See 1307

SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
UNIT – I - SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES – SEE1307

SEE1307 SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES
UNIT 1
STEPPING MOTORS
Constructional features, principle of operation, types, modes of excitation, Torque production in

Variable Reluctance (VR) stepping motor, Static and Dynamic characteristics, Introduction to
Drive circuits for stepper motor, suppressor circuits, Closed loop control
of stepper motor- Applications.
UNIT 2
SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTORS
Principle of Operation, Constructional features, Torque equation, Power Semi Conductor

Switching Circuits, frequency of variation of inductance of each phase winding - Control circuits
of SRM-Torque - Speed Characteristics, Microprocessor based control of SRM Drive,
Applications.
UNIT 3
SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE MOTORS
Constructional features: axial and radial air gap Motors. Operating principle, reluctance torque
- Phasor diagram, Speed torque characteristics, Applications.
UNIT 4
PERMANENT MAGNET BRUSHLESS DC MOTORS
Commutation in DC motors, Electronic Commutation - Difference between mechanical and

electronic commutators- Hall sensors, Optical sensors, Construction and principle of PMBL DC
Motor, Torque and E.M.F equation, Torque-speed characteristics,
Power Controllers-Drive Circuits, Applications.
UNIT 5
PERMANENT MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

.
Construction and types, Principle of operation, EMF and Torque equation, Phasor diagram-
Torque Speed Characteristics, Power controllers- Self control, Vector control, Microprocessor
Based Control, Applications.
UNIT I
STEPPER MOTOR
S
tepper Motor is an electromechanical device which actuates a train of steps movements
of shaft in response to train of input pulses. Each pulse moves the shaft through a fixed
angle. The angle through which the motor rotates or shaft moves for each pulse is
known as the step angle  expressed in degrees.
Let
Nr  Number of rotor poles.
Ns  Number of stator poles
m  Number of phases.
360 N  Nr
step Angle   (or ) s  360
m Nr Ns Nr
i. Smaller the step angle, greater the number of steps per revolution and higher the
resolution (or) accuracy of positioning obtained.
ii. The step angle can be as small as 0.720 (or) as large as 900.
iii. Common step sizes are 1.8, 2.5, 7.5 &15 .
Resolution is given by the number of steps needed to complete one revolution of the
rotor shaft. Higher the resolution, greater the accuracy of positioning.
360
 Re solution  No of steps / revolution 

Operation of stepper Motor at high speeds is called “Slewing”. If f is the stepping

1.2 Stepper Motor
frequency (or) pulse rate in pulses per sec and  is step angle, then
 f
Motor shaft speed (n)  rps
360
When stepping rate is increased quickly, the motor losses synchronism and stops.
Application of stepper Motor
1. Used for operational control in computer peripherals, textile industry, IC fabrications

& Robotics etc.
2. It is also used in typewriters, line printers, tape drivers, floppy disk drives, CNC
machines, X-Y plotters etc.
3. It is also used in commercial, military & medical applications.
Advantages of stepper Motor
1. No feedback is normally required for either position or speed control.

2. Positional error is not cumulative.
3. Stepper Motors are Compatible with digital equipments.
4. It requires less maintenance.
5. It is mechanically simple and free from contamination.
Types of stepper Motor
1. Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

2. Permanent Magnet stepper Motor
3. Hybrid stepper Motor
Special Electrical Machines 1.3
2.1 VARIABLE RELUCTANCE STEPPER MOTOR
2.1.1 Construction:
It is the most basic type of stepper Motor.
Two important parts of a stepper Motor are

i. Stator
ii. Rotor
 The motor has a stator which is usually wound for three phases.
 The stator consists of common outer frame which is used to enclose the stepper motor
and protect it.
 The salient poles of the stator are fixed under the stator outer frame. The stator poles are
laminated and assembled in a single stack.
 The stator poles are usually made up of soft steel (or) high graded silicon content steel in
order to reduce the hysteresis losses and they are laminated to reduce the eddy current
loss in the stepper Motor.
 Usually there may be six stator poles and concentrated exciting windings are placed
around each pole.
 The exciting windings are usually made up of copper material and pair of exciting
windings form a phase in the stepper Motor. So there are 3 phases in the stepper Motor
which is considered.
 Each phase is excited separately through a switch by the DC source, which is also shown
in the Fig 2.1.
 The direction of rotation of the stepper Motor depends upon the sequence we excite the
windings.
 The Rotor also has projecting poles which may be laminated (or) solid soft steel
material. It is usually made up of ferromagnetic Material and it may be single (or) multi-
stack type
 The multi-stack type rotor gives smaller step angle.
 Generally, number of stator poles will not be equal to number of rotor poles for proper
operation. Here we consider four rotor poles. The rotor pole do not have windings.
1.4 Stepper Motor
Stator Poles
B` C
1
Stator Winding
4 2 Rotor Poles
3 Rotor Shaft
C` B
A`
Outer Frame
Constructional View
A B C
V
_ A` B` C`
S1 S2 S3
Circuit Arrangement
Fig 2.1
2.1.2 Principle of Operation
 The operation is based on various reluctance positions of rotor with respect to stator.
 When any one phase of the stator is excited, it produces its magnetic field whose axis
lies along the poles of the phase which is excited.
 Then the rotor moves to minimum reluctance position.
 Let us see the operation of the VR stepper Motor ,when the phases A,B,C are excited in
sequence ie., one after the other with the help of switches S1,S2 and S3.
 When the phase AA1 is excited with the switch S1 closed, then stator Magnet Axis exist
along the poles formed due to AA1 (ie) vertically.
 Then the rotor adjust itself in a minimum reluctance position and occupies along AA1 
1, 3, rotor poles. This is the initial position (ie) 0°.
 When the BB1 phase is excited with the switch S2 closed, and de-energise the AA1 phase
with the switch S1 opened, then stator magnetic axis shifts along the poles formed due to
BB1 and the rotor tries to align itself in the minimum reluctance position and turns
through 30° step angle in clockwise direction.
 Open the switch S2 and de-energise the BB1 phase and close the switch S3 and energise
the CC1 phase.
 So that the stator magnetic axis shifts along the poles formed due to CC1 and the rotor
tries to align itself in the minimum reluctance position and rotor rotates by a step angle
of 30° in the same direction.
 The stepper motor continues to move in steps of 30 degree for each excitation either in
clockwise or counter clockwise direction.
 The Fig 2.2 gives the three step positions
The switching sequence continues as follows

A,B,C,A  for Clockwise rotation and
A,C,B,A  for Counter Clockwise rotation.
1.6 Stepper Motor
00 300
A A
B` C B` C
1 1
4 4
2
2
3 3
C` B C` B
A` A`
1st Step 2nd Step
600
C`
B`
4 1
3
2
B
C
A`
3rd Step
Fig 2.2
If i is the current passing through the phases which are excited then the torque
1 dL
developed by the motor is given as Tm  i 2 . Where L is the inductance in Henry and
2 d
 is the displacement angle in degree.
Advantages of VR stepper Motor:

1. High torque to inertia ratio
2. High rates of acceleration.
3. Fast dynamic response
4. Simple & low cost
5. Rotor has no windings.
Disadvantages of VR stepper Motor:

1. No detent torque
2. Low Efficiency at low voltages and stepping rate
3. Normally available in 3.6 degree to 30 degree
2.2 PERMANENT MAGNET STEPPER MOTOR
 This motor has got two important part (ie) stator & rotor.
 The stator of this type of motor is multi-polar. Assume that the stator has four poles. Its
stator construction is similar to VR stepper Motor.
 It consists of stator outer frame, stator core and stator winding. The stator core is
laminated and made of soft steel and has projecting poles.
 The stator winding is wound on each pole individually and form a phase and made of
copper material.
 The rotor is also smooth cylindrical type or projecting pole type and it is made up of
permanent magnet material like hard ferrite.
 Because of this construction, it is called as permanent magnet stepper Motor. Usually the
rotor has only two poles. The exciting circuit with the constructional view is shown
figure 2.3.
1.8 Stepper Motor
A Stator Winding
Stator Poles
N
D B PM Rotor
S
Shaft
C
Stator Frame
Constructional view
A B C D
+
V
_
S1 S2 S3 S4
Equivalent Circuit
Fig 2.3
2.2.1 Working Principles
 The basic principle is when a particular stator phase is excited, the rotor magnetic poles
move into alignment with the excited stator poles.
 Consider stator has 4 phases , 4 poles and rotor has ONE poles pair then the step angle
360 360
   90 .
mN r 4 1
 The proper switching of the stator poles is controlled by the driver circuit.
00
A A 900
N
D B D B
N S
S
C C
Step one Second step
S
D B
N
1800
Step three
Fig 2.4
1.10 Stepper Motor
 When S1 is closed then phase A is excited for a particular pole and the opposite pole of
rotor will come into alignment. This is the initial (or) start position (ie) Zero degree
 When S1 is opened and S2 is closed then phase B is excited so that the rotor adjust itself
to align with the stator magnetic axis by moving 90°.
 Similarly S1 and S1 switches are operated in such away that the stepper motor rotates in
steps by 90° for each phase excitation. The direction of rotation depends upon the
sequence of switching (ie)
 A,B,C,D,................... CW rotation.
 A,C,D,B,................... CCW rotation.
 Sometimes the direction of stator current also decides the direction of rotation of stepper
motor.
Advantages of PM stepper Motor:

1. Low power requirement
2. High detent torque.
3. Rotor does not require external exciting current
4. It produces more torque per ampere stator current
Disadvantages of PM stepper Motor:

1. Motor has high inertia
2. Slower Acceleration
3. Step size is from 30 degree to 90 degree
4. The stepper motor with permanent magnet rotors with large number of poles cannot be
manufactured in small size.
5. Hence small steps are not possible. Because of presence of permanent magnet, detent
torque is present in the motor.
2.3 HYBRID STEPPER MOTOR
2.3.1 Construction
 It uses the principles of both variable reluctance and permanent Magnet stepper motor.
 Constructionally also, it has the combination of VR & PM stepper Motor. This motor
has also got two important parts (ie) stator & Rotor.
 The stator has got outer frame, stator core, stator poles & stator pole teeths and stator
winding. The outer frame covers the entire machine and protects it.
 Under the stator frame, stator core is fixed with solid or laminated soft steel material to
reduce eddy current & hysteresis loses.
 The stator may be single or multi-stack configuration. Usually the stator has got 8 poles
and each poles has 2 to 6 teeths.
 There is only two phases winding, made of copper material. The coils on poles, 1,3,5 &
7 are connected in series to form phase while the coils on poles 2,4,6 & 8 are connected
in series to form phase B.
 The winding A & B are excited alternately.
 The constructional view is shown in the figure 2.5
Stator Frame
1
Stator Pole
8 2
N PM Rotor
7 Rotor Shaft
3
S Rotor teeth
6 4
5
Fig 2.5
1.12 Stepper Motor
 In this motor, the rotor has permanent magnet which is fixed in the middle of the rotor and
it is magnetised in the axial direction.
 Surrounding the rotor permanent magnet, rotor teeths are framed which are laminated and
made up of soft steel material.
 The rotor teeths are selected according to the step angle required.
2.3.2 Working Principle
 This motor uses the permanent magnet & variable reluctance principle combined.
 In this motor, the rotor flux is produced by the permanent magnet and it is directed by the
rotor teeths to the appropriate parts of the airgap.
 Consider the hybrid motor has two phase (ie) phase A & phase B. When phase A is
excited by the positive stator current then stator poles 1 and 5 becomes south and 3 and 7
becomes north.
 Now the rotor teeths with north and south polarity will come into alignment with the stator
pole teeths.
 Similarly when phase B is excited and phase A is unexcited then the rotor will move by
one step angle.
360 360 360
 Suppose the rotor has 18 teeths then the step angle,      10 .
m  N r 2 18 36
 The torque in a hybrid stepper motor is produced by the interaction of rotor and the stator
produced fluxes.
 The rotor flux remains constant because it is produced by the permanent magnet. The
motor torque Tm is proportional to the phase current in the stator.
Advantages of Hybrid stepper motor

1. We can achieve very small step angle up to 1.8°.
2. Torque per unit volume is more than VR motor.
3. Due to permanent magnet, the motor has some detent torque.
4. Better damping due to presence of rotor magnets
5. Higher holding torque
Comparison between VR and PM stepper Motor

VR Stepper Motor PM Stepper Motor
The rotor is not magnetized. The rotor is magnetized.
High Torque to inertia Ratio Low torque to inertia ratio.
High rates of acceleration Acceleration is slow.
Dynamic Response is fast Very slow dynamic response.
It can be manufactured for large number of It cannot be manufactured for large number
poles of poles due to constructional difficulties.
Very small step angle is possible Step angles are high in the range 30° to 900
It does not have detent Torque. It has got detent Torque.
Rotor has salient pole construction The rotor has mostly smooth cylindrical
type of construction
Maximum stepping rate is as high as 1200 It is only 300 pulses per second.
pulses per second
2.4 MULTISTACK STEPPER MOTOR
Basically the stepper motors which we have discussed are single stack stepper motor.
In single stack motor, there will be common stator and rotor for the poles or teeths on it.
Which means that the only one stator core and rotor core on which the poles will be placed.
The single stack more will have one winding only for a phase. The cross sectional view is
shown in the figure 2.6.
The multi-stack motors are used to obtain small step size typically ranging between
2° to 15°.
1.14 Stepper Motor
Outer
Frame
A B C A` B` Stator
Stator A Phase Poles
winding
Rotor
1 2 3 4 Poles
Rotor
Shaft
1 2 3 4
A B C A` B`
Fig 2.6
I In an „m‟ stack motor, the motor is divided into a „m‟ number of Magnetically isolated
sections called as stacks along its axial length. The „m‟ stacks of stator have a common outer
frame while the rotors are mounted on a common shaft. The stator and rotor have the same
number poles (or) teeths. The stator poles in motor are aligned equally while the rotor poles
are shifted by 1/m of the pole pitch from one another. All the stator windings in a stack are
excited simultaneously; hence each stator forms a phase. So the number of stator phases is
equal to number of stator stacks.
Generally three stack stepper motor are used. In each stack, the stator and rotor
laminations are provided and they have 12 poles. The poles of the stator are in one line while
the rotor poles are aligned from each other by 1/3 of the pole pitch.
The various windings in one stack are excited simultaneously. When phase A of the
stator is excited then rotor poles of stack A get aligned with the stator poles. But the rotor
poles of stack B and C do not align. Now if phase A is unexcited and phase B is excited then
rotor poles of stack B get aligned with the stator poles. Thus the rotor moves by 1/3 of pole
pitch. Again phase B is unexcited and phase C is excited then the rotor again moves by 1/3 of
the pole pitch and the process continuous.
360
The step angle   where m=3, Nr=12
m  Nr
360
   10
3 12
So we can achieve small step angle by the multi-stack structure.
Common
Stator Frame
A B C
Stator stack C
Stator C
Winding
A B C Rotor Shaft
Rotor Stack A Rotor Stack C

poles
A B C
Stator Stack A
poles
Fig 2.7
2.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF STEPPER MOTOR
The two important characteristics of stepper motor are:
1. Static characteristics
The characteristics relating to motors which are stationary are called static
characteristics.
a. T
 Characteristics:
The stepping motor is kept stationary at rest position by supplying a current in a
specified mode of excitation. If an external Torque is applied to the shaft, an angular
displacement will occur. The relation between the external Torque and displacement
angle  may be plotted as T curve. The maximum of Static Torque is called as

Holding Torque which occurs at  = M. After the M, the rotor moves to the next
equilibrium position. The Holding torque is defined as the maximum static Torque that
can be applied to the shaft of an excited motor without causing continuous rotation. It
is shown in the figure 2.8
1.16 Stepper Motor
b. T/I characteristics
The Holding Torque increases with the current and the curve drawn between the
Holding Torque and the current is called T/I characteristics curve. For VR stepper
motor, this curve starts from the zero point. But for PM & Hybrid stepper motor, the
curve has a slight raise in the holding Torque (ie) Y-axis. This is due to the presence of
detent Torque due to permanent magnet in the rotor when current is zero. It is shown
in the figure 2.9
Holding Torque
TH
Static
Torque
(Nm)
m 
Fig 2.8
VRSM
3 PM 2 Hybrid
SM

Holding 2
Torque (Nm)
1
Detent
Torque
0 1 2 3 4 5
Current (A) 
Fig 2.9
Definition:
Holding Torque :
It is defined as the maximum static torque that can b e applied to the shaft of an
excited motor without causing continuous rotation.
Detent Torque Or Cogging Torque :

It is defined as the maximum load torque that can be applied to the shaft of an
unexcited motor without causing continuous rotation
2. Dynamic characteristics:
The characteristics relating to stepper motor which are in motion (or) about to
start are called dynamic characteristics. The curve drawn between the Torque &
stepping rate gives the Dynamic characteristics which shown in the figure 2.10
Holding Torque
Max starting torque
Pull in curve
 Pull out curve
Torque (Nm) Pull Out
Range
Pull In
Range Slew Max Slewing
Range frequency
Un-rotatable
range Max starting Stepping rate
Frequency (Hz) 
Un-startable
range
Fig 2.10
1.18 Stepper Motor
i. Pull - In Torque Curve

It is called starting characteristics and it is the range of frictional load Torque at
which the motor can start & stop without losing steps for various frequencies in a pulse
train.
ii. Pull - Out Torque Curve

It is called slewing characteristics. After the motor is started by giving specific
excitation, the pulse frequency is gradually increased and during this increase in
frequency the motor has to synchronize with the pulses. The relation between the
frictional load Torque and max pulse rate with which the motor can synchronize is
called pull -out curve. The pullout curve is greatly affected by the driver CKT,
coupling, measuring devices and other conditions.
iii. Max Starting frequency

It is defined as maximum control frequency at which the unloaded motor can start
& stop without losing steps.
iv. Max Pullout rate (or) Max Slewing frequency

It is defined as max: frequency at which the unloaded motor can run without losing
steps.
v. Max starting Torque

It is also called as Max pullout Torque and it is defined as the Maximum frictional
load Torque with which motor can start and synchronize with the pulse train of a
frequency as low as 10 HZ.
2.6 Static Torque Production in a VR stepper Motor
The torque developed in the stepper motor can be dealt in-terms of magnetic energy and co-
energy. It has got three case.
I. Infinite Permeable Core
II. Constant Permeable Cores
III. Saturated Core
Force
W
A Electromagnet
Iron Piece attracted by Electromagnet

Fig 2.11
I
g/2
Number of
f
A turns n
g/2
Model of Stepping Motor
Fig 2.12
1.20 Stepper Motor
Case I :
Infinitely permeable cores:
To analyze the situation of an iron piece being attracted into a magnetic field created
by a electromagnet as shown in the figure 2.11 and we use the model of stepper motor as
shown figure 2.12.
A current I is flowing through the coil of “n” turns to yield magnetic flux and a force f is
acting on the iron piece in the x - direction. First let us determine the magnetic flux density Bg
in the air gap. Amperes circuital law along the dotted closed loop is expressed as
 H .dl  nI _____ (1)
The left hand of this equation is rewritten as

g  Hg g
 H .dl  H g 2 2
 H il  H g g  H il _____ (2)
Where Hg = Magnetic field intensity in the gaps
Hi = Magnetic field intensity in the cores
l = Total magnetic path in the cores.

When the permeability of core is extremely large, Hi is so low (ie) Hi=0. If Hi=0 and the core
permeability  is infinity. then Bi = Hi =  in the cores.
 H g g  nI
Hg  n I _____ (3)
g
The gap flux density is Bg= 0 n I g _____ (4)
Where o is the permeability in the air gap length.

Let the transverse length of iron piece be w, let the distance by which the rotor tooth and iron
piece overlap be x. The overlapped area is now „xw‟.
 Magnetic flux  = Flux density x Area
= 0 n I g xw _____ (5)
Hence the flux linkage  is given by
  n   xw 0 n 2 I g _____ (6)
Let us assume that there is an incremental displacement x during time interval t . Then the
incremental flux linkage is
  x w 0 n 2 I _____ (7)
g
The emf induced in the coils by the change in flux linkage is
   w 0 n 2 I x
e   Volts _____ (8)
t g t
The minus sign in this equation implies that the direction of the emf is opposing the current.
Since the current I is supplied by the power source for the time interval t to overcome the
counter – emf and the work done pi by the source is
w0 n 2 I 2
pi  I  e  t   x _____ (9)
g
Let the coil resistance is assumed zero for analysis. pi can be expressed in terms of Bg as
follows,
Bg2 gw
pi   x _____ (10)
0
The work done by the source is converted partly to mechanical work and the rest is spent in
increasing the magnetic field energy in the gaps. The increase in the gap field energy is given
by
1 Bg 2
wm  . (increase in the gap space)
2 0
1 2 g w x
 Bg _____ (11)
2 o
From (10) and (11) we find that half of pi is converted into the magnetic field energy in the
gaps and other half for mechanical work. Since the mechanical work is the force (f) multiplied
by the displacement x , we obtain
Bg2
Mechanical work  f x  1 g wx _____ (12)
po
2
0
1 2 gw
f  Bg _____ (13)
2 o
1.22 Stepper Motor
Other hand, the magnetic energy Wm in the gap is
1 2 g wx
Wm  Bg _____ (14)
2 o
From (13) and (14) we derive

dwm
f  _____ (15)
dx
Assume that the current I is kept constant during the displacement, then
 w 
 f  m  I = constant _____ (16)
 x 
Assume that the flux is kept constant during the displacement, then
 wm 
f     = constant _____ (17)
 x 
Case II :
Constant permeability of the cores:
In the previous case with infinite permeability, the magnetic field appears only in the
gaps and its analysis is simple. When cores have some finite permeability, the magnetic
energy not only appears in the gaps but also in the cores and other spaces and it is not easy to
analysis this situation by electromagnetic field theory. So we will derive an expression for
force in terms of circuitry parameters under some assumption.
If the coil inductance is L in the model, then flux linkage
  LI _____ (1)
The magnetic energy Wm in the system is given as
1
Wm  L I 2 _____ (2)
2
If the iron piece undergoes a displacement x during the time interval t , the inductance L
will increase by L .
The emf induced in the coil is

 ( LI )
e  _____ (3)
t t
If the power supply is a current source and provides a current I during the displacement, then
L
e I _____ (4)
t
The work done pi by the source on the circuit is
p i  I e t  I 2 L _____ (5)
On the other hand, the increase in the magnetic energy is

1 2
wm  I L _____ (6)
2
From (5) and (6) it is seen that half of the work done by the source is converted into magnetic
energy and other half is converted into mechanical work po given as
po  f x  1 I 2 L _____ (7)

2
1 2 L
 The force f  I _____(8)
2 x
In the above analysis it was assumed that coil resistance is zero and the power supply was a
current source. The force equation says that the force developed on the iron piece is in the
direction which will increase the inductance (or) decrease the reluctance.
Case III:
Treatment of Magnetic saturated core
In most of the stepper motor the cores are subject to magnetic saturation. Let us
assume that the motor is to be operated in the linear B/H characteristic region . we can discuss
general theory for torque developed with magnetic saturation in cores.
Again using the model, let us analysis the energy conversion. The iron piece is drawn by a
force f due to the magnetic field induced by the coil current I and travels from x0 to x0  x
taking a time internal t .
1.24 Stepper Motor
The flux linkage is a function of the position x and the current i and expressed as ψ(x, i). If the
current i is kept at value I during the displacement, the work done pi by the power supply
for the interval t is

pi  Iet  I  t  I  _____ (1)
t
The Mechanical work done on the iron piece during the interval t is
p0  f x _____ (2)
The increase in the magnetic energy during the displacement x is

  
wm  
o
id ( xo  x, i)   id ( xo , i)
o
_____ (3)
In the above equation the current i is treated as a variable which varies from 0 to I and the 
varies from 0 to    (or )  .
In the equation (3) each term is integrated by parts and we get

I
wm  I     ( x, i ).di _____ (4)
o
 
Magnetic
energy
Magnetic
energy
Magnetic
Magnetic
Co energy
Co energy
i  I i  I
At x = x0 At x = xo +  x
Since the first term on the right hand side is the work done by the power supply.
I
pi  wm    ( x, i ).di _____ (5)
0
pi  wm  p0 _____ (6)

I
Mechanical work done po  f x    ( x, i) di _____ (7)
0
I
  ( x, i ).di
 (magnetic coenergy )
f  0

x x I  constant
The corresponding Torque

I
  ( , i).di
 (magnetic co energy )
T 0

  I  constant
Where  is the angular position of the rotor.
These are the fundamental equations necessary to calculate the force and torque produced in
stepping motors due to magnetic saturation of the cores. When the system has „n‟ coils then
the Torque equation is expresses as
 n I
T

  ( , i)di
i 1 o
_____ (8)
1.26 Stepper Motor
2.7 VARIOUS MODES OF OPERATION OF STEPPER MOTOR
1. Single phase ON (or) Full step operation
In this mode of operation each phase is switched ON independently. Consider the VR

stepper motor with 6 stator poles and 4 rotor poles. The equivalent circuit of Full step
operation is shown in the figure 2.13 with the truth table.
A B C
V
_ A` B` C`
S1 S2 S3
Equivalent Circuit
A B C 
X _ _ 00
_ X _ 300
_ _ X 600
X _ _ 900
_ X _ 1200
Truth table
Fig 2.13
360 360
   30 .
The step angle
mnr 3  4
When m = number of phases.
The operation of single phase ON mode is as follows. When S1 is closed, AA1 phase is
excited and the rotor will align (or) attracted into a position of minimum reluctance (ie) 00.
Then S1 is opened and S2 is closed, the rotor rotates through a full step angle 30 in the
clockwise direction. Similarly when S2 is opened and S3 is closed, the rotor again moves by an
angle 30 . So the rotor rotates by an angle of 30 for each phase when excited. The
switching sequence is A,B,C,A........ , the rotor rotates in clockwise direction and when the
switching sequence is A,C,B,A......... , the rotor rotates in counter- clockwise direction.
2. Two Phase ON Mode
In this mode of operation, two stator phases are excited simultaneously. When S1 & S2
are closed then phase A and B are energised together, the rotor experiences torque from both
phases and comes to rest at point midway between the two adjacent full step position. So
initially the rotor position will be at 150. When sequence of switching is carried out the rotor
moves by full step angle.
The sequence of switching of clockwise rotation is AB,BC,CA................. The
sequence of switching for counter clockwise rotation is AC,CB,BA.................. The truth table
is given below.
A B C 
X X _ 150
_ X X 450
X _ X 750
X X _ 1050
_ X X 1350
X _ X 1650
The 2 phase ON mode provides greater holding torque and a much better damped single stack
response than the single phase ON mode of operation.
1.28 Stepper Motor
3. Half Step Operation

This mode of operation combines both single & two phase ON mode operation. It is
also called as wave excitation and it causes the rotor rotate in steps of 150(ie) half the full step
angle. The half stepping can be obtained by exciting the three phases in proper sequence so
that the rotor rotates by half step.
The sequence of switching for clockwise rotation is A, AB, B, BC.. and the sequence
of switching for counter clockwise rotation is A,AC,C,CB.......... The truth table is given
below
A B C 
X _ _ 00
X X _ 150
_ X _ 300
_ X X 450
_ _ X 600
It will be seen that in half stepping mode, the step angle is halved thereby enabling the
resolution. Moreover, continuous half stepping produces a smoother shaft rotation.
4. Micro stepping Operation

It is also known as mini - stepping. It utilizes two phases simultaneously as in 2 phase
ON mode but with the two currents deliberately made unequal. The current in phase A is held
constant while that in phase B is increased in very small increments until maximum current is
reached. The current in phase A is then reduced to zero using the same very small increments.
In this way, the resultant step becomes very small and is called micro step. Stepper motors
employing micro stepping technique are used in printing and photo typesetting where very
fine resolution is needed. Micro stepping provides smooth low speed operation and high
resolution.
2.8 A CLOSED LOOP OPERATION SYSTEM USING

MICROPROCESSOR
Now a days, microprocessors are available cheaply. Utilization of a microprocessor in

control of stepping motors is a very interesting engineering problem. The choice of lead
angles and the arrangement of switching points are based on the operation of the motor and
selection of motor. The two curves of speed Vs distance under closed loop control of a stepper
motor is shown in the figure 2.14
Curve (1) Curve (2)

CW CW
Target
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
10 20 30 40 50 60
CCW CCW
Steps Steps
Fig 2.14
The curve 1 is an excellent pattern where the motor is started with an appropriate lead
angle, accelerated with another lead angle and began to be decelerated at the best timing from
which the speed is reduced most quickly and becomes zero just at the target. To start and
accelerate a motor, a lead angle larger than one step is used, while zero (or) a negative lead
angle is used for deceleration. On curve 2 which is an unskilled one, deceleration is initiated
when the target position is detected. But the motor cannot stop at once and will overrun due to
inertia. To accommodate the rotor at the current position, the motor is forced to move
backward by setting the lead angle to a proper value. The speed Vs distance locus may be
oscillatory as shown in the figure 2.15
1.30 Stepper Motor
Microprocessor Job instruction

System
Learning and execution program
Monitor
hardware Driver and logic
sequencer
Optical
encoder
Stepper
Motor Load
Fig 2.15
A microprocessor system is used here to find out the best timings to change lead
angles to attain the curve 2 type motion, starting from the pattern of 2. The below figure
illustrates the outline of the system which has a dedicated logic sequence outside the
microprocessor. A positional signal is fed back to the block of hardware which monitors the
rotor movement and exchanges information with the microprocessor. The software must be
programmed so that the microprocessor determines better timings for changing lead angles,
based on the previous experience and present position / speed data. The microprocessor will
finally do several executions, and find the optimum timings for each motion used.
The microprocessor is also used for determining timings to set proper lead angles, based
on the following information.
i. Present position
ii. Error steps from target.
iii. Signal to indicate that the rotor has passed the point a half step before target.
iv. Signal to indicate that motion has reversed.
v. Speed.
The flow chart of the programmed microprocessor is given below.
start
Initial setting
Pre-learning Run
no
Are there
print
data?
yes
Store print data
Calculation of
numbers of steps and
direction
Store print data
no
Print
data
End?
yes
1.32 Stepper Motor
Initial Setting
At first, the motor is operated in the ordinary open loop mode for one revolution or to
rotate by apart of one revolution in CW direction. The purpose of this is to reset the present
position counter.
Pre-learning run
In this process, every kind of motion which may be commanded in the job processing
is executed several times to train the microprocessor system before it learns the timings to
change lead angle to yield optimum speed pattern for a given lead.
Are there print data? After 200 kinds of motions are trained, the system is ready to work for
practical job processing. If the microprocessor receives any data to be printed, they are at once
stored in RAMS.
Calculation of number of steps and direction
The distance between the present position and the target is calculated, and the result is sent out
to the error counter. The position at which lead angle is to be changed from acceleration to
deceleration is also sent out to the LACS generator.
Main program
Acceleration mode of lead angle and direction is set and putout from output port 2 to
the gate, to start the motor. It is expected that every motion is performed in the shortest time.
If however, any variation of load conditions happens, overshoots positive (or) negative will
occur and the timings of changes in the lead angle are always corrected.
2.9 DRIVER SYSTEM
A simple driver system for a stepper motor is represented by the block diagram as
shown in the figure 2.16 It consists of input controller, logic sequencer, Driver circuit and
stepper motor.
Stepper
motor
ph1 ph1
Input Logic ph2
ph2
controller sequencer Driver ph3
ph3
Fig 2.16
Input Controller
It is an electronic controller which is used to produce proper train of pulses needed to

put before the logic sequencer. The purpose of input controller is, when an increment is
performed by two or more steps, this will generate proper train of pulses with proper duration
of time. The electronic devices such as micro controllers & microprocessor are used to
generate pulse train to speed up, slew & slow the motor in the most efficient and reliable
manner.
Logic Sequencer
When a command pulse is applied to the logic sequencer, the states of the output
terminals are changed to control the motor driver so as to rotate the motor a step angle in the
desired direction. The rotational direction is determined by the logic states at the direction,
input (ie) H level for CW and L level for CCW direction. In some application the logic
sequencer are unidirectional, having no direction signal terminal.
The logic sequencer is a logic circuit which controls the excitation of the windings
sequentially, responding to step command pulse. It generally consists of shift registers and
logical gates such as NAND, NOR etc. The logical sequences can be assembled by a proper
combination of J-K Flip flops IC chips and logic gate IC chips. Nowadays built in logic
sequencer are designed for stepper motors available in the market.
Motor Driver
The output from logic sequencer is given as input to the motor driver by which the
switching of the motor winding is governed. To establish proper rotation of stepper motor, the
driver circuit plays a vital role in driving the motor in proper step angle. The simple method of
connection is the direct connection which is shown below. If the output currents from the
sequencer are not enough to drive the power transistor, it is necessary to put a buffer for
current amplification between the two stages.
The logical sequencer with the motor driver is shown in the figure 2.17
1.34 Stepper Motor
SEQUENCING
LOGIC
+5v
+5v
Fig 2.17
Problems with Motor Drivers

A winding on a stepper motor is inductive and appears as a combination of inductance
and resistance in series. In addition, as a motor revolves, a counter emf is produces in the
winding. The equivalent circuit is shown in the figure 2.18.
Counter
Driver
L R emf Motor
terminal _ + terminal
Motor E
Fig 2.18
The motor parameters vary due to manufacturing tolerances and operating conditions. Since
the stepper motors are designed to deliver the highest power from the smallest size, the
temperature can be as high as 1000c and the winding resistance therefore increases 20 to 25
percent.
2.10 SUPPRESSORS
When the transistor is turned off, a high voltage builds up due to L di

and this
dt
voltage may damage the transistor. There are several methods of suppressing this spike
voltage and protecting the transistor.
i. Diode suppressor: If a diode is put in parallel with the winding in the polarity shown, a
circulating current will flow after the transistor is turned off and the current will decay
with time. The collector potential is VCE  E  VFD . This method is very simple but a
drawback is that the circulating current lasts for a considerable length of time and
produce a braking torque.
VCE  E  VFD
1.36 Stepper Motor
i
VFD
ii. Diode / Resister Suppressor: When a resister is connected in series with the diode as
shown, quick damping of circulating current will take place. Then the collector voltage
VCE  E  I RS  VDF . The higher the resistance Rs, quicker the current decays after
turn off, but the higher the collector potential. Therefore, a higher maximum voltage
rating is required for fast Decay.
Rs
i
VFD
iii. Zener Diode Suppressor:- Zener Diodes are often used to connect in series with the
ordinary diode as shown. Compared to the two cases discussed earlier, in this method the
current decays more quickly after turn off. The collector potential is VCE  E  Vz which
is independent of the current.
Diode
Diode
current Diode + Resistor
Diode + Zener Diode
Time(ms)
iv. Condenser Suppressor:- This scheme is employed for bifilar wound motor and four
phase motor. A condenser is put between ph1 & ph3 and between ph2 & ph4. The
condenser serves two purposes:
a. When a transistor is turned off, the condenser connected to it with the diode
absorbs the decaying current from the winding to protect the transistor.
b. The condenser acts as an electrical Damper. That is a method of damping rotor
oscillations is to provide a mechanism to convert kinetic energy into heat energy.
The oscillatory current will flow in the closed loop between the phases and condenser as
shown and Joule heat is generated in the windings which means that the condenser works as
an electrical damper.
The condenser suppressors are suited to drives in which the stepping rate is limited in a
narrow region. The smaller the capacitance, the more the pullout Torque at higher stepping
rate which is due to quick decay of current after turning off. The maximum potential applied
to collector after turning off becomes higher with decreasing capacitance.
1.38 Stepper Motor
Re Re
i i E
ph1 ph3 ph2 ph4
C1 C2
T1 T3 T2 T4
200

VCE
150
(volts)
100
50
5 10 15 20
Condenser (f)
2.11 Input Controller:

The input controller which governs the number of step command pulses and their timings and
in some applications the directional signal also.
2.11.1 Single step controllers
The simplest is the system which performs an increment with a single step. The step Vs time
relation in this system will be such as shown in figure 2.19.
Number of 4
steps
3
0
Pulse train
Fig 2.19 Single step response
The positioning profile is generally oscillatory and its damping depends on the motor and
drive scheme used. The input controller is very simple, since its function is only to provide an
output signal which is suitable as the input to the sequencer. The example for simple input
controller is shown figure 2.20.
1.40 Stepper Motor
+5V
½ -7400
Pulse 470  100  output
input
1k
0.1f
Schmitt trigger
320
Fig 2.20
It has the following features:-

1. The input signal is clamped at a suitable H level. (5v)
2. Noise is absorbed in the condenser.
3. Since the input signal is deformed by the condenser, it is reformed by means of a
Schmitt trigger. NAND & NOR gates may be used for the Schmitt trigger. If any part
of the input signal can be less than the ground potential, a diode should be added as
shown by the dotted curves. Mostly universal sequences have a Schmitt trigger inbuilt
2.11.2 Input controller for Electronic damper

To carryout a single step without oscillation, a method called “back phasing” is used.
The relation between the position profile and pulse timing is illustrated in the below
figure 2.21
Switched again to ph2

ph2
equilibrium
position

Position Switched
profile back to ph1
ph1
equilibrium Current is
position switched from
ph1 to ph2
Pulse timing 
Figure 2.21 Rotational angle and pulse timing in back phasing damping.
The motor at rest on an equilibrium position with ph1 excited, is commanded to move to the
next equilibrium position. If the rotor continuous to be accelerated by the excitation of ph2, it
will overshoot exceeding the next equilibrium position. So as the rotor is moving towards the
next phase equilibrium position, ph2 is switched off and ph1 is switched back ON. This
produces a retarding torque which tends to slow down the rotor. When the rotor momentum is
cancelled by the retarding torque, it will momentarily come to rest before reversing to go back
to the previous position. At this moment, excitation is again switched to ph2. The reversing
pulse must be exactly timed so that the rotor reaches zero speed when it is on the equilibrium
position of ph2. Thus when the exciting current is switched back to ph2, the rotor will lock in
on the ph2 equilibrium position with no overshoot or oscillations. This technique can be
applied to more than one step of motion by the addition of more pulses preceding the back
phasing pulse. it may be summarized as
i. Adjust the pulse preceding the back phasing to give minimum response.
ii. Adjust the back phasing pulse to retard the load motion such that it just reaches its
step position.
iii. Adjust the last pulse to hold the load in its final position with minimum oscillation.
1.42 Stepper Motor
2.11.3 Damped incremental motion with multi-steps

Single step motion is generally oscillatory. But non - oscillatory incremental motions
can be performed with several steps by proper pulse timing. Two examples are given here.
1. Delayed last step electronic damping
Assume that it is wished to move three steps. If a three pulse train is applied at a
moderate rate ,the response will appear as shown in figure 2.22. However, if the period
between the first and second pulses is adjusted such that the rotor will overshoot by
exactly one step, its final step position will be ph3. The last is then applied to hold the
rotor in place at its point of zero speed as shown in figure 2.23. If the system friction is
such that the rotor does not overshoot one step, this technique cannot be used, likewise this
cannot be applied to less than three steps.
Number
of steps 2
0
Time 
Pulse train
Figure 2.22
0
Time 
Figure 2.23
2. Constant pulse rate electronic damping
If a non - oscillatory incremental motion is performed with several pulses at equal
intervals, the input controller may be simple. Here the pulses are generated at constant rate
so that the oscillations at the equilibrium position are avoided. The below figure 2.24,2.25
& 2.26 shows the single step, three pulse and six pulse response of the stepper motor.
0
Time 
Fig 2.24 Single step response

1.44 Stepper Motor
3 Pulse interval
= 8.6 msec
0
Time 
Fig 2.25 Three Pulse responses
6 Pulse interval
= 5.93 msec
5
4
3
0
Time 
Fig 2.26 Six pulse response

2.12 Limitation of open loop operation & need for closed loop operation:
In the drive system, the step command pulses were given from an external source and
it was expected that the stepping motor is able to follow every pulse. This type of operation is
referred to as open loop drive. The open loop drive is attractive and widely accepted in
applications of speed & position control. However, the performance of a stepping motor
driven in the open loop is limited. It may fail to follow a pulse command when the frequency
of the pulse train is too high or the inertia load is too heavy. Moreover the motor motion tends
to be oscillatory in open loop drive.
The performance of a stepping motor can be improved to a great extent by employing
position feedback (or) speed feedback to determine the proper phase to be switched at proper
timings. This type of control is termed as closed loop drive. A position sensor is needed for
detecting the motor position example-an optical encoder which is coupled to the motor shaft.
In closed loop control, the motion of the motor is much quicker and smoother.The closed loop
operation is shown in fig 2.27
DC Supply
Logic Sequences Motor Driver
Feed back
pulse
Optical Stepper motor
encoder
Fig 2.27 Simple closed loop control of Stepper Motor

1.46 Stepper Motor
PROBLEM
1. A 3 phase VR stepper motor has the following parameters: winding resistance is 1

, average phase winding inductance is 30 mH and rated winding current is 3
amps. Design a simple unipolar drive circuit such that the electrical tie constant is 2
msec at phase turn on and 2 msec at turn off. The stepping rate is 300 steps per
second
Jan 2006
Given data
Turn on time constant, on = 2 msec
Turn off time constant off = 1 msec
Winding resistance, Rw = 1 ohm

Winding inductance, Lw = 30 mH
Stepping rate  = 300 / second
To find : Design a simple unipolar drive circuit
Solution
Rf Rf Rf = 15 
A Df B Df A Df
VS = 45 volts
Base
Drive
_
Lw
The turn on time constant , on 
Rw  Rext
Lw
Rw  Rext 
on
Lw
Rext   Rw
on
30
 Rext  1
2
Rext = 14 Ohm
Power loss due to P  I w2  Rext
= 32 x 14
P = 126 watts
The DC voltage V = Iw (Rw + Rext)
= 3 (1 + 14)
V = 45 volts
Lw
Turn off time constant off 
Rw  Rext  R f
Le
Rf    Rw  Rext 
off
30
  15
1
Rf = 15 ohm
1
Energy stored in the phase resistance at turn off   Lw  iw2
2
1
  30 103  32
2
w = 0.135 Joules
[ Rf = Rw + Rext all the time]
1.48 Stepper Motor
0.135
Energy dissipated across Rf is   0.0675 Joules
2
Stepping rate
Number of turn off in each phase =
q
300
  100
3
Average power dissipated in Rf = 100 x 0.0675 = 6.75 watts

VCE(max) = V + (q x Rf)
= 45 + (3 x 15)
VCE(max) = 90 V
Current rating of the transistor is 3 amps
2. A steeper motor driven by a polar drive circuit has 30mH winding inductance, 45 V
DC supply, BA rated current and 15  total resistance in each phase. When the
resistors are turned off find i. time taken by phase current to decay to zero and ii.
Properties of stored inductive energy returned to supply.
Nov/Dec 2003
Jan 2005
Given data
Winding Inductance Lw = 30mH
The DC supply = VS = 45 volts
Total resistance in each phase R = 15 ohm
Rated current Irated = 3 amps
To find
i. Time taken by phase current to decay to zero and
ii. Proportion of stored inductive energy returned to supply
Solution
D1 D3
T1 T3
VS
T4 T2
D4 D2
Fig Bipolar driven circuit for VRM

During the operation going on the equation circuit are drawn like this
i1
VS = 45 V
+
i1
_
_
i2
_
1.50 Stepper Motor
i  2e
t


 3 1 e
t


t
i  3  6e 
Lw 30  103
 
R 15
  2 m sec
i. Let i fall to zero in time t1.
t
0  3  6e 
   ln  63 
ln e
t

t1
 0.7

t1  0.7  2 103
t1 = 1.4 msec
ii. The energy returned to the supply Ws.
t1
  Vs i dt
0
  dt
t1
t
  45 3  6e 
t1 t1
t
  135  dt   270 e  dt
0 0
t1
 135(t1 )  270    e 
t

  0
 135 t1  270  2  e   1

 t1
 
t1 = 1.4 msec  = 2 msec
Ws   135 1.4 103   270  2 103  e  1

1.4
2
 
= 0.081 Joules
Ws = 81 mJ
1
Stored energy  i 2 Lw
2
1
  32  30 103
2
E = 135 mJ
Proportion of energy returned to supply
81
 100
135
= 60 %
3. A VR stepper motor has a 8 pole in the stator and they have five teeth in each pole.
If the rotor has 50 teeth, calculate the step angle and resolution
Given data
Stator pole Ns = 8
Rotor teeth Nr = 50
To find
i. Step angle,  and
ii. Resolution, Z
Solution
Ns  Nr
i. Step angle ,   3600
Ns Nr
40  50
  3600  1.80
2000
3600 3600
ii. Resolution, Z  
 1.80
200 steps/ resolution
4. A steeper motor has a step angle of 2.50, determine a. resolution b. Number of steps
per shaft to make 25 revolution c. shaft speed if starting stepping frequency is 3600
pulse/sec.
Given data
Step angle,  = 2.50
1.52 Stepper Motor
Stepping frequency = 3600 pulse/sec

To find
i. Resolution (Z)
ii. Number of steps to make 25 resolution and
iii. Shaft speed
Solution
3600 3600
i. Resolution Z  
 2.50
= 144 steps/revolution
ii. Number of steps for 25 revolution = 25 x 144 = 3600 steps
iii. Stepping frequency f = 3600 pulse/ sec
Step/angle/pulse = 2.50.
Angular displacement/sec = 3600 x 2.5
= 9600 angle/sec
9600
Revolution/sec =  25 revolution/sec
360
Shaft speed = 25 x 60 = 1500 rpm
5. What is the step angle of a 4 phase stepper motor with 12 stator teeth and 8 rotor
teeth.
Solution
Number of phase m = 4
Number of rotor, Nr = 3
360 360
Step angle     300
mN r 3  4
TEXT / REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Miller, T.J.E. “Brushless permanent magnet and reluctance motor drives”,

Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1989.
2. Kenjo.T, “Stepping motors and their microprocessor control”, Oxford University

Press, 1995.
3. R.Krishnan, “Electric Motor Drives - Modeling, Analysis and Control”, Prentice-

Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2009.
4. Kenjo.T and Naganori, S “Permanent Magnet and Brushless DC motors”,

5. B.K. Bose, “Modern Power Electronics & AC drives”, Dorling Kindersley India,
2006.
QUESTIONS:
UNIT – I STEPPING MOTORS
PART A
1 Define step angle and give its formula

2 State any 3 applications of stepper motors
3 Describe the resolution of a stepper motor & write the equation for it.
4 State the advantage of 2 ph excitation in a stepper motor?
5 Explain slewing in a stepper motor?
6 Examine the resolution of a stepper motor with a step angle of 2.5 degrees.
7 Solve for the no of stator poles for a 4 stack VR stepper motor has a step angle of 1.8 deg.?
8 Recognize the micro-stepping in a stepper motor.
9 A 3 stack VR stepper motor has a step angle of 10 deg. Identify the no of rotor teeth in each
stack.
10 Examine step angle of a PM stepper motor with 8 stator poles & 4 rotor poles.
11 Classify the different modes of excitation of stepper motor.
12 Explain holding torque in stepper motor.
13 Compare variable reluctance and permanent magnet stepper motor.
14 Define the term detent torque.
15 List the functions of logic sequencer.
PART B
1 Explain the construction & principle of operation of a VR single stack stepper motor with
different modes of operation.
2 Investigate on dynamic characteristics of a stepper motor.
3 Formulate the construction & principle of a PM type stepper motor with different modes of
excitation.
4 A single stack VR type stepper motor has a step angle of 15 deg. Identify the two possible
combinations of stator & rotor poles.
5 A stepper motor has a step angle of 1.8deg & is driven at 4000pps. Examine i) The resolution
ii) Motor speed iii) Number of pulses required to rotate the shaft through 54deg.
6 Derive an expression for the torque generated in Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor.
7 Develop the drive circuits for stepper motor with neat diagram.
UNIT – II - SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES – SEE1307

UNIT 2
SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTORS

Principle of Operation, Constructional features, Torque equation, Power Semi Conductor
Switching Circuits, frequency of variation of inductance of each phase winding - Control circuits
of SRM-Torque - Speed Characteristics, Microprocessor based control of SRM Drive,
Applications.
3. SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTORS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The switched reluctance motor (SRM) drives for industrial applications are of recent
origin. Since 1969, a variable reluctance motor has been proposed for variable speed
applications. The origin of this motor can be traced back to 1842, but the “reinvention” has
been possible due to the advent of inexpensive, high-power switching devices. Even though
this machine is a type of synchronous machine, it has certain novel features.
3.2 CONSTRUCTION OF SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTOR
SRM are made up of laminated stator and rotor cores with Ns=2mq poles on the stator
and Nr poles on the rotor. The number of phases is m and each phase is made up of
concentrated coils place on 2q stator poles. Most favored configuration amongst many more
options are 6/4 three phase and 8/6 four phase SRM’s as shown in the figure 3.1(a).
These two configurations correspond to q=1(one pair of stator poles (and coils) per
phase) but q may be equal to 2, 3 when, for the three phase machine, we obtain 12/8 or 18/12
topologies applied either for low speed high torque direct drives or for high speed stator
generator systems for aircraft. The stator and rotor pole angles β s and β r are, in general,
almost equal to each other to avoid zero torque zones.
It has wound field coils of a dc motor for its stator windings and has no coils or
magnets on its rotor. Both the stator and rotor have salient poles, hence the machine is
referred to as a doubly salient machine. Such a typical machine is shown in Figure 3.1a, and
a modified version with two teeth per pole is shown in Figure 3.1b.
FIGURE 3.1 Switched reluctance motor configurations. (a) One tooth per pole.
(b) Two teeth per pole (12/10 poles).
The rotor is aligned whenever diametrically opposite stator poles are excited. In a
magnetic circuit, the rotating member prefers to come to the minimum reluctance position at
the instance of excitation. While two rotor poles are aligned to the two stator poles, another
set of rotor poles is out of alignment with respect to a different set of stator poles. Then, this
set of stator poles is excited to bring the rotor poles into alignment. Likewise, by sequentially
switching the currents into the stator windings, the rotor is rotated. The movement of the
rotor, hence the production of torque and power, involves switching of currents into stator
windings when there is a variation of reluctance; therefore, this variable speed motor drive is
referred to as a switched reluctance motor drive.
3.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANATGES OF SRM

3.3.1 ADVANTAGES
The SRM possess a few unique features that makes it a vigorous competitor to existing AC
and DC motors in various adjustable-speed drive and servo applications. The advantages of
an SRM can be summarized as follows:
• Machine construction is simple and low-cost because of the absence of rotor
winding and permanent magnets.
• There are no shoot-through faults between the DC buses in the SRM drive converter
because each rotor winding is connected in series with converter switching
elements.
• Bidirectional currents are not necessary, which facilitates the reduction of the
number of power switches in certain applications.
• The bulk of the losses appear in the stator, which is relatively easier to cool.
• The torque–speed characteristics of the motor can be modified to the application
requirement more easily during the design stage than in the case of induction and PM
machines.
• The starting torque can be very high without the problem of excessive in-rush
current due to its higher self-inductance.
• The open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current at faults are zero or very small.
• The maximum permissible rotor temperature is higher, since there are no permanent
magnets.
• There is low rotor inertia and a high torque/inertia ratio.
• Extremely high speeds with a wide constant power region are possible.
• There are independent stator phases, which do not prevent drive operation in the case
of loss of one or more phases.
3.3.2 DISADVANTAGES
The SRM also comes with a few disadvantages among which torque ripple and
acoustic noise are the most critical. The higher torque ripple also causes the ripple current
in the DC supply to be quite large, necessitating a large filter capacitor. The doubly salient
structure of the SRM also causes higher acoustic noise compared with other machines.
The absence of permanent magnets imposes the burden of excitation on the stator
windings and converter, which increases the converter KVA requirement. Compared with
PM brushless machines, the per unit stator copper losses will be higher, reducing the
efficiency and torque per ampere. However, the maximum speed at constant power is not
limited by the fixed magnet flux as in the PM machine, and, hence, an extended constant
power region of operation is possible in SRMs.
3.4 APPLICATIONS OF SRM
The simple motor structure and inexpensive power electronic requirement have made the
SRM an attractive alternative to both AC and DC machines in adjustable-speed drives. Few
of such applications are listed below.
a) General purpose industrial drives;
b) Application-specific drives: compressors, fans, pumps, centrifuges;
c) Domestic drives: food processors, washing machines, vacuum cleaners;
d) Electric vehicle application;
e) Aircraft applications;
f) Servo-drive.
3.5 ELEMENTARY OPERATION OF THE SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTOR

'
Consider that the rotor poles r1 and r1 and stator poles c and c ' are aligned. Apply a
current to phase a with the current direction as shown in Figure 3.2a. A flux is established
'
through stator poles a and a ' and rotor poles r2 and r2 which tends to pull the rotor poles
'
r2 and r2 toward the stator poles a and a ' , respectively. When they are aligned, the stator
current of phase a is turned off and the corresponding situation is shown in Figure 3.2b. Now
'
the stator winding b is excited, pulling r1 and r1 toward b and b ' in a clockwise direction.
'
Likewise, energization of the c phase winding results in the alignment of r2 and r2 with
c and c ' , respectively. Hence, it takes three phase energizations in sequence to move the rotor
by 900 and one revolution of rotor movement is effected by switching currents in each phase
as many times as there are number of rotor poles. The switching of currents in the sequence
acb results in the reversal of rotor rotation is seen with the aid of Figures 3.2a and b.
FIGURE 3.2 Operation of an SRM. (a) Phase c aligned. (b) Phase a aligned.
3.6 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF THE SWTICHED RELUCTANCE MOTOR
The torque production in the switched reluctance motor is explained using the
elementary principle of electromechanical energy conversion in a solenoid, as shown in
Figure 3.3a. The solenoid has N turns, and when it is excited with a current i the coil sets up a
flux φ .Increasing the excitation current will make the armature move towards the yoke,
which is fixed. The flux vs. magneto motive force (mmf) is plotted for two values of air
gap, x1 and x2 , where x1 > x2 and is shown in Figure 3.3b.The flux vs. mmf characteristics for
x1 are linear because the reluctance of the air gap is dominant, making the flux smaller in the
magnetic circuit. The electrical input energy is written as:
dNφ
We = ∫ ei dt = ∫ i dt = ∫ Ni dφ = ∫ Fdφ ............(3.1)
dt
Where e is the induced emf and F is the mmf. This input electrical energy, We is equal to the
sum of energy stored in the coil, W f , and energy converted into mechanical work, Wm . It is
written as:
We = W f + Wm ..........................................................(3.2)
When no mechanical work is done, as in the case of the armature starting from position x1,
the stored field energy is equal to the input electrical energy given by equation (3.1). This
corresponds to area OBEO in Figure 3.3b. The complement of the field energy, termed co
energy, is given by area OBAO in Figure 3.3b and mathematically expressed
as ∫ φdF .Similarly, for the position x2 of the armature, the field energy corresponds to area
OCDO and the co energy is given by area OCAO. For incremental changes, equation (3.2) is
written as:
δWe = δW f + δWm .....................................................(3.3)
For a constant excitation of F1 given by the operating point A in Figure 3.3b, the various
energies are derived as:
FIGURE 3.3 Solenoid and its characteristics. (a) A solenoid. (b) Flux v. mmf characteristics.
For a constant excitation of F1 given by the operating point A in Figure 3.3b, the various
energies are derived as:
φ2
δWe = ∫ F1dφ = F1 (φ2 − φ1 ) = area( BCDEB )..........................(3.4)
φ1
δW f = δW f − δW f = area(OCDO ) − area(OBEO)......(3.5)
X =X2 X = X1
Using Eqs. (3.3) to (3.5), the incremental mechanical energy is derived as:
δWm = δWe − δW f = area (OBCO )..........................................(3.6)
and that is the area between the two curves for a given magneto motive force. In the case of a
rotating machine, the incremental mechanical energy in terms of the electromagnetic torque
and change in rotor position is written as:
δWm = Teδθ ............................................................................(3.7)
Where Te is the electromagnetic torque and δθ is the incremental rotor angle. Hence, the
electromagnetic torque is given by:
δWm
Te = ...................................................................................(3.8)
δθ
For the case of constant excitation (i.e., when the mmf is constant), the incremental
'
mechanical work done is equal to the rate of change of co energy, W f which is nothing but
the complement of the field energy. Hence, the incremental mechanical work done is written
as:
δWm = δW f ' ...............................................................................(3.9)
Where
W f = ∫ φdF = ∫ φd ( Ni ) = ∫ ( Nφ )di = ∫ λ (θ , i )di = ∫ L(θ , i )idi..........(3.10)
'
Where the inductance, L, and flux linkages, λ, are functions of the rotor position and current.
This change in co energy occurs between two rotor positions, θ2 and θ1. Hence, the air gap
torque in terms of the co energy represented as a function of rotor position and current is
δWm δW f δW f (i, θ )
' '
Te = = = ....................(3.11)
δθ δθ δθ
i = constant
If the inductance is linearly varying with rotor position for a given current, which in general
is not the case in practice, then the torque can be derived as:
dL(θ , i ) i 2
Te = . ............................................................(3.12)
dθ 2
Where
dL(θ , i ) L(θ 2 , i ) − L(θ1 , i )
= ................................(3.13)
dθ θ 2 − θ1 i = constant
and this differential inductance can be considered to be the torque constant expressed in N.
m/A2. It is important to emphasize at this juncture that this is not a constant and that it varies
continuously. This has the implication that the switched reluctance motor will not have a
steady-state equivalent circuit in the sense that the dc and ac motors have.
The following are the implications of equation (3.12)
1. The torque is proportional to the square of the current; hence the current can be
unipolar to produce unidirectional torque. Note that this is quite contrary to the
case for ac machines. This unipolar current requirement has a distinct advantage in
that only one power switch is required for control of current in a phase winding.
Such a feature greatly reduces the number of power switches in the converter and
thereby makes the drive economical.
2. The torque constant is given by the slope of the inductance vs. rotor position
characteristic. It is understood that the inductance of a stator winding is a function
of both the rotor position and current, thus making it nonlinear. Because of its
nonlinear nature, a simple equivalent circuit development for this motor is not
possible.
3. Since the torque is proportional to the square of the current, this machine resembles
a dc series motor; hence, it has a good starting torque.
4. A generating action is made possible with unipolar current due to its operation on
the negative slope of the inductance profile.
5. The direction of rotation can be reversed by changing the sequence of stator
excitation, which is a simple operation.
3.7 COMPARISION BETWEEN SRM AND STEPPER MOTORS
From the above description, it is deduced that the switched reluctance motor is similar to the
step motor except that it has
1. Fewer poles
2. Larger stepping angle
3. Usually one tooth per pole
4. Higher power output capability
5. The SRM motor is normally operated with shaft position feed back to
synchronize the commutation of the phase currents with precise rotor
positions, where as stepper motor is normally run in open loop, i.e with out
shaft position feed back.
6. SRM is normally designed for efficient conversion of significant amounts of
power, stepper motors are more usually designed to maintain step integrity in
position controls.
The comparison should not be carried too much further due to the nonlinearity of the
magnetic circuit.
3.8 DERIVATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INDUCTANCE AND
ROTOR POSITION-NON LINEAR ANALYSIS
Since the torque characteristics are dependent on the relationship between flux
linkages and rotor position as a function of current, it is worthwhile to conceptualize the
control possibilities and limitations of this motor drive. For example, a typical phase
inductance vs. rotor position is shown in Figure 3.4 for a fixed phase current. The inductance
corresponds to that of a stator-phase coil of the switched reluctance motor neglecting the
fringe effect and saturation. The significant inductance profile changes are determined in
terms of the stator and rotor pole arcs and number of rotor poles. The rotor pole arc is
assumed to be greater than the stator pole arc for this illustration, which is usually the case.
From Figures 3.4a and b, the various angles are derived as:
1  2π 
θ1 =  − (β s + β r ).......................................(3.14a )
2  Pr 
θ 2 = θ1 + β s .........................................................(3.14b)
θ 3 = θ 2 + (β r − β s )...............................................(3.14c)
θ 4 = θ 3 + β s .........................................................(3.14d )
2π
θ 5 = θ 4 + θ1 = .................................................(3.14e)
Pr
Where βs and βr are stator and rotor pole arcs, respectively, and Pr is the number of rotor
poles.
Four distinct inductance regions emerge:
1. 0 − θ1 and θ4 − θ5: The stator and rotor poles are not overlapping in this region and
the flux is predominantly determined by the air path, thus making the inductance
minimum and almost a constant. Hence, these regions do not contribute to torque
production. The inductance in this region is known as unaligned inductance, Lu.
FIGURE 3.4 Derivation of inductance vs. rotor position from rotor and stator pole arcs for an unsaturated
switched reluctance machine. (a) Basic rotor position definition in a two pole SRM. (b) Inductance profile.
2. θ1 − θ2: Poles overlap, so the flux path is mainly through stator and rotor laminations.
This increases the inductance with the rotor position, giving it a positive slope. A
current impressed in the winding during this region produces a positive (i.e.,
motoring) torque. This region comes to an end when the overlap of poles is complete.
3. θ2 − θ3: During this period, movement of rotor pole does not alter the complete
overlap of the stator pole and does not change the dominant flux path. This has the
effect of keeping the inductance maximum and constant, and this inductance is
known as aligned inductance, La. As there is no change in the inductance in this
region, torque generation is zero even when a current is present in this interval. In
spite of this fact, it serves a useful function by providing time for the stator current to
come to zero or lower levels when it is commutated, thus preventing negative torque
generation for part of the time if the current has been decaying in the negative slope
region of the inductance.
4. θ3 − θ4: The rotor pole is moving away from overlapping the stator pole in this region.
This is very much similar to the θ1 − θ2 region, but it has decreasing inductance and
increasing rotor position contributing to a negative slope of the inductance region.
The operation of the machine in this region results in negative torque (i.e., generation
of electrical energy from mechanical input to the switched reluctance machine).
It is not possible to achieve the ideal inductance profiles shown in Figure 3.4 in an actual
motor due to saturation. Saturation causes the inductance profile to curve near the top and
thus reduces the torque constant. Hence, saturating the machine beyond a point produces a
diminishing return on torque and power output.
DETAILED DERIVATION
Let LA be the aligned inductance of a coil/Phase and LU be the unaligned inductance of the
coil / phase. βs and βr are stator and rotor pole arcs, respectively. Let us assume that βr > βs
and LA > LU.
Case 1: When θ=00

Axis of the stator pole is in alignment with the stator pole as shown in the figure below.
Therefore the inductance of the coil is LA, because the stator reference axis and rotor
reference axis are in alignment. At this position flux linkage of phase winding of stator has
maximum value and hence inductance of phase winding has maximum value for given
current.
L=LA
βr − βs
CASE II: When θ =
2
βr − βs
The rotor reference axis makes angular displacement of stator reference axis one
2
edge of rotor pole is along the edge of stator pole. At this position reluctance is minimum.
βr − βs
Then the inductance of the coil continues to be LA. When θ varies from 0 to . At this
2
position also L=LA.
βr + βs
CASE III: WHEN θ =
2
2π
Pole pitch of the rotor =
Nr
π βr + βs π
Half the pole pitch of the rotor = Assume θ = <
Nr 2 Nr
In this position, the flux pattern is such that the flux linkages / unit current of the stator is less
than the previous case but not minimum. Therefore L < LA and L > LU.
βr − βs βr + βs
LU < L < LA At <θ <
2 2
π
CASE IV: WHEN θ =
Nr
βr + βs π
For ≤θ ≤ L=LU
2 Nr
βr + βs π 2π β r + β s
CASE V: WHEN θ = after (or) θ = − as far as the rotor pole is
2 Nr Nr 2
considered. After which stator pole comes under the influence of the rotor pole 2. Now the
inductance variation is from LU to LA as the rotor pole moves towards so as to cover the
stator pole.
βs
Pole 1
Pole 2
βr π
Nr
βr + βs
2
3.9 TYPES OF SRM
Switched
Reluctance Motors
Rotary Switched Linear Switched

Reluctance Motors Reluctance Motors
(In Markets as Servos)
Radial Field SRM Axial Field SRM
Single Multi
Stack Stack
3.10 CONVERTERS FOR SRM DRIVES
Since the torque in SRM drives is independent of the excitation current polarity, the
SRM drives require only one switch per phase winding. This is contrary to the ac motor
drives where at least two switches per phase are required for current control. Moreover, the
windings are not in series with the switches in ac motor drives, leading to irreparable damage
in shoot-through faults. The SRM drives always have a phase winding in series with a
switch.
In case of a shoot-through fault, the inductance of the winding limits the rate of rise in
current and provides time to initiate protective relaying to isolate the faults. The phases of the
SRM are independent and, in case of one winding failure, uninterrupted operation of the
motor drive operation is possible, although with reduced power output.
3.10.1 CONVERTER CONFIGURATIONS

The mutual coupling between phases is negligible in SRMs. This gives complete
independence to each phase winding for control and torque generation. While this feature is
advantageous, a lack of mutual coupling requires a careful handling of the stored magnetic
field energy. The magnetic field energy has to be provided with a path during commutation
of a phase; otherwise, it will result in excessive voltage across the windings and hence on the
power semiconductor switches leading to their failure. The manner in which this energy is
handled gives way to unique but numerous converter topologies for SRM drives. The energy
could be freewheeled, partially converting it to mechanical/electrical energy and partially
dissipating it in the machine windings. Another option is to return it to the dc source either by
electronic or electromagnetic means. All of these options have given way to power converter
topologies with q, (q+1), 1.5q, and 2q switch topologies, where q is the number of machine
phases.
3.10.1.1 Classification of Converter Configurations
Converter Configuration for q phase SRM
Two Stage Two- 1.5- (q+1) Switch Single

Power Switch/phase Switch/phase Switch/Phase
Converters (2q switch) (1.5q switch) q Switch
Asymmetric R-Dump
Variation of Asymmetric with Bifilar
higher than 2q Switches Split DC
supply
Equal Sharing
C-Dump
C-Dump with free wheeling
Shared Switch
Minimum switch with variable
DC link with Front end
Resonant
3.10.2 ASYMMETRIC BRIDGE CONVERTER
Figure 3.5a shows the asymmetric bridge converter considering only one phase of the SRM.
The rest of the phases are similarly connected. Turning on transistors T1 and T2 will circulate
a current in phase A of the SRM. If the current rises above the commanded value, T1 and T2
are turned off. The energy stored in the motor winding of phase A will keep the current in the
same direction until it is depleted. Hence, diodes D1 and D2 will become forward biased
leading to recharging of the source. That will decrease the current, rapidly bringing it below
the commanded value. This operation is explained with the waveforms of Figure 3.5b.
Assuming that a current of magnitude Ip is desired during the positive inductance slope for
motoring action, the A -phase current command is generated with a linear inductance profile.
Here, phase advancing both at the beginning and during commutation are neglected. The
*
current command ia is enforced with a current feedback loop where it is compared with the
phase current, ia. The current error is presumed to be processed through a hysteresis
controller with a current window of ∆i. When the current error exceeds −∆i, the switchesT1
and T2 are turned off simultaneously. Hysteresis current controller is considered here due to
its simplicity in concept and implementation. At that time, diodes, D1 and D2 take over the
current and complete the path through the dc source.
FIGURE 3.5 (a) Asymmetric converter for SRM with freewheeling and regeneration capability.
Note that the voltage of phase A is then negative and will equal the source voltage,
Vdc. During this interval, the energy stored in the machine inductance is sent to the source,
thus exchanging energy between the load and source repeatedly in one cycle of a phase
current. After the initial startup, during turn-on and turn-off of T1 and T2, the machine phase
winding experiences twice the rate of change of dc link voltage, resulting in a higher
deterioration of the insulation. This control strategy (strategy I) hence puts more ripples into
the dc link capacitor, thus reducing its life and also increasing the switching losses of the
power switches due to frequent switching necessitated by energy exchange. These can be
ameliorated with an alternate switching strategy.
FIGURE 3.5 (b) Operational waveforms of the asymmetric bridge converter (strategy I);
(c) Operational waveforms of the asymmetric bridge converter (strategy II).
The energy stored in the phase A can be effectively circulated in itself by turning off, say, T2
only (strategy II). In that case, the current will continue to flow through T1, phase A, and D1,
the latter having forward biased soon after T2 is turned off. The voltage across the winding
becomes zero if the diode and transistor voltage drops are neglected as shown in Figure 4.2c.
That will take the phase current from Ip +∆I to Ip −∆i in a time greater than had it been
forced against the source voltage using the previous strategy. This particular fact reduces the
switching frequency and hence the switching losses. When the current command goes to
zero, both T1 and T2 are turned off simultaneously. During this interval, the voltage across the
winding is −Vdc as long as D1 and D2 conduct (i.e., until ia goes to zero) and thereafter the
winding voltage is zero. The voltage across T2 during its off time and when T1 is on is equal
to the source voltage, Vdc. Hence, the power switches and diodes have to be rated to a
minimum of source voltage at least. The current ratings of the switches are equal to or less
than I p q by interchanging the off times between T1 and T2 in one cycle of phase
conduction. Similarly, the current rating of the diodes can be evaluated. While such a self-
circulation will keep the current going for a longer time compared to recharging the source
voltage, it has the advantage of converting the stored energy to useful mechanical work.
While this form of control can be used for current control, the recharging of the source is
advantageous when the current has to be turned off rapidly. Such an instance arises when the
inductance profile becomes flat or is starting to have a negative slope. Any further
conduction of current in such regions entails a loss of energy or production of negative
torque, thus reducing the average motoring torque. Note that this converter requires two
transistors and two diodes for each phase, resembling the conventional ac motor drives.
3.10.3 SINGLE-SWITCH-PER-PHASE CONVERTERS

Single-switch-per-phase converters are appealing due to their compactness of
converter package and hence a possible reduction in their cost compared to other converters.
They also have the disadvantage of being unable to apply zero voltage across the machine
phase during current conduction. Such an operational constraint increases the circulation of
energy between the machine and dc link, resulting in higher losses and reduced system
efficiency
3.10.3.1 R-DUMP
Figure 3.6 shows a converter configuration with one transistor and one diode per
phase of the SRM. When T1 is turned off, the current freewheels through D1, charging Cs,
and later flows through the external resistor R. This resistor partially dissipates the energy
stored in phase A. This has the disadvantage that the current in phase A will take longer to
extinguish compared to recharging the source. The energy, in addition, is dissipated in a
resistor, thus reducing the overall efficiency of the motor drive.
Figure 3.6b shows the timing waveforms of the circuit in detail. The hysteresis
current controller turns off T1 when the phase current exceeds the current command, by ∆i.
Turning off T1 will reduce the current, which in turn induces an emf in the winding to sustain
ia in the same direction. This emf forward biases diode D1. The voltage across the resistor R
is iaR. Note that the voltage across the resistor has a positive polarity with respect to the
positive rail of the source voltage. The voltage across T1 during off time is then the sum of
the source voltage and the voltage drop across the resistor is expressed as:
VT 1 = Vdc + ia R...............................................................................(3.15)
Design considerations such as the turn-off transient voltage have to be included in the rating
of the switch T1. The selection of R not only determines the power dissipation but also the
switch voltage. A lower value of R increases the fall time of the current. If the current comes
under the negative slope region of the phase inductance, negative torque will be generated,
decreasing the average motoring torque. A high value of R increases the voltage drop across
the winding and hence across T1.
FIGURE 3.6 (a) Converter for SRM with freewheeling path; (b) operational waveforms of R-dump converter
3.10.3.2 BIFILAR TYPE
Figure 3.7a shows a converter configuration with one transistor and one diode per phase but
regenerating the stored magnetic energy to the source. This is achieved by having a bifilar
winding with the polarity as shown in the figure. When the phase-A current is turned off by
removing the base drive signal to T1, the induced emf in the winding is of such polarity that
D1 is forward biased. This leads to the circulation of current through D1, the bifilar secondary
winding, and the source, thus transferring energy from the machine winding to the source.
The various timing waveforms of the circuit are shown in Figure 3.7b. During current turn-
off, the applied voltage across the bifilar secondary winding is equal to the dc link voltage.
The voltage reflected into the main winding is dependent upon the turns ratio of the
windings. Considering the turns ratio between the main winding in series with the power
switch and the auxiliary winding in series with the diode as a, the voltage across the power
switch is
VT 1 = Vdc + aVdc = (1 + a )Vdc ......................................................................(3.16)
This shows that the voltage across T1 can be very much greater than the source voltage. One
switch per phase comes with a voltage penalty on the switch. The volt ampere (VA)
capability of the switch will not be very different for one switch compared to two switches
per phase circuit. The disadvantage of this drive is that the SRM needs a bifilar winding and
such a form of winding is not economical for large motors. Also, the bifilar windings require
additional slot volume, reducing the power density of the SRM.
FIGURE 3.7 (a) Converter for an SRM with bifilar windings

FIGURE 3.7 (b) operational waveforms of bifilar converter.
3.10.3.3 SPLIT DC SUPPLY CONVERTER
A split dc supply for each phase allows freewheeling and regeneration, as shown in
Figure 3.8a. This topology preserves one switch per phase; its operation is as follows. Phase
A is energized by turning on T1. The current circulates through T1, phase A, and capacitor C1.
When T1 is turned off, the current will continue to flow through phase A, capacitor C2, and
diode D2. In that process, C2 is being charged up and hence the stored energy in phase A is
depleted quickly. Similar operation follows for phase B. The operation of this circuit for
phase A is shown in Figure 3.8b. A hysteresis current controller with a window of ∆i is
assumed. The phase voltage is Vdc /2 when T1 is on, and when it is turned off with a current
established in phase A, the phase voltage is –Vdc/2. The voltage across the transistor T1 during
the on time is negligible, and it is Vdc when the current is turned off. That makes the switch
voltage rating at least equal to the dc link voltage. As the stator current reference, goes to
zero, the switch T1 is turned off regardless of the magnitude of ia. When the winding current
becomes zero, the voltage across T1 drops to 0.5 Vdc and so also does the voltage across D2.
Note that this converter configuration has the disadvantage of derating the supply dc voltage,
Vdc, by utilizing only half its value at any time. Moreover, care has to be exercised in
balancing the charge of C1 and C2 by proper design measures.
FIGURE 3.8 (a) Converter for SRM with split dc supply; (b) Operational waveforms of split dc supply
converter.
For balancing the charge across the dc link capacitors, the number of machine phases
has to be even and not odd. In order to improve the cost-competitive edge of the SRM drive,
this converter was chosen in earlier integral horse power (hp) product developments, but its
use in fractional hp SRM drives supplied by a single phase 120-V ac supply is much more
justifiable; the neutral of the ac supply is tied to the midpoint of the dc link and so capacitors
can be rated to 200 V dc, thus minimizing the cost of the converter.
3.10.4 (q + 1) SWITCH AND DIODE CONFIGURATIONS
3.10.4.1 C-DUMP CONVERTER
The C-dump converter is shown in figure 3.9 with an energy recovery circuit. The
stored magnetic energy is partially diverted to the capacitor Cd and recovered from it by the
single quadrant chopper comprising of Tr, Lr, and Dr and sent to the dc source. Assume that
T1 is turned on to energize phase A and when the A-phase current exceeds the reference, T1 is
turned off. This enables the diode D1 to be forward biased, and the current path is closed
through Cd which increases the voltage across it. This has the effect of reducing the A-phase
current, and, when the current falls below the reference by ∆i (i.e., current window), T1 is
turned on to maintain the current close to its reference. When current has to be turned off
completely in phase A, T1 is turned off, and partially stored magnetic energy in phase A is
transferred to energy dump capacitor, Cd. The remaining magnetic energy in the machine
phase has been converted to mechanical energy. Figure 3.9(b) shows the variables of interest
in this converter.
This converter has the advantage of minimum switches allowing independent phase
current control. The main disadvantage of this circuit is that the current commutation is
limited by the difference between voltage across Cd, vo, and the dc link voltage. Speedy
commutation of currents requires larger vo, which results in increasing the voltage rating of
the power devices. Further, the energy circulating between Cd and the dc link results in
additional losses in the machine, Tr, Lr, and Dr, there by decreasing the efficiency of the
motor drive.
The energy recovery circuit is activated only when T1, T2, T3 orT4 switches are
conducting to avoid freewheeling of the phase currents. The control pulses to Tr end with the
turn-off of the phase switches. The control pulse is generated based on the reference and
actual value of E with a window of hysteresis to minimize the switching of Tr.
FIGURE 3.9 (a) C-dump converter with energy recovery circuit;
(b) Waveforms of C-dump converter with energy-recovery circuit.
3.11 MICROPROCESSOR BASED CONTROL OF SRM
This section describes a general purpose microprocessor controlled closed loop-

switched reluctance motor (SRM) drive system. The system is designed to drive a four phase
SRM with minimum number of switches, while achieving maximum flexibility. This section
also describes the hardware for driving the motor, the techniques used to measure control
parameters and how they are fed to the microprocessor. The operation of the microprocessor
software to provide the user interface and control on the operation is given in detail.
The main objective of this microprocessor based control of SRM is to develop
Software controllability of various modes of operation; here a microprocessor based control
philosophy is adopted to achieve flexibility of adapting the controller-driver for various
applications.
3.11.1 System Concept
Figure 3-10 shows the principal block diagram of the system concept for the switched
reluctance motor.
Current Sensor
MOTOR
DRIVER SRM
Encoder
Micro Processor
Keys (OR)
Potentiometer Micro Controller
s
LEDS
Figure 3.10 Principle Block Diagram of Microprocessor based SRM

This system can be designed to drive a SR motor. The application should meet the following
performance specifications:
Speed control of SR motor with encoder position sensor
Variable line voltage up to rated 42V DC
Control techniques incorporates
Voltage SRM control with speed closed loop.
Motor starts from any position with rotor alignment.
Two directions of rotation.
Motoring mode.
Minimal speed 600 rpm (can be set by user).
Maximal speed depended on line voltage 4320 rpm (can be set by user).
Encoder position reference for commutation.
User Interface (start/stop switch, right/left switch, potentiometer for speed

adjustment, LED indicators).
DC-Bus over current protection.
3.11.2 System Configuration
Speed Duty
Speed
Error Cycle
Command SPEED PWM
CONTROLLER GENERATION MOTOR
DRIVER M
LOW SIDE
BIT PATTERN
Encoder
COMMUTATION ADC
ANGLE
CALCULATION
16 BIT UP/DOWN
COUNTER
SPEED EXTERNAL
CALCULATION INTERUPT
KEYs, LEDs ADC
POTENTIOMETER
Figure 3.11 Microprocessor Based Control of SR motor

The microprocessor runs the main control algorithm. It generates 4-Phase PWM
output signals for the SR motor power stage according to the user interface input and
feedback signals. The required speed is set by a potentiometer, furthermore a start/stop and
right/left switch is provided. When the start command is given the start-up sequence with the
rotor alignment is performed and the motor is started in the desired direction. The rotor
position is evaluated using the external encoder and the commutation angle is calculated.
When the actual position of the motor is equal to the reference position, the commutation of
the phases in the desired direction of rotation is done; the actual phase is turned off and the
following phase is turned on. For the speed calculation no additional velocity sensor is
needed, motor speed is derived from the position information. The reference speed is
calculated from user defined potentiometer value. The speed error between commanded
speed and actual speed is used in the speed controller to manipulate the voltage applied to
each phase winding and the firing angles. As mentioned earlier PWM Voltage regulation is
used in low- and mid speed regions, whereas advancing the turn-on angle in the single-pulse
control comes active in the high speed area. The control algorithm is build up in such a
matter, when the PWM regulation reaches its limits the single-pulse regulation takes over.
Then during the PWM cycle, the actual phase current is compared with the absolute
maximum value for the rated current. As soon as the actual current exceeds this value the
PWM duty cycle is restricted. The procedure is repeated for each commutation cycle of the
motor.
3.12 Torque–Speed Characteristics
The torque–speed plane of an SRM drive can be divided into three regions as shown in Fig.
3.12. The constant torque region is the region below the base speed ωb, which is defined as
the highest speed when maximum rated current can be applied to the motor at rated voltage
with fixed firing angles. In other words, ωb is the lowest possible speed for the motor to
operate at its rated power.
Region 1
In the low-speed region of operation, the current rises almost instantaneously after turn-on,
since the back-emf is small. The current can be set at any desired level by means of
regulators, such as hysteresis controller or voltage PWM controller.
As the motor speed increases, the back-emf soon becomes comparable to the DC bus
voltage and it is necessary to phase advance-the turn-on angle so that the current can rise up
to the desired level against a lower back-emf. Maximum current can still be forced into the
motor by PWM or chopping control to maintain the maximum torque production. The phase
excitation pulses are also needed to be turned off a certain time before the rotor passes
alignment to allow the freewheeling current to decay so that no braking torque is produced.
Fig 3.12 Torque Speed Characteristics of SRM

Region 2
When the back-emf exceeds the DC bus voltage in high-speed operation, the current starts to
decrease once pole overlap begins and PWM or chopping control is no longer possible. The
natural characteristic of the SRM, when operated with fixed supply voltage and fixed
conduction angle θdwell (also known as the dwell angle), is that the phase excitation time falls
off inversely with speed and so does the current. Since the torque is roughly proportional to
the square of the current, the natural torque–speed characteristic can be defined by T α 1/ω2.
Increasing the conduction angle can increase the effective amps delivered to the phase. The
torque production is maintained at a level high enough in this region by adjusting the
conduction angle θdwell with the single-pulse mode of operation. The controller maintains the
torque inversely proportional to the speed; hence, this region is called the constant power
region. The conduction angle is increased by advancing the turn-on angle until the θ dwell
reaches its upper limit at speed ωp. The medium speed range through which constant power
operation can be maintained is quite wide and very high maximum speeds can be achieved.
Region 3
The θdwell upper limit is reached when it occupies half the rotor pole-pitch, i.e., half the
electrical cycle. θdwell cannot be increased further because otherwise the flux would not return
to zero and the current conduction would become continuous. The torque in this region is
governed by the natural characteristics, falling off as 1/ω2. The torque–speed characteristics
of the SRM are similar to those of a DC series motor, which is not surprising considering that
the back-emf is proportional to current, and the torque is proportional to the square of the
current.
3.13 SR MOTOR CONTROL
For motoring operation the pulses of phase current must coincide with a period of increasing
inductance, i.e. when a pair of rotor poles is approaching alignment with the stator poles of
the excited phase. The timing and dwell of the current pulse determine the torque, the
efficiency, and other parameters. In d.c. and brushless d.c. motors the torque per ampere is
more or less constant, but in the SR. motor no such simple relationship emerges naturally.
With fixed firing angles, there is a monotonic relationship between average torque and r.m.s.
phase current, but in general it is not very linear. This may present some complications in
feedback-controlled systems although it does not prevent the SR motor from achieving 'near-
servo quality' dynamic performance, particularly in respect of speed range, torque/inertia, and
reversing capability.
At low speeds the self-e.m.f. of the winding is small and the current must be limited by
chopping or p.w.m. of the applied voltage. The regulating strategy employed has a marked
effect on the performance and the operating characteristics.
3.13.1 Hysteresis Type Regulator
Figure 3.13(a) shows schematically the method of control. As the current reference
increases, the torque increases. At low currents the torque is roughly proportional to current
squared, but at higher currents it becomes more nearly linear. At very high currents saturation
decreases the torque per ampere again. This type of control produces a constant-torque type
of characteristic as indicated in Fig. 3.14. With loads whose torque increases monotonically
with speed, such as fans and blowers, speed adjustment is possible without tachometer
feedback, but in general feedback is needed to provide accurate speed control. In some cases
the pulse train from the shaft position sensor may be used for speed feedback, but only at
relatively high speeds. At low speeds a larger number of pulses per revolution is necessary,
and this can be generated by an optical encoder or resolver, or alternatively by phase-locking
a high-frequency oscillator to the pulses of the commutation sensor (Bose 1986). Systems
with resolver-feedback or high-resolution optical encoders can work right down to zero
speed. The 'hysteresis-type' current regulator may require current transducers of wide
bandwidth, but the SR drive has the advantage that they can be grounded at one end, with the
other connected to the negative terminal of the lower phase leg switch. Shunts or Hall-effect
sensors can be used, or alternatively, 'Sensefets' with in-built current sensing. Much of the
published literature on SR drives describes this form of control.
Fig 3.13 Schematic of Current regulated for one Phase

(a) Hysteresis Type (b) Voltage PWM Type (duty-cycle control)
Fig. 3.14. Constant-torque characteristic obtained with regulator of Fig. 3.13(a)
3.13.2 Voltage PWM Type
Figure 3.13(b) shows an alternative regulator using fixed-frequency p.w.m. of the

voltage with variable duty-cycle. Current feedback can be added to the circuit of Fig. 7.20(b)
to provide a signal which, when subtracted from the voltage reference, modulates the duty
cycle of the p.w.m. and 'compounds' the torque-speed characteristic. It is possible in this way
to achieve under-compounding, over-compounding, or flat compounding just as in a d.c.
motor with a wound field. For many applications the speed regulation obtained by this simple
scheme will be adequate. For precision speed control, normal speed feedback can be added.
The current feedback can also be used for thermal over current sensing.
A desirable feature of both the 'hysteresis-type' current-regulator and the voltage
p.w.m. regulator is that the current waveform tends to retain much the same shape over a
wide speed range. When the p.w.m. duty cycle reaches 100 per cent the motor speed can be
increased by increasing the dwell (the conduction period), the advance of the current-pulse
relative to the rotor position, or both. These increases eventually reach maximum practical
values, after which the torque becomes inversely proportional to speed squared, but they can
typically double the speed range at constant torque. The speed range over which constant
power can be maintained is also quite wide, and very high maximum speeds can be obtained,
as in the synchronous reluctance motor and induction motor, because there is not the
limitation imposed by fixed excitation as in PM motors.
TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. Define Switched Reluctance Motor
SRM is a doubly salient and singly excited motor. That means both the stator and rotor
has salient poles but only one usually stator carries the winding which operates based on the
reluctance principle.
2. Write two distinguished points between Switched Reluctance and stepper motor.
• The SRM motor is normally operated with shaft position feed back to synchronize the
commutation of the phase currents with precise rotor positions, where as stepper
motor is normally run in open loop, i.e. without shaft position feedback.
• SRM is normally designed for efficient conversion of significant amounts of power,
stepper motors are more usually designed to maintain step integrity in position
controls.
3. Write the advantages of SRM.
• Machine construction is simple and low-cost because of the absence of rotor
winding and permanent magnets.
• There are no shoot-through faults between the DC buses in the SRM drive converter
because each rotor winding is connected in series with converter switching
elements.
• Bidirectional currents are not necessary, which facilitates the reduction of the
number of power switches in certain applications.
• The bulk of the losses appear in the stator, which is relatively easier to cool.
• The torque–speed characteristics of the motor can be modified to the application
requirement more easily during the design stage than in the case of induction and PM
machines.
• The starting torque can be very high without the problem of excessive in-rush
current due to its higher self-inductance.
• The open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current at faults are zero or very small.
• The maximum permissible rotor temperature is higher, since there are no permanent
magnets.
• There is low rotor inertia and a high torque/inertia ratio.
• Extremely high speeds with a wide constant power region are possible.
• There are independent stator phases, which do not prevent drive operation in the case
of loss of one or more phases.
4. List the disadvantages of SRM.
• The SRM also comes with a few disadvantages among which torque ripple and
acoustic noise are the most critical. The higher torque ripple also causes the ripple
current in the DC supply to be quite large, necessitating a large filter capacitor. The
doubly salient structure of the SRM also causes higher acoustic noise compared with
other machines.
• The absence of permanent magnets imposes the burden of excitation on the stator
windings and converter, which increases the converter KVA requirement. Compared
with PM brushless machines, the per unit stator copper losses will be higher,
reducing the efficiency and torque per ampere. However, the maximum speed at
constant power is not limited by the fixed magnet flux as in the PM machine, and,
hence, an extended constant power region of operation is possible in SRMs.
5. Define aligned and unaligned inductance
• The inductance measured at the position as the conjunction of any rotor inter pole axis
with the axis of the stator poles of the phase is called as unaligned inductance.
• The inductance measured at the position as the conjunction of any rotor pole axis with
the axis of the stator poles of the phase is called as aligned inductance.
6. Write the instantaneous torque equation of switched reluctance motor.
dL(θ , i ) i 2
Te = .
dθ 2
Where
dL(θ , i ) L(θ 2 , i ) − L(θ1 , i )
=
dθ θ 2 − θ1 i = constant
7. Draw the inductance variation with respect to the rotor position in SRM.
8. Draw the ideal current wave form for motoring and generating
9. Bring out the requirements to get the maximum torque per ampere.
• Unsaturated aligned inductance should be as large as possible by implying a small air
gap with wide slots.
• Smallest possible unaligned inductance can be achieved by a large inter polar arc on
the rotor, narrow stator poles and deep slotting on both stator and rotor
• The highest possible saturation flux density.
10. What are the types of converters used to drive SRM?
Converter Configuration for q phase SRM
Two Stage Two- 1.5- (q+1) Switch Single

Power Switch/phase Switch/phase Switch/Phase
Converters (2q switch) (1.5q switch) q Switch
Asymmetric R-Dump
Variation of Asymmetric with Bifilar
higher than 2q Switches Split DC
supply
Equal Sharing
C-Dump
C-Dump with free wheeling
Shared Switch
Minimum switch with variable
DC link with Front end
Resonant
11. Which makes the SRM to use unipolar controller circuit?
The torque is independent of the direction of the phase current which can therefore be
unidirectional. This permits the use of unipolar controller circuit for SRM.
12. Write the advantages of 2n transistor converter circuit
• This circuit provides the maximum control flexibility and efficiency, with a minimum
of passive components.
• By controlling the upper and lower transistors independently all possible firing angles
can be used.
• In small drives PWM control over the entire speed range is possible.
13. How the phase windings of the SRM are connected with the converter circuit and
compare it with the normal inverter with windings.
The phase winding is connected in between the two control switches on the same leg. But
in inverter the windings are connected from the mid points of adjacent phase legs. No
simultaneous switching ON process of the switches in the same leg.
14. State the advantages and limitations of bifilar winding converter circuit.
Advantages:
To reduce the number of switching devices bifilar winding is used.
Limitation:
• Double the numbers of connections are used.
• Poor utilization of copper
• Voltage spikes due to imperfect coupling
15. What is C dump converter circuit?
One capacitor is used in the circuit with one more phase to bleed the stored energy in the
capacitor.
16. What are the types of control method used to control SRM?
(a) Hysteresis Type
(b) Voltage PWM Type (duty-cycle control)
17. Draw the torque speed characteristics of SRM


Press, 1995.


2006.
QUESTIONS:
UNIT – II SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTOR
PART – A
1 Describe a switched reluctance motor.

2 List out the advantages of switched reluctance motor.
3 Weigh the rotor position sensor for the operation of switched reluctance motor.
4 Sketch the C-dump converter circuit for switched reluctance motor.
5 Defend on hysteresis current control.
6 Relate the switched reluctance motor as doubly salient motor.
7 Argue on the Switched reluctance motor is singly exited motor. (5)
8 Solve the torque exerted by an SRM with the instantaneous value of stator current 2A &
dL/dө=1.
9 Compare SRM and stepper motor.
10 Sketch the speed-Torque characteristics of SRM.
11 List any four application of SRM.
12 Describe the modes of operation of SRM.
13 Sketch the inductance variation with respect to the rotor position in SRM.
PART B
1 Describe the construction and working principle of switched reluctance motor.

2 (a) Develop the torque equation of switched reluctance motor. (6)
(b) Explain the speed-torque characteristics of switched reluctance motor.
3 Examine the step angle of a 3 phase SR motor having 12 stator poles &8 rotor Poles. State
the commutation frequency in such phase at a speed of 600 Rpm.
4 Explain any two power controller circuit for switched reluctance motor.
5 Describe any three power converters used in Switched Reluctance Motor with
suitable waveform.
6 Demonstrate on the control of SRM using microprocessor based controller.
7 Examine the control of a Switched Reluctance motor using a microprocessor based
controller.
8 Explain the control circuits for SRM with neat diagram.
9 Investigate on the relationship between inductance and rotor position with relevant diagram.
UNIT – III - SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES – SEE1307

UNIT III
SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE
MOTOR
T he Synchronous Reluctance Motor is completely free of magnets and their operational

problems. It is inexpensive to make and can operate at extensively high speed and at
higher temperature than the PM motors. However, its power factor and efficiency are
not as high as those of a PM motors and the converter KVA requirement is higher.
The Synchronous Reluctance Motor offers many of the advantages of the Switched
Reluctance Motor. But the Synchronous Reluctance Motor has two added advantages
i) it can operate from essentially standard PWM AC inverter and has lower torque ripple.
ii) It can also be built with a standard induction motor stator and winding.
1.1 CONSTRUCTION OF SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE MOTOR
 Its construction is very similar to induction motor The two important parts of the motor
are stator and rotor as in Induction motor. It is shown in the figure 1.1
 The stator construction is similar to induction motor (ie) it has outer frame which covers
the whole machine. Beneath the frame stator core which are laminated and made up of
silicon steel material are fixed to reduce Hysteresis & Eddy current loss in the motor.
 The stator core has stator slots which are used for housing the stator winding, usually three
phase winding is provided.
 Here the rotor does not have any magnets (or) field winding for excitation.
 The rotor has very simple construction such that salient pole rotor core which are
laminated (or) solid steel material.
 The machine is low cost, rugged and have high efficiency and are capable of operating at
very high speeds.
3.2 Synchronous Reluctance Motor
Ldm
 The traditional Synchronous Reluctance Motor has low saliency (ie) a low ratio,
Lqm
which gives poor torque density, low power factor and poor efficiency.
 The Synchronous Reluctance Motor is similar to the sinusoidal PM machine, except that
the field flux  f  0 and Ldm  Lqm .
1.1.1 Working Principle

 The motor works on the basic principle of minimum reluctance position.
 When the stator winding is excited by the AC supply, it produces the rotating magnetic
field in the airgap which cuts the rotor and induces magnetic field in the rotor.
 The rotor tries to align itself with the minimum reluctance position by developing
reluctance torque between the stator and rotor.
 Ideally there is no core (or) copper loss in the rotor, but the inverter fed harmonics will
cause some copper loss in the damper winding if present.
 The simplest operation of a Synchronous Reluctance Motor is a line start motor where the
machine starts like an induction motor with the help of a cage winding, but pulls into
synchronism at synchronous speed.
Stator frame
Stator core
Stator winding
Rotor Core
Rotor Shaft
Salient Pole rotor
Stator slots
Fig1.1
Useful properties of Synchronous Reluctance Motor:

i. Combined reluctance and magnet alignment torque.
ii. Field weakening capability
iii. High Inductance
iv. High Speed capability
v. High temperature capability
vi. Under excited operation for most load condition.
Applications
i. Pumps and Conveyors
ii. Synthetic fiber spinning mills
iii. Wrapping and folding machines
iv. Motor pumps
Types of Synchronous Reluctance Motor:

i. Line start Synchronous Reluctance Motor (cage type)
ii. Cageless PM / Synchronous Reluctance hybrid motor
iii. Brushless Synchronous Reluctance Motor
Depending upon the rotor construction the Synchronous Reluctance Motor is two types.
i. Radial airgap motor
ii. Axial airgap motor
1.2 RADIAL AIRGAP MOTOR
 In this type of motor, the stator construction remains the same but the rotor has projecting
pole laminations of steel core. It is shown in the figure 1.2
 Therefore the length of the magnetic core in a radial motor is less than the total active
magnetic length due to the presence of end turns at each end of the motor.
 The magnetic working radius set the torque for the motor and is directly related to the
torque production of a motor. The larger the radius is, the more torque the motor produces.
 The working radius of the magnet in a radial motor is usually considered the outside
dimension of the magnet.
 Since this is a cylindrical structure this is easily defined and is commonly used.
 The working radius is smaller than the axial motor. So torque production in radial motor is
smaller than the axial motor.
 The total magnetic surface area in radial motor design is set by the magnet diameter and
the magnet length. The magnet surface area is increasing linearly with magnet length
surface area is more than the axial motor.
 In radial motor, the effective airgap area is less than the maximum airgap area since there
are gaps between the field poles to reduce the flux leakage and allow for insertion of
windings.
 The core area for a radial motor is limited by the smallest radius of the core, the winding
thickness and the gap necessary to allow for winding the motor windings.
 An advantage to the radial motor design is that more core area can be incorporated into the
motor. Generally radial motors have a limited value of copper fill since the windings need
to be done through the slots between the pole shoes.
Stator outer frame

Stator core
Stator slots
Stator winding
Rotor Core
Rotor Shaft
Rotor Pole
Fig 1.2
1.3 AXIAL AIRGAP MOTOR
 In this type of motor, the length of the laminated core of rotor is Lc which is essentially the
same as the length of the winding.
 For axial motor, the magnet working radius is harder to define since the radius varies over
the area of the air gap.
 Typically the magnet working radius can be larger since the magnet outside diameter is
limited only by the motor shell thickness and a clearance gap for rotation and in some case
the winding thickness.
 The axial motor has 1.4 times torque improvement compared to the radial motor. For the
axial motor, the magnet surface area is set by the inner and outer radii of the magnet and
then doubled since this surface has one magnet at each end of the motor.
 The air gap area for a traditional axial motor is just the area of a slice of the field poles that
is perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
 The effective air gap area is less than maximum area since some areas are left between the
field poles to reduce flux leakage between the field poles and some area to the windings.
 The core area for a traditional axial motor is just the area of a perpendicular slice of the
field poles. The axial motor has a constant core area and it has maximum torque for any
given diameter independent of length.
 The increase in length of an axial motor changes the power dissipation of the motor but
does not change the maximum torque. Axial motor has high copper fill ratio because of
the simple coil design.
 If the length were not constrained, the axial motor could be lengthened so that additional
copper could be added.
 The axial motors do not increase torque by extending motor length. Extending the motor
length in an axial motor increase the length of the winding but does not change the torque
value produced.
 The constructional view is shown in the figure 1.3
Stator Outer Frame

Stator Core
Stator Slots
Rotor Core
Rotor Shaft
Rotor Poles
Stator Winding
Fig 1.3
1.4 SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE
In this type of motor where magnets are absent (or) removed under the no load
condition (or) open circuit condition and when there is not torque, all the flux is the q-axis
flux and there is no d-axis flux. Usually the case is that X d  X q which is opposite to the
ordinary synchronous machines.
In many respects, the Synchronous Reluctance Motor is similar to the sinusoidal PM
machines, except that the field flux  f  0 and Ldm  Lqm . The d e  q e equivalent circuits of
the machines are simple and they are shown in the figure 1.4.
iqs
Rs
_
+
we  ds
 qs Lqs = Lls + Lqm

Vqs
Fig 1.4
ids
Rs
_
+
we  qs
 ds Lds = Lls + Lqm

Vds
Fig1.4
The machine may or may not have a cage (or) damper winding. Ideally there is no core (or)
copper loss in the rotor, but the inverter fed harmonics will cause some copper loss in the
damper winding if present. The simplest operation of the Synchronous Reluctance Motor is as
lie start motor where the machine starts like an induction motor with the help of a cage
winding, but pulls into synchronism at synchronous speed. One traditionally popular
application of a Synchronous Reluctance Motor is the multi motor drive by open loop
volts/Hz speed control.
1.5 PHASOR DIAGRAM OF SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE

MOTOR
The phasor diagram of the motor is drawn to obtain the performance parameters of the
motor. The phasor diagram is shown in the figure 1.5 with their standard symbols where
 ds  Lds ids ,  qs  Lqs iqs and Vs  we  s
qe

Vs

Is  2Is
 iqs

s  2s
qs
 

de
e ids ds
ds
Fig 1.5
The flux  ds tends to saturate at ids. In fact there is some cross saturation effect of Lds due to
iqs current. The stator resistance drop has been neglected for simplicity. Note that  f phasor
and corresponding Vf phasor are absent. Since the stator supplies magnetizing current like an
induction motor, the stator power factor angle  is large. So the power factor is low in the
synchronous reluctance motor.
The torque developed by the motor is called as synchronous reluctance torque which is given
by
P  Lds  Lqs 

Te  3    2s   sin 2
2  2 L L 
ds qs 

ˆs
Where  s 
2
 3   P  ˆ 2  Lds  Lqs 
 Te       s   sin 2
 2   2   2 Lds Lqs 
Where
ˆ s  space vector flux magnitude
P  umber of poles
  torque angle
 qs  ds
Put sin 2 = 2 sin cos and where sin   and cos  

ˆs 
ˆs
 3   P   Lds  Lqs 
 Te         ds  qs
 2   2   Lds Lqs 
 3P
 Te       Lds  Lqs  ids iqs
 2 2 
From the above equation we say that the torque can be controlled by ids , iqs(or) both
components. The above equation can also be rewritten as
 3P
Te       ds iqs   qs ids 
 2 2 
1.6 SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS
The characteristics of the motor depends upon the torque angle  and speed of the
motor with respect to the torque developed. The torque equation is given as
 3  P   Lds  L qs 
Te      s2   sin 2
    ds qs 
2 2 2L L

Generally Lqs > Lds and the torque has a maximum value at  = 450 (or) radians in the
4
motoring region. The torque follows the sinusoidal distribution in the motoring and generating
region and it is shown in the figure 1.6.
Te
Te(max)
900 450 450 900 
-Te(max)
Motoring Generating
-Te
Fig 1.6
The next important characteristics are the speed torque characteristics of the motor. Usually
the synchronous motor is the constant speed motor and it runs only at synchronous speed. The
speed control of the motor can be achieved by combined volts/Hz control. The speed torque
characteristics of the motor are shown in the figure 1.7.
Te
Temax
0
Ns
Speed 
Fig 1.7
The characteristics takes the natural shape (ie) as the speed is increased from initial value, the
torque also increase and reaches its maximum value and then the motor tries to pull into
synchronism and runs at synchronous speed with normal reluctance torque. The variable load
on the motor does not affect the speed of the motor but it controls the developed torque in the
motor for the fixed frequency operation. The motor goes out of synchronism when it is
subjected to overload condition and the motor stops. The speed torque characteristics is also
affected by the sudden loading and unloading of motor which leads to oscillatory motion of
the rotor which may sometime lead to asynchronous operation.
1.7 VERNIER MOTOR
A vernier motor is an unexcited inductor synchronous motor in which a small

displacement of the rotor produces a large displacement of the axes of permeance. It runs at a
slow speed as if it were geared down the speed of the rotating field set up by the stator. To
design a vernier motor is equivalent to designing a polyphase reluctance motor with an odd
shaped rotor. So that the air gap permeance distribution is a displaced triangular wave. The
motor is so named because it operates on the principle of a vernier. The peculiar feature of this
kind of motor is that a small displacement of the rotor produces a large displacement of the
axes of maximum and minimum permeance. When a rotating magnetic field is introduced in
the air gap of the machine, the rotor will rotate slowly and at a definite fraction of the speed of
the rotating field. This rotating field can be produced either by feeding poly phase current to
the stator winding or by exciting the stator coil groups in sequence. As the rotor speed steps
down from the speed of the rotating field, the motor torque steps up. Therefore, the motor
works as an electric gearing. This kind of motor is attractive in applications which require low
speed and high torque and where mechanical gearing is undesirable.
1.7.1 Construction
 The construction of vernier motor is similar to poly phase induction motor as shown in the
figure 1.8
 The two important parts are stator and rotor. The stator has laminated stator core made up
of silicon steel to reduce eddy currents and hysteresis loss in the stator.
 At the inner periphery of the stator core, stator slots are provided and the slots are used for
housing the stator winding.
 The stator winding is distributed in the slots just like the ordinary poly phase induction
motor. When the stator winding is excited by the poly phase supply, the rotating magnetic
field is produced in the air gap.
 The rotor has laminated core made up of iron material without any winding.
 The outer periphery of the rotor has rotor slots Number of stator slots will be more than
the number of rotor slots.
 Because of this construction the air gap permeance varies between the stator and rotor
slots in the horizontal and vertical direction.
1.7.2 Principle of operation

 The stator of a vernier motor has slots and a distributed winding just like the stator of an
ordinary polyphase induction motor.
 The rotor is slotted iron core without winding. To understand the principle of operation of
a vernier motor refer the below figure.
Vertical axis
Stator Outer Frame

Stator Core
Stator Slots
Rotor Slots
Horizontal axis
Rotor Shaft
Rotor Core
Fig 1.8
 The figure 1.8 shows a two pole machine with 12 stator slots and 10 rotor slots. Small
numbers of slots are purposely chosen as an example to facilitate the explanation.
 At the position shown in figure, the stator and the rotor teeth are facing each other in the
vertical axis. The stator teeth are facing rotor slots in the horizontal axis.
 At this position, the maximum permeance is along the vertical axis and the minimum
permeance is along the horizontal axis.
 When the rotor is rotated one half of its slots pitch, the rotor slots will face stator teeth in
the vertical axis. The stator and rotor teeth will face each other in the horizontal axis.
 The axis of maximum permeance is now horizontal and the axis of minimum permeance is
now vertical.
 Thus the rotor movement of one half rotor slot pitch results in a 90 degree displacement of
the permeance.
 Suppose that a magnetic field is rotating in the machine. Whenever the rotating field
rotates 90 degree, the rotor will rotate one half of its slot pitch.
 When the rotating field completes one revolution, the rotor will rotate through an angle
corresponding to two rotor slot pitches. For the example given, the rotor speed is one fifth
of the speed of the rotating field.
1.8 Airgap Permeance Distribution in Vernier motor

The first step in the design is to study the permeance distribution along the air gap.
Assume that fluxes fringing from the edges of the teeth will be neglected and the fluxes in the
air gap flows in the radial direction. The permeance of air space between the stator and rotor
at any location is inversely proportional to the radial length of air space at that location. Since
the stator and rotor slot depths are much larger in comparison with the air gap length, the
permeance of air space can be considered as zero, except where stator tooth surface is facing
rotor tooth surface. The permenace distribution along the circumference of air gap for the
given figure is shown below. Figure 1.9
permeance
0 
2
 3
2 2
Angular Position 
Figure 1.9 Airgap permeance distribution of motor
permeance
0 
2
 3
2 2
Angular Position 
Figure 1.10. Equivalent permeance distribution

In figure 1.9, the widths of rectangular blocks are the widths of overlap between the stator and
rotor teeths. These widths of overlap vary linearly from a maximum to a minimum and back to
a maximum as shown. The area of overlap is maximum for the top and bottom stator teeth
where the rotor teeth are directly opposite. The area of overlap is reduced a constant amount
for each successive stator tooth until a minimum (zero) is reached. After that the area of
overlap is increased successively back to the maximum and cycle repeats.
A permeance distribution curve shown in figure1.9 is not convenient to use because it cannot
be represented by a simple mathematical function. The equivalent permeance distribution
curve of the figure 1.10 is therefore drawn. The figure1.10 represents the periodic linear
variation of permeance per unit area from a maximum to minimum and back to a maximum.
When the rotor rotates, this permeance wave rotates at a much faster speed. The axes at which
maximum and minimum permeance occur are the direct and quadrature axes respectively of
the vernier motor. The technique of replacing a permeance curve of figure1.9 by an equivalent
permeance curve of figure 1.10 is an accepted practice in electrical machine design.
1.9 DESIGN OF VERNIER MOTOR
In a poly phase reluctance motor, the rotor has the same number of poles as the stator
mmf wave. Similarly, in a vernier motor, the air gap permeance wave should have the same
number of poles as the stator mmf wave. Therefore, the number of stator and rotor slots
should have the following relation.
N1  N 2  P
Where N1  number of stator slots

N2  number of rotor slots
P  number of poles of the rotating magnetic field
As we have seen before, when the rotor rotates through an angle corresponding to one rotor
slot pitch, the permeance wave rotates through an angle corresponding to one pole pitch. The
pole pitch of the permeance wave is the same as the pole pitch of the stator mmf wave,
because they have the same number of poles.
Also in a reluctance machine, the speed of the permeance wave is the same as the speed of
rotating mmf.
Therefore,
Rotor speed Rotor slot pitch P
 
Rotating field speed mmf pole pitch N 2
(or)
120 f
Rotor Speed  rpm
N2
And the electric gear ratio is given as
N2
Electric Gear Ratio =
  N 2  N1 
It can be seen from rotor speed equation that the rotor speed is independent of the number of
poles of the machine, when the speed of the rotating field is reduced by increasing the
number of poles of the machine. It cannot be expected that the speed of the rotor be reduced
proportionally because when P is increased the difference between N2 and N1 should also be
increased and the electric gear ratio is reduced in the inversed proportion. Thus, the rotor
speed is not affected by the number of poles but depends on the number of rotor slots.
The main step in design is to calculate the direct and quadrature axes reactance Xd and Xq.
Xd = Xl + Xad
Xq = Xl + Xaq
Where
Xl  stator leakage reactance
Xad = Xaq  direct and quadrature axis reactance of armature reaction.
The Xad is the ratio of the fundamental component of reactive armature voltage produced by
the mutual flux due to the fundamental direct axis component of armature current to this
component under steady state conditions and at rated frequency. Similarly Xaq is the ratio of
the fundamental component of relative armature voltage produced by the mutual flux due to
the fundamental quadrature axis component of armature current to this component of current
under steady state condition and at rated frequency.


Press, 1995.


2006.
QUESTIONS:
UNIT – III - SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE MOTORS
PART – A
1 List the applications of synchronous reluctance motor.

2 Classify the synchronous reluctance motor.
3 State the main parts of synchronous reluctance motor.
4 State synchronous reactance.
5 Develop an expression for reluctance torque.
6 Argue on the type of synchronous reluctance motor to operate at high speeds.
7 Explain how the torque ripples are reduced in synchronous reluctance motor?
8 Distinguish between permanent magnet synchronous motor and synchronous
reluctance motor.
9 Differentiate axial air gap and radial air gap motor.
10 Defend on the type of rotor in synchronous reluctance motor.
11 List the three types of laminations in synchronous reluctance motor.
PART B
1 Explain the constructional details of the axial air gap Synchronous Reluctance Motor and
state the principle of operation.
2 Sketch the phasor diagram of synchronous reluctance motor and explain.
3 Develop the expression for reluctance torque from phasor diagram of synchronous
reluctance motor.
4 Investigate on the torque-speed characteristics of a synchronous reluctance motor.
5 Explain the constructional details of the axial air gap Synchronous Reluctance Motor and
state the principle of operation.
UNIT – IV - SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES – SEE1307

UNIT IV
PERMANENT MAGNET BRUSHLESS D.C. MOTORS

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Conventional DC motors are highly efficient and their characteristics make them
suitable for use as servomotors. However, their only drawbacks that they need a commutator
and brushes which are subject to wear and require maintenance.
When the functions of commutator and brushes were implemented by solid state
switches, maintenance free motors were realized. These motors are known as brushless DC
motors. The function of magnets is the same in both brushless motor and the dc commutator
motor. The motor obvious advantage of brushless configuration is the removal of brushes.
Brush maintenance is no longer required, and many problems associated with brushes are
removed.
An advantage of the brushless configuration in which the rotor inside the stator is that
more cross sectional area is available for the power or armature winding. At the same time
conduction of heat through the frame is providing greater specific torque. The efficiency is
likely to be higher that of a commutator motor of equal size and the absence of brush friction
help further in this regard.
4.2 CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURESB OF BLPM MOTORS
4.2.1 Construction
The stator of the BLPM dc motor is made up of silicon steel stampings with slots in
its interior surface. These slots accommodate either a closed or opened distributed armature
winding usually it is closed. This winding is to be wound for a specified number of poles.
This winding is suitably connected to a dc supply through a power electronic switching
circuitry (named as electronic commutator).
Fig 4.1 Arrangement of permanent magnet in the rotor
Rotor is made of forged steel. Rotor accommodates permanent magnet. Number of

poles of the rotor is the same as that of the stator. The rotor shaft carries a rotor position
sensor. This position sensor provides information about the position of the shaft at any instant
to the controller which sends suitable signals to the electronic commutator.
4.2.2 Merits and Demerits
Merits
There is no field winding. Therefore there is no field
cu loss. The length of the motor is less as there is no
mechanical commutator. Size of the motor becomes
less.
It is possible to nave very high speeds.
It is self-starting motor. Speed can be controlled.
Motor can be operated in hazardous
atmospheric condition. Efficiency is better.
Demerits
Field cannot be controlled.
Power rating is restricted because of the maximum available size of permanent magnets.
A rotor position sensor is required.
A power electronic switch circuitry is required.
4.2.3 Comparison of brushless dc motor relative to induction motor drives
In the same frame, for same cooling, the brushless PM motor will have better
efficiency and p.f and therefore greater output. The difference may be in the order of
20 – 50% which is higher.
Power electronic converter required is similar in topology to the PWM inverters used
in induction motor drives.
In case of induction motor, operation in the weakening mode is easily achieved

providing a constant power capability at high speed which is difficult in BLPM dc
motor.
PM excitation is viable only in smaller motors usually well below 20 kw also subject
to speed constraints, In large motors PM excitation does not make sense due to weight
and cost.
4.2.4 Commutator and brushes arrangement
Because of the hetropolar magnetic field in the air gap of dc machine the
emf induced in the armature conductors is alternating in nature. This emf is available
across brushes as unidirectional emf because of commutator and brushes arrangement.
The dc current passing through the brushes is so distributed in the armature

winding that unidirectional torque is developed in armature conductor.
A dc current passing through the brushes because of commutator and

brushes action, always sets up a mmf whose axis is in quadrature with the main field axis,
irrespective of the speed of the armature.
4.2.5 Construction of Mechanical Commutator
Commutator Segment
Fig 4.2 Commutator Segment
Commutator is made up of specially shaped commutator segments made up of copper.

These segments are separated by thin mica sheets (ie) Insulation of similar shape. The
commutator segments are tapered such that when assembled they form a cylinder.
These segments are mechanically fixed to the shaft using V – shaped circular steel
clamps, but are isolated electrically from the shaft using suitable insulation between the
clamps and the segment.
Fig 4.3 connection of commutator segments to shaft

4.2.6 Mechanical Commutator and Brushes Arrangement
Fig 4.4 Mechanical Commutator and Brushes Arrangement
It represents a case with 2poles and 12 commutator segments.

To start with the brush X contacts with CSI and brush Y with 7.A dc supply is
connected across the brushes X and Y. The dc current I passes through brush X,CSI,tapping
1,tapping 7and brush Y. There are two armature parallel paths between tapping‘s 1 and 7.the
current passing through the armature winding aets up a magneto motive force whose axis is
along the axes of tapping 7 and 1 of the brush axes Y and X.
Allow the armature to rotate by an angle in a counter clockwise direction. Then the
brush X contacts CS2 and the tapping‘s a and the brush Y. Contact CS8 and tapping 8.The dc
current passes through the tapping‘s 2 and 8 there are two parallel paths.
(i) 2–3–4–5–6–7–8
(ii) 2–1–12–11–10–9–8
Now the mmf set up by the armature winding is form tapping 8 to 2 along the brush axis
YX Thus the armature mmf direction is always along the brush axis YX, even though the
current distribution in the armature winding gets altered.
In a normal dc machine brushes are kept in the interpolar axis. Therfore, the axis of the
armature mmf makes an angle 90˚elec with the main field axis.
The function of commutator and brushes arrangement in a conventional dc machine is to

set up an armature mmf always in quadrature with the main field mmf respectively of the
speed of rotation of the rotor.
4.2.7 Electronic commutator
The armature winding which is in the stator has 12 tapping‘s. each tapping is
connected to the positive of the dc supply node and through 12 switches designated as S1
,S2,….S12 and negative of the supply at node Y through switches S‘1,S‘2,…….S‘12.
Fig 4.5 Electronic Commutator
When S1 and S‘1 are closed the others are in open position, the dc supply is given to
the trappings 1 and 7.there are two armature parallel path.
(i) 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
(ii) 1–12–11–10–9–8–7
They set up armature mmf along the axis 7 to 1.
After a small interval S1 and S‘1 are kept open and S2 and S‘2 are closed. Then dc
current passes from tapping 2 to 8 sets up mmf in the direction 8 – 2.
Fig 4.6 switching circuit of electronics commutator
Thus by operating the switch in a sequential manner it is possible to get a revolving

mmf in the air gap. The switches S1 to S12 and S‘1 to S‘12 can be replaced by power
electronic switching devices such as SCR‘s MOSFET‘s IGBT‘s, power transistor etc.
When SCR‘s are used suitable commutating circuit should be included. Depending
upon the type of forced commutated employed, each switch requires on or two SCRs and
other commutating devices. As number of devices is increased, the circuit becomes
cumbersome.
Fig 4.7 Delta Connected Stator Armature Winding
For normal electronic commutator, usually six switching devices are employed. Then
the winding should have three tapping‘s. Therefore the winding can be connected either in
star or in delta.
Fig 4.8 Star Connected Armature Winding
4.2.8 Comparison between mechanical Commutator and brushes and Electronic

Commutator
S.
Mechanical Commutator Electronic Commutator
No
1. Commutator is made up of copper segment and Power electronic switching device is used in
mica insulation. Brushes are of carbon or the commutator.it requires a position sensor.
graphite.
2. Commutator arrangements are located in the It is located in the stator.

rotor.
3. Shaft position sensing is inherent in the Separate rotor position sensor is required.
arrangement
4. Numbers of commutator segments are very Number of switching devices is limited to 6.

high.
5. Highly reliable. Reliability is improved by specially designing

the devices and protective circuits.
6. Difficult to control the voltage available across The voltage available across armature tappings
the tappings. can be controlled by employing PWM
techniques.
7. Interpole windings are employed to have By suitable operating the switching devices,
sparkles commutation. better performance can be achieved.
4.3 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF BRUSHLESS PM DC MOTOR
Starting
When dc supply is switched on to the motor the armature winding draws a current. The
current distribution within the stator armature winding depends upon rotor position and the
devices turned on. An emf perpendicular to the permanent magnet field is set up. Then the
armature conductors experience a force. The reactive force develops a torque in the rotor. If
this torque is more than the opposing frictional and load torque the motor starts. It is a self-
starting motor.
Demagnetization curve
As the motor picks up speed, there exists a relative angular velocity between the
permanent magnet field and the armature conductors. AS per faradays law of electromagnetic
induction, an emf is dynamically induced in the armature conductors. This back emf as per
len‘s law opposes the cause armature current and is reduced. As a result the developed torque
reduces. Finally the rotor will attain a steady speed when the developed torque is exactly
equal to the opposing frictional load torque. Thus the motor attains a steady state condition.
Electromechanical transfer
When the load – torque is increased, the rotor speed tends to fall. As a result the back
emf generated in the armature winding tends to get reduced. Then the current drawn from the
mains is increased as the supply voltage remains constant. More torque is developed by the
motor. The motor will attain a new dynamic equilibrium position when the developed torque
is equal to the new torque. Then the power drawn from the mains V *I is equal to the
mechanical power delivered = Pm =ωT and the various losses in the motor and in the
electronic switching circuitry.
4.4 CLASSIFICATION OF BLPM DC MOTOR
BLPM dc motors can be classified on the basis of the flux density distribution in the air
gap of the motor. They are
(a). BLPM Square wave dc motor [BLPM SQW DC Motor]

(b).BLPM sinusoidal wave dc motor [BLPM SINE WAVE DC Motor]
(a) BLPM Square wave motor
These are two types: 180Ԏ pole arc.
120Ԏ pole arc.
Air gap flux density distribution in 180Ԏ BLPM SQW motor as shown in fig.
Fig 4.11 Air gap flux density distribution in 180Ԏ BLPM SQW motor.
Air gap density distribution of BLPM DC SQW motor with 120Ԏ pole arc, as shown
in
fig.
Fig 4.12 Air gap flux density distribution in 120Ԏ BLPM SQW motor
(b)BLPM Sine wave DC Motor
Air gap density distribution of BLPM dc sine wave motor as shown in fig.
Fig 4.13 Flux density distribution of BLPM DC sine wave motor

4.5 EMF EQUATION OF BLPM SQW DC MOTORS
The basic torque emf equations of the brushless dc motor are quite simple and
resemble those of the dc commutator motor.
The co-ordinate axis have been chosen so that the center of a north pole of the
magnetic is aligned with the x-axis at Ө = 0 .the stator has 12 slots and a three phasing
winding. Thus there are two slots per pole per phase.
Consider a BLPM SQW DC MOTOR
Let ‗p‘be the number of poles (PM)
‗Bg‘ be the flux density in the air gap in wb/m2.
Bk is assumed to be constant over the entire pole pitch in the air gap (180Ԏ pole arc)
‗r‘ be the radius of the airgap in m.
‗l‘ be the length of the armature in m.
‗Tc‘ be the number of turns per coil.
‗ωm‘ be the uniform angular velocity of the rotor in mechanical rad/sec.
ωm=2πN/60 where N is the speed in rpm.
Flux density distribution in the air gap is as shown in fig 4.14.At t=0(it is assumed that
the axis of the coil coincides with the axis of the permanent magnet at time t=0).
Let at ωmt=0,the centre of N-pole magnet is aligned with x-axis.
At ωmt=0,x-axis is along PM axis.
Therefore flux enclosed by the coli is
Φmax=B x 2πr/p x l ................................................................................... (4.1)
=flux/pole
Φmax=rl∫0π B(θ)dθ
=Bg rl[θ]0π
=Bgrl[π]
At ωmt=0,the flux linkage of the coil is
Λmax= (Bg x 2πr/p x l)Tc ωb-T ...................................................................................... (4.2)

Fig 4.14 Magnetic Flux Density around the Air gap.
Fig 4.15 Motor Showing two Coils of One Phase.
Let the rotor rotating in ccw direction and when ωmt=π/2, the flux enclosed by the coil Φ,
Therefore λ=0.
The flux linkages of the coil vary with θ variation of the flux linkage is as shown above.
The flux linkages of the coil changes from BgrlTcπ/p at ωmt=0 (i.e) t= 0 t0 θ at
t=π/pωm. Change of flux linkage of the coil (i.e) ∆λ is
∆λ/∆t =Final flux linkage – Initial flux linkage/time.
=0- (2BgrlTcπ/p)/ (π/pωm)
= -(2BgrlTcωm) .................................................................................................................................................. (4.3)
The emf induced in the coil ec= - dλ/dt
ec =2BgrlTcωm............................................................................................................................................................(4.4)
Distribution of ec with respect to t is shown in fig 4.16

Fig 4.16 Emf waveform of coil 1
It is seen that the emf waveform is rectangular and it toggles between + ec to - ec. The
period of the wave is 2πr/pωm sec and magnitude of ec is
ec =2BgrlTcωm volts ............................................................................................(4.5)
Consider two coils a1A1 and a2A2 as shown in fig 5.15.Coil a2A2 is adjacent to a1A1
is displaced from a1A1 by an angle 30Ԏ(i.e.) slot angle ϒ .
The magnitude of emf induced in the coil a1A1
ec2 =BgrlTcωm volts ......................................................................... (4.6)
The magnitude of emf induced in the coil a2A2
ec2 =BgrlTcωm volts ............................................................................ (4.7)
Its emf waveform is also rectangular but displaced by the emf of waveform of coil ec1 by
slot angle ϒ .
If the two coils are connected in series, the total phase voltage is the sum of the two
separate coil voltages.
ec1 +ec2 =2BgrlTcωm ......................................................................................................................................................... (4.8)
Let nc be the number of coils that are connected in series per phase ncTc =Tph be the
number of turns/phase.
eph= nc [2BgrlTcωm ] ....................................................................................... (4.9)
eph= 2BgrlTphωm volts .......................................................................................... (4.10)
eph=resultant emf when all nc coils are connected in series.
The waveforms are as shown in fig 4.17

Fig 4.17 Emf waveform of phase a
The waveform of eph is stepped and its amplitude is 2BgrlTphωm volts.
At any instant 2-phase windings are connected in series across the supply terminals
as shown in fig 4.18.
Fig.4.18 converter of brushless dc motor with star connected phase winding.
Assumption
Armature winding is Y connected.

Electronic switches are so operated using rotor position sensor that the resultant
emfs across the winding terminals is always = 2 eph.
Amplitude of back emf generated in Y connected armature winding E = 2 eph.
4.6 BASIC VOLTAGE EQUATION OF BLPMDC MOTOR
Let V be the dc supply voltage
I be the armature current
Rph be the resistance per phase of the λ connected armature winding.
Vdd be the voltage drop in the device (it is usually neglected)
eph be the back emf generated per phase of Y connected armature winding .
EE 8005
V = 2 eph + 2IRph + 2Vdd …………………………………...(4.11)
If Vdd is neglected
V = 2 eph + 2 I Rph
I=
I= ……………………………………….(4.12)
(a) Starting condition

Speed is zero ωm = 0
Supply voltage is V
Since ωm=0; eph = 0
Starting current Istg = = = …………………………...(4.13)
R = 2 Rph is Y connected
This current is also known as starting current.
(b) NO load condition
Current is very very small
Then V = 2 eph + 2 I R ph
2I Rph − negligible
V = 2 epho ………………………………..….(4.14)
= 2 [2 Bg r l ωmo Tph ]
= 4 [Bg r l ωmo Tph ]
V = ke ωmo ……………………………..….(4.15)
No load speed, ωmo …………………………....(4.16)
= ………………………..…..(4.17)
No load current Io=0
(c) ON load condition:

V = 2 eph + 2 I Rph
= 4 Bg r l ωm tph + 2 I Rph …………………...(4.18)
On load current
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

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EE SPECIAL ELECTRICAL
8005 I= MACHINES
= .................................................................................... (4.19)
–
= …………..…(4.20)
–
I = ....................................................................................................... (4.21)
I vs ωm curve is shown in fig 4.19
Fig.4.19 I Vs. ωm Curve
4.7 TORQUE EQUATION OF BLPM SQUARE WAVE MOTOR
Power input = VI
=[ 2 eph + 2 I Rph + 2 Vdd] I .......................................................... (4.22)
VI=[ 2 eph + 2 I Rph + 2 Vdd] I ........................................................ (4.23)
VI= electrical power input
2 eph I = power converted as mechanical
2 I2 Rph = power loss in the armature winding
2 Vdd I = power loss in the device
Mechanical power developed= 2 eph I ................................................................(4.24)
eph= 2(2BgrlTphωm)I
eph= 4BgrlTphωm ..........................................................................................(4.25)
Mechanical power = (2πN/60)T ............................................................................ (4.26)
= ωmT...................................................................................... (4.27)
Where N=Speed in rpm
T=Torque in N-m
ωm=Speed in rad/sec
Therefore T=4BgrlTphI .....................................................................................(4.28)
=KtT ............................................................................................ (4.29)
Where Kt = 4BgrlTph=Ke .................................................................................(4.30)
(a) Case1: Starting Torque
ωm=0
Istg=(V/2Rph) ……………………….…(4.31)
Tstg=4BgrlTph(V/2Rph) ………………………....(4.32)
Tstg=Kt(V/2Rph) ………………………...(4.33)
Starting torque or stalling torque depends upon V.

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(b) Case 2: On load condition
T =KtI ………………………….(4.34)
= 4 Bgr lTph I
I = (V-2eph)/(2Rph) ………………………….. (4.35)
2eph =V-2I Rph
4 Bg r l Tph ωm= V-2I Rph ………………………….. (4.36)
Ke ωm = V-2I Rph
ωm = (V-2I Rph)/ Ke ………………………….. (4.37)
ωm0 = V/ Ke …………………………….(4.38)
ωm/ ωm0 = ( (V-2I Rph)/ Ke) (V/ Ke )
=(V-2I Rph)/ V
ωm/ ωm0 =1- ((V-2I Rph)/ V) …………………………… (4.39)
I/(Tstg) =(KtI)/(KtIstg)
=I.(2Rph/V)
T/ Tstg=2I Rph/V ………………….. (4.40)
Substituding eqn. 5.40 in eqn. 5.39
ωm/ ωm0=1-( T/ Tstg) ………………….. (4.41)
ωm/ ωm0=1-(I-Istg) ………………… (4.42)
4.8 TORQUE- SPEED CHARACTERSISTICS OF BLPM SQM DC MOTOR
Let the supply voltage V be constant. A family of torque speed characteristics for various
constant supply voltages is as shown in figure 4.20

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voltages Permissible region of operation in T-ωm plane
Torque speed characteristics of BLPM square wave motor is shown in fig.4.21. The
constraints are
1. The continues current should not exceed the permissible current limit In (i.e) Torques
should not exceed Kt In.
2. The maximum permissible supply voltage = Vn.
3. The speed should not exceed ωmn.
Fig. 4.21 Torque-speed characteristics
Line AB
Parallel to X-axis represents maximum permissible torque line which corresponds to

maximum permissible current In.
Line FG
It represents T-ωm characteristics corresponding to the maximum permissible Vn. B

and C are points in Fg. B is the point of intersection between AB and FG.
Line DH
It represents constant maximum permissible speed line (i.e) ω mn is constant. DH

intersects FG and x axis at D.
The area OABCDO is the permissible region of operation. To obtain a particular point
P corresponding to given load-torque and speed condition the only way to operate the motor
at P is by suitably adjusting the supply voltage fed to the motor.

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Fig.4.22 Torque speed characteristics of ideal brushless DC motor
If the phase resistance is small as it should be in an efficient design, then the

characteristics to that of a shunt dc motor. The speed is essentially controlled by the
voltage V and may be changed by changing the supply voltage. Then the current
drawn just to drive the torque at its speed.
As the load torque is increased, the speed drops and the drop is directly proportional to
the phase resistance and the torque.
The voltage is usually controlled by chopping or PWM. This gives rise to a family of
torque speed characteristics as shown in fig. 4.22. The boundaries of continuous and
intermittent limits are shown.
Continuous limit - determined by the heat transfer and temperature rise.
Intermittent limit – determined by the maximum ratings of semiconductor devices in circuit.
In practice the torque speed characteristics deviates from the ideal form because of the
effects of inductance and other parasitic influences.
Also the speed range can be extended by increasing the dwell of conduction period
relative to the rotor position.
4.9 COMMUTATION IN MOTORS WITH 120° AND 180° MAGNET ARC
BLPM dc motor with 180° magnet arcs and 120° square wave phase currents arc
shown in fig. 4.23 and 4.24.

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Fig.4.23 BLDC motor with 180° magnet arc and 120° square wave phase currents
Fig.4.24 BLDC motor with 120° magnet arcs and 180° square wave phase currents
In Fig. 4.26 the rotor magnet poles are shaded to distinguish north and south. The
phase belts are shaded us complete 60° sector of the stator bore. There are two slots in each
of these phase belts. The current in these two slots are identical and conductors in them are in
series
Fig.4.25 Flux density around air gap

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Fig.4.26 Converter of brushless DC motor for star connected phase winding
Between the rotor ring and the stationary belt ring in fig. 4.26 there is a third ring called the
‖mmf ring‖. This represents the mmf distribution of the stator currents at a particular instant.
At the instant shown wt=0, phase A is conducting positive current and phase C is
conducting negative current. The resulting mmf distribution has the same shading as
the N and S rotor poles to indicate the generation of torque,
Where the mmf distribution has like shasing, positive torque is produced. Where mmf
and flux shading are unlike, negative torque is produced. Where one is zero, no torque
is zero, no torque is produced. The total torque is the integral of the contributions
from around the entire air gap periphery.
The rotor is rotating in the clockwise direction. After 60º of rotation, the rotor poles
start to ‗uncover‘ the C phase belts and the torque contribution of phase C starts to decrease
linearly.
During this period, the magnet poles, have been ‗covering‘ the B phase belts. Now if
the negative current is commutated from C to B exactly at then point 60º, then the torque will
be unaffected and will continue constant for a further 60º. After 120º, positive current must be
commutated from A to C.
Commutation tables for three-phase brushless dc motors.
TABLE 4.1 180º Magnet-Star Winding. 120º Square wave phase Currents
Rotor
A B C au(1) aL(4) bu(3) bL(6) cu(5) cL(2)
Position
0–60 +1 0 -1 1 0 0 0 0 1
60 – 120 +1 -1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
120 – 180 0 -1 +1 0 0 0 1 1 0
180 – 240 -1 0 +1 0 1 0 0 1 0
240 –
-1 +1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
300

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0 +1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
360
The production of smooth, ripple free torque depends on the fact the magnet pole arc
exceeds the mmf arc by 60º.
Here only 2/3 of the magnet and 2/3 of the stator conductors are active at any instant
Fig. 4.27 phase current waveforms of BLDC motor with 180º pole arc.
In a practical motor the magnet flux-density distribution cannot be perfectly

rectangular as shown in fig.4.27. for a highly coercive magnets and full 180º magnet
arcs there is a transition section of the order of 10-20º in width. This is due to fringing
effect. Likewise on the stator side, the mmf distribution is not rectangular but have a
stepped wave form as shown in fig.4.28 that reflects the slotting.
Fig 4.28 Air Gap Flux Density on Open Circuit
To some extent these effects cancel each other so that s that satisfactory results are
obtained with a magnet arc as short as 150º, and two slots per pole per phase.
But there is always dip in the torque in the neighborhood of the commutation angles.
This torque dip occurs every 60º elec degrees, giving rise to a torque ripple
component with a fundamental frequency equal to 6P times the rotation frequency
where P is the number of pole pairs. The magnitude and width of the torque dip
depends on the time taken to commutate the phase current.
Phase current waveforms corresponding to high speed and low speed operations are
as shown in fig. 4.29 (a & b)

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(a) High speed, full voltage. Note the dip caused by commutation of other 2 phases,
(b) Low speed with current controlled by chopping.
Fig.4.29 Phase current wave forms.
The back emf is of equal value in the incoming phase and is in such a direction as to
oppose the current build up.
While the flux distribution of the magnet rotates in a continuous fashion, the mmf
distribution of the stator remains stationary for 60º and then jumps to a position 60º
ahead.
Similar analysis is made with a motor having 120 º pole arc magnets with delta connected
armature winding.
Table 4.2 120º Magnet Delta Winding, 180º Square Wave Phase Currents.
Rotor Position ab u ab L bc u bc L ca u ca L
A B C
(1) (4) (3) (6) (5) (2)
0–60 +1 +1 -1 0 0 1 0 0 1
60 – 120 +1 -1 -1 1 0 0 0 0 1
120 – 180 +1 -1 +1 1 0 0 1 0 0
180 – 240 -1 -1 +1 0 0 0 1 1 0
240 – 300 -1 +1 +1 0 1 0 0 1 0
300 - 360 -1 +1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
Fig.4.30 phase currents wave forms of BLDC motor with120º pole arc

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Fig 4.31 converter of brushless dc motor for delta connected phase winding
C phase belt remains covered by the magnet poles. While the coverage of A phase belt
increases thereby decreasing that of B phase belt.
Since all the conductors are varying same current the increasing torque contribution
of phase A is balancing by the decreasing contribution of phase B. Therefore, the total
torque remains constant.
Similarly there is a linear increase in the back emf of A and equal and oppoaite
decrease in the back emf in phase B, Therefore the back emf at the terminals remains
constant.
Line current divides equally between two paths
One-phase C Second-phase A & B series.
This balance is not perfect in practice because of the resistance and inductance of the
windings.But the current balance should be maintained, otherwise circulating current may
produce excessive torque ripple and additional losses.
When compared with 180° pole arc machine.
For the same ampere-conductors per slot and for the same peak flux density, the 120°
pole arc machine has 1.5 times copper losses, but produces the same torque.
Also the ampere-conductors per slot would have to be reduced because the duty cycle is
1.0 instead of 2/3.
Merits
For the same magnet flux density the total flux is only 2/3 of that of 180° pole arc
motor, so that only 2/3 of the stator yoke thickness is required. If the stator outside
diameter is kept the same, the slots can be made deeper so that the loss of ampere
conductors can be at least partially covered .consequently the efficiency of the motor
may not be very much less than that of 180° pole arc machine.
In this machine also, the effects of fringing flux, slotting and communication overlap
combine to produce torque ripple.
Only emf and torque are discussed. The concept of hanging flux-linkage and energy
balance can also be used to analyze the operation.
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4.10 MAGNETIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS ON OPEN CIRCUIT
Cross section of a 2 pole brushless dc motor having high energy rare earth magnets on
the rotor and the demagnetization curve are as shown in fig 4.32 (a & b)

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(a) Motor cross section and flux pattern (b)magnet demagnetization curve
Fig 4.32 magnetic circuit analysis of BLDC motor
First step to analyze a magnetic circuit is to identify the main flux paths and the reluctance or
permeances assigned to them.
The equivalent magnetic circuit is shown in fig 4.33.only half of the equivalent circuit is
shown & the lower half is the mirror image of the upper half about the horizontal axis, which is
at equipotential. This assumption is true only if the two halves are balanced. If not the horizontal
axis might still be an equipotential but the fluxes and the magnetic potentials in the two halves
would be different and there could be residual flux in the axial direction .along the shaft. The
axial flux is undesirable because it can induce current to flow in the bearing.
Fig .4.33 magnetic equivalent circuit.
The steel cores of the stator and rotor shaft are assumed to be infinitely permeable.
Each magnet is represented by a ‗Norton‘ equivalent circuit consisting of a flux generator in

parallel with an internal leakage permeance pmo.
υr=BrAm …….(4.43)
Pmo=μ0μrecAm/lm …….(4.44)
where Am – pole area the magnet
lm – length of the magnet in the direction of magnetization (in this case its radial thickness)
Br- remanent flux density
μrec- relative recoil permeability (the slope of the demagnetization curve)
In this case the outer pole area is larger than the inner pole area but to keep the analysis simple
average pole area is considered.

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with a magnet arc of 120°
Am=2/3 [r1–g-lm/2]l............................................................................................... (4.45)
r1- radius of the rotor
g- air gap length
most of the magnet flux crosses the air gap via the air gap reluctance Rg
Rg=g‘/μ0Ag ………..(4.46)
g‘- equivalent air gap length allowing for slotting.
the slotting can be taken into account by means of carter‘s coefficient, which case,
g‘=Kc g ..............................................................................................................................(4.47)
Ag- air gap area through which the flux passes as it crosses he gap . the precise boundary of this
area is uncertain because of fringing both at the edges of the magnet and at the ends of the
rotor.An approximate allowance for fringing can be made by adding ‗g‘ at each of the four
boundaries ,giving
Ag=[2/3 (r1- g/2)+2g](l+2g) …..(4.48)
the remaining permeance in the magnetic circuit I the rotor leakage permeance ρrl, which
represents the paths of the magnet flux components that fails to cross the air gap. this can
be conveniently included in a modified magnet internal permeance by writing
pm=pmo+prl ....................................................................................................(4.49(a))
pm=pmo(1+prl) ..................................................................................................... (4.49(b))
prl-normalized rotor leakage permeance
4.11 A controller for BLPM SQW DC Motor
4.11.1 Power Circuit
Power Circuit of BLPM de motor is as shown fig consists of six power semiconductor switching
device connected in bridge configuration across a dc supply. A suitable shunt resistance is
connected in series to get the current feedback. Feedback diodes are connected across the device.
The armature winding is assumed to be star connected. Rotor has a rotor position sensor and a
techo-generator is coupled to the shaft to get feedback signal.

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Fig 4.34 structure of controller for brushless PM DC Motor
4.11.2 Control circuit
The control circuits consist of a commutation logic unit. Which get the information about
the rotor shaft position and decides which switching devices are to be turned on and which
devices are to be turned off. This provides six output signals out of which three are used as the
base drive for the upper leg devices. The other three output signal are logically AND with the
high frequency pulses and the resultant signals are used to drive the lower leg devices.
A comparator compares the tachogenerator output with reference speed and the output
signal is considered as the reference current signal for the current comparator which compare the
reference current with the actual current and the error signal output is fed to the monostable
multivibrator which is excited by high frequency pulses. The duty cycle of the output of
monostable is controlled by error signal. This output signal influences the conduction period and
duty cycle of lower leg devices.
Rotor Position sensors for BLPM motor
It converts the information of rotor shaft position into suitable electrical signal. This signal is
utilized to switch ON and OFF the various semiconductor devices of electric switching and
commutation circuitry of BLPM motor.
Two popular rotor sensors are
Optical Position Sensor.
Hall Effect Position Sensor.
(a) Optical position sensor

This makes use of six photo transistors. This device is turned into ON state when light
rays fall on the devices. Otherwise the device is in OFF state the schematic representation
is shown in fig.

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Fig 4.35 Optical position sensor
The phototransistors are fixed at the end shield cover such that they are mutually
displaced by 60 degree electrical by a suitable light source. The shaft carries a circular
disc which rotates along the shaft. The disc prevents the light ray falling on the devices.
Suitable slot are punched in the disc such turned into on state suitably turns the main
switching devices of electronic commutation circuitry into on state.
As the shaft rotates, the devices of electronic commutation which are turned into ON are
successively changed.
(b) Hall effect position sensor
Consider a small pellet of n-type semiconducting material as shown in fig 4.36.
Fig 4.36 Hall Effect
A current icis allowed to pass from the surface ABCD to the surface EFGH. Let the surface
ABEF be subjected to a North pole magnetic field of flux density B tesla. As per Fleming left
hand rule, the positive charge in the pellet get concentrated near surface ADHE and negative
charges near the surface BCFG. Since n-type material has free negative charges, there electrons
gets concentrated near the surface BCGF.This charge in distribution makes the surface ADHE
more positive than the surface BCGF. This potential known as Hall emf or emf due to Hall
Effect.

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It has been experimentally shown that emf due to hall effect is VH is given by
VH = RH(ic / d) volts
Where ic current through the pellet in amps
B- Flux density in tesla
d- Thickness of the pellet in m.
RH – Constant which depends upon the physical dimensions or physical properties of the pellet.
If the polarity of B is changed from North Pole to South Pole the polarity of the emf due to Hall
Effect also get changed.
4.11.3 Hall Effect Position Sensor
Hall effect position sensor can be advantageously used in a BLPM motor. Consider a 2 pole
BLPM motor with two winding w1 and w2 as shown in fig.
Fig 4.37 2 pole BLPM motor
When w1 carries a current on closing S1 it set up a North Pole flux in the air gap. Similarly when
s2 is closed w2 is energized and sets up a North Pole flux.w1 and w2 are located in the stator
such that their axes are 180 degree apart. A Hall Effect position sensor is kept in an axis of the
winding.
When Hall Effect position sensor is influenced by North Pole flux the hall emf is made to
operate the switch S1. Then w1 sets up North Pole flux. The rotor experiences a torque and
South Pole of the rotor tends to align with the axis of w1.because of interia.it overshoot the rotor
hence rotates in clockwise direction. Now HEPS is under the influence of S pole flux of the
rotor. Then the polarity of hall emf gets changed. This make the switch S1 in off state and S2 is
closed. Now w2 sets up N pole flux in the air gap, the rotor rotates in clockwise direction. So that
the s pole gets aligned with w2 axis.Then this process continuous. The rotor rotates continuously.
4.12 Types of BLPM motor
BLPM motor is classified on the basis of number of phase windings and the number of pulses
given to the devices during each cycle.

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4.12.1 One phase winding one pulse BLPM motor
The stator has one phase winding as shown in fig4.38.
It is connected to the supply through a power semiconductor switch. When the rotor position
sensor is influenced by say n pole flux, the stator operates and the rotor developed a torque.
When the RPS is under the influence of S pole, the transistor is in off state. The rotor gets torque
whenever the rotor position is under the influence of n pole.
Fig. 4.38 one phase one pulse BLPM motor.
The current and torque are approximated as sinusoidally varying as shown in fig. 4.39.
Fig.4.39 Current and torque waveform
Advantage
One transistor and one position sensor is sufficient.
Inertia should be such that the rotor rotates continuously.
Utilization of transistor and winding are less than 50%.
4.12.2 One phase two pulse BLPM motor
Stator has only one winding. It is connected to DC three wire supply through two
semiconductor devices as shown in fig. 4.40.

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Fig. 4.40 One phase two pulse BLPM motor
There is only one position sensor. When the position sensor is under the N-pole
influence,T1 is in on-state and T2 is in off-state. When it is under the influence of S-pole, T2 is
on and T1 is off.
Fig. 4.41 Torque waveform
In the first case, the winding carries current from A to B and when T2 is on, the winding
carries current from B to A. The polarity of the flux setup by the winding gets alerted depending
upon the position of the rotor. This provides the unidirectional torque as shown in fig. 4.41.
Advantages
Winding utilization is better.
Torque developed is more uniform.
Demerit
Transistor utilization is less
The current needs a 3-wire dc supply.
4.12.3 Two phase winding and two pulse BLPM motor
Stator has two phase windings which are displaced y 180° electrical. Electrical
connections are as shown in fig. 4.42. It makes use of two semiconductor switches.

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Fig. 4.42 two phase winding and two pulse motor
Fig. 4.43 torque waveform
Performance of this type is similar to one phase 2 pulse BLPM motor. Torque waveform
are as shown in fig. 4.43. However it requires two independent phase windings.
Merit
Better torque waveform.
Demerit
Their utilization is only 50% which is less.
Cabling with rotor position sensor should be made proper.
4.12.4 Three phase winding and three pulse BLPM motor
The stator has 3Φ windings as shown in fig. 4.44. Whose areas are displaced by 120°elec.
apart. Each phase windings is controlled by a semiconductor switch which is operated depending
upon the position of the rotor. Three position sensors are required for this purpose.

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Fig. 4.44 3 phase, 3 pulse BLPM motor.
4.12.5 Three phase six pulse BLPM motor
Most commonly used. It has 3 phase windings and six witching devices as shown in fig.
4.45.
Fig. 4.45 3-phase six pulse BLPM motor.

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Glossary
1. Brushless PM -- It is similar to salient pole D.C.Motor except that there

D.C.Motor is no field winding on rotor and is provided by PM. It
reduces losses. Complexity in construction is reduced.
2. Magnetic Remanence -- The magnetic flux density which persists in magnetic

materials even though the magnetizing forces are
completely removed.
3. Coercivity Forces -- The demagnetizing force which is necessary to

neutralize completely themagnetism in an
electromagnet after the magnetizing force becomes zero.
4. Position Sensors -- The position sensors detect the position of rotating

magnets and send logic codes to commutation decoder.
5. Energy Product -- The absolute value of product of flux density and field
intensity at each point along the demagnetization curve
is called energy product.
6. Electronic Commutator -- It is to transfer the current to the armature. Power

semiconductors are used as switching devices. Armature
has three tappings, which can be connected either in star
or in delta.
7. Commutator -- A commutator is a rotary electrical switch in certain

types of electric motors or electrical generators.
8. Friction -- A force that resists motion between two objects that are
in contact with each other. Smoother surfaces exhibit
less friction, while rougher surfaces exhibit more
friction.
9. Magnet -- A device or object that attracts iron and produces a

magnetic field.
10. Magnitude -- The measurement of the amount of an applied force.
11. Rotary Speed -- A measure of circular motion found by counting the

number of revolutions that occur in a specific amount of
time.

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13. Atmospheric Hazard -- A confined space hazard that is present in the

environment. Atmospheric hazards are categorized as
flammable, toxic, irritant, and asphyxiating.
14. Remanence The ability of a material to retain magnetization, equal

to the magnetic flux density of the material after the
removal of the magnetizing field Also called: retentivity
15. Permeance, In general, is the degree to which a material admits a

flow of matter or energy.

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8005 MACHINES

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Press, 1995.


2006.
QUESTIONS:
UNIT – IV - PERMANENT MAGNET BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR
PART- A
1 Argue on the type of commutation is used in PMBLDC motors.

2 Describe about the Permanent magnet Brushless DC motor.
3 List any two applications of PMBLDC motors.
4 Describe the reason for PMBLDC motors are used in servo motor applications.
5 List any two advantages of a PMBLDC motor.
6 Compare conventional DC motor and PMBLDC motor.
7 List the types of PMBL square wave motor.
8 Describe Electronic commutator.
9 Argue on the efficiency improvement in PMBLDC motors compared to ordinary DC motors.
10 State an equation for the EMF induced/phase of a PMBLDC motor.
11 State an equation for the torque of a PMBLDC motor.
12 Explain about the position sensors that are used in PMBLDC motor.
13 List any four permanent magnetic material used in a PMBLDC motor.
14 Sketch the speed-torque characteristics of a PMBLDC motor.
15 List the application of PMBLDC motor.
PART B
1 (a)Distinguish the mechanical & electronic commutation.

(b)Sketch the torque speed characteristics of PMBL dc motor and Explain.
2 Describe the expression for EMF induced for a square wave PMBLDC motor.
3 The PMBLDC motor has a no-load speed of 6000rpm when connected to 120V DC
supply. The armature resistance is 2Ω. The rotational and iron losses may be
neglected. Determine the speed when the supply voltage voltage is 60V and the
torque is 0.5N-m.
4 Explain the different types of rotor position sensor. Discuss the use of Hall sensors for
position sensing in PMBLDC motor.
5 Explain the switching circuit of electronic commutator.
6 Explain the construction & working principle of PMBLDC motor.
7 Describe the operation of power controller for PMBL square wave motor with neat diagram.
UNIT – V - SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES – SEE1307

UNIT-5
PERMANENT MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
5.1 INTRODUCTION
A permanent magnet synchronous motor is also called as brushless permanent magnet

sine wave motor. A sine wave motor has a
1. Sinusoidal or quasi-sinusoidal distribution of magnetic flux in the air gap.

2. Sinusoidal or quasi-sinusoidal current wave forms.
3. Quasi-sinusoidal distribution of stator conductors (i.e.) short-pitched and distributed or
concentric stator windings.
The quasi sinusoidal distribution of magnetic flux around the air gap is achieved by
tapering the magnet thickness at the pole edges and by using a shorter magnet pole arc typically
120º.
The quasi sinusoidal current wave forms are achieved through the use of PWM inverters
and this may be current regulated to produce the best possible approximation to a pure sine wave.
The use of short pitched distributed or concentric winding is exactly the same as in ac motors.
5.2 CONSTRUCTION AND PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Permanent magnet synchronous machines generally have same operating and performance
characteristics as synchronous machines. A permanent magnet machine can have a configuration
almost identical to that of the conventional synchronous machines with absence of slip rings and
a field winding.
Construction
Fig. 5.1 shows a cross section of simple permanent magnet synchronous machines. It
consists of the stationary member of the machine called stator. Stator laminations for axial air gap
machines are often formed by winding continuous strips of soft steel. Various parts of the
laminations are the teeth slots which contain the armature windings. Yoke completes the magnetic
path. Lamination thickness depends upon the frequency of the armature source voltage and cost.
Armature windings are generally double layer (two coil side per slot) and lap wound.
Individual coils are connected together to form phasor groups. Phasor groups are connected
together in series/parallel combinations to form star, delta, two phase (or) single windings.
AC windings are generally short pitched to reduce harmonic voltage generated in the
windings.
Coils, phase groups and phases must be insulated from each other in the end-turn regions
and the required dielectric strength of the insulation will depend upon the voltage ratings of the
machines.
Fig. 5.1 structure of the stator and rotor
In a permanent magnet machines the air gap serves an role in that its length largely
determines the operating point of the permanent magnet in the no-load operating condition of the
machines .Also longer air gaps reduce machines windage losses.
The permanent magnets form the poles equivalent to the wound field pole of conventional
synchronous machines. Permanent magnet poles are inherently ―salient‖ and there is no equivalent
to the cylindrical rotor pole configurations used in many convectional synchronous machines.
Many permanent magnet synchronous machines may be cylindrical or ―smooth rotor‖

physically but electrically the magnet is still equivalent to a salient pole structure. Some of the
PMSM rotors have the permanent magnets directly facing the air gap as in fig. 5.2.
Rotor yoke is the magnetic portion of the rotor to provide a return path for the permanent
magnets and also provide structural support. The yoke is often a part of the pole structure
Fig. 5.2 PMSM rotor

Damper winding is the typical cage arrangement of conducting bars, similar to induction
motor rotor bars and to damper bars used on many other types of synchronous machines. It is not
essential for all permanent magnet synchronous machines applications, but is found in most
machines used in power applications.
The main purpose is to dampen the oscillations about synchronous speed, but the bars are
also used to start synchronous motors in many applications.
The design and assembly of damper bars in permanent magnet machines are similar to the
other types of synchronous machines.
Synchronous machines are classified according to their rotor configuration. There are four
general types of rotors in permanent magnet synchronous machines. They are
1. Peripheral rotor
2. Interior rotor
3. Claw pole or lundell rotor.
4. Transverse rotor.
Peripheral rotor
The permanent magnets are located on the rotor periphery and permanent magnet flux is
radial.
Interior rotor
The permanent magnets are located on the interior of the rotor and flux is generally radial.
Claw pole or Lund ell
The permanent magnets are generally disc shaped and magnetized axially. Long soft iron
extensions emanate axially from periphery of the discs like claws or Lund ell poles. There is
set of equally spaced claws on each disc which alternate with each other forming alternate
north and south poles.
Transverse rotor
In this type the permanent magnets are generally between soft iron poles and the permanent
magnet flux is circumferential. In this soft iron poles at as damper bars. Magnetically this
configuration is similar to a reluctance machine rotor, since the permeability of the permanent
magnet is very low, almost the same as that of a non-magnetic material. Therefore, reluctance
torque as well as torque resulting from the permanent magnet flux is developed.
Thus BLPM sine waves (SNW) motor is construction wise the same as that of BLPM
square wave (SQW) motor. The armature winding and the shape of the permanent magnet are
so designed that flux density distribution of the air gap is sinusoidal(i.e.) .The magnetic field
setup by the permanent magnet in the air gap is sinusoidal
5.3 EMF EQUATION OF BLPM SINE WAVE MOTOR
5.3.1 Flux density distribution

cospθ or cos
(ρθ+α),2p=p,(i.e)p-no of pole pairs depending upon the position of the reference axis as shown in
fig6.3
Fig 5.3 flux density distribution
Consider a full pitched single turn armature coil as shown in fig 5.4.Let the rotor be revolving
with a uniform angular velocity of ὠm mech.rad/sec.
At time t = 0, let the axis of the single turn coil be along the polar axis.
Fig 5.4 full pitched single turn armature coil
Consider a small strip of dθ mech.radians at a position θ from the reference.

sin pθ
Incremental flux in the strip dθ = B Χ area swept by the conductor
sin pθ X lr dθ
B lr dθ weber
Where
L – Length of the armature in m
r – Radians of the armature
sin pθ X lr dθ
lr sin pθ X dθ
Flux enclosed by the coil after lapes of t sec is
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ɸ = ............................................................................................................. (5.1)
ɸ lr/p) cos pθ ωmt
5.3.2. EMF Equation of an ideal BLPM sine wave motor
As per faradays law of electromagnetic induction, emf induction in the single turn coil.
e = -N d ɸ /dt
-dɸ /dt as N=1

= - dɸ lr/p) cos pθ ωmt)
lr/p) p ωm sin p ωmt
lr ωm sin p ωmt ……..(5.2)
let the armature winding be such that all turns of the phase are concentrated full pitched and located
with respect to pole axis in the same manner.
Let Tph be the number of turns connected in series per phase. Then the algebraic addition of the
emfs of the individual turns gives the emf induced per phase as all the emf are equal and in phase.
eph lr ωm sin p ωmt)Tph ……..(5.3)

lr ωm Tph sin p ωmt
= Ĕ ph sin p ωmt where p ωmt = ωe
angular frequency in red/sec
= Ĕ ph sin ωet
……..(5.4)
Ĕ ph lr ωm Tph ωm
Ĕ ph = rms value of the phase emf
= Ĕ ph/ √2
lr ωm Tph ωm
ωm= ωe/ρ
ɸ m – sinusoidal distributedflux / pole

……..(5.5)
ɸ =Bav τ l
=Bav X (2πr / 2p) X l

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Average value of flux density for sinewave =2/π
ɸm X (πr / P). l
ɸm rl/P)
r l = (P ɸ m / 2) ……..(5.6)
E ph lr ωm Tph .volt
Sub equ
E ph = √ 2 (P ɸ m / 2)ωm Tph
= √ 2 (P ɸ m / 2) (ω/p) Tph
=√ 2 (P ɸ m / 2) (2πf/p) Tph
E ph = 4.44 f ɸ m Tph. Volt ……..(5.7)
5.3.3 EMF equation of practical BLPM sine wave motor
In a practical BLPM sine wave motor at the time of design it is taken care to have the flux density
is sinusoidal distributed and rotor rotates with uniform angular velocity. However armature
winding consists of short chorded coils properly distributed over a set of slot.
These aspect reduce the magnitude of E ph of an ideal winding by a factor Kw1 which is known as
the winding factor the fundamental component of flux.
Kw1 = Ks1 Kp1 Kb1 ……..(5.8)
Ks1 =slew factor
Ks1 = (sin σ/2)/ (σ/2)
Ks1 = 1 (slightly less than 1)
– Skew angle in elec. Radians.
Kp1 = pitch factor (or) short chording factor
= sin m or cos 2
Where m = coil span/pole pitch

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= fraction < 1
(1 - m) =
[Coil span =
= elec rad
= / mech. Rad]
Kp1=sin or cos
[m mech. Rad. ]
Kb1 = Distribution factor or width factor
Kb1 =
Where v = slot angle in elec. Radians
= ; = no. of slots (total)
q = slots/pole/phase for 60 phase spread
= slots/pair of poles/phase
Kb1< 1; Kp1< 1; Ks1< 1
Therefore Kw1 = Kp1 Kb1 Ks1< 1 (winding factor)
Thus rms value of the per phase emf is
Eph = 4.44 fTph Kw1 volts. ……..(5.9)
5.4. TORQUE EQUATION OF BLPM SINE WAVE MOTOR
5.4.1. Ampere conductor density distribution
Let the fig. 5.5 shows the ampere conductor density distribution in the air gap due to the
current carrying armature winding be sinusoidal distributed in the airgap space.

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Fig. 5.5 Ampere conductor density distribution
A = A^ sin p Ө
Where A = ampere conductor density
= ampere conductor/degree
Consider a strip of d at an angle from the reference axis.
Ampere conductor in the strip d =Ad ……..(5.10)
= A^ sin P
Ampere conductor per pole = ……..(5.11)
= -A^[ ]
=- [cos ]
Let Tph be the number of full pitched turns per phase.
Let i be the current
i Tph be the total ampere turns which is assumed to be sine distributed.
Total ampere conductors [sine distributed] = 2i Tph
Sine distributed ampere conductors/pole =
Equating eqn. 6.30 and eqn. 6.32

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A^ = ……..(5.12)
5.4.2. Torque equation of an ideal BLPM sine wave motor:
Let the ampere conductor distribution of ideal BLPM sine wave motor be given
by A = A^ sin P
Let the flux density distribution set up by the rotor permanent magnet be also
sinusoidal.
Let the axis of armature ampere conductor distribution be displaced from the axis of
the flux density distribution by an angle ( ) as shown in fig 5.6
[ B = B^ sin ................................................................................................... (5.13)
= B^ sin
= B^ cos
B = B^ cos ……..(5.14)
Fig. 5.6 Ampere conductor and flux density distribution.
Consider a small strip of width d at an angle from the reference axis.
Flux density at the strip B =B^ cos(pӨ-α)
Ampere conductors in the strip =AdӨ
=A sinPӨ dӨ ……..(5.15)
Force experienced by the armature conductors in the strip dӨ= BIAdӨ
dF=B^ cos(PӨ-α)1.A^B^1.A^sin PӨ.dӨ

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dF=A^B^I sinPӨ cos(PӨ-α) dӨ.

Let ‗r‘ be the radial distance of the conductors from the axis of the shaft.
Torque experienced by the ampere conductors of the strip=dF*r
dT=AB r1 sin PӨ cos(PӨ-α) Dө N-m
Torque experienced by the ampere conductors/pole T/Pole =
T= sin P θ cos (P θ – α) d θ ……..(5.16)
= A B rl/2
= A B rl/2
=A B rl/2 –
T=A B rl/2. N-m ……..(5.17)
The total torque experienced by all the armature conductors
=2P x torque/pole
=2P x
T= π A B rl sin α N-m… …..(5.18)
As the armature conductors are located in stator of the BLPM SNW motor, the rotor experiences
an equal and opposite torque.
= Torque developed by the rotor
= -π A B rl sin α
= π A B rl sin β where β= -α ……..(5.19)
Β is known as power angle or torque
angle. T= π A B rl sin β in an ideal motor.
Consider the case of an armature winding which has three phases. Further the winding consists
of short chorded coils and the coils of a phase group are distributed. The 3 phase armature

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winding carries a balanced 3 phase ac current which are sinusoidally varying. The various phase
windings are ph a, ph b and ph c.
The axis of phase winding are displaced by 2π/3p mechanical radians or 2π/3 elec. Radians.
The current in the winding are also balanced. An armature winding is said to be balanced if all the
three phase winding are exactly identical in all respects but there axes are mutually displaced by
2π/3p mech radians apart.
A three phase armature current is said to be balanced when the 3 phase currents are exactly
equal but mutually displaced in phase by 120 degree.
Let
……..(5.20)
cos = cos ……..(5.21)
=cos = cos ……..(5.22)
When the 3 phase ac current passes through the 3 phase balanced winding it sets up an armature
mmf in the air gap.
Space distribution of the fundamental component of armature ampere conductors can be written
as.
= cos P θ ……..(5.23)
= cos ……..(5.24)
= cos ……..(5.25)
5.4.3 Torque developed in a practical BLPM SNW motor:
Ampere turn distribution of a phase winding consisting of full pitched coil is rectangular of
amplitude I T ph. But the fundamental component of this distribution is the fundamental
component of this distribution is 4/πi Tph.
In a practical motor, the armature turns are short chorded and distributed .Further they may be
accomonadated in skewed slots. In such a case for getting fundamental component of ampere
turns distribution the turns per phase is modified as Kw1 Tph where Kw1 is winding factor
which is equal to Ks1 Kp1 Kd1
Ks1 = Skew factor
= ; σ = skew angle in elec. rad.

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Kp1 = sin ; = coil span in elec. Rad
Kd = distribution factor
= v-slot angle in electrical.rad, q-slot per pole for 60degree phase spread.
Fundamental component of ampere turns per phase of a practical one
=4/π I Tph Kw1 ……..(5.26)
when a balanced sinusoidally varying 3 phase ac current pass through a balanced 3 phase
winding it can be shown that the total sinusoidally distributed ampere turns is equal to
3/2.4/π Imax Kw1 Tph.
= 4/π.3/2 Iph Kw1 Tph ……..(5.27)
1. The amplitude of the ampere conductor density distribution is shown is equal to the total
sinusoidally distributed ampere turns divided by 2.
Therefore Ā in a practical 3 phase motor = Iph Kw1 Tph
Electromagnetic torque developed in a practical BLPL SNW motor
=π A B rl sin β ……..(5.28)
=π B r l sin β
= 3( Kw1 Tph B rl)
=3 ……..(5.29)
= cosωt cosθ ……..(5.30)
= cos cos ……..(5.31)
= cos cos ……..(5.32)
+ + ……..(5.33)
= + +

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= ……..(5.34)
Properties of ‗A‘ ( Ampere conductor density);
Ampere conductor density is sinusoidally distributed in space with amplitude Â. This distribution
has 2p poles (i.e) same as the rotor permanent magnetic field.
The ampere conductor distribution revolves in air gap with uniform angular velocity ώm rad
/sec .or ώelec.rad/sec.(Ns rpm). This is the same speed as that of rotor magnetic field.
The direction of rotation of armature ampere conductor distribution is same as that of rotor.
This is achieved by suitably triggering the electronic circuit from the signals obtained from
rotor position sensor.
4. The relative angular velocity between sine distributed permanent magnetic field and sine
distributed armature ampere conductor density field is 0. Under such condition it has been
shown an electromagnetic torque is developed whose magnitude is proportional to sin β.
β-torque angle or power angle.
Angle between the axes of the two fields is π/2-α and β=-α
Torque developed by the motor = 3EphIphsinβ/ώmN-m
Where ώm-angular velocity in rad/sec.
ώm=2πNs/60 where NS is in rpm
T=60/2πNs (3EphIphsinβ)
=3EphIphsinβ syn.watts.
1 syn.watt=60/2πNs N-m
It is a machine dependent conversion factor

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5.5 PHASOR DIAGRAM OF A BRUSHLESS PM SNW OR BLPB SYNCHRONOUS

MOTOR:
Consider a BLPM SNW motor, the stator carries a balanced 3υ winding .this winding is
connected to a dc supply through an electronic commutator whose switching action is influenced
by the signal obtained from the rotor position sensor.
Under steady state operating condition, the voltage available at the input terminals of the
armature winding is assumed to be sinusoidally varying three phase balanced voltage. The
electronic commutator acts as an ideal inverter whose frequency is influenced by the rotor speed.
Under this condition a revolving magnetic field is set up in the air gap which is sinusoidally
distributed in space, having a number of poles is equal to the rotor. It rotates in air gap in the same
direction as that of rotor and a speed eq1ual to the aped of the rotor
Rotor carries a permanent magnet. Its flux density is sine distributed. It also
revolved in the air gap with as particular apreed
It is assumed that the motor acts as a balanced 3υsystem. Ther4efore it is sufficient

to draw the phasor diagram for only one phase. The armature winding circuit is influenced by the
following emfs.
1. V - supply voltage per phase across each winding of the armature .

The magnitude of this voltage depends upon dc voltage and switching
techniques adopted .
2. Ef - emf induced in the armature winding per phase due to sinusoidally varying
permanent magnetic field flux.
Magnitude of Ef=4.44υmfKw1Tph=Ӏ EfӀ
As per Faradays law of electromagnetic induct5ion, this emf lags behind υ mf-
permanent magnet flux enclosed by armature phase winding by 90°.
3. Ea - emf induced in the armature phase winding due to the flux υa set up by resultant
armature mmf υ∞Ia
Ӏ EaӀ =4.44fυaKw1Tph
=4.44f(KIa)Kw1Tph
Ӏ EaӀ =Ӏ IaXaӀ where Xa=4.44fKKw1Tph
This lags behind υa by 90° or in other words Ea lags behind Ia by 90°.
Therefore Ea=-jXaIa
4. - emf induced in the same armature winding due to armature leakage flux.
= 4.44 f

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is the leakage flux and is directly proportional to .
Therefore = 4.44 f ( )
Where = 4.44 f in the leakage inductance. lags behind
Or , by 90º
Therefore
Voltage equation:
The Basic voltage equation of the armature circuit is
f + al = a Ra ……..(5.35)
Where Ra is the resistance per phase of the armature winding.
f –j a Xa –j a Xal = a Ra
f –j a (Xa + Xal) = a Ra
f –j a Xs = a Ra ……..(5.36)
Where Xs =Xa+Xl
Xs is knowen as synchronous reactance per phase or fictious reactance.
V=(-Ef)+Ia(Ra+jXs)
q+ a Zs
Where Zs is the synchronous impedance.
Let Eq be the reference phasor. Let it be represented by OA.
Let I be the current phasor.OB represents I.
Ef be the emf induced in the armature winding by permanent magnet flux = -Eq
OC represents Ef

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Fig 5.7 phasor diagram of BLPM sine wave motor
be the mutual flux set up by the permanent magnet,but linked by the armature winding.
Ef lags behind =
AF represents IaRa
FG represents Ia Xs; FG is perpendicular to I phasor
OG represents V
Angle between the I and is β the torque or power angle.
Power input = 3VI
= 3 (Eq +Ia Ra + j I Xs).I
= 3 Eq.Ia+3 Ra+O ……..(5.37)
3Eq I – electromagnetic power transferred as mechanical power.
3 Ra – copper losss.
Mechanical power developed = 3 Eq.I ……..(5.38)
= 3 Eq I cos(90-β)
= 3 Eq I sin β
= 3 Ef I sin β ……..(5.39)
The motor operates at Ns rpm or 120f/2p rpm
Therefore electromagnetic torque developed =60/2 Ns × 3Eq I sin β
= P/
= 3Eq Isin β/ ……..(5.40)

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The same phasor diagram can be redrawn as shown in fig with or as the reference
phasor.
Fig 5.8 Phasor Diagram of BLPM sine wave motor with ɸ d or ɸ mf as reference axis
Further the current I phasor is resolved into two components Id and Iq Id
set up mmf along the direct axis (or axis of the permanent magnet)
Iq sets up mmf along quadrature axis (i,e) axis perpendicular to the axis of permanent magnet.
V = Eq +I Ra + j I Xs .............................................................................. (5.41)
I = Iq + Id ................................................................................................ (5.42)
Therefore V =Eq+Id +Iq + j Id Xs +j Iq Xs
V can be represented as a complex quantity.
V=( +j )
From the above drawn phasor.
V=(Id - Iq Xs)+j (Eq+ Iq + Id Xs)
I can also be represented as a complex quantity
I = Id + j Iq
Power input = Re (3 ) - conjugate
= Re(3((Id - Iq Xs)+j (Eq+ Iq + Id Xs)) ((Id-j IQ)))

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(i,e) power input = Re(3( ra – Id Iq Xs) + (-j Id Iq ra + j Xs) + j(Eq Id + Iq Id ra+ Xs)
+ (Eq Iq + ra + Id Iq Xs))
= 3( ra – Id Iq Xs) + 3 (Eq Iq + ra + Id Iq Xs)
= 3 Eq Iq + 3( + )
= 3 Eq Iq + 3 ……..(5.43)
Electromagnetic power transferred = 3 Eq Iq
= 3 EI sin β
Torque developed = 60/2πNs . 3 EI sin β
Electromagnetic Torque developed = 3 Eq Iq/ N-m
Note:
In case of salient pole rotors the electromagnetic torque developed from the electrical power.
From eqn. (5.43)
= 3[ - + ]
=3[ -
Power input =
=
=
=3
Torque developed for a salient pole machine is given by
T=
= magnet alignment torque.
( ) = reluctance torque.

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In case of surface – magnet motors, the reluctance torque becomes zero.
Therefore, torque developed = N-m
Or = N-m
At a given speed, is fixed as it is proportional to speed. Then torque is proportional to q-axis

current
The linear relationship between torque and current simplifies the controller design and makes
the dynamic performance more regular and predictable. The same property is shared by the square
wave motor and the permanent commutator motor.
In the phasor diagram shown in fig. 5.10.
Fig 5.9 Phasor Diagram neglecting the effect of resistance
Neglecting the effect of resistance, the basic voltage equation of BLPMSNW motor
(i.e.,) = +j
As the effect of resistance is neglected
= + ……..(5.44)
= ……..(5.45)
For a particular frequency of operation the phasor diagram can be drawn as shown in figure.

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5.6. PERMISSIBLE TORQUE-SPEED CHARACTERISTICS
The torque-speed characteristics of BLPM sine wave motor is shown in fig. 5.10
Fig 5.10 torque-speed characteristics of BLPM sine wave (SNW) motor.
For a given and (i.e) maximum permissible voltage and maximum permissible current,
maximum torque remains constant from a low frequency to (i.e) corner frequency.
Any further increase in frequency decreases the maximum torque. At f= (i.e.) the
torque Developed is zero. Shaded pole represents the permissible region of operation in torque
speed characteristics.
Effect of over speed
In the torque speed characteristics, if the speed is increased beyond the point D, there is a
risk of over current because the back emf continues to increase while the terminal voltage
remains constant. The current is then almost a pure reactive current flowing from the motor back
to the supply. There is a small q axis current and a small torque because of losses in the motor
and in the converter. The power flow is thus reversed. This mode of operation is possible only if
the motor ‗over runs‘ the converter or is driven by an external load or prime mover.
In such a case the reactive current is limited only by the synchronous reactance. As the
speed increase further, it approaches the short circuit current which is many times larger than
the normal current rating of the motor winding or the converter. This current may be sufficient to
demagnetize the magnets particularly if their temperature is high. Current is rectified by the
freewheeling diodes in the converter and there is a additional risk due to over voltage on the dc
side of the converter, especially if a filter capacitor and ac line rectifiers are used to supply the dc.
But this condition is unusual, even though in the system design the possibility should be assessed.

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Solution
An effective solution is to use an over speed relay to short circuit the 3υ winding in a 3υ
resistor or a short circuit to produce a braking torque without actually releasing the converter.
5.7. VECTOR CONTROL OF BLPM SNW MOTOR
Electromagnetic torque in any electrical machine is developed due to the interaction of

current carrying armature conductors with the air gap flux. Consider a two machine whose
armature conductor currents and air gap flux are as shown in fig. 5.12. Here the flux is in
quadrature with the armature mmf axis.
Fig. 5.11 Quadrature position of Fig. 5.12 Non- Quadrature position of air
air gap flux and armature mmf axis. gap flux and armature mmf axis.
Each and every armature conductor experiences a force which contributes the torque. The
torque contributed by various armature conductors have the same direction even through their
magnitude may vary. It is observed that the steady state and dynamic (behaviors) performance of
a most of such an arrangement are better.
Consider a second case wherein the armature conductor current distribution and air gap
flux distribution are as shown in fig. 6.26. In this case the angle between the axis of the air gap
flux and the armature mmf axis is different from 90° elec.
In this case also each and every armature conductor experiences a force and contributes to
the torque. But in this case the direction of the torque experienced by the conductors is not the
same. Since conduction develops torque in one direction while the others develop in the opposite
direction. As a result, the resultant torque gets reduced; consequently it is observed that both the
steady state and dynamic performance of such a motor is poorer.
For a BLPM motor to have better steady state and dynamic performance, it is essential that
the armature mmf axis and the axis of PM are to be in quadrature for all operating condition.

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5.7.1. Principle of vector control
BLPM SNW motor is usually employed for variable speed applications. For this we keep
V/f constant and vary V and f to get the desired speed and torque.
From the theory of BLPM SNW motor it is known that as the speed is varied from a very
low value upto the corner frequency, the desired operating point of current is such that Id =0 and I
is along the q-axis. Such a condition can be achieved by suitably controlling the voltage by PWM
technique after adjusting the frequency to a desired value.
When the frequency is more than the corner frequency it is not possible to make Id =0, due
to the voltage constraints. In such a case a better operating point for current is obtained with
minimum Id value after satisfying the voltage constraints. Controlling BLPM SNW motor taking
into consideration the above mentioned aspects is known as ―vector Control‖ of BLPM SNW
motor.
5.7.2. Schematic Diagram of Vector Control
The schematic block diagram of vector control is as shown in figure 5.13Knowing the
value of the desired torque and speed and also the parameters and the voltage to which the motor
is subjected to, it is possible to complete the values of id .ref and iq .ref for the desired dynamic and
steady state performance.
RPS – Rotor position sensor, TG – Tachogenerator
Fig.5.13 Schematic diagram of vector control
The reference values of id and iq are transformed into reference values of currents namely
ia ref, ib ref and ic ref. These currents are compared with the actual currents and the error values
actuate the triggering circuitry which is also influenced by the rotor position sensor and speed.
Thus the vector control of BLPM SNW motor is achieved.

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5.8 SELF CONTROL OF PMSM
As the rotor speed changes the armature supply frequency is also change proportionally so
that the armature field always moves (rotates) at the same speed as the rotor. The armature and
rotor field move in synchronism for all operating points. Here accurate tracking of speed by
frequency is realized with the help of rotor position sensor.
When the rotor makes certain predetermined angle with the axis of the armature phases the
firing pulses to the converter feeding the motor is also change. The switches are fired at a frequency
proportional to the motor speed. Thus the frequency of the voltage induced in the armature is
proportional to the speed.
Self-control ensures that for all operating points the armature and rotor fields move exactly
at the same speed. The torque angle is adjusted electronically hence there is an additional
controllable parameter passing greater control of the motor behavior by changing the firing of the
semi-conductor switches of an inverter.
The torque angle is said electronically hence the fundamental component of phase A needs
Φf/β, it lies along the direct axis that rotates at a synchronous speed. The switches must be triggered
by phase A current component when Φf axis is β electrical degrees behind the phase A axis. This
is achieved by firing the switch when direct axis is δ+β behind axis of A as show shown in fig.
Self-control is applicable to all variable frequency converters, the frequency being determined by
machine.
Fig 5.14 Schematic diagram of self-control
At high power levels the most common power converter configuration is the current fed DC link
converter which is shown in fig. 5.14.

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5.8.1 Inner current and outer speed loop
The phase controlled thyristor rectifier on the supply side of the DC link has the current regulating
loop and operate as a control current source. The regulated DC current is delivered to the DC link
inductor to the thyristor of load commutator inverter which supplies line current to the synchronous
motor.
The inverter gating signals are under the control of shaft-position sensor giving a commutator less
dc motor with armature current controlled. The thyristor of these inverters utilize load
commutation because of the generated emf appearing at the armature. It is ensured by the over
excitation of synchronous motor, so that it operates at leading power factor hence it reduces
commutating circuitry, low losses and is applicable to power levels of several megawatts.
The shaft position is sensed by the position sensor. The shaft speed is obtained by converting the
position information. This speed is compared with the reference speed signal which provides the
speed error. This is the current reference signal for the linear current loop.
This reference current is compared with the sensed dc link current which provides control signals
for the rectifier thyristor. The sensed shaft position is used as gating signal for inverter thyristor.
5.8.2Commutation at low speed
Load commutation is ensured only at high speeds. Whereas at low speeds the emf generated is not
sufficient for load commutation. The inverter can be commutated by supplying pulsating on and
off dc link current. This technique produces large pulsating torque but this is not suitable for drives
which require smooth torque at low speed.
The DC link current is pulsed by phase shifting the gate signal of the supply side converter from
rectification to inversion and back again. When the current is zero the motor side converter is
switched to a new conduction period and supply side converter is then turned on. Time required
for the motor current to fall to zero can be significantly shortened by placing a shunt thyristor in
parallel with a DC link inductor. When the current zero is needed the line side converter is phased
back to inversion and the auxiliary thyristor is gated.
The DC link inductor is then short circuited and its current can supply freely without affecting the
motor. When the line side converter is turned on the auxiliary thyristor is quickly blocked. This
method of interruption of the motor current reduces the effect of pulsating torque.
5.8.3 Four Quadrant Operations
The drive characteristics are similar to those of a conventional DC motor drive. Motor speed can
be increased to a certain base speed corresponding to the maximum voltage from the supply.
Further, increase in speed is obtained by reducing the field current to give a field weakening region
of operation.

ENGINEERING
8005 MACHINES
Regenerative braking is accomplished by shifting the gate signal, so that machine side inverter acts
as a rectifier and supply side rectifier as a inverter, hence the power is return to the ac utility
network. The direction of rotation
Of the motor is also reversible by alternating the gate sequence of the motor side converter. Thus
four quadrant operations are achieved, without additional circuitry.
5.9 MICROPROCESSOR BASED CONTROL OF PMSE
Fig.5.15 Microprocessor Based Control of PMSM
Fig 5.15 shows the block diagram of microprocessor based permanent magnet synchronous
motor drive.
The advent of microprocessor has raised interest in digital control of power converter
systems and electronics motor drives since the microprocessor provides a flexible and low cost
alternative to the conventional method.
For permanent magnet synchronous motor drive systems, microprocessor control offers
several interesting features principally improved performance and reliability, versatility of the
controller, reduced components and reduced development and manufacturing cost. In the block
diagram of the microprocessor controller PMSM shown in fig 5.15, the permanent magnet
synchronous motor is fed from a current source d.c link converter system, which consists of a SCR
invertor through rectifier and which is operated from three phase a.c supply lines, and its gating
signals are provided by digitally controlled firing circuit.
The optical encoder which is composed of a coded disk attached to the motor shaft and four
optical sensors, providing rotor speed and position signals. The invertor triggering pulses are
synchronized to the rotor position reference signals with a delay angle determined by an 8-bit
control input. The inverter SCR‘s are naturally commutated by the machines voltages during

ENGINEERING
8005 MACHINES
normal conditions. The speed signals, which is a train of pulses of frequency, proportional to the
motor speed, is fed to a programmable counter used for speed sensing.
The stator current is detected by current sensor and amplified by optically isolated
amplifier. The output signals are multiplexed and converted to digital form by a high speed analog
to digital converter.
The main functions of the microprocessor are monitoring and control of the system
variables for the purpose of obtaining desired drive features. It can also perform various auxiliary
tasks such as protection, diagnosis and display. In normal operation, commands are fetched from
the input-output terminals, and system variables (the dc link current, the rotor position and speed)
are sensed and fed to the CPU. After processing, the microprocessor issues control signal to the
input rectifier, then the machine inverter, so as to provide the programmed drive characteristics.

ENGINEERING
8005 MACHINES
Glossary
1. Permanent Magnet -- It is also called as brushless permanent magnet sine wave

Synchronous Motor motor. It has Sinusoidal magnetic flux in the air gap,
Sinusoidal current wave forms, and Quasi-sinusoidal
distribution stator windings.
2. Flux density -- The intensity of this flux
3. Vector Control -- Also called field-oriented control (FOC), isa variable

frequency drive (VFD) control method which
controls three-phase AC electric motor
4. Self-Control -- Self-control is the ability to controlone's , behavior,

and desires in order to obtain some reward.
5. Peripheral rotor -- The permanent magnets are located on the rotor

periphery and permanent magnet flux is radial.
6. Interior rotor -- The permanent magnets are located on the interior of the
rotor and flux is generally radial.
7. Resistivity -- Also known as specific resistance, the measure of a

material's natural resistance to current flow. Resistivity is
the opposite of conductivity, so it follows that good
conductors have low resistivity per circular mil foot.
8. Specific Resistance -- Another term for resistivity. Every material has a set
specific resistance per circular mil foot at a specific
temperature.
9. Temperature -- A ratio of increased conductor resistance per degree

Coefficient Celsius rise in temperature. Most metals increase in
resistance as temperature increases, giving them a positive
temperature coefficient.
10. Pole -- One of two ends of the axis of a sphere. Poles also refer to
the opposite ends of a magnet.
11. Reluctance -- A material's resistance to becoming magnetized.
12. Residual Magnetism -- The attractive force that exists in an object or substance
after it has been removed from a magnetic field.
8005 MACHINES

ENGINEERING


Press, 1995.


2006.
QUESTIONS:
UNIT – V - PERMANENT MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
PART – A
1 Compare the stator windings of square wave PMBL D.C motor &sine wave PMBL D.C
motor.
2 Distinguish PMBLDC motor and PM synchronous motor.
3 Discuss about the self control in PMSM.
4 List the applications of the permanent magnet synchronous motor.
5 Describe the expression for3 phase torque of a permanent magnet synchronous motor.
6 Sketch the phasor diagram of the permanent synchronous motor for lagging p.f when I d is
negatve.
7 Sketch and explain speed torque characteristics of PMSM.
8 List the advantages of load commutation.
9 Describe the features of PMSM.
10 Compare self and vector control of PMSM.
PART B
1 Explain the torque-speed characteristics of PMSM.

2 Derive an expression for the torque generated Torque equation of PMSM.
3 With a neat block diagram explain the control of a PMSM using a microprocessor based
controller.
4 With the neat Block Diagram explain the Vector Control operation of PM Synchronous
Motor.
5 With the neat Block Diagram explain the self Control operation of PM Synchronous Motor.
6 Explain the principle of operation of a sine wave Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine.
Draw its phasor diagram and derive its EMF equation.

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SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

UNIT – I - SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES – SEE1307

Constructional features, principle of operation, types, modes of excitation, Torque production in

SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTORS

Principle of Operation, Constructional features, Torque equation, Power Semi Conductor

SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE MOTORS

PERMANENT MAGNET BRUSHLESS DC MOTORS

Commutation in DC motors, Electronic Commutation - Difference between mechanical and

PERMANENT MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

Operation of stepper Motor at high speeds is called “Slewing”. If f is the stepping

Application of stepper Motor

1. Used for operational control in computer peripherals, textile industry, IC fabrications

Advantages of stepper Motor

1. No feedback is normally required for either position or speed control.

Types of stepper Motor

1. Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

2.1 VARIABLE RELUCTANCE STEPPER MOTOR

It is the most basic type of stepper Motor.

Two important parts of a stepper Motor are

2.1.2 Principle of Operation

The switching sequence continues as follows

1st Step 2nd Step

Advantages of VR stepper Motor:

Disadvantages of VR stepper Motor:

2.2 PERMANENT MAGNET STEPPER MOTOR

2.2.1 Working Principles

Step one Second step

Advantages of PM stepper Motor:

Disadvantages of PM stepper Motor:

2.3 HYBRID STEPPER MOTOR

2.3.2 Working Principle

Advantages of Hybrid stepper motor

Comparison between VR and PM stepper Motor

2.4 MULTISTACK STEPPER MOTOR

Rotor Stack A Rotor Stack C

2.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF STEPPER MOTOR

The two important characteristics of stepper motor are:

Detent Torque Or Cogging Torque :

i. Pull - In Torque Curve

ii. Pull - Out Torque Curve

iii. Max Starting frequency

iv. Max Pullout rate (or) Max Slewing frequency

v. Max starting Torque

2.6 Static Torque Production in a VR stepper Motor

Iron Piece attracted by Electromagnet

Model of Stepping Motor

 H .dl  nI _____ (1)

The left hand of this equation is rewritten as

Where Hg = Magnetic field intensity in the gaps

Hi = Magnetic field intensity in the cores

l = Total magnetic path in the cores.

The gap flux density is Bg= 0 n I g _____ (4)

Where o is the permeability in the air gap length.

Hence the flux linkage  is given by

  n   xw 0 n 2 I g _____ (6)

incremental flux linkage is

Other hand, the magnetic energy Wm in the gap is

From (13) and (14) we derive

The magnetic energy Wm in the system is given as