BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

SEM 9
SIR JJ COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE

- 1701 RAJ ASHAR

- 1707 SIDDHARTH BHITALE

PORTAL FRAMES

DEFINITION

Portal frames are the most commonly used structural forms for
single-storey industrial structures and commercial buildings.
They are constructed mainly using hot-rolled sections, supporting the
roofing and side cladding via cold-formed purlins and sheeting rails.
They may also be composed of tapered stanchions and rafters
fabricated from plate elements.
Portal frames of lattice members made of angles or tubes are also
common, especially in the case of longer spans.
Steel portal frames are very efficient and economical when used for
single-storey buildings, provided that the design details are cost
effective and the design parameters and assumptions are well chosen.
It has become the most common structural form in pitched roof buildings,
because of its economy and versatility for a wide range of spans.
 Utility
Portal frames can be defined as two-dimensional rigid frames that
have the basic characteristics of a rigid joint between column and
beam.
The main objective of this form of design is to reduce bending moment in
the beam, which allows the frame to act as one structural unit.
They were originally used because of their structural efficiency, meaning
that large spaces could be enclosed with little use of materials and for
a low cost.

Materials
Certain construction materials are better suited for portal frame
structures. Portal frame structures must be made of materials light
enough to not require interior supports, yet sturdy enough to
withstand the pressures placed on the structure.

● Steel is a common building material for portal frame structures.

Steel is strong and relatively lightweight, so it is suitable for the
building frame and/or the outside cladding.
● Wood, particularly wooden trusses, may be used for smaller portal
frame buildings. Long wooden beams are more expensive and harder to
locate, so wood is less common for
larger buildings.
● Structural fabric is a common choice for portal frame structures
because fabric structures are lightweight, inexpensive and can quickly
cover large surfaces. Many long span structures, such as the Munich
Olympic Stadium, use fabric to create eye-catching shapes not available
with other materials.
● Glass curtain walls on non-load-bearing walls provide a unique
appearance and unite the inside and outside of the building.

Classification of Portal Frames

Portal frames may be single bay or double bay. Now days, there are
commonly single storey frames are used. But in many industries, two
storey frames are also desirable. In many cases sloping roofs are
provided with the portal frames. There are various types of frames. But
mainly, there are three types of portal frames.

● Fixed portal frame:

In the fixed portal frame, all joints are fixed. Fixed portal frames are
used in small structure where moment transferred to beams and then to
foundations. These types of frames are simply constructed at any place.
● Two pin portal frame:
This type of frame are used at base joints. They are used to eliminate
tendency of base rotating. Two pin portal frames are greater in
strength than the fixed portal frames. The joints are strong as
compare to Fixed portal frames.
● Three pin portal frame:

In this type of frame, all the connections are fixed. The joints are
provided at the base and some time at the center. Three pin portal
frames are used to reduce bending
moment in the spanning members. It is also used to increase the
deflections.

Terminology and words used

Bracing
Structure should be braced at all times before raising the next part.
Structure should be secured with temporary or permanent bracing
before release of raising equipment, and at the end of day or other
shutdowns.

Bolting
All joints should be connected and all bolts in place before release.

Roofing
Starter section-Until the first run of sheets is secured, temporary
scaffolding should be used to start sheeting so that builders will
have something to stand on.

Climbing Structure
No one should slide down columns since the sheared edges will rip
gloves and hands open. Ladders should be used to get on and off the
building. Do not climb on the girts since they will bow and work the
screws loose.

Power Tools and Grounding

Power tools and cords should be kept in good repair at all times. All
power tools should have a three wire ground system without
exception. A periodic inspection of each tool
including the grounding of the case should be made. In the event that the
operator does get
a shock, he should not attempt to grab the defective tool with both hands.
Under no circumstances should a worker use power tools while standing on
wet ground.
While drilling, grinding, or sawing the operator should wear safety
glasses, use safety guards, and other safety devices.
Rafters and columns
Rafters and external columns are usually chosen from the range of
Universal Beam sections because the dominant load effects are those
due to bending rather than axial load. Eaves haunch
The eaves haunch is required to:
• Supplement the bending resistance of the rafter in the area of highest
moment, permitting a smaller rafter to be used.
• Provide adequate depth at the rafter/column interface to achieve an
efficient connection. The haunch depth is often determined by the lever
arm to the bolts required to achieve the necessary moment capacity.

Apex haunch
The purpose of the apex haunch is to achieve an efficient connection between
the rafter
members. It will usually be fabricated from plates and its detailed
design will be part of the connection design.

Base Plates and Foundation

The base plate and the foundation will generally be analysed as a
pinned connection at the base of the column even when four bolts are
provided for stability during erection.

Holding down bolts - bolts through the base plate that are anchored
into the concrete foundation.

Foundation - the concrete footing required to resist compression,

uplift, and, where necessary, over-turning moments.

Anchor plates - plates or angles used to anchor the holding down bolts
into the foundation.
They should be of such a size as to provide an adequate factor of
safety against bearing failure of the concrete.
 Types of Portal Frames

● Pitched roof symmetric portal frame

Generally fabricated from UB sections with a substantial eaves haunch

section, which may be cut from a rolled section or fabricated from
plate. 25 to 35 m are the most efficient spans.

● Portal frame with internal mezzanine floor

Office accommodation is often provided within a portal frame structure
using a partial width mezzanine floor.The assessment of frame stability
must include the effect of the
mezzanine.

● Crane portal frame with column brackets

 Where a travelling crane of relatively low capacity (up to say 20 tonnes)
is required, brackets can be fixed to the columns to support the crane
rails. Use of a tie member or rigid column bases may be necessary to

reduce the eaves deflection.

● Tied portal frame

In a tied portal frame the horizontal movement of the eaves and the
bending moments in the columns and rafters are reduced. A tie may
be useful to limit spread in a
crane-supporting structure.
The high axial forces introduced in the frame when a tie is used
necessitate the use of second-order software when analysing this

form of frame.

● Mono-pitch portal frame

A mono pitch portal frame is usually chosen for small spans or because
of its proximity to other buildings. It is a simple variation of the pitched
roof portal frame, and tends to be
used for smaller buildings (up to 15 m span).

● Propped portal frame

 Where the span of a portal frame is large and there is no requirement
to provide a clear span, a propped portal frame can be used to reduce
the rafter size and also the horizontal shear at the foundations.

● Mansard portal frame

A mansard portal frame may be used where a large clear height at mid-
span is required but the eaves height of the building has to be minimised.

● Curved rafter portal frame

Portal frames may be constructed using curved rafters, mainly for
architectural reasons. Because of transport limitations rafters
longer than 20 m may require splices, which should be carefully

detailed for architectural reasons.

● Cellular beam portal frame

Rafters may be fabricated from cellular beams for aesthetic reasons
or when providing long spans. Where transport limitations impose
requirement for splices, they should be carefully detailed, to
preserve the architectural features.
 Thumb rules
The main (portal) frames are generally fabricated from UB sections with
a substantial eaves haunch section, which may be cut from a rolled
section or fabricated from plate. A typical frame is characterised by:

■ A span between 15 and 50 m

■ An clear height (from the top of the floor to the underside of the
haunch) between 5 and 12 m
■ A roof pitch between 5° and 10° (6° is commonly adopted)
■ A frame spacing between 6 and 8 m
■ Haunches in the rafters at the eaves and apex
■ A stiffness ratio between the column and rafter section of approximately
1.5
■ Light gauge purlins and side rails
■ Portal Rafter span by depth 25 to 30.
■ For pitched portals, eaves rafter haunch length 7.5% to 10% of Span
and haunch cut from section equal to or bigger than rafter section.
■ For acceptable deflection in pitched portals with haunches, rafter
depth to be bigger than Span / 75.
■ Stanchion section 1 or 2 serial sizes bigger than rafter section,
with depth bigger than eaves height / 25.

Design considerations and criteria

The steps in the plastic design of portals, according to SP: 6(6) – 1972, are
given below:

The 'simple plastic theory' neglects the effects of axial force, shear
and buckling on the member strength. So checks must be carried out
for the following factors.
a) Reductions in the plastic moment due to the effect of axial force and
shear force.
b) Instability due to local buckling, lateral buckling and column buckling.
c) Brittle fracture.
d) Deflection at service loads

In the design and construction of any structure, a large number of inter-

related design requirements should be considered at each stage in the
design process.
There are three stages of design:
•Conceptual design, which refers to the stage at which decisions are
made about the overall dimensions and form of the structure.
• Preliminary design, during which members are sized
approximately for estimating purposes.
• Final design, during which all relevant load cases are considered,
detailed checks are carried out on the members, the positions of
the restraints are finalised, and the connections are designed.
In practice, there is seldom a clear distinction between each stage of the
design. The conceptual and preliminary designs are often developed
together as approximate member sizes are determined and the concept
design is improved.
Typical details of a steel portal frame structure are shown in figure below .
The following discussion of its constituent parts is intended to give the
designer an
understanding of the inter-relationship of the various elements with the
final construction, so that the decisions required at each stage in the
design process can be made with an
understanding of their implications.

Side

(aJ Crass-sectian showing the portal frame and //a restraints

Cold

C old i olled

strui

(b) Raof steelwark plan

Side rails

(cJ Side elevatian

 Joinery details
● Ridge Joint Portal Frame -

● Shown here is a ridge joint or apex joint.

● It is important that is strong hence the use of wedge shaped pieces
called Gasset pieces to strengthen and increase the bolt area.

● Knee Joint Portal Frame -

● Again the knee joint must be strong to support the roof loads and prevent
bending.
● Gusset pieces will be used to increase strength, give greater
bolt area and prevent deflection under load.
 ● Base joint portal frame -

● The legs or stanchions of the portal frame need connecting

at the bottom to a foundation.

Roofing materials sizes and supporting frame design

Materials for Roofing

● GI Sheet
● Aluminium Panels
● ETFE
● GFRP
● Glass

Type 1
1) Roof panel: It can bear the vertical load and horizontal wind
load acting on the roof panel. Generally, it uses a single color
metal sheet or sandwich panel.
2) Purlin: Support structure of roof panel, which can bear the
vertical load and horizontal wind load transmitted from the roof
panel.
3) Rigid frame beam: The primary load-bearing members mainly bear the
self-weight of the roof structure and the live load transmitted from
the roof panel.
 Type 2
1)Roof horizontal bracing: enhance the overall rigidity of the roof. It
consists of a roof cross bracing, tie beam, and fly bracing.
It enhances the spatial rigidity of the building structure and gives
guaranteed structural stability
It can transmit wind load, crane brake load and seismic load to the load-
bearing members

.
In most cases, neither the ‘pinned’ nor ‘rigid’ assumptions will be
achieved in practice, because:
• where a nominally rigid base is assumed, some rotation will occur,
and the moments in the frame will be affected marginally, or
• unless an actual rocker base is provided, the base plate will not be
truly pinned and some moment will act at the base of the column.
Where portal frames are founded on expansive clays or uncompacted
fill, the following design options should be considered:
• Locate the frame on a structural raft, or on a wide reinforced concrete
strip footing.
• Use precast ground beams and mini-piles.
• Use bored or driven piles under each footing with linking in-situ or precast
ground beams.
• Consider ground improvement techniques, i.e. vibro-replacement under each
base.

Sequence of building erection process

COLUMNS

COLUMN PLACEMENT
The importance of accurate foundation construction and column
placement setting cannot be over-emphasized. Foundation errors and
misallocation of columns are among the most frequent and troublesome
errors made in metal building construction.

COLUMN INSTALLATION
Anchor truss column to floor set back from
edges centered on chalk lines previously
marked.
still sidewall girts wood sidewall girts
Erection of columns Joining the ridge

Erection of frame Joining of Purlins

and Rafters

Erection of eaves strut for opening

8. Joinery details.
CROSS SECTION SHOWING PORTAL FRAME AND ITS RESTRAINTS

EAVES DETAILS

DETAIL OF COLUMN AND RAFTER

TYPICAL EAVES DETAIL USING A CIRCULAR HOLLOW SECTION AS A

LONGITUDINAL BRACING MEMBER
EAVES CONNECTION

APEX CONNECTION
9. Roofing materials sizes and supporting frame
design.
THE ROOFING MATERIAL IS FIXED ON THE PORTAL FRAME
ABOVE THE PURLINS.
VARIOUS MATERIAL OF ROOF USED IN PORTAL FRAMES ARE:
• ASPHALT

• METAL STANDING SEAM

• CONCRETE TILES
• METAL ALUMINIUM SHEET

• WOOD SHEET

• CONCRETE CLAY TILE

• VINYL MEMBRANE
 • ROLLED FLAT ROOF

ROOFING INSULATION: THE MAIN AIM OF INSULATION A

BUILDING IS TO REDUCE THE HEAT TRANSFER FROM THE
CEILING AND THE OPENINGS INTO THE STRUCTURE .

• POLYRETHANE INSULATION
• FIBERGLASS INSULATION
• SANDWICH PANEL INSULATION
• BUBBLE WRAP ALUMINIUM FACED INSULATION
• RIGID PANEL ALUMINIUM FOIL FACED INSULATION
10. Cladding materials and supporting frame
design and details
THERE ARE NUMBER OF PROPRIETARY TYPES OF CLADDING ON
THE MARKET. THESE TEND TO FALL INTO SOME BROAD
CATEGORIES, WHICH ARE DESCRIBED AS BELOW
Materials
● Profile Metal Sheeting
● Fibre Reinforced Plastic Sheeting
● Aluminium Panels
● Brick Cladding
● Hollow concrete blockwork masonry
SINGLE SKINNED TRAPEZOIDAL SHEETING
Single-skin sheeting is widely used in agricultural and industrial
structures where no insulation is required

DOUBLE SKIN SYSTEM

Double skin or built-up roof systems usually use a steel liner
tray that is fastened to the purlins, followed by a spacing
system (plastic ferrule and spacer or rail and bracket spacer),
insulation, and outer sheet.
STANDING SEAM SHEETING
Standing seam sheeting has concealed fixings and can be fixed in lengths
of up to 30 m. The advantages are that there are no penetrations
directly through the sheeting that could lead to water leakage

COMPOSITE OR SANDWICH PANEL

Composite or sandwich panels are formed by creating a foam
insulation layer between the outer and inner layers of
sheeting. Composite panels have good spanning capabilities,
due to composite action in bending.
WALLS IN FIRE BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

11. Foundations designs.

• BASE : THE COMBINED ARRANGEMENT OF BASE PLATE ,
HOLDING DOWN BOLTS, AND CONCRETE FOUNDATION.
THE TERMS NOMINALLY PINNED AND NOMINALLY RIGID
ARE USUALLY APPLIED TO THE PERFORMANCE OF THE
BASE, IN RELATION TO ITS RESTRAINT OF THE COLUMN.
• BASE PLATE : THE STEEL PLATE AT THE BASE OF THE
COLUMN BY FILLET WELDS.
• HOLDING DOWN BOLTS : BOLTS THROUGH THE BASE
PLATE THAT ARE ANCHORED INTO THE CONCRETE
FOUNDATION.
• FOUNDATION : THE CONCRETE FOOTING REQUIRED TO
RESIST COMPRESSION, UPLIFT AND WHERE NECESSARY,
OVERTURNING MOMENTS.
• ANCHOR PLATES : PLATES ANGLES USED TO ANCHOR THE
HOLDING DOWN BOLTS INTO FOUNDATION. THEY SHOULD
BE OF SUCH A SIZE AS TO PROVIDE AN ADEQUATE
FACTOR OF SAFETY AGAINST BEARING FAILURE OF THE
CONCRETE.

FOR COLUMNS GREATER THAN OR EQUAL TO 356 MM DEEP

FOR COLUMNS LESS THAN 365 MM DEEP

TYPICALLY NOMINALLY RIGID MOMENT RESISING BASE

NOMINALLY RIGID, MOMENT RESISTING BASE WITH GUSSET
PLATES FOR HIGH MOMENTS

TYPICAL DETAIL WITH AN OFFSET BASE PROVIDING A

NOMINAL PIN AT ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE AND A MOMENT
CONNECTION AT FIRE LIMIT STATE
Points to be considered while foundation is made -
It is usual to provide at least four bolts in the base
plate for stability during erection. The alternative
would be to provide temporary guys immediately after
the erection of the column, which on most sites would
be impractical and is likely to create a hazard.
If a nominally rigid base is assumed in the frame design, the
foundations should be
designed for the required moment. If a nominally pinned
base is assumed, the foundations are designed only for
axial load.
 12. Sequence of building erection process.

• Install the steel column. First, fix the anchor bolts, and
the steel column is set on the foundation by connecting
with the anchor bolts.
• Install the tie beam between the steel columns.
• Assemble the steel beam. Steel beams should be combined
with high-strength bolts on the ground and assembled
• Install the purlin between the two roof trusses to form a
stable frame system
• Installation sequence: start with the two rigid frames
supported between columns near the gable. Install purlin,
bracing, and fly bracing, etc.
13. Time element and cost.
PORTAL FRAME UNITS ( TYPICALLY LOW RISE STRUCTURES
COMPRISED OF COLUMNS AND HORIZONTAL PITCHED RAFTERS
) WITH AN EAVES HEIGHT OF 4M TO 8M WILL COST ROUGHLY
RS. 4642.85 – RS.6706.34 PER SQUARE METER. BUILDING
WITH HIGHER EAVES ( 10 M-13M ) THAT REQUIRE HEAVIER
FRAMES CAN COST ANYWHERE FROM RS 5674.60 – RS 7738.09
PER SQUARE METER.
STEEL FRAME WITH COMPOSITE DECK FLOOR SAVES 55.3 %
CONSTRUCTION TIME THAN PRECAST FRAME WITH PRECAST
CONCRETE FLOOR 14.3 % COMPARED TO STEEL FRAME WITH
PRECAST CONCRETE FLOOR. HOWEVER, THIS REQUIRE EXTRA
23.10 % OF DIRECT COST AND 12.99 % OF NET COST FOR
PRECAST FRAME WITH PRECAST CONCRETE FLOOR WHILE
0.52% AND -2.34% FOR STEEL FRAME WITH PRECAST CONCRETE
FLOOR.
14. Reference
https://www.steelconstruction.info/Portal_frames
https://www.steelconstruction.info/images/4/44/SCI_P25
2.pdf
http://www.steel-
insdag.org/TeachingMaterial/chapter36.pdf