Combinatorial Optimization: Alexander Schrijver

Alexander Schrijver
Combinatorial Optimization
Polyhedra and Efficiency
September 1, 2002
Springer
Berlin Heidelberg New York
Barcelona Hong Kong
London Milan Paris
Tokyo
Preface
The book by Gene Lawler from 1976 was the first of a series of books all entitled Combinatorial Optimization, some embellished with a subtitle: Networks and Matroids, Algorithms and Complexity, Theory and Algorithms.
Why adding another book to this illustrious series? The justification is contained in the subtitle of the present book, Polyhedra and Efficiency. This is
shorthand for Polyhedral Combinatorics and Efficient Algorithms.
Pioneered by the work of Jack Edmonds, polyhedral combinatorics has
proved to be a most powerful, coherent, and unifying tool throughout combinatorial optimization. Not only it has led to efficient (that is, polynomialtime) algorithms, but also, conversely, efficient algorithms often imply polyhedral characterizations and related min-max relations. It makes the two
sides closely intertwined.
We aim at offering both an introduction to and an in-depth survey of polyhedral combinatorics and efficient algorithms. Within the span of polyhedral
methods, we try to present a broad picture of polynomial-time solvable combinatorial optimization problems more precisely, of those problems that
have been proved to be polynomial-time solvable. Next to that, we go into a
few prominent NP-complete problems where polyhedral methods were succesful in obtaining good bounds and approximations, like the stable set and
the traveling salesman problem. Nevertheless, while we obviously hope that
the question NP=P? will be settled soon one way or the other, we realize
that in the astonishing event that NP=P will be proved, this book will be
highly incomplete.
By definition, being in P means being solvable by a deterministic sequential polynomial-time algorithm, and in our discussions of algorithms
and complexity we restrict ourselves mainly to this characteristic. As a consequence, we do not cover (but yet occasionally touch or outline) the important
work on approximative, randomized, and parallel algorithms and complexity, areas that are recently in exciting motion. We also neglect applications,
modelling, and computational methods for NP-complete problems. Advanced
data structures are treated only moderately. Other underexposed areas include semidefinite programming and graph decomposition. This all just to
keep size under control.
VI
Preface
Although most problems that come up in practice are NP-complete or

worse, recognizing those problems that are polynomial-time solvable can be
very helpful: polynomial-time (and polyhedral) methods may be used in preprocessing, in obtaining approximative solutions, or as a subroutine, for instance to calculate bounds in a branch-and-bound method. A good understanding of what is in the polynomial-time tool box is essential also for the
NP-hard problem solver.
This book is divided into eight main parts, each discussing an area where
polyhedral methods apply:
I. Paths and Flows
II. Bipartite Matching and Covering
III. Nonbipartite Matching and Covering
IV. Matroids and Submodular Functions
V. Trees, Branchings, and Connectors
VI. Cliques, Stable Sets, and Colouring
VII. Multiflows and Disjoint Paths
VIII. Hypergraphs
Each part starts with an elementary exposition of the basic results in the area,
and gradually evolves to the more elevated regions. Subsections in smaller
print go into more specialized topics. We also offer several references for
further exploration of the area.
Although we give elementary introductions to the various areas, this book
might be less satisfactory as an introduction to combinatorial optimization.
Some mathematical maturity is required, and the general level is that of
graduate students and researchers. Yet, parts of the book may serve for undergraduate teaching.
The book does not offer exercises, but, to stimulate research, we collect
open problems, questions, and conjectures that are mentioned throughout
this book, in a separate section entitled Survey of Problems, Questions, and
Conjectures. It is not meant as a complete list of all open problems that may
live in the field, but only of those mentioned in the text.
We assume elementary knowledge of and familiarity with graph theory,
with polyhedra and linear and integer programming, and with algorithms
and complexity. To support the reader, we survey the knowledge assumed in
the introductory chapters, where we also give additional background references. These chapters are meant mainly just for consultation, and might be
less attractive to read from front to back. Some less standard notation and
terminology are given on the inside back cover of this book.
For background on polyhedra and linear and integer programming, we
also refer to our earlier book Theory of Linear and Integer Programming
(Wiley, Chichester, 1986). This might seem a biased recommendation, but
Preface
VII
this 1986 book was partly written as a preliminary to the present book, and
it covers anyway the authors knowledge on polyhedra and linear and integer
programming.
Incidentally, the reader of this book will encounter a number of concepts
and techniques that regularly crop up: total unimodularity, total dual integrality, duality, blocking and antiblocking polyhedra, matroids, submodularity, hypergraphs, uncrossing. It makes that the meaning of elementary is not
unambiguous. Especially for the basic results, several methods apply, and it
is not in all cases obvious which method and level of generality should be
chosen to give a proof. In several cases we therefore will give several proofs
of one and the same theorem, just to open the perspective.
While I have pursued great carefulness and precision in composing this

book, I am quite sure that much room for corrections and additions has
remained. To inform the reader about them, I have opened a website at the
address
www.cwi.nl/~lex/co
Any corrections (including typos) and other comments and suggestions from
the side of the reader are most welcome at
lex@cwi.nl
I plan to provide those who have contributed most to this, with a complimentary copy of a potential revised edition.
In preparing this book I have profited greatly from the support and help
of many friends and colleagues, to whom I would like to express my gratitude.
I am particularly much obliged to Sasha Karzanov in Moscow, who has
helped me enormously by tracking down ancient publications in the (former)
Lenin Library in Moscow and by giving explanations and interpretations of
old and recent Russian papers. I also thank Sashas sister Irina for translating
Tolstos 1930 article for me.
I am very thankful to Andras Frank, Bert Gerards, Dion Gijswijt, Willem
Jan van Hoeve, Sasha Karzanov, Judith Keijsper, Monique Laurent, Misha
Lomonosov, Frederic Maffay, Gabor Maroti, Coelho de Pina, Bruce Shepherd,
and Bianca Spille, for carefully reading preliminary parts of this book, for
giving corrections and suggestions improving the text and the layout, and for
helping me with useful background information. I am also happy to thank
Noga Alon, Csaba Berki, Vasek Chvatal, Michele Conforti, Bill Cook, Gerard
Cornuejols, Bill Cunningham, Guoli Ding, Jack Edmonds, Fritz Eisenbrand,
Satoru Fujishige, Alan Hoffman, Tibor Jordan, Gil Kalai, Alfred Lehman,
Jan Karel Lenstra, Laci Lovasz, Bill Pulleyblank, Herman te Riele, Alexander Rosa, Andras Sebo, Paul Seymour, Bruno Simeone, Jan Smaus, Adri
VIII
Preface
Tardos, Bjarne Toft, and David Williamson, for

Steenbeek, Laci Szego, Eva
giving useful insights and suggestions, for providing me with precious and
rare papers and translations, for advice on interpreting vintage articles, and
for help in checking details.
Sincere thanks are due as well to Truus W. Koopmans for sharing with
me her memories and stories and sections from her late husbands war diary, and to Herb Scarf for his kind mediation in this. I am indebted to Steve
Brady (RAND) and Dick Cottle for their successful efforts in obtaining classic RAND Reports for me, and to Richard Bancroft and Gustave Shubert
of RAND Corporation for their help in downgrading the secret Harris-Ross
report.
The assistance of my institute, CWI in Amsterdam, has been indispensable in writing this book. My special thanks go to Karin van Gemert of the
CWI Library for her indefatigable efforts in obtaining rare publications from
every corner of the world, always in sympathizing understanding for my often extravagant requests. I also appreciate the assistance of other members of
CWIs staff: Miente Bakker, Susanne van Dam, Lieke van den Eersten, Thea
de Hoog, Jacqueline de Klerk, Wouter Mettrop, Ay Ong, Rick Ooteman,
Hans Stoffel, and Jos van der Werf.
In the technical realization of this book, I thankfully enjoyed the first-rate
workmanship of the staff of Springer Verlag in Heidelberg. I thank in particular Frank Holzwarth, Leonie Kunz, Ute McCrory, and Martin Peters for
their skilful and enthusiastic commitment in finalizing this out-size project.
As it has turned out, it was only by gravely neglecting my family that I
was able to complete this project. I am extremely grateful to Monique, Nella,
and Juliette for their perpetual understanding and devoted support. Now
comes the time for the pleasant fulfilment of all promises I made for when
my book will be finished.
Amsterdam
September 2002
Alexander Schrijver
Table of Contents
1
1
2
4
5
6
6
8
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Matchings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 But what about nonbipartite graphs? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 Hamiltonian circuits and the traveling salesman problem . . . . .
1.5 Historical and further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5a Historical sketch on polyhedral combinatorics . . . . . . . . .
1.5b Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1 Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4 Vectors, matrices, and functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.5 Maxima, minima, and infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.6 Feketes lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Preliminaries on graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 Undirected graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Directed graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Hypergraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3a Background references on graph theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
16
28
36
37
Preliminaries on algorithms and complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 The random access machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Polynomial-time solvability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 NP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6 co-NP and good characterizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7 Optimization problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8 NP-complete problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.9 The satisfiability problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.10 NP-completeness of the satisfiability problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.11 NP-completeness of some other problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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4.12 Strongly polynomial-time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.13 Lists and pointers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.14 Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.14a Background literature on algorithms and complexity . .
4.14b Efficiency and complexity historically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
48
49
49
49
Preliminaries on polyhedra and linear and integer

programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1 Convexity and halfspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Cones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Polyhedra and polytopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 Farkas lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5 Linear programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6 Faces, facets, and vertices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.7 Polarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.8 Blocking polyhedra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.9 Antiblocking polyhedra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.10 Methods for linear programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.11 The ellipsoid method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.12 Polyhedra and NP and co-NP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.13 Primal-dual methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.14 Integer linear programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.15 Integer polyhedra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.16 Totally unimodular matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.17 Total dual integrality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.18 Hilbert bases and minimal TDI systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.19 The integer rounding and decomposition properties . . . . . . . . .
5.20 Box-total dual integrality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.21 The integer hull and cutting planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.21a Background literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
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60
61
61
63
65
65
67
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68
71
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73
74
75
76
81
82
83
83
84
Part I: Paths and Flows

6
Shortest paths: unit lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.1 Shortest paths with unit lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Shortest paths with unit lengths algorithmically:
breadth-first search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 Depth-first search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4 Finding an Eulerian orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5 Further results and notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5a All-pairs shortest paths in undirected graphs . . . . . . . . .
6.5b Complexity survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5c Ear-decomposition of strongly connected digraphs . . . .
6.5d Transitive closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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6.5e
XI
Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Shortest paths: nonnegative lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

7.1 Shortest paths with nonnegative lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
7.2 Dijkstras method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
7.3 Speeding up Dijkstras algorithm with k-heaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
7.4 Speeding up Dijkstras algorithm with Fibonacci heaps . . . . . . 99
7.5 Further results and notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.5a Weakly polynomial-time algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.5b Complexity survey for shortest paths with
nonnegative lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
7.5c Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Shortest paths: arbitrary lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.1 Shortest paths with arbitrary lengths but no negative
circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2 Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3 The Bellman-Ford method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4 All-pairs shortest paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5 Finding a minimum-mean length directed circuit . . . . . . . . . .
8.6 Further results and notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6a Complexity survey for shortest path without
negative-length circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6b NP-completeness of the shortest path problem . . . . . .
8.6c Nonpolynomiality of Fords method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6d Shortest and longest paths in acyclic graphs . . . . . . . .
8.6e Bottleneck shortest path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6f Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6g Historical notes on shortest paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Disjoint paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1 Mengers theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1a Other proofs of Mengers theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2 Path packing algorithmically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3 Speeding up by blocking path packings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4 A sometimes better bound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.5 Complexity of the vertex-disjoint case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.6a Complexity survey for the disjoint s t paths
problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.6b Partially disjoint paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.6c Exchange properties of disjoint paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.6d Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.6e Historical notes on Mengers theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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112
112
114
115
116
117
118
119
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131
133
134
135
136
137
138
138
140
141
141
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10 Maximum flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1 Flows: concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2 The max-flow min-cut theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3 Paths and flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4 Finding a maximum flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4a Nontermination for irrational capacities . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5 A strongly polynomial bound on the number of iterations . . .
10.6 Dinits O(n2 m) algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.6a Karzanovs O(n3 ) algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.7 Goldbergs push-relabel method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.8a A weakly polynomial bound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.8b Complexity survey for the maximum flow problem . . .
10.8c An exchange property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.8d Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.8e Historical notes on maximum flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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11 Circulations and transshipments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.1 A useful fact on arc functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2 Circulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3 Flows with upper and lower bounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4 b-transshipments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5 Upper and lower bounds on excessf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.6 Finding circulations and transshipments algorithmically . . . .
11.6a Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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12 Minimum-cost flows and circulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.1 Minimum-cost flows and circulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2 Minimum-cost circulations and the residual graph Df . . . . . .
12.3 Strongly polynomial-time algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.4 Related problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.4a A dual approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.4b A strongly polynomial-time algorithm using
capacity-scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.5a Complexity survey for minimum-cost circulation . . . . .
12.5b Min-max relations for minimum-cost flows and
circulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.5c Dynamic flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.5d Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
177
177
178
179
182
183
13 Path and flow polyhedra and total unimodularity . . . . . . . . .

13.1 Path polyhedra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.1a Vertices, adjacency, and facets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.1b The s t connector polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
186
190
190
191
192
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13.2 Total unimodularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.2a Consequences for flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2b Consequences for circulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2c Consequences for transshipments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2d Unions of disjoint paths and cuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3 Network matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.4 Cross-free and laminar families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
204
205
207
207
210
213
214
14 Partially ordered sets and path coverings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14.1 Partially ordered sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.2 Dilworths decomposition theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.3 Path coverings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.4 The weighted case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.5 The chain and antichain polytopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.5a Path coverings algorithmically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.6 Unions of directed cuts and antichains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.6a Common saturating collections of chains . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.7 Unions of directed paths and chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.7a Common saturating collections of antichains . . . . . . . .
14.7b Conjugacy of partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.8a The Gallai-Milgram theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.8b Partially ordered sets and distributive lattices . . . . . . .
14.8c Maximal chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.8d Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
217
217
218
219
220
221
222
224
227
227
229
230
232
232
233
235
236
15 Connectivity and Gomory-Hu trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15.1 Vertex-, edge-, and arc-connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.2 Vertex-connectivity algorithmically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.2a Complexity survey for vertex-connectivity . . . . . . . . . .
15.2b Finding the 2-connected components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.3 Arc- and edge-connectivity algorithmically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.3a Complexity survey for arc- and edge-connectivity . . . .
15.3b Finding the 2-edge-connected components . . . . . . . . . .
15.4 Gomory-Hu trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.4a Minimum-requirement spanning tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.5a Ear-decomposition of undirected graphs . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.5b Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
237
237
239
241
242
244
246
247
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16 Cardinality bipartite matching and vertex cover . . . . . . . . . .

16.1 M -augmenting paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.2 Frobenius and Konigs theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.2a Frobenius proof of his theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.2b Linear-algebraic proof of Frobenius theorem . . . . . . . .
16.2c Rizzis proof of Konigs matching theorem . . . . . . . . . .
16.3 Maximum-size bipartite matching algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.4 An O(n1/2 m) algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.5 Finding a minimum-size vertex cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.6 Matchings covering given vertices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.7a Complexity survey for cardinality bipartite
matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.7b Finding perfect matchings in regular bipartite
graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.7c The equivalence of Mengers theorem and Konigs
theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.7d Equivalent formulations in terms of matrices . . . . . . . .
16.7e Equivalent formulations in terms of partitions . . . . . . .
16.7f On the complexity of bipartite matching and vertex
cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.7g Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.7h Historical notes on bipartite matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17 Weighted bipartite matching and the assignment
problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.1 Weighted bipartite matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.2 The Hungarian method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.3 Perfect matching and assignment problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.4 Finding a minimum-size w-vertex cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.5a Complexity survey for maximum-weight bipartite
matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.5b Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.5c Historical notes on weighted bipartite matching and
optimum assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18 Linear programming methods and the bipartite matching
polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.1 The matching and the perfect matching polytope . . . . . . . . . .
18.2 Totally unimodular matrices from bipartite graphs . . . . . . . . .
18.3 Consequences of total unimodularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.4 The vertex cover polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
259
259
260
262
262
263
263
264
265
265
267
267
267
275
276
276
277
277
278
285
285
286
288
289
290
290
290
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18.5a Derivation of Konigs matching theorem from the

matching polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.5b Dual, primal-dual, primal? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.5c Adjacency and diameter of the matching polytope . . .
18.5d The perfect matching space of a bipartite graph . . . . .
18.5e The up and down hull of the perfect matching
polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.5f Matchings of given size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.5g Stable matchings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.5h Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
XV
305
305
307
308
309
311
311
314
19 Bipartite edge cover and stable set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19.1 Matchings, edge covers, and Gallais theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.2 The Konig-Rado edge cover theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.3 Finding a minimum-weight edge cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.4 Bipartite edge covers and total unimodularity . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.5 The edge cover and stable set polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.5a Some historical notes on bipartite edge covers . . . . . . .
315
315
317
317
318
318
319
20 Bipartite edge-colouring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.1 Edge-colourings of bipartite graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.1a Edge-colouring regular bipartite graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.2 The capacitated case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.3 Edge-colouring polyhedrally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.4 Packing edge covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.5 Balanced colours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.6 Packing perfect matchings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.6a Polyhedral interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.6b Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.7 Covering by perfect matchings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.7a Polyhedral interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.8 The perfect matching lattice of a bipartite graph . . . . . . . . . .
20.9a Some further edge-colouring algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.9b Complexity survey for bipartite edge-colouring . . . . . .
20.9c List-edge-colouring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.9d Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
321
321
322
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
333
333
334
335
336
21 Bipartite b-matchings and transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21.1 b-matchings and w-vertex covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.2 The b-matching polytope and the w-vertex cover
polyhedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.3 Simple b-matchings and b-factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.4 Capacitated b-matchings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.5 Bipartite b-matching and w-vertex cover algorithmically . . . .
337
337
338
339
341
342
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21.6 Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.6a Reduction of transshipment to transportation . . . . . . .
21.6b The transportation polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.7 b-edge covers and w-stable sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.8 The b-edge cover and the w-stable set polyhedron . . . . . . . . . .
21.9 Simple b-edge covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.10 Capacitated b-edge covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.11 Relations between b-matchings and b-edge covers . . . . . . . . . .
21.12 Upper and lower bounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.13a Complexity survey on weighted bipartite b-matching
and transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.13b The matchable set polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.13c Existence of matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.13d Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.13e Historical notes on the transportation and
transshipment problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
343
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
353
355
22 Transversals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.1 Transversals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.1a Alternative proofs of Halls marriage theorem . . . . . . .
22.2 Partial transversals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.3 Weighted transversals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.4 Min-max relations for weighted transversals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.5 The transversal polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.6 Packing and covering of transversals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.7a The capacitated case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.7b A theorem of Rado . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.7c Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.7d Historical notes on transversals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
379
379
380
381
383
383
384
386
388
388
390
390
391
23 Common transversals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.1 Common transversals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.2 Weighted common transversals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.3 Weighted common partial transversals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.4 The common partial transversal polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.5 The common transversal polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.6 Packing and covering of common transversals . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.7a Capacitated common transversals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.7b Exchange properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.7c Common transversals of three families . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.7d Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
394
394
396
398
400
402
403
408
408
408
409
410
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359
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Part III: Nonbipartite Matching and Covering

24 Cardinality nonbipartite matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.1 Tuttes 1-factor theorem and the Tutte-Berge formula . . . . . .
24.1a Tuttes proof of his 1-factor theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.1b Petersens theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.2 Cardinality matching algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.2a An O(n3 ) algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.3 Matchings covering given vertices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.4a Complexity survey for cardinality nonbipartite
matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.4b The Edmonds-Gallai decomposition of a graph . . . . . .
24.4c Strengthening of Tuttes 1-factor theorem . . . . . . . . . . .
24.4d Ear-decomposition of factor-critical graphs . . . . . . . . . .
24.4e Ear-decomposition of matching-covered graphs . . . . . .
24.4f Barriers in matching-covered graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.4g Two-processor scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.4h The Tutte matrix and an algebraic matching
algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.4i Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.4j Historical notes on nonbipartite matching . . . . . . . . . . .
413
413
415
415
415
418
421
422
matching polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The perfect matching polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The matching polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Total dual integrality: the Cunningham-Marsh formula . . . . .
25.3a Direct proof of the Cunningham-Marsh formula . . . . .
25.4 On the total dual integrality of the perfect matching
constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25.5a Adjacency and diameter of the matching polytope . . .
25.5b Facets of the matching polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25.5c Polynomial-time solvability with the ellipsoid
method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25.5d The matchable set polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25.5e Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
438
438
439
440
442
25 The
25.1
25.2
25.3
26 Weighted nonbipartite matching algorithmically . . . . . . . . . .

26.1 Introduction and preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.2 Weighted matching algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.2a An O(n3 ) algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
422
423
425
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
443
444
444
446
448
450
452
453
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458
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26.3a Complexity survey for weighted nonbipartite

matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
26.3b Derivation of the matching polytope characterization
from the algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
26.3c Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
27 Nonbipartite edge cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27.1 Minimum-size edge cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27.2 The edge cover polytope and total dual integrality . . . . . . . . .
27.3 Further notes on edge covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27.3a Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27.3b Historical notes on edge covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
461
461
462
464
464
464
28 Edge-colouring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.1 Vizings theorem for simple graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.2 Vizings theorem for general graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.3 NP-completeness of edge-colouring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.4 Nowhere-zero flows and edge-colouring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.5 Fractional edge-colouring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.6 Conjectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.7 Edge-colouring polyhedrally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.8 Packing edge covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.9a Shannons theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.9b Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.9c Historical notes on edge-colouring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
465
465
467
469
470
474
475
477
478
480
480
481
482
29 T -joins, undirected shortest paths, and the Chinese

postman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.1 T -joins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.2 The shortest path problem for undirected graphs . . . . . . . . . .
29.3 The Chinese postman problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.4 T -joins and T -cuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.5 The up hull of the T -join polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.6 The T -join polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.7 Sums of circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.8 Integer sums of circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.9 The T -cut polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.10 Finding a minimum-capacity T -cut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.11a Minimum-mean length circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.11b Packing T -cuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.11c Packing T -joins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.11d Maximum joins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.11e Odd paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
485
485
487
487
488
490
491
493
494
498
499
500
500
501
507
511
515
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29.11f Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517

29.11g On the history of the Chinese postman problem . . . . . 519
30 2-matchings, 2-covers, and 2-factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.1 2-matchings and 2-vertex covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.2 Fractional matchings and vertex covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.3 The fractional matching polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.4 The 2-matching polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.5 The weighted 2-matching problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.5a Maximum-size 2-matchings and maximum-size
matchings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.6 Simple 2-matchings and 2-factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.7 The simple 2-matching polytope and the 2-factor polytope . .
30.8 Total dual integrality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.9 2-edge covers and 2-stable sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.10 Fractional edge covers and stable sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.11 The fractional edge cover polyhedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.12 The 2-edge cover polyhedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.13 Total dual integrality of the 2-edge cover constraints . . . . . . .
30.14 Simple 2-edge covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.15 Graphs with (G) = (G) and (G) = (G) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.16 Excluding triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.16a Excluding higher polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.16b Packing edges and factor-critical subgraphs . . . . . . . . .
30.16c 2-factors without short circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
521
521
522
523
523
524
525
527
529
532
532
533
534
534
535
536
537
540
545
545
546
31 b-matchings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31.1 b-matchings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31.2 The b-matching polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31.4 The weighted b-matching problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31.5 If b is even . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31.6 If b is constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31.7a Complexity survey for the b-matching problem . . . . . .
31.7b Facets and minimal systems for the b-matching
polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31.7c Regularizable graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31.7d Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
547
547
548
551
555
558
559
560
560
32 Capacitated b-matchings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32.1 Capacitated b-matchings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32.2 The capacitated b-matching polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32.4 The weighted capacitated b-matching problem . . . . . . . . . . . . .
563
563
565
567
568
560
561
562
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32.4a Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568

33 Simple b-matchings and b-factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33.1 Simple b-matchings and b-factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33.2 The simple b-matching polytope and the b-factor polytope . .
33.4 The weighted simple b-matching and b-factor problem . . . . . .
33.5 If b is constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33.6a Complexity results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33.6b Degree-sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33.6c Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
570
570
571
571
572
573
574
574
574
575
34 b-edge covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34.1 b-edge covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34.2 The b-edge cover polyhedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34.4 The weighted b-edge cover problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34.5 If b is even . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34.6 If b is constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34.7 Capacitated b-edge covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34.8 Simple b-edge covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34.8a Simple b-edge covers and b-matchings . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34.8b Capacitated b-edge covers and b-matchings . . . . . . . . . .
576
576
577
577
578
579
579
580
582
583
584
35 Upper and lower bounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

35.1 Upper and lower bounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35.2 Convex hull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35.4a Further results on subgraphs with prescribed
degrees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35.4b Odd walks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
585
585
587
590
592
36 Bidirected graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36.1 Bidirected graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36.2 Convex hull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36.4 Including parity conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36.5 Convex hull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36.5a Convex hull of vertex-disjoint circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36.7a The Chvatal rank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36.7b Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
595
595
598
599
601
605
606
606
608
608
609
592
594
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37 The
37.1
37.2
37.3
37.4
37.5
37.6
37.7
dimension of the perfect matching polytope . . . . . . . . . .

The dimension of the perfect matching polytope . . . . . . . . . . .
The perfect matching space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The brick decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The brick decomposition of a bipartite graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Braces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bricks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Matching-covered graphs without nontrivial tight cuts . . . . . .
610
610
612
613
614
615
615
618
38 The
38.1
38.2
38.3
38.4
38.5
38.6
38.7
38.8
38.9
perfect matching lattice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The perfect matching lattice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The perfect matching lattice of the Petersen graph . . . . . . . . .
A further fact on the Petersen graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Various useful observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Simple barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The perfect matching lattice of a brick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Synthesis and further consequences of the previous results . .
What further might (not) be true . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Further results and notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38.9a The perfect 2-matching space and lattice . . . . . . . . . . .
38.9b Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
620
620
621
622
623
625
631
644
645
648
648
648
Part IV: Matroids and Submodular Functions

39 Matroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39.1 Matroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39.2 The dual matroid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39.3 Deletion, contraction, and truncation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39.4 Examples of matroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39.4a Relations between transversal matroids and
gammoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39.5 Characterizing matroids by bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39.6 Characterizing matroids by circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39.6a A characterization of Lehman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39.7 Characterizing matroids by rank functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39.8 The span function and flats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39.8a Characterizing matroids by span functions . . . . . . . . . .
39.8b Characterizing matroids by flats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39.8c Characterizing matroids in terms of lattices . . . . . . . . .
39.9 Further exchange properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39.9a Further properties of bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39.10a Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39.10b Historical notes on matroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
651
651
652
653
654
659
662
662
663
664
666
666
667
668
669
671
671
671
672
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40 The
40.1
40.2
40.3
greedy algorithm and the independent set polytope . .

The greedy algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The independent set polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The most violated inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40.3a Facets and adjacency on the independent set
polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40.3b Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
688
688
690
693
41 Matroid intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41.1 Matroid intersection theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41.1a Applications of the matroid intersection theorem . . . .
41.1b Woodalls proof of the matroid intersection theorem . .
41.2 Cardinality matroid intersection algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41.3 Weighted matroid intersection algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41.3a Speeding up the weighted matroid intersection
algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41.4 Intersection of the independent set polytopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41.4a Facets of the common independent set polytope . . . . .
41.4b The up and down hull of the common base polytope . .
41.5a Mengers theorem for matroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41.5b Exchange properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41.5c Jump systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41.5d Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
700
700
702
704
705
707
42 Matroid union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42.1 Matroid union theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42.1a Applications of the matroid union theorem . . . . . . . . . .
42.1b Horns proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42.2 Polyhedral applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42.3 Matroid union algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42.4 The capacitated case: fractional packing and covering of
bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42.5 The capacitated case: integer packing and covering of bases . .
42.6a Induction of matroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42.6b List-colouring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42.6c Strongly base orderable matroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42.6d Blocking and antiblocking polyhedra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42.6e Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42.6f Historical notes on matroid union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
725
725
727
729
730
731
698
699
710
712
717
719
720
720
721
722
724
732
734
736
736
737
738
741
743
743
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XXIII
43 Matroid matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43.1 Infinite matroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43.2 Matroid matchings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43.3 Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43.4 A special class of matroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43.5 A min-max formula for maximum-size matroid matching . . . .
43.6 Applications of the matroid matching theorem . . . . . . . . . . . .
43.7 A Gallai theorem for matroid matching and covering . . . . . . .
43.8 Linear matroid matching algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43.9 Matroid matching is not polynomial-time solvable in
general . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43.10a Optimal path-matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43.10b Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
745
745
746
747
747
751
753
756
757
44 Submodular functions and polymatroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44.1 Submodular functions and polymatroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44.1a Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44.2 Optimization over polymatroids by the greedy method . . . . .
44.4 f is determined by EPf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44.5 Supermodular functions and contrapolymatroids . . . . . . . . . . .
44.6a Submodular functions and matroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44.6b Reducing integer polymatroids to matroids . . . . . . . . .
44.6c The structure of polymatroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44.6d Characterization of polymatroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44.6e Operations on submodular functions and
polymatroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44.6f Duals of polymatroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44.6g Induction of polymatroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44.6h Lovaszs generalization of Konigs matching theorem . .
44.6i Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
766
766
768
771
773
773
774
775
775
776
777
779
781
782
783
784
784
45 Submodular function minimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45.1 Submodular function minimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45.2 Orders and base vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45.3 A subroutine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45.4 Minimizing a submodular function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45.5 Running time of the algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45.6 Minimizing a symmetric submodular function . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45.7 Minimizing a submodular function over the odd sets . . . . . . .
787
787
788
788
790
791
793
794
762
763
763
764
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Table of Contents
46 Polymatroid intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46.1 Box-total dual integrality of polymatroid intersection . . . . . . .
46.2 Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46.3 Contrapolymatroid intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46.4 Intersecting a polymatroid and a contrapolymatroid . . . . . . . .
46.5 Franks discrete sandwich theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46.6 Integer decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46.7a The up and down hull of the common base vectors
of two polymatroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46.7b Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
796
796
797
798
799
800
801
802
47 Polymatroid intersection algorithmically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

47.1 A maximum-size common vector in two polymatroids . . . . . .
47.2 Maximizing a coordinate of a common base vector . . . . . . . . .
47.3 Weighted polymatroid intersection in polynomial time . . . . . .
47.4 Weighted polymatroid intersection in strongly polynomial
time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47.5 Contrapolymatroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47.6a Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
806
806
808
810
812
819
819
820
48 Dilworth truncation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48.1 If f () < 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48.2 Dilworth truncation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48.2a Applications and interpretations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48.3 Intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
821
821
822
824
826
49 Submodularity more generally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49.1 Submodular functions on a lattice family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49.2 Intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49.3 Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49.4 Submodular functions on an intersecting family . . . . . . . . . . . .
49.5 Intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49.6 From an intersecting family to a lattice family . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49.7 Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49.9 Submodular functions on a crossing family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49.10 Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49.10a Nonemptiness of the base polyhedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49.11a Minimizing a submodular function over a
subcollection of a lattice family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49.11b Generalized polymatroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49.11c Supermodular colourings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
827
827
829
830
833
834
835
836
838
839
841
842
843
802
805
843
846
850
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49.11d Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852

Part V: Trees, Branchings, and Connectors
50 Shortest spanning trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50.1 Shortest spanning trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50.2 Implementing Prims method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50.3 Implementing Kruskals method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50.3a Parallel forest-merging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50.3b A dual greedy algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50.4 The longest forest and the forest polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50.5 The shortest connector and the connector polytope . . . . . . . .
50.6a Complexity survey for shortest spanning tree . . . . . . . .
50.6b Characterization of shortest spanning trees . . . . . . . . .
50.6c The maximum reliability problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50.6d Exchange properties of forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50.6e Uniqueness of shortest spanning tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50.6f Forest covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50.6g Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50.6h Historical notes on shortest spanning trees . . . . . . . . . .
857
857
859
860
861
861
862
864
866
866
867
868
869
870
871
872
873
51 Packing and covering of trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

51.1 Unions of forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51.2 Disjoint spanning trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51.3 Covering by forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51.4 Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51.5a Complexity survey for tree packing and covering . . . . .
51.5b Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
879
879
879
880
881
891
891
894
52 Longest branchings and shortest arborescences . . . . . . . . . . .

52.1 Finding a shortest r-arborescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52.1a r-arborescences as common bases of two matroids . . . .
52.2 Related problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52.3 A min-max relation for shortest r-arborescences . . . . . . . . . . .
52.4 The r-arborescence polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52.4a Uncrossing cuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52.5 A min-max relation for longest branchings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52.6 The branching polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52.7 The arborescence polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52.8a Complexity survey for shortest r-arborescence . . . . . . .
52.8b Concise LP-formulation for shortest r-arborescence . .
896
896
898
898
899
900
902
903
904
904
905
905
905
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52.8c Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 906

53 Packing and covering of branchings and arborescences . . . .
53.1 Disjoint branchings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53.2 Disjoint r-arborescences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53.3 The capacitated case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53.4 Disjoint arborescences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53.5 Covering by branchings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53.6 An exchange property of branchings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53.7 Covering by r-arborescences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53.8 Minimum-length unions of k r-arborescences . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53.9 The complexity of finding disjoint arborescences . . . . . . . . . . .
53.10a Complexity survey for disjoint arborescences . . . . . . . .
53.10b Arborescences with roots in given subsets . . . . . . . . . . .
53.10c Disclaimers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53.10d Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
907
907
908
910
911
911
912
914
916
921
924
924
926
928
929
54 Biconnectors and bibranchings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54.1 Shortest R S biconnectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54.2 Longest R S biforests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54.3 Disjoint R S biconnectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54.4 Covering by R S biforests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54.5 Minimum-size bibranchings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54.6 Shortest bibranchings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54.6a Longest bifurcations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54.7 Disjoint bibranchings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54.7a Proof using supermodular colourings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54.7b Covering by bifurcations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54.7c Disjoint R S biconnectors and R S bibranchings . .
54.7d Covering by R S biforests and by R S
bifurcations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
931
931
933
934
937
937
938
940
943
946
946
947
55 Minimum directed cut covers and packing directed cuts . .

55.1 Minimum directed cut covers and packing directed cuts . . . . .
55.2 The Lucchesi-Younger theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55.3 Directed cut k-covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55.4 Feedback arc sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55.5 Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55.5a Finding a dual solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55.6a Complexity survey for minimum-size directed cut
cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55.6b Feedback arc sets in linklessly embeddable digraphs . .
55.6c Feedback vertex sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
949
949
950
952
954
956
957
959
947
959
959
961
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55.6d The bipartite case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962

55.6e Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963
56 Minimum directed cuts and packing directed cut covers . .
56.1 Minimum directed cuts and packing directed cut covers . . . . .
56.2 Source-sink connected digraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56.3 Other cases where Woodalls conjecture is true . . . . . . . . . . . .
56.3a Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
965
965
967
970
971
57 Strong connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57.1 Making a directed graph strongly connected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57.2 Shortest strong connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57.3 Polyhedrally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57.4 Disjoint strong connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57.5 Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57.5a Crossing families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
972
972
973
976
976
978
979
traveling salesman problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 984

The traveling salesman problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 984
NP-completeness of the TSP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 985
Branch-and-bound techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 985
The symmetric traveling salesman polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986
The subtour elimination constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 987
1-trees and Lagrangean relaxation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 988
The 2-factor constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 989
The clique tree inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 990
58.8a Christofides heuristic for the TSP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992
58.8b Further notes on the symmetric traveling salesman
problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 993
58.9 The asymmetric traveling salesman problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995
58.10 Directed 1-trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996
58.10a An integer programming formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996
58.10b Further notes on the asymmetric traveling salesman
problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997
58.11 Further notes on the traveling salesman problem . . . . . . . . . . . 998
58.11a Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998
58.11b Historical notes on the traveling salesman problem . . 1000
58 The
58.1
58.2
58.3
58.4
58.5
58.6
58.7
58.8
59 Matching forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59.2 The maximum size of a matching forest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59.3 Perfect matching forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59.4 An exchange property of matching forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59.5 The matching forest polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59.6 Further results and notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1008
1008
1009
1010
1011
1014
1018
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59.6a Matching forests in partitionable mixed graphs . . . . . 1018

59.6b Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020
60 Submodular functions on directed graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60.1 The Edmonds-Giles theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60.1a Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60.1b Generalized polymatroids and the Edmonds-Giles
theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60.2 A variant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60.2a Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60.3a Lattice polyhedra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60.3b Polymatroidal network flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60.3c A general model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60.3d Packing cuts and Gyoris theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60.3e Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61 Graph orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61.1 Orientations with bounds on in- and outdegrees . . . . . . . . . .
61.2 2-edge-connectivity and strongly connected orientations . . .
61.2a Strongly connected orientations with bounds on
degrees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61.3 Nash-Williams orientation theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61.4 k-arc-connected orientations of 2k-edge-connected graphs . .
61.4a Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61.4b k-arc-connected orientations with bounds on
degrees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61.4c Orientations of graphs with lower bounds on
indegrees of sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61.4d Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1021
1021
1023
1023
1024
1026
1028
1028
1031
1032
1033
1037
1038
1038
1040
1041
1043
1047
1048
1048
1049
1050
62 Network synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62.1 Minimal k-(edge-)connected graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62.2 The network synthesis problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62.3 Minimum-capacity network design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62.4 Integer realizations and r-edge-connected graphs . . . . . . . . . .
1052
1052
1054
1055
1058
63 Connectivity augmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63.1 Making a directed graph k-arc-connected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63.1a k-arc-connectors with bounds on degrees . . . . . . . . . .
63.2 Making an undirected graph 2-edge-connected . . . . . . . . . . . .
63.3 Making an undirected graph k-edge-connected . . . . . . . . . . . .
63.3a k-edge-connectors with bounds on degrees . . . . . . . . .
63.4 r-edge-connectivity and r-edge-connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63.5 Making a directed graph k-vertex-connected . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1061
1061
1064
1065
1066
1069
1070
1077
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63.6 Making an undirected graph k-vertex-connected . . . . . . . . . . 1080

63.6a Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1082
Part VI: Cliques, Stable Sets, and Colouring
64 Cliques, stable sets, and colouring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64.1 Terminology and notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64.2 NP-completeness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64.3 Bounds on the colouring number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64.3a Brooks upper bound on the colouring number . . . . .
64.3b Hadwigers conjecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64.4 The stable set, clique, and vertex cover polytope . . . . . . . . . .
64.4a Facets and adjacency on the stable set polytope . . . .
64.5 Fractional stable sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64.5a Further on the fractional stable set polytope . . . . . . .
64.6 Fractional vertex covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64.6a A bound of Lorentzen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64.7 The clique inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64.8 Fractional and weighted colouring numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64.8a The ratio of (G) and (G) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64.8b The Chvatal rank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64.9a Graphs with polynomial-time stable set algorithm . .
64.9b Colourings and orientations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64.9c Algebraic methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64.9d Approximation algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64.9e Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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1087
1088
1088
1090
1090
1092
1093
1095
1097
1097
1098
1100
1100
1101
1101
1103
1104
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65 Perfect graphs: general theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

65.1 Introduction to perfect graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65.2 The perfect graph theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65.3 Replication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65.4 Perfect graphs and polyhedra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65.4a Lovaszs proof of the replication lemma . . . . . . . . . . . .
65.5 Decomposition of Berge graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65.5a 0- and 1-joins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65.5b The 2-join . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65.6 Pre-proof work on the strong perfect graph conjecture . . . . .
65.6a Partitionable graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65.6b More characterizations of perfect graphs . . . . . . . . . . .
65.6c The stable set polytope of minimally imperfect
graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65.6d Graph classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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1113
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65.6e The P4 -structure of a graph and a semi-strong

perfect graph theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65.6f Further notes on the strong perfect graph
conjecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65.7a Perz and Rolewiczs proof of the perfect graph
theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65.7b Kernel solvability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65.7c The amalgam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65.7d Diperfect graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65.7e Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66 Classes of perfect graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66.1 Bipartite graphs and their line graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66.2 Comparability graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66.3 Chordal graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66.3a Chordal graphs as intersection graphs of subtrees of
a tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66.4 Meyniel graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66.5a Strongly perfect graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66.5b Perfectly orderable graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66.5c Unimodular graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66.5d Further classes of perfect graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66.5e Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1124
1125
1127
1127
1128
1132
1133
1134
1137
1137
1139
1140
1144
1145
1147
1147
1148
1149
1150
1151
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67 Perfect graphs: polynomial-time solvability . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

67.1 Optimum clique and colouring in perfect graphs
algorithmically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67.2 Weighted clique and colouring algorithmically . . . . . . . . . . . .
67.3 Strong polynomial-time solvability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67.4a Further on (G) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67.4b The Shannon capacity (G) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67.4c Clique cover numbers of products of graphs . . . . . . . .
67.4d A sharper upper bound 0 (G) on (G) . . . . . . . . . . . .
67.4e An operator strengthening convex bodies . . . . . . . . . .
67.4f Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67.4g Historical notes on perfect graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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1161
1161
1169
1174
1175
1175
1177
1178
68 T-perfect graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68.1 T-perfect graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68.2 Strongly t-perfect graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68.3 Strong t-perfection of odd-K4 -free graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68.4 On characterizing t-perfection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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68.5 A combinatorial min-max relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

68.6a The w-stable set polyhedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68.6b Bidirected graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68.6c Characterizing odd-K4 -free graphs by mixing stable
sets and vertex covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68.6d Orientations of discrepancy 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68.6e Colourings and odd K4 -subdivisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68.6f Homomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68.6g Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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1202
1203
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1206
1208
1209
1209
69 Claw-free graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69.2 Maximum-size stable set in a claw-free graph . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69.3 Maximum-weight stable set in a claw-free graph . . . . . . . . . .
69.4a On the stable set polytope of a claw-free graph . . . . .
69.4b Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Part VII: Multiflows and Disjoint Paths

70 Multiflows and disjoint paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70.1 Directed multiflow problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70.2 Undirected multiflow problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70.3 Disjoint paths problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70.4 Reductions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70.5 Complexity of the disjoint paths problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70.6 Complexity of the fractional multiflow problem . . . . . . . . . . .
70.7 The cut condition for directed graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70.8 The cut condition for undirected graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70.9 Relations between fractional, half-integer, and integer
solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70.10 The Euler condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70.11 Survey of cases where a good characterization has been
found . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70.12 Relation between the cut condition and fractional cut
packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70.12a Sufficiency of the cut condition sometimes implies
an integer multiflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70.12b The cut condition and integer multiflows in directed
graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70.13a Fixing the number of commodities in undirected
graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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70.13b Fixing the number of commodities in directed

graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70.13c Disjoint paths in acyclic digraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70.13d A column generation technique for multiflows . . . . . .
70.13e Approximate max-flow min-cut theorems for
multiflows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70.13f Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70.13g Historical notes on multicommodity flows . . . . . . . . . .
71 Two commodities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71.1 The Rothschild-Whinston theorem and Hus 2-commodity
flow theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71.1a Nash-Williams proof of the Rothschild-Whinston
theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71.2 Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71.3 2-commodity cut packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71.4a Two disjoint paths in undirected graphs . . . . . . . . . . .
71.4b A directed 2-commodity flow theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71.4c Kleitman, Martin-Lof, Rothschild, and Whinstons
theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71.4d Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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1263
1263
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1265
1267
72 Three or more commodities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

72.1 Demand graphs for which the cut condition is sufficient . . . .
72.2 Three commodities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72.2a The K2,3 -metric condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72.2b Six terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72.3 Cut packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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1273
1275
1277
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73 T -paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73.1 Disjoint T -paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73.1a Disjoint T -paths with the matroid matching
algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73.1b Polynomial-time findability of edge-disjoint
T -paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73.1c A feasibility characterization for integer K3 -flows . . .
73.2 Fractional packing of T -paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73.2a Direct proof of Corollary 73.2d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73.3a Further notes on Maders theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73.3b A generalization of fractionally packing T -paths . . . .
73.3c Lockable collections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73.3d Mader matroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73.3e Minimum-cost maximum-value multiflows . . . . . . . . .
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73.3f Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1298

74 Planar graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74.1 All nets spanned by one face: the Okamura-Seymour
theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74.1a Complexity survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74.1b Graphs on the projective plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74.1c If only inner vertices satisfy the Euler condition . . . .
74.1d Distances and cut packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74.1e Linear algebra and distance realizability . . . . . . . . . . .
74.1f Directed planar graphs with all terminals on the
outer boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74.2 G + H planar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74.2a Distances and cut packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74.2b Deleting the Euler condition if G + H is planar . . . . .
74.3 Okamuras theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74.3a Distances and cut packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74.3b The Klein bottle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74.3c Commodities spanned by three or more faces . . . . . . .
74.4a Another theorem of Okamura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74.4b Some other planar cases where the cut condition is
sufficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74.4c Vertex-disjoint paths in planar graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74.4d Grid graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74.4e Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75 Cuts, odd circuits, and multiflows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75.1 Weakly and strongly bipartite graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75.1a NP-completeness of maximum cut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75.1b Planar graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75.2 Signed graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75.3 Weakly, evenly, and strongly bipartite signed graphs . . . . . .
75.4 Characterizing strongly bipartite signed graphs . . . . . . . . . . .
75.5 Characterizing weakly and evenly bipartite signed graphs . .
75.6 Applications to multiflows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75.7 The cut cone and the cut polytope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75.8 The maximum cut problem and semidefinite programming . .
75.9a Cuts and stable sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75.9b Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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76 Homotopy and graphs on surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

76.1 Graphs, curves, and their intersections: terminology and
notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76.2 Making curves minimally crossing by Reidemeister moves . .
76.3 Decomposing the edges of an Eulerian graph on a surface . .
76.4 A corollary on lengths of closed curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76.5 A homotopic circulation theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76.6 Homotopic paths in planar graphs with holes . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76.7 Vertex-disjoint paths and circuits of prescribed homotopies . .
76.7a Vertex-disjoint circuits of prescribed homotopies . . . .
76.7b Vertex-disjoint homotopic paths in planar graphs
with holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76.7c Disjoint trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Part VIII: Hypergraphs

77 Packing and blocking in hypergraphs: elementary
notions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77.1 Elementary hypergraph terminology and notation . . . . . . . . .
77.2 Deletion, restriction, and contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77.3 Duplication and parallelization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77.4 Clutters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77.5 Packing and blocking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77.6 The blocker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77.7 Fractional matchings and vertex covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77.8 k-matchings and k-vertex covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77.9a Bottleneck extrema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77.9b The ratio of and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77.9c Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78 Ideal hypergraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78.1 Ideal hypergraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78.2 Characterizations of ideal hypergraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78.3 Minimally nonideal hypergraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78.4 Properties of minimally nonideal hypergraphs: Lehmans
theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78.4a Application of Lehmans theorem: Guenins
theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78.4b Ideality is in co-NP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78.5a Composition of clutters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78.5b Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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79 Mengerian hypergraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79.1 Mengerian hypergraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79.1a Examples of Mengerian hypergraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79.2 Minimally non-Mengerian hypergraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79.3a Packing hypergraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79.3b Restrictions instead of parallelizations . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79.3c Equivalences for k-matchings and k-vertex covers . . .
79.3d A general technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79.3e Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1399
1399
1401
1402
1403
1403
1404
1404
1405
1406
80 Binary hypergraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80.1 Binary hypergraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80.2 Binary hypergraphs and binary matroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80.3 The blocker of a binary hypergraph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80.3a Further characterizations of binary clutters . . . . . . . .
80.4 On characterizing binary ideal hypergraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80.5 Seymours characterization of binary Mengerian
hypergraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80.5a Applications of Seymours theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80.6 Mengerian matroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80.6a Oriented matroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80.7a 2 (H) = 2 (H) for binary hypergraphs H . . . . . . . . . .
80.7b Application: T -joins and T -cuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80.7c Box-integrality of k PH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1408
1408
1408
1409
1410
1410
81 Matroids and multiflows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

81.1 Multiflows in matroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81.2 Integer k-flowing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81.3 1-flowing and 1-cycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81.6 4-flowing, 4-cycling, -flowing, and -cycling . . . . . . . . . . . .
81.7 The circuit cone and cycle polytope of a matroid . . . . . . . . .
81.8 The circuit space and circuit lattice of a matroid . . . . . . . . .
81.9 Nonnegative integer sums of circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81.10 Nowhere-zero flows and circuit double covers in matroids . .
1421
1421
1422
1423
1423
1424
1425
1426
1427
1427
1428
82 Covering and antiblocking in hypergraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

82.1 Elementary concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82.2 Fractional edge covers and stable sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82.3 k-edge covers and k-stable sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82.4 The antiblocker and conformality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82.4a Gilmores characterization of conformality . . . . . . . . .
1430
1430
1431
1431
1432
1433
1411
1415
1417
1417
1418
1418
1419
1420
XXXVI
Table of Contents
82.5 Perfect hypergraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

82.6 Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82.6a Some equivalences for the k-parameters . . . . . . . . . . .
82.6b Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1433
1436
1436
1439
83 Balanced and unimodular hypergraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

83.1 Balanced hypergraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83.2 Characterizations of balanced hypergraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83.2a Totally balanced matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83.2b Examples of balanced hypergraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83.2c Balanced 0, 1 matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83.3 Unimodular hypergraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83.3a Further results and notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1441
1441
1442
1446
1449
1449
1450
1452
Survey of Problems, Questions, and Conjectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1453

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1463
Name index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1767
Subject index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1809
Greek graph and hypergraph functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1884

Combinatorial Optimization: Alexander Schrijver

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Combinatorial Optimization: Alexander Schrijver

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Alexander Schrijver

Although most problems that come up in practice are NP-complete or

While I have pursued great carefulness and precision in composing this

Tardos, Bjarne Toft, and David Williamson, for

Preliminaries on algorithms and complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.12 Strongly polynomial-time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Preliminaries on polyhedra and linear and integer

Part I: Paths and Flows

Shortest paths: unit lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Shortest paths: nonnegative lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Shortest paths: arbitrary lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11 Circulations and transshipments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12 Minimum-cost flows and circulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13 Path and flow polyhedra and total unimodularity . . . . . . . . .

13.2 Total unimodularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14 Partially ordered sets and path coverings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15 Connectivity and Gomory-Hu trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Part II: Bipartite Matching and Covering

16 Cardinality bipartite matching and vertex cover . . . . . . . . . .

18.5a Derivation of Konigs matching theorem from the

19 Bipartite edge cover and stable set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21 Bipartite b-matchings and transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Part III: Nonbipartite Matching and Covering

26 Weighted nonbipartite matching algorithmically . . . . . . . . . .

26.3a Complexity survey for weighted nonbipartite

29 T -joins, undirected shortest paths, and the Chinese

29.11f Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517

32.4a Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568

35 Upper and lower bounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

dimension of the perfect matching polytope . . . . . . . . . .

perfect matching lattice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Part IV: Matroids and Submodular Functions

greedy algorithm and the independent set polytope . .

44 Submodular functions and polymatroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45 Submodular function minimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

47 Polymatroid intersection algorithmically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49 Submodularity more generally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49.11d Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852

51 Packing and covering of trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

52 Longest branchings and shortest arborescences . . . . . . . . . . .

52.8c Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 906

54 Biconnectors and bibranchings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55 Minimum directed cut covers and packing directed cuts . .

55.6d The bipartite case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962

traveling salesman problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 984

59.6a Matching forests in partitionable mixed graphs . . . . . 1018

63.6 Making an undirected graph k-vertex-connected . . . . . . . . . . 1080

65 Perfect graphs: general theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

65.6e The P4 -structure of a graph and a semi-strong

67 Perfect graphs: polynomial-time solvability . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

68.5 A combinatorial min-max relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Part VII: Multiflows and Disjoint Paths

70.13b Fixing the number of commodities in directed

72 Three or more commodities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

73.3f Further notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1298

76 Homotopy and graphs on surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Part VIII: Hypergraphs

81 Matroids and multiflows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

82 Covering and antiblocking in hypergraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .