1

Gross Motor Development

V. Gregory Payne and Seung Ho Chang
San Jose State University, USA

Human motor development refers to the changes in an individual’s ability to perform

movements across time. An example is the typical changes in a toddler’s walking
techniques as they mature and become more efficient over the first few years of life.
Gross motor refers specifically to human movements that use the large muscles of
the body, such as those of the trunk, upper leg, or shoulders. Some examples include
walking, running, skipping, catching, and climbing. The term development specifically
refers to changes that occur through life as the individual ages and matures. Therefore,
gross motor development refers to the qualitative and quantitative changes that occur,
throughout life, in an individual’s movements involving the large muscles or muscle
groups. The term gross motor is generally used in conjunction with the term fine motor.
Fine motor refers to those movements that are created using the small muscles or
muscle groups of the body.
Gross movements include nonlocomotor (NL), locomotor (LC), and object control
(OC) skills. NL skills are body movements that enable a person to maintain stability
and control while moving or remaining stationary. NL skills include stretching, twisting,
and bending—movements that are performed while stationary. They can be combined
with LC skills and performed while sitting, lying, or standing. NL skills involve safety
and everyday utilitarian skills. For example, stretching is a movement or activity that
can be performed to help muscles prepare for exercise or to simply relax after physi-
cal activity. Examples here would include many yoga moves in addition to an array of
planned stretches intended to increase flexibility, such as gentle toe touches. NL skills
can be employed in various sports (e.g., gymnastics, martial arts, skating, and skiing)
and leisure activities (e.g., dance, yoga, and Pilates).
LC skills are movements that enable individuals to travel from one location to another,
such as crawling, walking, running, or jumping. Competence in LC skills is important
in activities of daily living as well as various physical and recreational activities, sports,
and games (Payne & Isaacs, 2016).
Finally, OC skills are generally gross motor skills that involve the control or manipu-
lation of objects including balls, bats, racquets, or many tools in work-related activities,
such as hammering. Examples of OC skills include kicking, throwing, catching, and
dribbling a ball. The development of OC skills is essential in many sports, games,
and work-related activities (Payne & Isaacs, 2016). For example, catching, throwing,

The Encyclopedia of Child and Adolescent Development. Edited by Stephen Hupp and Jeremy D. Jewell.
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
DOI 10.1002/9781119171492.wecad023
2 Growth in Childhood

and dribbling are core skills for playing basketball. Many of these LC and OC skills, and
the combination of them, are referred to as fundamental motor skills (FMSs). FMSs
are considered to be the building blocks for more advanced movements and skills.
For example, sports such as basketball are composed of running, jumping, throwing,
catching, and so on, even though in a very advanced form they may look quite different.
FMSs are integral to more advanced movement forms, so they should be developed
and taught during early childhood, because most are not mastered naturally. Children,
therefore, need instruction, opportunity, and experience to develop mature levels and
competence in these skills. Otherwise, they may not be motivated and sufficiently
confident to attain the physically active lifestyle that is critical to a healthy life (Stodden
et al., 2008). Childhood is a significant period in the development of these FMSs and
gross movement in general. Most children pass through a series of fairly predictable
developmental sequences in mastering FMSs from an initial, or immature, phase to an
elementary level to a mature level of skill. Of course, not all children, adolescents, or
even adults attain a mature level in the performance of these movements. Generally,
this is because of a lack of opportunity, instruction, or practice.
As mentioned, gross motor is a category of human movement often used jointly with
the term fine motor, the latter of which involves human movement generally produced
by the small muscles or muscle groups of the body. Handwriting, sewing, keyboard-
ing, and playing many musical instruments would be examples of fine movements. Even
though movements can be categorized as gross or fine, many human movements include
characteristics of both gross and fine movement. For example, archery is generally con-
sidered a gross movement, because the large muscles of the shoulders, back, and arms
play such a prominent role in this sport. However, fine movements, such as the tiny
adjustments made in hand position on the bow, are instrumental to achieving accuracy.
An individual may have developed the gross motor competency to perform well in these
types of skills; however, to improve or perfect the skill, the fine motor aspects must also
be honed (Payne & Isaacs, 2016).
The terms gross movement and fine movement are useful in categorizing different kinds
of movement, but only in a simplistic or “quick and dirty” way. Though general agree-
ment can usually be achieved in determining whether a movement is gross or fine, the
process is limited by the fact that so many movements include characteristics of both
categories. For example, most would agree that walking and running are gross move-
ments, because the most important movements involved are generated by large muscles
or muscle groups. However, even walking and running have fine motor characteristics,
as the smaller muscles of the foot (and even the toes) make adjustments to achieve the
desired direction of the walk or run. Similarly, most would consider playing the piano
a fine motor skill, because the action of the small muscles of the forearms and hands
seems to be most critical to success. However, the larger muscles of the torso, back, and
shoulders are essential for placing the body in the proper position for the hands to do
their work.

1 Infant Reflexes and Gross Movement

Gross motor skills are generally voluntary movements. They are intentionally performed
using the large muscles of the body, which drive whole arms, the legs, or the trunk.
 Gross Motor Development 3

These voluntary gross movements are generated via an impulse from the higher brain
centers, such as the motor cortex. From there, a “message” is sent to the appropriate
working muscles to initiate the desired movement. However, some gross movements,
including several that appear early in infancy, are not skills at all, are not intentional, and
are not produced by the higher brain centers. They are reflexes: responses to a stimulus
that are involuntary and controlled by the lower brain centers, such as the brain stem,
rather than the motor cortex. Some may be completely processed in the central nervous
system below the level of the brain. Several of these reflexes constitute a fairly dominant
form of movement during the first few months of life and, by definition, are involuntary
responses to a stimulus. One example of an infant reflex that is a gross movement is
the stepping reflex. The stepping reflex is thought to be a precursor to later voluntary
walking, which may not occur until months later. This reflex is elicited when the infant
is held upright with the feet touching a flat supporting surface. The pressure on the
bottoms of the feet is the stimulus for a fairly mature-looking walking action of the legs.
However, at this age, the stepping reflex involves the legs only (not arm movement).
This reflex is normally present during the first 6 weeks following birth and typically
disappears by the fifth or sixth month of life, several months before most infants are able
to walk voluntarily and independently. Another example of a gross motor infant reflex
is the crawling reflex. This reflex is believed to be critical to the development of later
voluntary crawling. The crawling reflex is elicited when the baby is placed in a prone
position on the floor or any flat surface. The alternate stroking of the bottoms of the
feet is the stimulus that causes the baby to alternately move their legs and arms as in
voluntary crawling, which will typically appear several months later. The crawling reflex
is generally present from birth through the third or fourth month of life.
Another early reflex that is an example of gross movement involves the attainment
of upright posture: the parachuting (propping) reflex. The parachuting reflex is a gross
motor reflex that occurs when the baby is tilted off balance in any direction. For example,
if the baby is shifted to the left, the arms “parachute” out in that direction in what appears
to be a protective action to guard against a fall. While this looks intentional, these actions
are reflexive, involuntary, and responses to the stimulus of being placed off balance. The
forward and downward parachute reactions can be elicited around the fourth month,
and the sideways propping reaction may be observed around the sixth month. The back-
ward reaction may not be observable until several months later, between 10 and 12
months, or even a bit later.
These are a few examples of infant reflexes. They are involuntary responses to stim-
uli that are gross movements and thought to be a possible basis for similar voluntary
movements that will typically ensue in the weeks or months to come. Many other infant
reflexes, such as the palmar grasp, sucking, Babinski, palmar mandibular, and palmar
mental reflexes, are produced via fine movements where the relevant stimuli elicit small
movements generated by the smaller muscles or muscle groups of the body.

2 Voluntary Movements During Infancy

As discussed above, the first dominant form of human movement (infant reflexes) is
involuntary and subcortical. However, in typically developing children, these reflexive
movements gradually disappear around the end of the child’s first year as cortically
4 Growth in Childhood

controlled voluntary movements gradually become a more dominant form of human

movement. Many of these voluntary movements are gross movements and they are
often grouped into three categories—stability, locomotion, and manipulation—though
manipulation is most often characterized by fine movements. Stability-related move-
ments are voluntary movements that are generally designed to place the body or body
parts in a desired position. One of the first stability-related movements is head control,
followed soon after by other stability movements including gross movements such as
rolling over, sitting, and standing. Initially, at birth and for a few weeks to follow, the
infant has little control over the head and neck muscles. However, by 2 months of age,
and sometimes earlier, infants gain control over these fairly large muscles of the neck
and can lift and control their heads. Raising the head in the prone position is one of
the first major achievements of gross motor development. It is also important in terms
of the development of other behaviors, such as visually scanning the environment,
reaching, and grasping as well as initiating the sequence of events that leads to eventual
controlled and upright posture (Payne & Isaacs, 2016). At 3 months of age, infants can
typically hold the head erect when in an upright position and extend the neck while
prone. By the fifth month, the baby typically raises the head when lying in a supine
position. Attainment of head and neck control is one of the first forms of voluntary
gross movement that is achieved.
Around 2 to 3 months of age, the infant should be able to lift the chest off the floor
when in a prone position. Once the baby can elevate the chest, initial attempts at
rolling from a supine to a prone position soon follow, occurring around 5 months.
This is, of course, instrumental in helping the infant to attain a proper position for
eventual crawling. Most studies show that the roll from a prone to a supine action is
accomplished by approximately 4 months of age and supine to prone rolling occurs
at approximately 5 months, though considerable variation exists from one baby to
another (Payne & Isaacs, 2016). Prone to supine rolling is especially important as it
expands the visual field, enabling the baby to more fully scan the environment and learn
from that expanded visual exploration. It also frees the hands for much more manual
exploration, which enhances fine motor activity related to reaching, grasping, and
releasing.
Another important stability-related voluntary gross movement is attaining upright
posture (e.g., sitting and standing). The ability to maintain upright posture helps infants
to freely use their hands and arms in addition to being an important conduit toward the
development of upright locomotion. Once an infant gains control of the entire trunk,
they can sit alone. Generally, infants are able to sit at around 3 months, if assisted, and
can sit without support by 5 months of age, because of their increased lumbar control. By
the seventh month children are capable of self-supported sitting, and they can sit with-
out assistance or support by approximately 8 months. Sitting alone is developmentally
important as it enables a position conducive to visually locating objects, which prompts
initial manual activity such as reaching and grasping.
Achievement of complete upright posture (an erect standing position) is another
major gross motor milestone. In addition to enhancing many fine motor skills, such
as those discussed with sitting, standing eventually allows children to walk so that
they can further explore and experience their surroundings. Thus, it positively impacts
the development of gross movement, various fine movements, and cognitive and
social development as the toddler’s ability to explore and interact with others in their
 Gross Motor Development 5

environment is greatly enhanced. Many infants can maintain a standing position

with support at around 5 months of age. Around 9 to 10 months, infants start to pull
themselves up from a sitting to a standing position while holding onto an external object
such as a piece of furniture. Complete and independent upright standing typically
occurs by the age of 1 year, when children can attain and maintain a standing position
without additional help.
The ability to control the body during infancy, as described so far, leads to many
changes and more advanced development of other movements, both gross and fine. This
includes locomotion. Locomotion refers to gross movements used to transport oneself
from one location in space to another. It develops with stability, as described above,
and occurs in a variety of forms. According to Kretch, Franchak, and Adolph (2014),
the development of crawling, one early form of locomotion, is strongly related to tod-
dlers’ individual physiological maturity as well as their cognitive and social development.
Three forms of locomotion—crawling, creeping, and walking—will be discussed herein.
Crawling is a form of locomotion in which the body glides or is dragged on the sup-
porting surface when in a prone position. Usually, infants begin crawling at around 7
or 8 months of age, but this timeline is dependent on the individuals’ environment and
motivation. In this form of locomotion, the arms are used to pull the body forward while
the legs are initially minimally used. First attempts are generally very low to the ground,
with the chest or belly actually maintaining contact with the supporting surface. Grad-
ually, the child initiates leg action by alternately flexing them under or close to the body
when prone. Creeping is an advanced and elevated form of crawling that occurs on all
fours; it can become a highly efficient form of locomotion. There are two different pat-
terns of creeping: homolateral (right arm and right leg move forward simultaneously in
opposition to the left arm and left leg) and contralateral (right arm and left leg move
forward simultaneously in opposition to the left arm and right leg). The most common
form of creeping is a contralateral pattern, which can appear as early as 9 months of
age. Compared to crawling, creeping is more elevated, with the baby up on all fours, the
hands and the knees. This form of locomotion can become so efficient that even young
walkers may find it preferable, less awkward, and faster when they want to move to a
new location.
Walking, of course, is a form of upright locomotion. A baby can walk with considerable
support (e.g., a handhold) as early as 7 months of age. Beginning walkers are character-
ized by their short and inconsistent stride, a high guard arm position (the arms held in a
flexed and raised position), a wide base of support, flat-footed contact with the floor, and
the toes pointed slightly out. In addition, they do not swing their arms in opposition to
their legs. Their arm swing is usually inconsistent with the hands, which are initially held
in a raised position. Very few children can walk independently by 8 months. Around 10
months, most infants can cruise around furniture, moving laterally while upright with
considerable support. Children might be able to walk when led by another person by
11 months, and they typically walk independently around their first birthday or just
after. As is the case with so many of these motor landmarks, however, considerable dif-
ferences exist from one child to another. Children demonstrate pelvic rotation, greater
knee flexion at midsupport (e.g., when both feet are touching the ground), a trunk-width
separation of their feet, consistent and synchronous arm swing, and a heel–toe forefoot
strike between 14 and 19 months of age. Most children are capable of a fairly mature
form of walking by the age of 4 years (Adolph, Vereijken, & Shrout, 2003).
6 Growth in Childhood

3 Other Locomotor Skills

As mentioned above, LC skills are gross movements that allow individuals to move from
one place to another. Like the development of OC skills, the development of LC skills
is necessary to participate in physical activities, games, and various sports in addition
to some functional activities of daily living. LC skills are learned and benefit from prac-
tice, instruction, and opportunity. As examples, this section addresses two important
LC skills: running and jumping (horizontal). Obviously, many more exist.
Running is an extended, often faster, form of walking. It is typically differentiated from
walking by its flight phase—a momentary period where neither foot is in contact with
the supporting surface. Running can be broken down into three phases: the support
phase, the airborne (flight) phase, and the recovery phase. In the support phase, one foot
strikes the supporting surface, supports the body in the upright position, and absorbs the
shock of the landing. The supporting leg helps to maintain forward motion while acceler-
ating the body’s center of gravity. In the airborne phase, the body is thrust into the air by a
vigorous extension of the supporting leg as the back leg is brought forward quickly in the
recovery phase. Children can typically run about 6 to 7 months after they start to walk.
Sufficient muscular strength of the legs and control of the equilibrium are important and
obvious components of running. According to Seefeldt, Reuschlein, and Vogel (1972),
children initially use a short running stride with a wide base of support, a high knee lift,
and the high guard arm position that was discussed above regarding walking. They often
demonstrate a slight forward inclination and, as in initial walking, their stride length is
inconsistent in both length and direction. This is likely a function of the immature bal-
ance that is notable for this stage of running. Over time, with appropriate instruction,
opportunity, and practice, the stride width narrows, the arm position lowers, and the
arms attain a 90-degree angle at the elbow with the right arm pumping in opposition to
the left arm, but in conjunction with the left leg. Similarly, the left arm and the right leg
move forward together, with the left arm working in opposition to the right arm. The
overall body position gradually becomes more upright as the base of support narrows
and the stride lengthens and becomes more consistent. Girls often precede boys slightly
in the attainment of these characteristics, with both typically reaching a reasonably pro-
ficient running technique by around 4 years old (Gallahue, Ozmun, & Goodway, 2012).
Jumping is a gross motor skill characterized by a ballistic projection of the body hor-
izontally or vertically with the feet or legs together. Other LC skills, such as hopping
and leaping, are variations of jumping. Hopping is jumping on one foot while leap-
ing is jumping via an extended running stride (e.g., leaping over a small stream). Thus,
both of those skills are typically acquired following the achievement of jumping. The
development of horizontal and vertical jumping is somewhat similar and both can be ini-
tiated from a standing position or from a running start. In both cases, the jump involves
several phases: a preparatory phase, a takeoff and flight phase, and a landing phase.
Children need to possess significant muscular strength and power, multilimb coordi-
nation, and dynamic balance to reasonably execute a jump. Jumping is best known for
its use in various sports such as basketball, volleyball, or track and field. Based on clas-
sic research conducted by Haubenstricker, Branta, and Seefeldt (1983) and by Seefeldt
and associates (1972), children are often capable of a horizontal jump from as young as
3.5 years of age. In the initial stage of the horizontal jump, participants stood upright
and simply flexed the knees slightly prior to a rapid extension. The end result was a very
 Gross Motor Development 7

short, up-and-down jump that was often more vertical than horizontal, even though the
intention was to attain horizontal distance. At such a young age, the participants used
very slight arm action to help achieve forward momentum. Older, more mature children
(4 and 7 years of age) tended to employ greater forward lean at takeoff and a more vigor-
ous arm swing (backswing followed by a vigorous forward thrust). Thus, they typically
gained considerably more distance in their jump. Between 8.5 and 9 years, children were
found to demonstrate an even more mature pattern as they employed greater knee flex-
ion and forward inclination at takeoff, and a longer and more explosive arm swing to
provide more momentum for their jump. They also advanced their legs during the jump
with the knees slightly bent and the thighs parallel during the flight phase. The knee
bend during flight enabled a lower trajectory during the flight phase. Thus, more dis-
tance could usually be gained from the jump. Upon landing, these more mature jumpers
flexed their legs upon contact with the supporting surface to absorb some of the shock
of landing, leading to a softer and more graceful-looking landing.

4 Object Control Skills

OC skills include both gross motor and basic functional skills. During middle to early
childhood (approximately 3 to 7 years old), many children learn and experience several
OC skills. The development of these skills is important in many sports and some daily
functions. Studies have indicated that children with more mature OC skills are more
likely to participate in vigorous physical activities as adolescents compared to children
who demonstrate poor OC skills (Barnett, Van Beurden, Morgan, Brooks, & Beard,
2009; Lopes, Rodrigues, Maia, & Malina, 2011; Vandorpe et al., 2012). This is likely to
occur because of an enhanced feeling of confidence and competence when performing
the skill. Increased participation in these kinds of skills is important for health-related
fitness, general health, and longevity. This section addresses two important OC skills
(i.e., throwing and catching), though many others exist (e.g., kicking, striking, dribbling
a ball).
Throwing is a complex gross motor skill involving many body parts. It is an essential
skill in many sports, such as basketball, football, softball, and baseball. It is also a basic
object skill assimilated into a variety of sport skills, such as spiking in volleyball, the ten-
nis serve, and the overhead clear in badminton (Butterfield & Loovis, 1998). Moreover,
throwing proficiency is important as many activities undertaken in schools and commu-
nities involve this critical skill. According to Wild’s (1938) classic study, a front-facing
throw with stationary feet and no trunk rotation was observed in children of 2 to 3 years
of age. In this most immature stage of throwing, the child exhibits very little preparatory
movement (e.g., no trunk rotation, minimal preparation of the arm behind the body).
Typically, the handheld projectile is simply elevated by a flexion of the arm at the elbow
followed by an abrupt extension of the arm and release of the object. The feet are main-
tained in a stationary position at all times with the body facing the direction of the throw.
In short, the throw involves very little movement relative to more mature throwing. In
a slightly more mature pattern, the object may be more highly elevated by the arm as
the initial elbow flexion is exaggerated, and, while the feet may still remain stationary,
the body often exhibits a slight trunk rotation and forward flexion at the waist to assist
in the production of momentum. By 5 to 6 years of age, children may be seen taking a
8 Growth in Childhood

step while throwing, but the step is taken with the leg on the same side as the throwing
arm. The throwing arm is also more fully prepared as it rises above or slightly behind
the shoulder with even greater elbow flexion than what was previously seen. As the arm
is thrust forward to propel the object, a follow-through becomes noticeable as the arm
moves forward and downward following the release of the object. In short, the forward
momentum of the arm is gradually diminished rather than abruptly halted. To assist in
creating a more forceful throw, a more vigorous forward flexion at the waist is common.
By 6.5 years or older, with appropriate opportunity, practice, and instruction, children
often achieve even more maturity in their throwing, characterized by taking a step for-
ward with the leg opposite (contralateral) to the throwing arm just before the actual
throw. This is vital to achieving forward momentum and throwing velocity. Also, in addi-
tion to fully preparing the arm behind the body prior to the throw, the mature throw
is characterized by a trunk rotation. This opens the body to allow for a more complete
preparation of the arm behind the body prior to the forward thrusting of the arm. As the
forward step is taken, the body simultaneously rotates in conjunction with the forward
arm action to enhance the power of the throw. A final major characteristic of the mature
throw is an abrupt snap of the wrist just prior to release of the projectile. Though seem-
ingly insignificant, a carefully timed and abrupt wrist snap can add considerable force
to the resultant velocity of the projectile.
Catching is another gross motor skill commonly used for sports, games, physical
activities, and many daily function and work-related activities. The goal of this skill,
of course, is to control and possess a projected object. Catching can occur with one
or two hands. Several components are necessary to become a mature catcher, such
as eye–hand coordination, the ability to track an object with the eyes, perceptual
awareness, and fine motor skills related to hand and finger control. Initially, catching
is two handed and is characterized by children standing stationary with palms upward
and arms outstretched, usually fully extended, toward the oncoming projectile (e.g., a
ball). A hugging (arms are extended sideways to catch the ball) or scooping (arms are
extended forward but more under the object) action of the arms is initially used to gain
control of the ball as the hands are minimally involved (Haywood & Getchell, 2014). At
this level of maturity, the catch is usually characterized by the arms staying relatively
rigid upon contact as no “give” is provided to soften the arrival of the projectile. The
catch may also be characterized by an extension of the waist away from the ball, as
the head turns to the side. Both of these characteristics give the appearance of fearful
reactions to the oncoming projectile.
With additional maturity, children can move or adjust their bodies to catch the ball
(Haubenstricker et al., 1983). At this level, as the child awaits the oncoming object,
a slight flexion of the arms is noticeable as the arms extend toward the approaching
ball with the hands now facing each other, rather than with the palms upward. The
hands contact the ball first, rather than the arms, though the ball may still be drawn
toward the body, resulting in a basket-like catch against the chest. The most mature
two-handed catch is characterized by the arms relaxed and at the catcher’s sides until
the ball approaches. At that time, the hands raise and initially contact and maintain
control of the ball, rather than the arms. The ball is maintained in the hands and not
drawn toward the chest. In addition, upon contact, the hands lower as the arms extend to
absorb the shock of the oncoming ball. This action is often accompanied by a slight flex-
ion at the knees to lower the body and assist in the shock-absorption process. Catching
 Gross Motor Development 9

performance generally improves as children (aged 4 to 8 years) mature (Du Randt, 1985)
but is, again, very much dependent on the degree of opportunity, practice, and instruc-
tion they experience.

5 Summary
Overall, the development of gross movement is integral to achieving competence in var-
ious sports, games, and physical activities as well as many activities of daily living. They
are vital for children’s growth and independence. Integral to accelerating children’s gross
motor development is understanding the child’s level of development. Once that has
been determined, developmentally appropriate movements or activities can be selected
to provide opportunity, practice, and instruction to optimally assist the child in master-
ing the gross motor skills.

SEE ALSO: Early Child Learning of Social and Cognitive Skills; Fine Motor Development;
Motor Disorders; Movement, Space, and the Development of Spatial Thinking; Physical
Education; Studying Cognitive Development in Infants and Toddlers; Studying Cogni-
tive Development in School-Aged Children

References
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of Adolescent Health, 44(3), 252–259.
Butterfield, S. A., & Loovis, E. M. (1998). Kicking, catching, throwing and striking
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Movement Studies, 34(2), 67–81.
Du Randt, R. (1985). Ball-catching proficiency among 4-, 6-, and 8-year-old girls.
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(Vol. 2, pp. 35–44). Princeton, NJ: Princeton Book.
Gallahue, D. L., Ozmun, J. C., & Goodway, J. (2012). Understanding motor development:
Infants, children, adolescents, and adults (7th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Haubenstricker, J. L., Branta, C. F., & Seefeldt, V. D. (1983). Standards of performance for
throwing and catching. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the North
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Kretch, K. S., Franchak, J. M., & Adolph, K. E. (2014). Crawling and walking infants see the
world differently. Child Development, 85(4), 1503–1518.
Lopes, P. V., Rodrigues, P. L., Maia, R. A. J., & Malina, M. R. (2011). Motor coordination as
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10 Growth in Childhood

Payne, V. G., & Isaacs, L. D. (2016). Human motor development: A lifespan approach
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Seefeldt, V., Reuschlein, S., & Vogel, P. (1972). Sequencing motor skills within the physical
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Further Reading
Gabbard, C. (2016). Lifelong motor development (6th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins.
Piek, J. P. (2006). Infant motor development. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Piek, J. P., Baynum, G. B., & Barrett, C. (2006). The relationship between fine and gross
motor ability, self-perception, and self-worth in children and adolescents. Human
Movement Science, 25(1), 65–75.

V. Gregory Payne (PED, Indiana University, 1981) is a former Associate Dean, Chair,
and Professor in the Department of Kinesiology at San Jose State University, USA,
specializing in human motor development. A Fellow of the National Academy of
Kinesiology, he is lead author of Human Motor Development: A Lifespan Approach
(with L. D. Isaacs, 2016, Routledge) and the first Distinguished Professor at Shenyang
Sport University, China. He is a recipient of the Southwest District American Alliance
for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance Scholar Award, and the Research
Quarterly for Exercise and Sport Research Writing Award. Greg is a former President
of the National Association for Sport and Physical Education and former Chair of the
National Motor Development Academy.
Seung Ho Chang (PhD, The Ohio State University, 2014) is an Assistant Professor in
the Department of Kinesiology at San Jose State University, USA. He earned his PhD in
kinesiology with a specialization in motor development and physical education teacher
education. His primary research area is the motor competence and physical activity of
disadvantaged preschoolers with developmental delays.