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Hydrologic Loss

Here are the step-by-step workings: 1. Hn = (1 - α)Rs = (1 - 0.23)39.2 = 30.2 W/m^2 2. Ha = 16.2 W/m^2 (from Table 3.4) 3. N = 13.9 mm (from Table 3.5 for n/N = 1.21) 4. Ta = (30 + 27)/2 = 28.5°C 5. u2 = (3.2 + 2.1)/2 = 2.65 m/s 6. ew = 4.584e^(17.27×28.5/237.3

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147 views56 pages

Hydrologic Loss

Here are the step-by-step workings: 1. Hn = (1 - α)Rs = (1 - 0.23)39.2 = 30.2 W/m^2 2. Ha = 16.2 W/m^2 (from Table 3.4) 3. N = 13.9 mm (from Table 3.5 for n/N = 1.21) 4. Ta = (30 + 27)/2 = 28.5°C 5. u2 = (3.2 + 2.1)/2 = 2.65 m/s 6. ew = 4.584e^(17.27×28.5/237.3

Uploaded by

Ct Kamariah Md Saat
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We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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KMJ26403 HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

HYDROLOGIC LOSS
SITI KAMARIAH MD SA’AT
FTKK, UNIMAP
Hydrological Loss/ Abstraction from
Precipitation

 Losses in the production of runoff


 Evaporation

 Evapotranspiration

 Infiltration

From water budget equation:

Rainfall–Losses = Runoff
EVAPORATION
 Evaporation (E) : process in changes of liquid to gaseous state at free surface, below
the boiling point through transfer of heat energy.
 Knowledge of E are used to estimate water losses from the reservoir, water body,
wetland & moist soil
 Approx. 70% of annual rainfall is return to atmosphere as evaporation & transpiration
 In arid region, annual evaporation > annual rainfall
 Rate of evaporation depend on (the explanation can be find in textbook):
 Solar radiation
 The vapor pressure at water surface and air above
 Air and water temperatures
 Wind speed
 Atmospheric pressure
 Quality of water
 Size of water bodies- surface area, depth
 Humidity
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2iXqoLPjSTg
Analytical Methods of Evaporation
Estimation
 Three methods:
 Water-budget method
 Energy-balance method
 Mass-transfer method
Water-budget method

 Input-output = S
 (I + P)-(E+O+GW)= ∆S
 E = (I + P) – (O+GW)- ∆S
 Where:
 E = evaporation • Simplest but least reliable
 ∆S = change in storage
• Weakness
 I = surface inflow
 P = precipitation • Seepage evaluation is difficult
 O = surface outflow
• Error in measuring precipitation,
 GW = subsurface seepage to inflow, outflow, change in storage &
groundwater
subsurface seepage
Energy-budget method

 Most accurate & complex method


 Requires measurement of total incoming or net radiation
 It requires the collection of large amount of detailed
atmospheric data (but sometime not available)
 Energy available for evaporation is determined by
 incoming energy,
 outgoing energy
 energy stored in water body
Considering the water body in Fig 3.4, the energy balance to
the evaporating surface in period of one day is given by:

Hb = back radiation from water


body
Ha= sensible heat transfer from
water to air
He= heat energy used up in
evaporation = ρLEL
Where
ρ= density of water
L = latent heat of evaporation
EL = evaporation in mm
Hg=heat flux into the ground
Hs= heat stored in water body
Hi= net heat conducted out of
system by water flow
 EL (mm) can be evaluated from:
𝐻𝐻𝑛𝑛 −𝐻𝐻𝑔𝑔 −𝐻𝐻𝑠𝑠 −𝐻𝐻𝑖𝑖
 EL =
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌(1+𝛽𝛽)
𝐻𝐻𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 −𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎
 Bowen Ratio, β = = 6.1 x 10-4 x Pa
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝐸𝐸𝐿𝐿 𝑒𝑒𝑤𝑤 −𝑒𝑒𝑎𝑎
 Where
 Pa = atmospheric pressure in mm Hg
 Tw = temperature of water in oC
 Ta = temperature of air in oC
 ew=saturated vapor pressure in mm Hg
 ea= actual vapor pressure in mm Hg
 This energy balance method has been found to give satisfactory
result with 5% error
Mass transfer method

 Based on concept of turbulent transfer of water vapor from a water


surface to the atmosphere
 Evaporation as a function of
–vapor pressure different
–wind speed above lake
 Problem:
 Variation in measurement height for u and ea
 Same measurement level of 2m for wind speed & vapor pressure
Mass transfer method

 Based on atmospheric physics- the transfer of vapor from water body to


the air
 Is an empirical method- Dalton Law
 E = (es – ea) (a + bu)
 where
 E = Evaporation (cm/day)
 es = vapor pressure at the water surface (saturated pressure) E
 ea = vapor pressure at some fixed level above the water surface, (RH x es )
 u = wind speed (m/s)
 a, b = empirical constant
 a+bu = K = constant
Empirical Formula

 Based on Dalton Law


 Meyer
 E=Km(es-ea)(1+V9/16)
 Km= constant. 0.36 (for deep lake) and 0.50 for shallow lake
 V9= wind speed at 9 m (km/hr)
 Rohwer
 E=0.771 (1.465-0.000732Pa)(0.44+0.0733V0.6)(es-ea)
 V0.6= minimum wind speed at 0.6 km (km/hr)
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 𝑍𝑍𝑜𝑜 0.143
 =
𝑉𝑉1 𝑍𝑍1
Example

 A lake with 300 ha area has air temperature 30oC, 50% relative
humidity and wind speed at 1 m is 12 km/hr. Assume Km = 0.36.
 Calculate daily evaporation rate and volume of evaporation using
Meyer Formula
Pan evaporation method
 Using a standard class A pan water level is measured daily,
 Evaporation: computed as the difference between observed
level (adjusted for any precipitation).
 Pan evaporation rate > actual lake evaporation & must be
adjusted to account for radiation & heat exchange effect
 Direct measurement of E
 More realistic data
 Should be used only rough estimate of lake evaporation
 Located side by side to rainfall station
 Because E pan > actual E, use adjustment factor: known as “pan
coefficient, kp
 ranges 0.64 – 0.81
 varies with season, exposure & climatic condition
 kp = 0.75-0.8 for Malaysia, depending on location
Example:
TRANSPIRATION

 The process by which water leaves the body of a living plant & reaches the
atmosphere as water vapor
 Factors affecting are:
 Atm. vapor pressure
 Temperature
 Wind
 Light intensity/solar radiation
 Plant characteristic (leaf & root system)
 Transpiration occur during daylight hour only
 Transpiration rate depends on the growth stage (plant age)
Evapotranspiration(ET)

 Most agricultural and civil engineering project involve regional


development
 •E & T is combined as ET
 •ET is the combined water losses due to both E and T of an area
 •2 concepts
–Potential ET (ETp): maximum possible ET (under no constraint of
water)
-Actual ET (ETa): Actual water losses due to ET
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ET)
 Factor affecting ET
 The combined loss of water vapor
1. Sunshine
from surface of plant (transpiration) &
 Source of energy
the surface of water/soil
(evaporation)  ET daytime > ET nightime
2. Wind velocity
 Combine of E (from water/soil) & T
 Higher velocity – higher ET
(plant) loss is call ET
3. Relative humidity
 It reached maximum if water supply
 Higher RH – lower ET
to both plant & soil surface is
unlimited 4. Air temperature
 Higher Temp. – ET higher why?
5. Type of land cover
6. Soil moisture content
Evapotranspiration (ET)

 The max possible loss is limited by meteorological


condition & water availability & is called potential ET
(PET)
 The real evaporation occurring at specific situation is
called actual ET (AET)
 If water supply unlimited (soil moisture @field capacity)
~AET=PET
 If water supply is limited ~ AET<PET
 At permanent wilting point ~ AET=0
ET measurement

 ET can be measured by 2 methods:


 – Lysimeter
 – Field plot
 Lysimeter
 Water tight tank containing a block of soil & set in a field of growing plant
 ET is estimated in term of the amount of water required to maintained constant
moisture condition within the tank
ET measurement

 Field plot
 All elements of water budget are measured with fixed time interval
 ET = P + Ir – R - change in soil water
 It provide fairly reliable results
ET equation

 To predict PET by using climatological data


 Empirical backed by theoretical concepts:
 Penman’s Equation
 Theoretical reasoning
 Energy balance & mass-transfer approach
 Blaney-Criddle Formula
 Empirical formula
 Related to hours of sunshine & temperature (solar radiation)
 Thornthwaite Formula
 Uses only monthly temperature & day-length
Penman Equation

 Obtained by combine energy-balance and mass-transfer


approach.
Net radiation
Table 3.3
Exercise
Solution:

1. Find Hn
2. Ha=16.2 (Table 3.4)
3. N = 13.9 (Table 3.5)
n = 11.5, n/N = 1.21
4. Ta = (Tmax+Tmin)/2 = 28.5
5. u2 = (3.2+2.1)/2 = 2.65
6. ew=4.584e(17.27t/237.3+t)mm Hg
7. Calculate Ea
8. Calculate PET
Infiltration

 Flow of water into the ground through soil surface


 Water on the ground surface enters into the soil, generally by
downward flow through all/parts of soil
 Water in the soil is replenished by the infiltration process
 Once infiltrate, the water = soil moisture or groundwater
Infiltration

• When rain falls on a soil surface ~ some/all of it passes thro into the underlying
soil.
• At the beginning of a storm ~ rate of infiltration high, but it slowly decreases to
a limiting value.
• The decrease in the rate of infiltration is due to:
• compaction of the soil surface by the impact of the rain drops,
• clogging of the small pore in the soil,
• swelling of clay particles due to the absorption of moisture,
• filling of the pores with capillary moisture thus creating resistance to flow to lower
levels.
Infiltration Process
The main factors influencing rate of
infiltration:
 –vegetation cover
 prevents surface sealing due to impact of raindrops
 –soil structure
 determines the size & pore space in the soil
 –soil moisture
 –rainfall intensity
Factors affecting infiltration rate

 Vegetation/land use
 Condition of soil surface
 Hydraulic conductivity (k) of soil profile
 Texture (%sand/silt/clay)
 Porosity
 Organic matter
 Initial moisture content
 Water viscosity
Infiltration model
Infiltration measurement

 It can be estimated by:


i. Flooding type infiltrometer
ii. Subsidence of free standing water in large pond
iii. Rainfall simulator
iv. Hydrograph analysis
Infiltration rate
 If the water enters the soil at a min. amount of time = high
infiltration rate & otherwise is known as low infiltration rate
 A low infiltration rate is often caused by the compactness of the
soils
 Water will be trapped within the soil & this excess water can
contribute to local & regional flooding or result in accelerated soil
erosion
 High infiltration rate, the water from the ground surface will
transmit freely thro the soil to the ground water
• Infiltration capacity = max. rate
(mm/hr) at a given time. Start at
high rate.
• ultimate infiltration capacity =
steady rate
• Infiltration rate= infiltration
occurs at given time.
Infiltration equation:

 i. Horton’s equation (1933)


 ii. Philip’s equation (1957)
 iii. Kostiakov equation (1932)
 iv. Green-Ampt equation (1911)
i) Horton’s equation
 fp = fc + (fo – fc) e-Kht

 Where:
 fp = infiltration capacity
 fo = max. infiltration rate at the beginning of the storm (t = 0)
 fc = constant infiltration rate, which the infiltration tends
with time

 Kh= Horton decay coefficient


Horton’s Model
Example 1: Infiltration
 Infiltration capacity data collected is given in table below. Plot infiltration capacity,
fp vs time and cumulative infiltration, Fp vs time. Calculate the infiltration capacity,
fp and cumulative infiltration, Fp.
Thank You
NEXT TOPIC…STREAMFLOW MEASUREMENT

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