FRIENDLY REMINDERS

HOUSE RULES

1. Dress appropriately
• Proper Grooming (sleeveless and sandos are not allowed)
2. Be aware of your surroundings
3. Mute your microphone when you’re not talking
4. Speak UP
5. Stay seated and stay present

HUMAN ANATOMY AND BODY SYSTEMS

Levels of Organization
Remember, the human body is organized in several levels, from the simplest to the
most complex.
Cells - the basic unit of life
Tissues - clusters of cells performing a similar function
Organs - made of tissues that perform one specific function
Organ Systems - groups of organs that perform a specific purpose in the human body
NOTE: The purpose of the 11 organ systems is for the human body to maintain
homeostasis.
FOUR CELL TYPES
1. Muscle Tissue – most abundant tissue
• Controls internal movement digestion,
blood through veins external movement
of the body.
2. Epithelial Tissue – covering for the body and organs
linings of organs and vessels.
3. Connective Tissue – holds organs in place ligaments, tendons,
some keep organs in place.
4. Nervous Tissue – receives messages from the body’s internal and
external messages analyze data and direct messages.

THE 11 HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS

nervous system muscular system

integumentary system circulatory system

respiratory system endocrine system

digestive system reproductive system

excretory system lymphatic (immune) system

skeletal system
 THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Purpose: to convert food particles into simpler micro-molecules that can be absorbed into the
bloodstream and used by the body.
Cell Type: Epithelial Muscle
Major Organs and their Functions:
1. Mouth - to chew and grind up food
-- saliva also begins the chemical breakdown
2. Esophagus - pipe connecting mouth to the stomach
3. Stomach - secretes an extraordinarily strong acid
(pH = 2) that leads to the breakdown of food.
-- once the food is broken down in the stomach and
mixed with digestive juices, it is called chyme.
4. Pancreas - produces the hormone insulin that regulates
blood sugar levels.
-- also help neutralize stomach acid
5. Liver - produces bile, which breaks down fats in foods
6. Gallbladder – pa ouch-like organ that stores bile for future use
7. Small Intestine - after digestion is complete, the chyme enters the small intestine where
it is absorbed into the bloodstream
-- the chyme is propelled along by folded surfaces called villi, on the
intestine
8. Large Intestine - removes water from the chyme and gets the waste ready for excretion.

ORGAN SYSTEM INTERACTION

1. Circulatory System – move nutrients to other parts of the body.
2. Nervous System – regulation of peristaltic activity.
3. Endocrine System – hormones that regulate apatite and digestive
4. Excretory – removal of solid waste.
 THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM
Purpose: to rid the body of wastes, including excess water and salts.
Cell Type: Epithelial
1. Kidneys - the main organs of the excretory system
-- waste-laden blood enters the kidney and the kidney
filters out urea, excess water, and other waste products,
which eventually travels out of the kidney as urine
-- eventually, they travel through the ureter to the
urinary bladder.
2. Rectum - solid (food) waste travels out of the body
through the rectum.
3. Skin - sweat glands remove excess water and salts from the body
4. Lungs - expel the waste gas carbon dioxide.

ORGAN SYSTEM INTERACTION

1. Circulatory System – filters blood
2. Digestive System – removes undigested food
3. Nervous System – response and regulation
4. Endocrine System – response regulation
 THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Purpose: to provide the body with a fresh supply of oxygen for cellular respiration and remove
the waste product carbon dioxide.
Cell Type: Epithelial
Major Organs and Their Functions
1. Nose - internal entry and exit point for air
2. Pharynx - serves as a passageway for both air
and food at the back of the throat
3. Larynx - your "voice box", as air passes over
your vocal cords, you speak
4. Trachea - the "windpipe", or what connects your
pharynx to your lungs.
-- a piece of skin, called the epiglottis, covers the
trachea when you swallow, preventing food
from entering.
5. Bronchi - the two large passageways that lead from
the trachea to your lungs (one for each lung).
-- the bronchi are further subdivided into bronchioles
-- eventually, the further subdivisions lead to tiny
air sacs called alveoli
-- alveoli are in clusters, like grapes
-- capillaries surrounding each alveolus is were
the exchange of gases with the blood occurs
6. Lungs – contain alveoli, bronchi, and connective tissue.
7. Diaphragm - is the muscle that causes you to breath
-- hiccups are involuntary contractions of the diaphragm.

WHY ARE ALVEOLI SO IMPORTANT?

• Alveoli are the air sacs of the lungs.

• They have thin walls made of simple cells and are surrounded by blood capillaries.
• Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli.
- Oxygen gas is in higher concentration in the alveoli than in the blood and so it
diffuses into the blood through a layer of cells.
- Carbon dioxide is in higher concentration in the blood than the alveoli and so it
diffuses into the alveoli through a layer of cells.

• The surface of alveoli is covered in a thin lipoprotein layer and it prevents them from
collapsing during exhalation.
ORGAN SYSTEM INTERACTIONS
▪ The respiratory system directly interacts with the
Circulatory system.
▪ Indirectly interacts with the immune system (lining
of the nasal and bronchial cavities/tubes).
▪ Nervous system (smell and taste) – regulation and
breathing.
 THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Purpose: to deliver oxygenated blood to the various cells and organ systems in your body so
they can undergo cellular respiration.
Cell Type: Muscle

Major Organs and Their Functions

1. Heart - the major muscle of the circulatory system.
• pumps blood through its four chambers
(two ventricles and two atria).
• pumps deoxygenated blood into the lungs,
where it gets oxygenated, returned to the heart,
and then pumped out through the aorta
to the rest of the body.
• valve regulates the flow of blood between
the chambers.
2. Arteries - carry blood away from the heart and
to the major organs of the body
3. Veins - carry blood back to the heart away from
the major organs of the body
4. Capillaries - small blood vessels where gas
exchange occurs.
5. Blood - the cells that flow through the circulatory system.
• red blood cells contain hemoglobin, an iron-rich protein that carries oxygen
• white blood cells function in the immune system
• platelets help in blood clotting
6. Spleen - helps to filter out toxins in the blood.
ORGAN SYSTEM INTERACTIONS
▪ With lungs - exchange O₂ & CO₂ 2
▪ With digestive system - pick up nutrients for transport throughout the body
▪ With excretory - blood is filtered to remove toxins and some water
▪ Nervous system - heart-beat regulation & blood pressure

\
 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Purpose: to coordinate the body's response to changes in its internal and external environment.

Cell Type: Nerve

Major Organs and Their Functions

1. Brain – the control center of the body, where all processes

are relayed through.
• consists of the cerebrum (controls thought and senses)
and cerebellum (controls motor functions)
2. Spinal Cord - sends instructions from the brain to the rest of the body and vice versa
• any organism with a major nerve cord is classified as a chordate.
3. Nerves - conduct impulses to muscle cells throughout the body.

Nerves - neurons clustered into bundles of fibers (axons).

Three types:
1. Sensory carry impulses from sense - organs to the brain and spinal cord.
2. Motor - from the brain or spinal to other organs.
3. Interneuron - connects sensory and motor neurons.
Synapse - a point at which a neuron can transfer an impulse to another cell.
Human Nervous System
1. Central Nervous System (CNS) - the control center.
A. Brain - 100 billion cells neurons
a. Cerebrum - largest part, responsible for learning, intelligence, and judgment.
b. Cerebellum - coordinates and balances actions of muscles. (Posture, movement, and
balance.)
c. Brainstem - regulates blood pressure, heart rate, - breathing, and swallowing. (Thalamus,
hypothalamus, midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.)

ORGAN SYSTEM INTERACTIONS

▪ Nervous system is interactive with
all other systems in the body – you
name it it’s involved.
 THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Purpose: to control growth, development, metabolism, and reproduction through the
production and secretion of hormones.
Cell Type: Epithelial
Major organs:

• Hypothalamus
• Pituitary gland
• Thyroid
• Parathyroid
• Adrenal glands
• Pancreas
• Testes
• Ovaries

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
▪ Controls all the metabolic activities of the body.
▪ Made up of a series of glands - organs that produce and release chemical messengers,
generally into the bloodstream.
▪ The chemical messengers are called hormones and they affect the behavior of cells.
- Only cells with receptors respond to hormones
GLANDS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

• The major gland is the pituitary gland - which produces many

• of the hormones that the endocrine glands.
• The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland.
• Thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, ovaries, and testes.

EXAMPLES OF HORMONES

ENDOCRINE HORMONE EFFECT ON

GLAND TARGET CELS
Thyroid Thyroxine Regulates metabolic
rate of cells
Adrenal Medulla Adrenaline and Non- Prepare the body for
adrenaline “fight or flight” by
increasing body ORGAN SYSTEM
activities. INTERACTIONS
Pancreas – Islets of Insulin Regulates the amount • You name it – it
Langerhans of sugar in the interacts with it for
bloodstream. regulation, especially in
Posterior Pituitary Oxytocin Stimulates conjunction with the
contractions of the nervous system and
uterus during circulatory systems.
childbirth.

ORGAN SYSTEM INTERACTIONS

• You name it – it interacts with it for regulation, especially in conjunction
with the nervous system and circulatory systems.
 THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
Purpose: to provide structure and support to the human body
• Bones are where new blood cells are generated (in the marrow) and require the mineral
calcium for strength.

Major Bones of the Human Body

-- femur (thigh bone) -- fibula and tibia (calf)

-- humerus (upper arm) -- vertebrae (back)

-- radius and ulna (lower arm) -- scapula (shoulder)

-- cranium (skull) -- pelvic bone

-- sternum (breastbone) -- coccyx (tail bone)

-- clavicle (shoulder blade) -- phalanges (fingers/toes)

Type of cells:
• Osteocytes – cells that build and maintain bones.
• Bone Marrow – produces white and red blood cells.

What are joints, ligaments, tendons, and cartilage?

• Joints are where bones meet and can withstand pressure. Ligaments are strong bands of
connective tissue that hold joints together and prevent them from moving too far.
• Tendons are strips of dense connective tissue attached to the bone.
• Cartilage is lightweight, strong, and flexible tissue.

ORGAN SYSTEM INTERACTION

1. Nervous system - movement
2. Muscle system - movement
3. Circulatory system - oxygen & nutrients
4. Digestive system - digestion (stomach & peristaltic activity
5. Excretory sweat
 THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Purpose: works with the skeletal and nervous systems to produce movement, and also helps
to circulate blood through the human body.
• muscle cells are fibrous
• muscle contractions can be voluntary or involuntary and makes to 40-50% of the body
mass.
• Cell Type – Muscle Tissue

Major Muscles in the Human Body

biceps triceps

deltoids glutes

hamstrings

Muscular System
Three types of muscles:
1. Skeletal - attached to bones, voluntary control, multinucleated, striated
2. Smooth - internal organs (except the heart), one nucleus, nonstriated, involuntary control
3. Cardiac - heart, one nucleus, striated, and involuntary control

Structure
1. Tendons- dense strips of connective tissue.
2. Flexor – a muscle that causes a joint to bend.
3. Extensor- muscles that cause the joint to straighten. Myosin-enable muscles to
contract.
4. Myofibrils -a fiber found in straightened muscle cells that is responsible for muscle
contractions.
5. Sarcomere- basic unit of contraction in skeletal and cardiac muscles.
6. Origin- muscle pulls against origin.
7. Insertion-bone that moves when a muscle contracts.

Muscular System
• Muscles work in antagonistic pairs (opposite each other) and are always in a state of
slight contraction.
• Muscles always pull, bones do not push them.
• flexor - decreases the angle of the joint (bends), examples are the biceps and
hamstrings.
• extensor - opens a joint to normal position (extends), for example triceps and
quadriceps.
• abductor - moves bone away from the midline of the body, like the deltoids
• adductor - moves bone towards the midline of the body, like the latissimus dorsi.

ORGAN SYSTEM INTERACTIONS

• Circulatory – heart
• Skeletal – movement
• Nervous – movement and vision (focus)
• Digestive – stomach and peristatic
activity
• Endocrine – release of some hormones
and enzymes.
 THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
• Produces matures, nourishes, and stores gametes.
• For the 6 weeks of development, male and female embryos are identical.
• At the 7th week, if a Y chromosome is present, the testes develop and begin to
produce androgens (hormones) that cause male physical characteristics and
reproductive structure to develop.
• Cell Type: Epithelial

ORGAN SYSTEM INTERACTION

• Endocrine – hormones for gamete
• Nervous system
• Circulatory system
 THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
Purpose: to remove infectious diseases and other pathogens from the human body.

Cell Type: Epithelial

Major Organs and Their Functions

1. Skin - also called the integumentary system, the skin is

the body's first line of defense.
2. White Blood Cells - recognize disease agents (antigens)
and create antibodies to tag and remove these antigens.
• phagocytes are the white blood cell type that
actually, eats and destroys these antigens.
3. Lymph Nodes - help restore fluid lost by the blood
and return it to the circulatory system.
4. Spleen – produces and stores white blood cells.
5. Thymus – site of white blood cell maturation.

ORGAN SYSTEM INTERACTIONS

1. Integumentary – first line of defense
2. Respiratory – mucus membranes
3. Circulatory – transport of antibodies and white blood cells
4. Endocrine – chemical stimulus-response
5. Excretory and Digestive – elimination of pathogens
 THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Purpose: temperature regulation, waste removal, sensory info, and protection.
• Largest organ of the body - is the skin which has two layers.
• Skin, Hair, and Nails

Cell Type: Epithelial

HAIR FUNCTIONS
• Absorbs radiation from the sun that maybe
harmful
• Reduces loss of heat
• Filters out dust and dirt
• Sensitive to movement

NAIL FUNCTIONS

• Protects tips of fingers or toes

• Helps pick up small objects
• Enhances sensation of the finger by
acting as a counterforce.
• Scratching

The Epidermis
• Outermost layer of skin.
• Made of layers of epithelial cells.
• Outermost layer of cells is flattened, dead,
and keratin-filled.
• Keratin makes skin tough and waterproof.
• Skin is continually damaged, but replaces
cells instead of repairing them.
• Layer of actively dividing cells at the base of the
epidermis make new cells that move up to replace old
ones on the surface, producing keratin as they go.
• Epidermal cells contain melanin, a pigment that absorbs UV radiation.
• Melanin ranges from reddish brown to black
 DERMIS
• Dermis – supports the epidermis. Contains
nerve endings, blood vessels, and smooth
muscles.
• Two types of Glands
A. Sweat Glands
- Controlled by the nervous system
B. Sebaceous Glands
- produce oily secretions that help
keep the epidermis flexible and waterproof.

SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE

• Located beneath the dermis

• It is a layer of connective tissue
made of fat.
• It’s a shock absorber, insulator,
And energy storage.
• Anchors skin to underlying organs.
• Thickness varies throughout the body.

ORGANS SYSTEM INTERACTIONS

• Immune system – the first line of defense
• Circulatory system – brings nutrients and water
• Excretory system – sweat
• Nervous system – touch
• Endocrine – thermoregulation
 PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES IN ELDERLY

INTRODUCTION

• A number of physiological changes

occur as we grow older.
• Some of the common changes are the
result of diseases.

BODY CONFORMATION

• The height falls after the age of 50.

• Nose and ears continue to grow
in length.
• Male and female shapes become more
similar with aging.

BODY CONTENT

• Male weight tends to increase till late

50 and then decline.
• Female weight tends to increase till
60 and then decline.
• Total body water male: young 60%
to elderly 54%.
• Total body of females: young 52%
to elderly 46%.

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

• Heart disease is the leading cause of death

in the elderly.
• The size of the heart increases in old age.
• Despite a slight increase in heart size, the amount
of blood, the chamber can hold actually decreases
because of the heart wall thickening.
• The maximum heart rate decreases.
• The cardiac output decreases.
• The aorta and other arteries become thicker and stiffer which may bring a moderate
increase in systolic blood pressure with aging. In some individuals, this may result in
hypertension.
 • The valves between the chambers of the heart thicken and become stiffer due to the
deposition of calcium and collagen.
• Blood flow to the kidneys may decrease by
50 percent and to the brain by 15 to 20 percent.
• The baroreceptors which monitor and adjust
the blood pressure when we change position becomes
less sensitive with aging.
• This can cause orthostatic hypotension.

HEALTH PROMOTION STRATEGIES

✓ Regular exercise and activities
✓ Eat low-fat diet, low-salt diet
✓ Participate in stress reduction activities
✓ Check blood pressure regularly

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

• Lungs become more rigid and stiffer.

• Muscles of the chest wall become weak.
• Pulmonary functions decrease. The alveoli
within the lungs enlarge and become thinner,
increasing the amount of anatomic dead space.
• The number of cilia declines in number as
age grows.
• Vital capacity declines.
• Reduction in respiratory fluid.
• Cough efficiency decreases.
 GASTROINTESTINAL SYSTEM

• Reduced GI secretion.
• Reduced GI motility.
• Fall of teeth is an obvious sign of aging.
• Delayed gastric emptying.

LIVER

✓ Reduced blood flow

✓ Altered clearance of some drugs
✓ Decreased weight of liver
✓ Reduced regenerative capacity of liver
✓ Liver metabolizes less efficiently

Intestines:

✓ As we grow old, the small intestines absorb,

less calcium and vitamin D.

✓ Therefore, we need more calcium to prevent

bone mineral loss and osteoporosis in later life.

✓ Some enzymes, such as lactase which aids the digestion of

lactose (a sugar found in dairy products) decline with age.

✓ Reduced peristalsis of the colon can increase the risk for constipation.

✓ The sensitivity of the taste buds decreases altering pleasure in eating.

✓ They may also lose the ability to differentiate sour, salty, and bitter tastes.

✓ There is decreased salivation, so there is difficulty in swallowing food.

✓ Reduced gastrointestinal motility results in delayed emptying of stomach contents and early
satisfaction (feeling of fullness).
HEALTH PROMOTION STRATEGIES

• Use mouthwash, brush and receive regular dental care.

• Sit up and avoid heavy activity after eating.
• Limit antacids and laxatives.
• Eat small, frequent meals.
• "Maintain bowel habit.

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

PURPOSE: temperature regulation, waste removal, sensory info, and protection.

• Largest organ of the body = the skin which has two layers.
• Skin, hair, and nails
• Cell Type – Epithelial

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

• One of the most common physical changes that people associate with aging are:
✓ Wrinkling
✓ Pigment alteration
✓ Thinning of the skin
• The most common changes in the skin include:
✓ Thinning of the area between the dermis and epidermis (due to a decrease in
epidermal proliferation)
✓ Elastic fibers are reduced in number.
✓ Collagen becomes stiffer.
✓ Subcutaneous fat diminishes
✓ The decrease in the number of capillaries in the skin results in diminished blood
supply.
✓ The skin becomes less able to retain fluids and is more easily dry and cracked.
✓ As a result, both the thickness and elasticity of the skin decrease.
✓ Therefore, sunscreens and moisturizing creams play an important part in
protecting aging skin.
✓ Hair becomes gray because of production of gradual decrease in production of
melanin, the pigment cells in the hair bulbs.
✓ The graying of hair is also influenced by heredity and hormones.

✓ There are also fewer hair follicles on the scalp and the growth rate of hair
decreases. in the scalp, armpits, and pubic areas. However, hair growth actually
 accelerates and thickens in places like nostrils, ears, and eyebrows, especially
in men.
✓ Older women often have an increase in facial hair as their estrogen levels
decrease.

HEALTH PROMOTION STRATEGIES

✓ Avoid solar exposure (clothing, sunscreen, stay indoors).

✓ Dress appropriately for temperature.
✓ "Maintain a safe indoor temperature.
✓ Lubricate skin.

GENITOURINARY SYSTEM

• "After 40 renal function decreases.

• By 90, function we lose 50% of function
• Filtration and reabsorption are decreased Size and
• number of nephrons decreases.
• Bladder muscles weaken.
• Kidney mass decreases by 25-30 number of glomeruli decrease by 30 to 40 percent.
• These changes reduce the ability to filter and concentrate urine
and clear drugs.
• Bladder capacity decreases and there is residual urine
and frequency.
• With aging, there is a reduced hormonal response (vasopressin) and an impaired ability
to conserve salt which may increase the risk of dehydration.
• These changes increase the chances of urinary infections, incontinence, and urinary
obstruction.
 • In males, Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH) is
more common.
• In females, perineal muscles relax, and there is urge
• incontinence and stress urinary incontinence.

HEALTH PROMOTION STRATEGIES

✓ Seek a referral to a urology specialist.

✓ Have ready access to a toilet.
✓ Wear easily manipulated clothing.
✓ Drink adequate fluids.
✓ Avoid bladder irritants (caffeinated beverages, alcohol)
✓ Pelvic floor exercises.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Male:

• Reduced testosterone level

• Size of the testis and penis decreases
• Decrease in sperm production
• Seminal fluid decreases and becomes more viscous
• "Erection dysfunction may occur

Female:

• Estrogen and progesterone levels decline.

• Ovulation ceases
• The introitus constricts and loses elasticity
• Vagina atrophies and becomes dry.
• Uterus shrinks.
• Breasts become pendulous and lose elasticity.
• Females may require estrogen replacement therapy.
• To use a lubricant with intercourse.
 MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM

• By the time of age 80, most lose an average height of about 2 inches.

The primary factors contributing to this reduction in height include:

✓ compression of vertebrae

✓ changes in posture,
✓ and increased curvature of the hips and knees.

• Weight increases until about age 60 and then declines

• This pattern of weight change is more likely the result of reductions in activity and
changes in eating rather than aging itself.
• Bone mineral content diminished.

• As age increases, muscles generally decrease in strength, endurance, size, and weight.
• Typically, 23 percent of muscle mass is decreased, and by age 80, both the number and
size of muscle fibers decrease.
• Body fat mass can double, and lean muscle mass is lost.
HEALTH PROMOTION STRATEGIES
✓ Exercise regularly.
✓ Eat a high-calcium diet, and limit phosphorus intake.
✓ Take calcium and vitamin D supplements.
✓ Encourage the use of assistive devices if indicated
✓ Modify the environment to reduce fall risk Encourage activity- take walks etc.
 NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Neurons of the central and peripheral
nervous system degenerate
• Loss of brain mass
• The synthesis and metabolism of the major
neurotransmitters are reduced.
• Nerve transmission slows so, older people take longer
to respond and react.
• Hypothalamus becomes less effective in regulating
body temperature.
• Deep sleep decreases.
• After 50yrs one loses 1% of neurons each year.

HEALTH PROMOTION STRATEGIES

• Allow longer time to respond to stimulus and move more deliberately.
• Encourage slow rising from a resting position.

SENSORY SYSTEM
Vision
• Visual impairment is the most common sensory
problem of older people.
• Not all older people have impaired vision.
• Loss of ability to see items that are close up
begins in the 40s.

✓ The size of the pupil grows smaller with age: focusing

becomes less accurate
✓ The lens of the eye yellows making it more difficult to see red
and green colors
✓ Sensitivity to glare increases
✓ Night and depth vision decreases
✓ Eyelids become baggy and wrinkled
✓ Conjunctiva becomes thin and yellow
 ✓ Lens enlarges
✓ Lens becomes less transparent
✓ Can become clouded
✓ Results in cataracts.

✓ Quantity of tears decreases

✓ About 95% of individuals age 65 and older report needing glasses to improve their
vision.

HEALTH PROMOTION STRATEGIES

▪ Wear eyeglasses, and use sunglasses outdoors.
▪ Avoid abrupt changes from dark to light.
▪ Use large print books. Use a magnifier for reading.
▪ Avoid night driving. Use contrasting colors for color coding.
▪ Avoid glare of shiny surfaces and direct sunlight.

Hearing
▪ Hearing loss is very common with aging.
▪ Auditory changes begin to be noticed at about 40 years of age.
▪ Membranes in the middle ear, including the eardrum, become
less flexible with age.
▪ In addition, the small bones in the middle ear,
the ossicles, become stiffer.
▪ Both these factors somewhat decrease hearing
sensitivity but are not thought to cause significant impairment.
▪ The vestibular apparatus begins to degenerate with age.
▪ Equilibrium becomes compromised and older individuals may complain of dizziness
and lose their balance.
HEALTH PROMOTION STRATEGY
✓ Recommend a hearing examination.
✓ Reduce background noises.
✓ Encourage them to face the person and use non-verbal cues.
✓ Speak with a low-pitched voice.
✓ Use of hearing aids.

Smell
▪ The number of functioning smell receptors decreases.
▪ After the age of 50, the sense of smell decreases rapidly.
▪ By age 80, the sense of smell is reduced by about half.

Taste
▪ Taste also diminishes with age
▪ Some atrophy of the tongue occurs with age
and this may diminish sensitivity to taste.
 IMMUNE SYSTEM

▪ A decline in immune function

▪ Fatty marrow replaced red bone marrow

▪ As we grow older, our bodies are less able to produce antibodies which are important
in fighting infections.
▪ As a result, older adults are at greater risk for infections and the mortality rate from
infection is much higher than in the young.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
▪ Estrogen levels decrease in women.
▪ Other hormonal decreases include testosterone, aldosterone, cortisol, and progesterone.
POLICE OFFICER