Chapter 5:

Induction Motors
Sub Topics:
• Construction
• Working Principle
• Slip & Power Flow Diagram
• Torque – Speed Curve
• Speed Control
 INTRODUCTION
• The induction machine is used as the
most common motors in different
applications. It is the Workhorse of
industry.
• It has a stator and a rotor like other
type of motors.
• 2 different type of rotors:
– squirrel-cage winding,
– Wound-rotor
• Both three-phase and single-phase
motors are widely used. Fig.7.1: Induction Motor
• Majority of the motors used by
industry are squirrel-cage induction
motors.
 FEATURES OF INDUCTION
MACHINES
• Rugged, reliable, and easy to maintain.
• Relatively inexpensive.
• High efficiency (No brushes are needed, hence frictional
losses are reduced).
• Reasonably good power factor.
• Easy to reverse the rotation.
• Lighter than some other types motor for the same power
rating.
CONSTRUCTION OF
INDUCTION MOTOR
A typical motor consists
of two parts:
• Stator: is the outside
stationary frame having
coils supplied with AC
current to produce a
rotating magnetic field.
• Rotor: is the inside
rotor attached to the
output shaft that is given a
torque by the rotating
field.
Fig.7.2: Construction of
Induction Motor
CONSTRUCTION OF
INDUCTION MOTOR

Fig. 7.4: Construction of

Induction Motor
CONSTRUCTION OF
INDUCTION MOTOR
• Stator construction Stator iron core without windings

– The stator of an induction

motor is laminated iron
core with slots (↓eddy
current, ↓ power losses).
– Coils are placed in the
slots to form a three or
single phase winding.

Fig.7.3: Stator Construction

Single-phase stator with windings

 CONSTRUCTION OF
INDUCTION MOTOR
• Rotor Construction
– Metal (Aluminum) bars
are molded in the slots
instead of a winding.
• 2 different type of rotors:
– Squirrel-cage winding
– Wound-rotor or Phase-
wound

Fig.7.5: Rotor Construction

 SQUIRREL-CAGE ROTOR
• Most common types of induction
motor (90%, simplest and most rugged
construction )
• Winding is made of copper, aluminum
or alloy bars embedded in the rotor
slots.
• Each bar is permanently short-
circuited at both ends by end rings.
• The skewed rotor slot is made to
produce a more uniform torque and to
reduce the noise during operation.
• One or 2 fans are attached to the shaft
in the sides of rotor to cool the circuit.

Fig.7.6: Squirrel Cage

 WOUND ROTOR
• It is usually for large 3 phase induction motors.
• Rotor has a winding the same as stator (star or Y) and the end of each phase is
connected to a slip ring.
• Three brushes contact the three slip-rings to three connected resistances (3-phase
Y) for reduction of starting current and speed control.
• Compared to squirrel cage rotors, wound rotor motors are expensive and require
maintenance of the slip rings and brushes. Less common in industry applications.

Fig. 7.7: Rotor of a large induction motor. (Courtesy • Vary speed-torque/current characteristic
Siemens).
• ↑ resistance in the rotor circuit, ↑ starting
torque of motor
• Not available for squirrel-cage rotor
 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF THREE-PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR
Rotating Magnetic Field (Stator)
• When the stator winding is connected to a balanced three-phase supply, current
will flow in each phase winding with equal magnitude and 120° phase difference.
• Each phase current produces a magnetic flux and there is physical 120° shift
between each flux. The total flux in the machine is the sum of the three fluxes.
• The summation of the three AC fluxes results in a rotating magnetic flux (RMF).
RMF rotates with a constant speed (Synchronous Speed) and constant magnitude.

Fig.7.8:
Production of
Rotating
Magnetic Field
 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Rotating Magnetic Field (Stator)

Ia

Ib
Ic

Fig.7.9: The stator magnetic field has rotated by 180o or one pole span in the
clockwise direction during the time period of half cycle of supply frequency.
 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Rotating Magnetic Field (Stator)

S S N

S S N S N S

N N N S N S

N N S
Instant 1 Instant 2 Instant 3
 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Rotating Magnetic Field (Stator)

N N S

N N S N S N

S S S N S N

S S N
Instant 4 Instant 5 Instant 6
 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
How does the rotor rotate?
Stator Side
• The stator is supplied by 3-phase voltages that drive
three- phase balanced current through the windings.
• The 3-phase stator currents generate a rotating
magnetic field with flux density of Brotating.
• The field rotates at synchronous speed, pass through
the air gap, sweeps past the stationary rotor.
Fig.7.19: Rotor
Rotor Side (Squirrel-Cage)
•Due to the relative speed between the rotating flux and stationary rotor, an e.m.f
is induced in the latter, according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.
The induced voltage is given by eind  ( B  v).l where l is the length of the rotor.
•The induced voltage generates current in the rotor bars.
•The interaction between the rotor current and the stator field produces a force or
torque (Lorentz force) that drives the motor: F  ( B  i).l
 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
How does the rotor rotate?

Note: For induction motor, rotor

runs in the same direction as that
of the rotating flux to reduce the
relative speed

Fleming Left Hand Rule Fleming Right Hand Rule

(Lenz’s Law) – For (b) to (c) (Faraday’s Law) – For (a) to (b)
 SLIP IN AN INDUCTION MOTOR
• The stator magnetic field (rotating magnetic field) rotates at a speed, ns, the
synchronous speed. 120 f e f e= frequency of electricity supply
ns  p = number of poles
p
• If, nm = actual speed of the rotor, then “slip” s for an induction motor is defined:
n n The term “slip” is descriptive of
slip, s  s m  100% the way in which the rotor ‘slip
ns back’ from synchronism

• At stand still which rotor does not rotate , i.e., nm= 0 , then s = 1 (locked rotor
condition).
• For induction motor, rotor speed nm must be less than synchronous speed nS .
• The mechanical speed of the rotor nm, in terms of slip s and synchronous speed ns:
nm  1  s  ns
m  1  s  s
• Question: Is it possible for the rotor to run at the same speed of the rotating
magnetic field, i.e., s = 0 ? Please justify your answer.
FREQUENCY OF ROTOR CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
• With the rotor at stand-still, the frequency of the induced voltages and currents
is the same as that of the stator (supply) frequency, fe.
• When the rotor starts revolving, then the frequency of rotor current and
voltage depends upon the relative speed or on slip-speed.
• If the rotor rotates at speed of nm, then the relative speed is the slip speed:
nslip  ns  nm
• nslip is the speed responsible for the induced current and voltage on rotor.
• But nm= ns(1 - s) by definition of slip.
• To this end, the frequency of the rotor induced voltages and currents can be
derived as follows:
120 f e
nslip  ns  ns 1  s  nslip  sns , but nslip 120 f R
 and ns 
p p

Therefore, f R  sf e
 EXAMPLE
1. A slip-ring induction motor runs at 290 rpm at full load, when
connected to 50-Hz supply. Assumed ns=300 rpm. Determine the
number of poles and slip.
2. A 4-pole, 3-phase induction motor operates from a supply whose
frequency is 50-Hz. Calculate
i) The speed at which the magnetic field of the stator is rotating
ii) The speed of the rotor when the slip is 0.04
iii) The frequency of the rotor currents when the slip is 0.03
iv) The frequency of the rotor currents at standstill.
PER-PHASE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Three phase motors. Development of equivalent circuit.

• The induction motor consists of a two magnetically connected systems: Stator

and rotor.
• This is similar to a transformer that also has two magnetically connected
systems: primary and secondary windings. But the secondary is always short
circuit.
• The stator is supplied by a balanced three-phase voltage that drives a three-
phase current through the winding. This current induces a voltage in the rotor.
• The applied voltage (V1) across phase A is equal to the sum of the
– induced voltage (E1).
– voltage drop across the stator resistance (I1Rs).
– voltage drop across the stator leakage reactance (I1 j Xs).
• Therefore, The stator voltage equation is: V1 = E1 + I1 (Rs+ j Xs)
 PER-PHASE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
• The E1 induced voltage generates a voltage E2 in the rotor through the magnetic
coupling.
• The rotor impedance is made up of, the rotor resistance, RR and the leakage
reactance, XR.
Stator Rotor
I1 RS jXS IR RR jXR V1 = Applied voltage
Rs = Stator resistance
Io Xs = Stator leakage reactance

Im IC I0 = No-load primary current

IC = Current (iron losses component)
V1 Xm RC E1 E2 Short circuit Im = Current (magnetising component)
E1 = Self induced voltage
E2 = Mutually induced voltage
RR = Rotor resistance
XR = Rotor leakage reactance

Fig.7.11 Equivalent circuit of one Phase

 PER-PHASE EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT: ROTOR CIRCUIT ALONE
– If the rotor is at stand still, the induced voltage E2 is proportional to E1
times the turn ratio a = Nstator / Nrotor = N1 /N2. Therefore:
N E
E E
2
 E
1
2 1
ss
N a 1

where Ess is the induced rotor voltage at stand still/locked-rotor condition.

– If the rotor is rotating, the voltage induced in the rotor is multiplied by the
slip s, because the induced rotor voltage is directly proportional to the
speed difference between the stator field and rotor.

The magnitude of the induced

voltage at any slip
E  sE
2 ss
 PER-PHASE EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT:ROTOR CIRCUIT ALONE
Proportional

X R  2f R LR  2sf e LR
constant to s
RR jXR
 X R  s (2f e LR )  sX SS Proportional
to s
E2 = sESS IR
where Xss is the rotor reactance at standstill
E2 sESS
IR  2  2 2
RR  jX R 2
RR  s . jX ss 2
jXSS constant
ESS
 IR  2
RR
 jX ss
2
ESS
Inversely
s2 IR RR proportional
constant s to s

IR is max at stand still (s =1). Fig.7.12: The rotor circuit model with all the
IR↓ when s↓(nm closer to ns) frequency (slip) effects concentrated in resistor RR
 PER-PHASE EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT:ROTOR CIRCUIT ALONE
Note: The term RR/s is split into two components, i.e.,
jXSS

RR RR 1 s 
  RR  RR  RR  RR  
 s 
ESS IR RR
s s s

IR RR jXSS

Represents
Implies that the mechanical load
the rotor RR (1-s)
ESS Cu loss
on an induction motor can be
represented by a non-inductive
s resistance.
 COMPLETE PER-PHASE (EXACT)
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
• To produce the final per-phase equivalent circuit for an induction motor, it is
necessary to refer the rotor (secondary) part of the model over to the stator
(primary) side, as in the case of a transformer.

• If the effective turns ratio of an induction motor is aeff = Nstator/Nrotor, then the
transformed voltage ER’ becomes:

ER'  Ess'  a ff Ess

• The transformed rotor current IR’ becomes:

IR
I 
'
R
aeff
• The transformed rotor resistance IR’ and transformed rotor reactance XR’ become:
RR'  aeff
2
RR
X R'  X SS
'
 aeff
2
X R  aeff
2
X ss
 COMPLETE PER-PHASE (EXACT)
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
• The complete Exact equivalent circuit (per phase) will be as follows:

I1 RS jXS I RR jX R = jX SS
R

Io This could be
+ IC Replaced
Im
by R’R/s
V1 R R (1-s)
Xm E’R RC
s
R’R/s will change from RR
- to infinity as the motor
goes from start up (s=1) to
synchronous speed (s=0)
• When referred from the stator side:

ER'  Ess'  a ff Ess RR'  aeff

2
RR
IR
I 
'
R X R'  X SS
'
 aeff
2
X R  aeff
2
X ss
aeff
 PER-PHASE APPROXIMATE
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Remarks:
• As the no- load current (Io) is small compared to the full-load (I’R) current, the parallel
branch of the circuit can be shifted to left to simplify the calculation with negligible
inaccuracy involved.
• The complete approximate equivalent circuit (per phase) will be as follows:

I1 RS jXS I’R R’R jX’R

Io This could be
Replaced
Im IC by R’R/s
Protor copper loss
V 1 Xm R’R (1-s)
RC
Pd s

Pair-gap

For motor > 2hp, approximate equivalent circuit can be used to describe the behavior of the motor.
 EXAMPLE
The stator winding of a motor is delta-connected with 240 turns per
phase and the rotor winding is star-connected with 48 turns per
phase. The rotor winding has a resistance of 0.013Ω/phase and a
leakage reactance of 0.048Ω/phase at standstill. The supply voltage is
400V. Calculate
i) The rotor e.m.f per phase at standstill with the rotor on open
circuit
ii) The rotor e.m.f and current per phase at 4% slip
iii) The phase difference between the rotor e.m.f and current for a
slip of 4% and 100%.
 POWER STAGES
MECHANICAL
Stator POWER Windage
Copper Rotor DEVELOPED +
MOTOR (Pcs) ROTOR ROTOR
INPUT INPUT Copper IN ROTOR Friction OUTPUT
+ Iron Loss Losses
IN P2 Pm Pout
Losses (Pcr) (P w)
STATOR (Pf ) OR
P1 GROSS
TORQUE
Tg

• Stator iron loss (eddy current + hysteresis losses) depends on the supply frequency
and core flux density and is thus practically constant.
• The iron loss is negligible because rotor current frequency under normal running
conditions is always small.

EE042-3.5-2 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

 POWER STAGES

Power Stages in an Induction Motor

EE042-3.5-2 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
POWER-FLOW DIAGRAM OF
INDUCTION MOTOR
Stator copper Rotor copper Rotational
2 2 2 2
loss PPSCL
scl 
=3I 3 R
I
1 1
1 R1  PC loss PP rcl
RCL 
=3I3 RIR
RRRR loss Pr

input power Air-gap power Developed power output power

PinPin=3   1  sag PAG sωmm
3VV1 I11Icos
1 cosθ  load
PAGag =3I32IRR2RRR/sR
P Pd=(1-s)P
Pconv PoutP
o=T
Pin  3VT I L cos  s Pconv   ind m

V1 , I1 = Phase voltage and current IR = Rotor current per phase refer to stator circuit
VT , IL = Line voltage and current RR = Rotor resistance per phase refer to stator circuit

The rotational loss Pr is the sum of the friction & windage, stray loss and the
mechanical loss
P P P P
r f &W stray m
POWER AND TORQUE IN AN INDUCTION
MOTOR
• The per-phase equivalent circuit of an induction motor can be used to derive the
power and torque equations governing the operation of the motor.
I1 RS jXS I R R jX R = jX SS
R

Io
Im + IC

V1 RC R R (1-s)
Xm E’R s

• The input current to a phase of the motor I1 can be found by dividing the input
phase voltage V1 by the total equivalent impedance Zeq :
V1
I1 
Z eq
1 Gc = Conductance = 1/Rc
where Z eq  Rs  jX s 
1 Bm = Susceptance = 1/jXm
Gc  jBm  '
RR s  jX R'
POWER AND TORQUE IN AN INDUCTION
MOTOR
I1 RS jXS I R R jX R = jX SS
R

(Stator copper Io
Losses) Im + IC

V1 RC R R (1-s)
Xm E’R s
(Core
Losses)
-

• The stator copper losses in the three phases are given by:
PSCL  3I12 Rs
• The core losses are given by:
3 E ' 2
  3  ER'  GC
2
Pcore 
R

RC

• The air-gap power can be found as:

RR' Since the only element in the equivalent
PAG  Pin  PSCL  Pcore or P  3  I 
' 2
circuit where the air gap power can be
AG R
s consumed is in the resistor R’R /s
POWER AND TORQUE IN AN INDUCTION
MOTOR
(Rotor copper
Losses)
I1 RS jXS I R R jX R = jX SS
R

(Stator copper Io
Losses) Im + IC
(Developed
V1 RC R R (1-s) mechanical
Xm E’R (Core s power)
Losses)
-

• The rotor copper losses in the three phases are given by:
PRCL  3  I 
2
'
R RR'
• After stator copper losses, core losses and rotor copper losses are deducted from
the input power to the motor, the remaining power is converted from electrical to
mechanical form, known as developed mechanical power, is given as:
' 1 
'
Pconv  PAG  PRCL  3  I R 
' 2 RR
 3  I R  RR  3  I R  RR   1
' 2 ' ' 2

s s 
Pconv  3  I R 
' 2 RR
'
 1 s
s
POWER AND TORQUE IN AN INDUCTION
MOTOR
(Rotor copper
Losses)
I1 RS jXS I R R jX R = jX SS
R

(Stator copper Io
Losses) Im + IC
(Developed
V1 RC R R (1-s) mechanical
Xm E’R (Core s power)
Losses)
-

• Recall that rotor copper losses in the three phases are given by:
'
PRCL  3  I R  RR  s  3  I R 
' 2 ' ' 2 RR
 sPAG
s
Remark:
 Slip of the motor ↓, rotor losses ↓
 If the rotor is not turning, i.e., slip s = 1, the air-gap power is entirely consumed in the rotor.

• Another relationship between air-gap power and developed mechanical power:

Pconv  PAG  PRCL  PAG  sPAG Pconv  1  s  PAG
POWER AND TORQUE IN AN INDUCTION
MOTOR
(Rotor copper
Losses)
I1 RS jXS I R R jX R = jX SS
R

(Stator copper Io
Losses) Im + IC
(Developed
V1 RC R R (1-s) mechanical
Xm E’R (Core s power, Pconv)
Losses)
-

• If the friction and windage losses and the stray losses are known, the output power
are:
Pout  Pconv  PF &W  Pmisc
• The induced/developed torque in a machine refers to the torque generated by the
internal electric-to-mechanical power conversion, given as:

1  s  PAG
Remark:
Pconv PAG  Developed torque ≠ actual torque available
 ind    ind 
m 1  s  s s  A knowledge of PAG can directly yield τind
 ωs = synchronous speed
 ωm = induction motor speed
POWER AND TORQUE IN AN INDUCTION
MOTOR (Rotor copper
Losses)
Summary I1 RS jXS I R
R R jX R = jX SS

(Stator copper Io
Losses) Im + IC
(Developed
V1 RC R R (1-s) mechanical
Xm E’R (Core s power, Pconv)
Losses)
-

PAG  Pin  PSCL  Pcore

RR'
Pconv  PAG  PRCL  3  I   3  I R'  RR'
2 2
'
R
s PRCL  PAG  Pconv  sPag
RR'
PAG  3  I 
RR'
 Pconv  3  I R'  1  s   PAG (1  s )
2 2
'
R
s s
Pconv P (1  s )
 ind  Td   AG
m s (1  s )
PAG ωs is constant, induced torque can
 Td 
s be found by knowing PAG
POWER AND TORQUE IN AN INDUCTION
MOTOR (Rotor copper
Losses)
I1 RS jXS I R R jX R = jX SS
R

(Stator copper Io
Losses) Im + IC
(Developed
V1 (Pin) RC R R (1-s) mechanical
Xm E’R (Core s power, Pconv)
Losses)
-

Is
equivalent
to
EXAMPLE
A 460-V, 25-hp, 60-Hz, four-pole, Y-connected induction motor has the
following impedances in ohms per phase referred to the stator circuit:

R1 = 0.641 ohm, X1 = 1.106 ohm, R2 = 0.332 ohm, X2 = 0.464 ohm,

Xm = 26.3 ohm

The total rotational losses are 1100 W and are assumed to be constant.
The core loss is lumped in with the rotational losses. For a rotor slip of
2.2% at the rated voltage and rated frequency, find the motor’s
(a) Speed
(b) Stator current
(c) Power factor
(d) Pconv and Pout
(e) τind and τload
(f) Efficiency
INDUCTION MOTOR TORQUE-SPEED CHARACTERISTICS
Low-slip region
• Load ↑, motor slip ↑
(approximately linearly).
• Load ↑, rotor mechanical speed ↓
(approximately linearly).
• In this region of operation, rotor
reactance is negligible (s↓, fR =
sfs ↓, XR = 2π fR↓).
• Rotor power factor ≈ 1, so the
rotor current ↑ linearly with
slip.
• Remarks: The entire normal
steady-state operating range of an
 ind  kBR Bnet sin  R  90  induction motor is included in
this linear low-slip region.
Increase due to rotor Negligible when
current ↑ (Dominate) XR is small
INDUCTION MOTOR TORQUE-SPEED CHARACTERISTICS
Moderate-slip region
200 to 250%
of rated full • Load ↑, motor slip ↑ (not linear).
load torque
• Load ↑, rotor mechanical speed ↓
(not linear).
• Rotor reactance is same order of
magnitude as the rotor resistance
(s↑, fR = sfs ↑, XR = 2π fR ↑).
• Rotor current no longer ↑ as
rapidly as before and the
power factor start to ↓.
• Remarks: Pullout torque occurs
at the point where, for an
increase in load, the increase in
 ind  kBR Bnet sin  R  90  the rotor current is exactly
balanced by the decrease in the
rotor power factor.
Increase due to rotor current Decrease when
↑ (Slightly dominate) XR increases
INDUCTION MOTOR TORQUE-SPEED CHARACTERISTICS
High-slip region
• Load ↑, motor slip ↑ further.
• Load ↑, rotor mechanical speed ↓
further.
• Rotor reactance is larger than the
rotor resistance (s↑, fR = sfs ↑, XR
= 2π fR ↑).
150% of rated • Induced torque ↓ when load ↑
full load torque (increase in rotor current is
completely overshadowed by the
decrease in rotor power factor.)

 ind  kBR Bnet sin  R  90 

Increase due to rotor current ↑ Decrease when XR increases
(Dominate)
COMPLETE TORQUE-SPEED CHARACTERISTICS
Braking region
• Reversing magnetic field
rotation by switching any two
stator phases.

• If the motor is turning

backward relative to the
direction of magnetic field,
the induced torque in the
machine will stop the
machine rapidly.

• Plugging: The act of

switching two stator phases in
order to stop the motor very
rapidly.
COMPLETE TORQUE-SPEED CHARACTERISTICS
Generator region
• Rotor of the induction motor
is driven faster than
synchronous speed.

• The direction of the induced

torque in the machine
reverses.

• The machine becomes a

generator, converting
mechanical power to electric
power.
SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTOR
(1) Varying Rotor Resistance
• Only applicable for wound rotor.
T
• Constant maximum torque.
• The speed at which max torque
occurs changes with rotor R1< R2< R3
resistance. nr1< nr2< nr3
R1
• For same torque T, rotor speed ↓ R3
R2

when rotor resistance ↑.

T
• Disadvantages:
1) Large speed regulation.
2) Power loss due to the
external resistance of wound nr3 nr2 nr1 n
ns~nNL
rotor (↓ efficiency)
SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTOR
(2) Varying Supply
• Maximum torque changes.
T
• The speed at which max torque
V1
occurs is constant. V decreasing

V2
• Relatively simple method – uses V1> V2 > V3
nr1> nr2 > nr3
power electronic circuit for V3
voltage controller.
• Suitable for fan type load. T

• Disadvantages:
1) Large speed regulation.
nr3 nr2 nr1 n ~n n
s NL
SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTOR
(3) Varying Supply Voltage
and Supply Frequency f decreasing
T
• The best method since supply
voltage and supply frequency is
varied to keep the ratio of V/f
constant.
• Constant maximum torque.
T
• Uses power electronic circuit for
frequency and voltage controller.
• Advantage:
nr3 nr2 nr1 nNL1 n
1. Maintain speed regulation. nNL3 nNL2