearshore, federal, state, Aquaculture (2018)
starting with (pumps, filtra- tidal, OTEC and local Stewardship
California tion), boats in Hawaii). regulations Council
and the Gulf If stationed (environmen- Best Aqua-
of Mexico near marine tal protection, culture Prac-
areas, may water quality), tices (Global
use any building Aquaculture
nearshore permits if Alliance)
renewable onshore FishWatch
energy. NOAA
Eelgrass49 Natural re- Onshore, Boats, diving Yes (wave Permitting

colonization, nearshore, and replant- energy for by Shellfish
seeding, offshore ing necessi- offshore/ Interagency
transplants ties, nursery nearshore, Permitting
facilities tidal, OTEC Team through
in Hawaii) JARPA
Shellfish Rafts, Onshore, Boats, diving Yes (wave Projects sited Monterey Bay Oyster:
(oyster, suspend- nearshore, equipment, energy for in US waters Aquarium 20,000
mussel, ed lines, offshore lighting, water offshore/ must meet Seafood watch tonnes
clam, oth- netting, pumps, hatch- nearshore, federal, state, Aquaculture (2018)
er)50, 51, 52 hatcheries ery operation tidal, OTEC and local Stewardship Clam: 5,000
for seed and mainte- in Hawaii) regulations Council tonnes
nance (environmen- Best Aqua- (2018)
tal protection, culture Prac- Mussel:
water quality), tices (Global 400 tonnes
building per- Aquaculture (2018)
mits Alliance)
47 https://media.fisheries.noaa.gov/dam-migration/fus_2018_report.pdf
48 www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2020-03/documents/gulf_aquaculture_guide_oct2019.pdf
49 https://archive.fisheries.noaa.gov/wcr/publications/aquaculture/wa_eelgrass_and_shellfish_aquaculture_workshop_report_
final_11-03-17.pdf
50 https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/west-coast/aquaculture/commercial-shellfish-aquaculture-west-coast
51 https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/content/national-shellfish-initiative
52 https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/aquaculture/us-aquaculture

Coral, Using dis- Onshore Boats, diving Yes Florida: Sovereignty
sponge53, 54 tinguishable equipment, Aquaculture Submerged
substrate for mechanical Certificate of Lands Lease
culturing on harvesting, Registration Agreement for
the seafloor storage before from the operations in
sale, habitat Florida EEZ
monitoring/ Department
seabed in- of Agriculture
spection and
Consumer
Services
(FDACS), U.S.
Army Corps
of Engineers
Programmatic
General Per-
mit (SAJ-99)
Kampachi Net pen Nearshore, Yes Special 2,700

(Seriola offshore Coral Reef tonnes
rivoliana)55 (Hawaii) Ecosystem (2013)
Fishing Permit
(SCREFP)
Seaweed seeding Nearshore Boats,

(bull kelp, longlines post-process-
sugar ing
kelp,
dulse,
ribbon
kelp)56, 57
53 https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/southeast/resources-fishing/permits-applications-and-forms-southeast
54 https://www.fdacs.gov/content/download/64592/file/FDACS-P-02062-Live-Rock-Aquaculture-Rules-and-Regulations.pdf
55 https://www.regulations.gov/docket/NOAA-NMFS-2015-0137
56 https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/aquaculture/seaweed-aquaculture
57 https://projects.sare.org/sare_project/gs16-165/

South America
Chile
Table 16. Information on aquaculture practices in Chile.
Other
relevant
Species type Conditions plans for Energy for ocean Regulatory requirements
Location
(net pen, of operation offshore requirements renewable requirements (e.g., food
sustainability,
etc.)
Finfish Sea pen Channels Most The Chilean Most farms Ocean en- For current Yes. Chile’s
(mostly and fjords locations Government include a ergy can be farms, require- channels,
Salmo of south- are shel- and indus- floating struc- suitable for ments are not fjords and all
salar and ern Chile tered with try have ture (pontoon) some farms complex. If inners seas of
Onco- (Chiloé currents intentions with perma- today, on a the existing Patagonia are
rhynchus Archip- >0.5m/s. to expand nent crew case-by-case maritime very unique
kisutch) ielago to Some offshore. (4-10 people) basis and concession is environments
Magellan locations Currently, and feeding likely only for large enough and salmon
Strait) are more two industry equipment a small por- to allocate the farming has
exposed consor- (4-12 silos tion. In the ocean energy had evident
to ocean tiums (with with feeding future this device, is even negative
swell, and government dozers and may change more simple. effects on eco-
some are funding) are blowers). Each if offshore Offshore systems and
exposed to working on blower has aquaculture aquaculture both positive
larger tidal the tech- typically 22.5 becomes is still not and negative
ranges and nological kW motors a reality. completely effects on lo-
currents. challenges and operates We see a regulated and cal population.
of moving 2-6 hours/day. very large government Joint efforts
offshore.58 potential and industry to minimize
for floating are working this are very
wind and (if on this, but important and
energy cost I don’t think offshore faring
allows) wave this should can contribute
energy. be a problem to reduce the
as long as the pressure over
size of the these regions,
ocean energy reducing
device is rel- density and
atively small perhaps
and energy is moving to the
used locally. north.
58 http://innovaoceanica.cl/; https://ecoseafarming.com/

Shellfish – Long line Channels Most Mussel Sowing and Since har- Standard Shellfish
Mussels59 and fjords locations aquaculture harvesting vesting and permits for aquaculture
(Mytilus of south- are shel- is still a small can require sowing only allocation of has a very
chilensis) ern Chile tered with scale, min- energy. These occur for moorings, important
(Chiloé currents imally in- machines very short buoys, and social role and
Archipiel- >0.5m/s. dustrialized use small periods longlines. is perceived
ago) Some are business. stationary during as more
exposed to Expansion engines be- the year, sustainable
larger tidal plans, but tween 8-15kW. suitability of than salmon
ranges and only for Harvesting offshore en- farming. Most
currents. operations machines can ergy is very companies
in the same harvest up to limited. are small
sheltered 7t / hour.60 family-owned,
areas as local com-
today. panies, very
different to
salmon com-
panies.
Shellfish Lantern nets Near- Sheltered Expansion No energy No suitability Similar to Similar to
– Scallop shore, locations plans to requirements so far mussel mussel farms
(Argo- along the (bays) more south- known, permits
pecten Chilean ern regions besides small
purpura- coast, of Chile, in winches.
tus) mainly in sheltered
the north areas.
Shellfish Lantern nets Near- Most Expansion No energy No suitability Similar to Similar to
– Oyster shore, locations plans to requirements so far mussel mussel farms
(Ostrea along the are shel- northern known, permits
chilen- Chilean tered with regions of besides small
sis and coast, currents Chile, in winches.
Magallana mainly in >0.5m/s. sheltered
gigas) the south. Some are areas.
Channels exposed to
and fjords larger tidal
of south- ranges and
ern Chile currents.
(Chiloé
Archipiel-
ago)
Seaweed. Longlines Near- Sheltered Expansion No energy No suitability Similar to Similar to

Mainly Ag- shore, locations plans all requirements so far mussel mussel farms
arophyton along the (bays) along the known, permits
chilensis Chilean coast. Still besides small
coast, very small winches.
mainly in (3.5%)
the south. compared to
Channels total (wild)
and fjords seaweed
of south- extraction.
ern Chile
(Chiloé
Archipel-
ago)
59 https://www.amichile.com/ (Spanish only); http://intemit.cl/ (Spanish only)

60 http://acerostecsur.cl/productos/linea-mejillon/maquinaria-de-cultivo.html

Oceania
Australia
Table 17. Information on aquaculture practices in Australia.61
Suitability
Practice type Expansion plans
for ocean Annual
Species (sea-pen, rack, artificial Location for offshore
renewable production
reef, etc.) operations
energy
Crustaceans – prawn, Land-based hatcheries, Land based No plans Not suitable 6,823 tonnes
yabby, kuruma prawn, recirculation aquaculture
mud crab, red claw systems, grow out pond
crayfish systems and processing
facilities. Semi-intensive.
Shellfish – abalone, blue Abalone – tanks Abalone – land based No plans Not suitable 14,812 tonnes
mussels, rock oyster, Mussels – longline system Mussels – sub-tidal
Pacific oyster, native Oysters - stick cultivation, system, nearshore
oyster, silver lipped pear tray cultivation, longline, hatcheries
oyster, blacklip oyster rack and basket system Oysters – sub-tidal
system, nearshore and
land-based hatcheries,
nearshore coastal grow-
out
Finfish (onshore) – Land based hatcheries Land based No plans Not suitable 10,181 tonnes
barramundi, murray and intensive
cod, rainbow trout, silver recirculation aquaculture
perch, Australian bass, systems, pond systems
eel tailed catfish, golden
perch, jade perch
Finfish (marine) – Tuna – ranching, sea-cage Tuna – offshore Tuna – operations Suitable for 78,162 tonnes
southern bluefin tuna, aquaculture Others – land based, are currently ocean energy
yellowtail kingfish, Others – land-based nearshore, and offshore offshore
Atlantic salmon hatcheries, land based grow out operations Plans to
grow out or sea-cages move salmon
operations
offshore
61 https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fishing/aquaculture/publications/aquaculture-production-reports; https://www.publications.qld.gov.
au/dataset/aquaculture/resource/bb9b4fd4-7fe3-43ff-b7e6-29c73ed45b03; https://www.pir.sa.gov.au/aquaculture/publications; https://
www.fish.wa.gov.au/Documents/sofar/status_reports_of_the_fisheries_and_aquatic_resources_2018-19.pdf; https://dpipwe.tas.gov.au/
Documents/DPIPWE%20Annual%20Report.pdf; https://www.uts.edu.au/sites/default/files/2020-06/uts-fass-victoria-fisheries-aquaculture-
report.pdf

French Polynesia
Table 18. Information on aquaculture practices in French Polynesia.62
Practice type Expansion plans Suitability for

Regulatory Annual
Species (sea-pen, rack, Location for offshore ocean renewable
requirements production
artificial reef, etc.) operations energy
Crustacean – Land-based Land-based/ No No 140.6 tonnes

shrimp tanks; floating nearshore (2019)
cages in lagoon
Finfish – Paraha Floating cages in Nearshore No 13 tonnes

peue lagoon (2019)
Shellfish – giant Hatcheries; No Minimum size for

clam collect individuals commercialization
on adapted
support
Oyster No 13 tonnes
(pearl farming) (2018)
62 https://www.ispf.pf/docs/default-source/publi-pf-bilans-et-etudes/peb-laquaculture-en-polyn%C3%A9sie-fran%C3%A7aise-en-2019.
pdf?sfvrsn=8 (in French)

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STUDY

2 Offshore Aquaculture: a Market for Ocean Renewable Energy

5.1 Opportunities ......................................................................... 38

2. 5.2 Challenges ............................................................................... 40

2.2 Technology Readiness Levels of ORE ................ 13

3. 6.3 Economic Impact............................................................... 49

3.1 Aquaculture Overview..................................................... 17 CONCLUSION .................................................................................... 50

3.2 Energy Needs of Aquaculture.................................. 20

3.2.1 Finfish Aquaculture.............................................. 20

Ocean Energy Systems 3

BE CRC Blue Economy Cooperative Research Centre

4 Offshore Aquaculture: a Market for Ocean Renewable Energy

ABOUT THE US DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY

ABOUT THE BLUE ECONOMY COOPERATIVE

Ocean Energy Systems 5

Ocean Energy Systems 7

Ocean Energy Systems 9

2.1 Description of Renewable Energy Technologies

Ocean Energy Systems 11

12 Offshore Aquaculture: a Market for Ocean Renewable Energy

Salinity Gradient WEC Tidal Tidal

2.3 Advantages and Challenges of Using Renewable Energy Technologies

Ocean Energy Systems 13

• Suitable for onshore, nearshore, and • High cost of technology installation.

• Resource predictability and power • High cost of technology installation.

• Resource predictability and power • High cost of technology installation.

14 Offshore Aquaculture: a Market for Ocean Renewable Energy

• Resource predictability and power • High cost of technology installation.

• Resource predictability and power • High cost of technology installation.

• Resource predictability and power • High cost of technology installation.

• Solar technology is more advanced. • Resource variability and intermittency.

• Fixed offshore wind technologies are • Resource variability and intermittency.

Ocean Energy Systems 15

3.1 Aquaculture Overview

Ocean Energy Systems 17

Current Expansion Suitability

18 Offshore Aquaculture: a Market for Ocean Renewable Energy

Ocean Energy Systems 19

3.2.1 Finfish Aquaculture

20 Offshore Aquaculture: a Market for Ocean Renewable Energy

Ocean Energy Systems 21

22 Offshore Aquaculture: a Market for Ocean Renewable Energy

Ocean Energy Systems 23

816 Other domestic

24 Offshore Aquaculture: a Market for Ocean Renewable Energy

Oysters – Pacific Oyster and Eastern Oyster

Vessel, vehicle movements

Seawater pumps, grading

Vessel, vehicle movements

26 Offshore Aquaculture: a Market for Ocean Renewable Energy

Energy Use for Aquaculture by Species and Country

Chile Australia Norway Scotland Singapore Scotland United Scotland

Atlantic Salmon Asian Seabass Oysters Blue mussel

Ocean Energy Systems 27

WEC OTEC Hybrid Solar PV

Ocean Energy Systems 29

Albatern and Marine Harvest Scotland

30 Offshore Aquaculture: a Market for Ocean Renewable Energy

Aqua Power Technologies

Ocean Energy Systems 31

BE CRC Blue Economy Cooperative Research Centre

• Suitable for onshore, nearshore, and • High cost of technology installation.

• Resource predictability and power • High cost of technology installation.

• Resource predictability and power • High cost of technology installation.

• Resource predictability and power • High cost of technology installation.

• Resource predictability and power • High cost of technology installation.

• Resource predictability and power • High cost of technology installation.

• Fixed offshore wind technologies are • Resource variability and intermittency.

• Reduced environmental effects (e.g., • Potential cumulative effects.

• Cost savings associated with • More financial support needed (e.g.,