ENVIRONMENT

TRADITIONAL SYSTEM:
Water is essential for human existence and all activities in the ecosystem. Fresh water is a
finite resource that is rapidly becoming scarce. In India, a warming climate is drying up lakes
and rivers, while rapid urbanisation and water pollution are putting enormous pressure on
the quantity and quality of surface and ground water. Due to rapid urbanization and rapid
industrialization, Environment was being over- used/ exploited without knowing the
concept of “Sustainability”.
All over the world, rural communities have adopted simple and rudimentary treatment
techniques that mainly aim at filtering out the visible impurities from the water collected
from local sources. Though these traditional methods are expedient and can remove certain
types of particles in water, they do not provide water necessarily of what would be
considered, under the present day situation, as drinking quality. However, it can be
considered that these methods provide water of quality that is acceptable to these rural
communities, and in most of the cases, with a further simple step of disinfection, they could
yield water free from pathogens. (http://www.eolss.net/Eolss-sampleAllChapter.aspx) In the
traditional systems, wastewater generated was disposed off to natural water bodies without
treatment, which affected aquatic life. This created imbalance in the ecosystem resulting in
severe water pollution, air/soil/noise pollution, leading to depletion of natural resources.
The imbalance in ecosystem called for Sustainable Development of the society.
 Present/Futuristic Systems:
WATER SUPPLY AND SANITARY ENGINEERING
IMPORTANCE AND NECESSITY FOR PLANNED WATER SUPPLIES
Next to the air, the other important requirement for human life to exists is water. Water is
available in various forms such as rivers, lake, streams etc. The earliest civilizations
organized on the banks of major river systems and required water for drinking, bathing,
cooking etc. But with the advancement of civilization the utility of water enormously
increased and now such a stage has come that without well-organized public water supply
scheme, it is impossible to run the present civic life and the develop the towns. The
importance of water from only a quantity viewpoint was recognized from the earliest days
and the importance of quality come to be recognized gradually in the later days. The earliest
recorded knowledge of water quality and its treatment are found in Sanskrit literature
“Sushuri Sanhita” compiled about 2000 B.C. It deals with storage of drinking water in copper
vessels, exposure to sunlight, filtering through charcoal, sand etc. The correlation between
water quality and incidence of diseases was first established in 1849 by Dr.John snow when
cholera appeared in London during the summer and 14,600 deaths were reported. But
Dr.Snow unable to convince the authorities and public with the evidence of available data.
The water borne diseases like typhoid, dysentery, cholera etc the concept of water borne
diseases was well accepted by 1900. Another striking example was reported from
Uttarpradesh by W.H.O (World Health Organisation) in 1963, there the death rate by
chorera decreased by 74.1%, Thyphoid fever by 63.6% , by dysentery 23.1% and diarria by
63.6%. All these were achieved by drinking water treatment.
NEED FOR PROTECTED WATER SUPPLY
Protected water supply means the supply of water that is treated to remove the impurities
and made safe to public health. Water may be polluted by physical and bacterial agents.
Water is also good carrier of disease causing germs. The causes of outbreak of epidemics are
traced to pollute water and poor sanitation hospital are continued to be flooded with the
sick due to ignorance about health continues to be profound. However during the last few
decades, improvements in the public health protection by supplying safe water and
sanitation to all the people in the developing countries. In 1977, united nations declare to
launch a movement known as “HEALTH FOR ALL BY THE YEAR 2000 A.D.” India is also a
signatory to that conference. The working group appointed by the planning commission
while suggesting strategies for achieving the above goal emphasized that potable water
from protected water supply should be made available to the entire population. Pure and
whole some water is to be supplied to the community alone can bring down the morbidity
rates At present, only 16 percent of towns in our country are equipped with water supply
works serving about five percent of population of the whole of country. India has get to
make serious efforts to make the treated water available to the most of its population so as
to minimise the water borne diseases. Therefore protected water supply is a SIN QUO NON
of public health of a community.
The objectives of the community water supply system are
1. to provide whole some water to the consumers for drinking purpose.
2. to supply adequate quantity to meet at least the minimum needs of the individuals
3. to make adequate provisions for emergencies like fire fighting, festivals, meeting etc.
4. to make provision for future demands due to increase in population, increase in standard
of living, storage and conveyance
5. to prevent pollution of water at source, storage and conveyance
6. to maintain the treatment units and distribution system in good condition with adequate
staff and materials
7. to design and maintain the system that is economical and reliable.
WHOLE SOME WATER
Absolutely pure water is never found in nature and which contains only two parts of
hydrogen and one part of oxygen by volume. But the water found in nature contains
number of impurities in varying amounts. The rainwater which is originally pure, also
absorbs various gases, dust and other impurities while filling. This water when moves on the
ground further carries silt, organic and inorganic impurities. The removal of the turbidity,
odour and smell is considered as good and removal of dissolved substances is considered as
“chemically pure”. But removal of substances like calcium, magnesium Iron, Zinc etc
completely is not good for health. These minerals are required for tissue growth and some
act as propylatic in preventing diseases. Therefore wholesome water is defined as the water
which containing the minerals in small quantities at requisite levels and free from harmful
impurities Chemically pure water is also corrosive but not whole some water.
The water that is fit for drinking safe and agreeable is called potable water. The following
are the requirements of wholesome water. 1. It should be free from bacteria 2. It should be
colourless and sparkling 3. It should be tasty, odour free and cool 4. It should be free from
objectionable matter 5. It should not carrode pipes 6. It should have dissolved oxygen and
free from carbonic acid so that it may remain fresh.
STATUS OF PROTECTED WATER SUPPLY IN INDIA
Lack of safe drinking water in India is still a problem in many areas of the country. As per the
U.N. report (1983), town and cities only 86% of the urban population have some provision
for protected water supplies. Only one village out of ten has safe drinking water. It is
important to note that 80% of India’s population live in villages and only 6 crores have
access for safe water.
SUMMARY:
1. Nearly 80% of the communicable diseases are transmitted through drinking water. Hence
to protect the health of the community, protected water supply should be made available
for all
2. The water contains minerals like calcium, magnesium, Iron, Zinc etc in small quantities at
requisite levels and free from harmful impurities is called whole some water. It promote
better health and is not injurious in anyway.
3. To achieve the goal of “Health for all by 2000 A.D.” several states, National, international
and non-governmental agencies are working to make wholesome water available to all.
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
1. What are the uses of water?
2. Define wholesome water.
3. What is ‘potable’ water?
4. Write any two objectives of community water supply system.
ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Explain the need for protected water supply.
2. What is meant by whole some water? What are the requirements of wholesome water?
SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY GENERAL
INTRODUCTION
Water is the most abundant compound in nature. It covers 75% of the earth surface. About
97.3% of water is contained in the great oceans that are saline and 2.14% is held in icecaps
glaciers in the poles, which are also not useful. Barely the remaining 0.56% found on earth is
in useful form for general livelihood. Total quantity of water available on the planet
“EARTH” in various states and religions are given in the table

Water On the Planet

HYDROLOGICAL CONCEPTS
Hydrology is the science, which deals with the increment of the water on the ground, under
the ground, evaporation from the land and water surface and transportation from the
vegetation and going back into atmosphere where it precipitates.
DEFINITION
The water which goes in atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration again comes back in
the form of precipitation under favourable climatic conditions is known as hydrological cycle
of water.
Figure below illustrates the hydrological cycle of water. Due to sun’s heat water from the
earth’s surfaces, lakes, rivers, seas etc evaporates and rises upwards. At high altitude due to
reduction in the atmosphere pressure these water vapours expand by absorbing energy
from the surrounding air, which cools down. When it falls below the dew point it cannot
retain the excessive moisture, which starts falling in the form of rain, hails, dew, sleet, frost
or precipitation. Various factors such as temperature, atmospheric pressure, velocity of
wind, height of mountains in the region, presence of forests, position of land and water
areas etc and their complex relation are responsible for the precipitation. This precipitation
and evaporation processes continue forever and balance is maintained between the two by
nature.

SURFACE SOURCES
All the sources of water can be broadly divided into 1. Surfaces sources and 2. Sub surface
sources The surface sources further divided into i. Streams ii. Rivers iii. Ponds iv. Lakes v.
Impounding reservoirs etc
NATURAL PONDS AND LAKES
In mountains at some places natural basin’s are formed with impervious bed by springs and
streams are known as “lakes”. The quality of water in the natural ponds and lakes depends
upon the basin’s capacity, catchment area, annual rainfall, porosity of ground etc. But lakes
and ponds situated at higher altitudes contain almost pure water which can be used without
any treatment. But ponds formed due to construction of houses, road, railways conatins
large amount of impurities and therefore cannot be used for water supply purposes.
STREAMS AND RIVERS
Rivers and streams are the main source of surface source of water. In summer the quality of
river water is better than mansoon.because in rainly season the run-off water also carries
with clay, sand, silt etc which make the water turbid. So river and stream water require
special treatments. Some rivers are snowfed and perennial and have water throughout the
year and therefore they donot require any arrangements to hold the water. But some rivers
dry up wholly or partially in summer. So they require special arrangements to meet the
water demand during hot weather. Mostly all the cities are situated near the rivers
discharge their used water of sewege in the rivers, therefore much care should be taken
while drawing water from the river.
IMPOUNDING RESERVOIRS
In some rivers the flow becomes very small and cannot meet the requirements of
hotweather. In such cases, the water can be stored by constructing a bund, a weir or a dam
across the river at such places where minimum area of land is submerged in the water and
max. quantity of water to be stored. In lakes and reservoirs, suspended impurities settle
down in the bottom, but in their beds algae, weeds, vegetable and organic growth takes
place which produce bad smell, taste and colour in water. Therefore this water should be
used after purification. When water is stored for long time in reservoirs it should be aerated
and chlorinated to kill the microscopic organisms which are born in water.
SUBSURFACE SOURCES
These are further divided into (i) Infiltration galleries (ii) Infiltration wells (iii) Springs etc
INFILTRATION GALLERIES
A horizontal nearly horizontal tunnel which is constructed through water bearing strata for
tapping underground water near rivers, lakes or streams are called “Infiltration galleries”.
The yield from the galleries may be as much as 1.5 x 104 lit/day/metre length of infiltration
gallery. For maximum yield the galleries may be placed at full depth of the acquifer.
Infiltration galleries may be constructed with masonary or concrete with weep holes of 5cm
x 10cm.

INFILTRATION WELLS
In order to obtain large quantity of water, the infiltration wells are sunk in series in the
blanks of river. The wells are closed at top and open at bottom. They are constructed by
brick masonary with open joints as shown in fig.
For the purpose of inspection of well, the manholes are provided in the top cover. The
water filtrates through the bottom of such wells and as it has to pass through sand bed, it
gets purified to some extent. The infiltration well inturn are connected by porous pipes to
collecting sump called jackwell and there water is pumped to purification plant for
treatment.
SPRINGS: Sometimes ground water reappears at the ground surface in the form of springs.
Springs generally supply small springs. Springs generally supply small quantity of water and
hence suitable for the hill towns. Some springs discharge hot water due to presence of
sulphur and useful only for the curve of certain skin disease patients.
WELLS: A well is defined as an artificial hole or pit made in the ground for the purpose of
tapping water. In India 75 to 85% of Indian population has to depend on wells for its water
supply. The three factors which form the basis of theory of wells are 1. Geological conditions
of the earth’s surface 2. Porosity of various layers 3. Quantity of water, which is absorbed
and stored in different layers. The following are different types of wells 1. Shallow wells 2.
Deep wells 3. Tube wells 4. Artesian wells
SUMMARY
1. Sources of water supply are classified as a) Surface sources b) Sub surface sources
2. Surface sources include rainfall, lakes, ponds, rivers and reservoirs etc.
3. Subsurface sources are wells, springs, infiltration galleries
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
1. what is hydrological cycle?
2. List the sources of water supply.
3. Mention different types of intakes.
4. What is shallow well?
5. What is infiltration gallery?
6. Define spring.
7. What are the different types of springs?
8. Name the types of wells.
ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Explain the sources of water.
2. Explain the classification of wells.

QUALITY OF WATER
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Absolutely pure water is never found in nature and contains number of impurities in varying
amounts. The rainwater which is originally pure, also absorbs various gases, dust and other
impurities while falling. This water when moves on the ground further carries salt, organic
and inorganic impurities. So this water before supplying to the public should be treated and
purified for the safety of public health, economy and protection of various industrial
process, it is most essential for the water work engineer to thoroughly check analyse and do
the treatment of the raw water obtained the sources, before its distribution. The water
supplied to the public should be strictly according to the standards laid down from time to
time.
CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER
For the purpose of classification, the impurities present in water may be divided into the
following three categories.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
The following are the physical characteristics 1. Turbidity 2. Colour and temperature 3. Taste
and odour
TURBIDITY
Turbidity is caused due to presence of suspended and colloidal matter in the water. The
character and amount of turbidity depends upon the type of soil over which the water has
moved ground waters are less turbed than the surface water. Turbidity is a measure of
resistance of water to the passage of light through it. Turbidity is expressed as NTU
(Nephelometric Turbidity Units) or PPM (parts per million) or Milligrams per litre (mg/l).
Turbidity is measured by 1) Turbidity rod or Tape 2) Jacksons Turbidimeter 3) Bali’s
Turbidimeter The Sample to be tested is poured into a test tube and placed in the meter and
units of turbidity is read directly on the scale by a needle or by digital display. Drinking water
should not have turbidity more than 10 N.T.U. This test is useful in determining the
detension time in settling for raw water and to dosage of coagulants required to remove
turbidity.
COLOUR AND TEMPERATURE
Colour in water is usually due to organic matter in colloidal condition but some times it is
also due to mineral and dissolved organic impurities. The colour produced by one milligram
of platinum in a litre of water has been fixed as the unit of colour. The permissible colour for
domestic water is 20ppm on platinum cobalt scale. The colour in water is not harmful but
objectionable. Temperature of water is measured by means of ordinary thermometers. The
temperature of surface water is generally at atmospheric temperature, while that of ground
water may be more or less than atmospheric temperature. The most desirable temperature
for public supply between 4.4°C to 10°C. The temperature above 35°C are unfit for public
supply, because it is not palatable.

TASTE AND ODOUR

Taste and odour in water may be due to presence of dead or live micro-organisms, dissolved
gases such as hydrogen sulphide, methane, carbon dioxide or oxygen combined with organic
matter, mineral substances such as sodium chloride, iron compounds and carbonates and
sulphates of other substances. The tests of these are done by sense of smell and taste
because these are present in such small proportions that it is difficult to detect them by
chemical analysis. The water having bad smell and odour is objectionable and should not be
supplied to the public. The intensities of the odours are measured in terms of threshold
number. This number is numerically equal to the amount of sample of water in C.C’s
required to be added to one litre of fresh odourless water.
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
In the chemical analysis of water, these tests are done that will reveal the sanitary quality of
the water. Chemical tests involve the determination of total solids, PH value, Hardness of
water, Chloride content etc.
TOTAL SOLIDS AND SUSPENDED SOLIDS
Total solids include the solids in suspension colloidal and in dissolved form. The quantity of
suspended solids is determined by filtering the sample of water through fine filter, drying
and weighing. The quantity of dissolved and colloidal solids is determined by evaporating
the filtered water obtained from the suspended solid test and weighing the residue. The
total solids in a water sample can be directly determined by evaporating the filtered water
obtained from the suspended solid test and weighing the residue. The total solids in a water
sample can be directly determined by evaporating the water and weighing the residue of
the residue of total solids is fused in a muffle furnace the organic solids will decompose
whereas only inorganic solids will remain. By weighing we can determine the inorganic
solids and deducting it from the total solids, we can calculate organic solids.
PH VALUE OF WATER
PH value denotes the concentration of hydrogen ions in the water and it is a measure of
acidity or alkanity of a substance. Depending upon the nature of dissolved salts and
minerals, the PH value ranges from 0 to 14. For pure water, PH value is 7 and 0 to 7 acidic
and 7 to 14 alkaline range. For public water supply PH value may be 6.5 to 8.5. The lower
value may cause tubercolation and corrosion, where as high value may produce
incrustation, sediment deposits and other bad effects. PH value of water is generally
determined by PH papers or by using PH meter. PH can read directly on scale or by digital
display using PH meter.

HARDNESS OF WATER
It is a property of water, which prevents the lathering of the soap. Hardness is of two types.
1. Temporary hardness: It is caused due to the presence of carbonates and sulphates of
calcium and magnesium. It is removed by boiling. 2. Permanent hardness: It is caused due to
the presence of chlorides and nitrates of calcium and magnesium. It is removed by zeolite
method. Hardness is usually expressed in gm/litre or p.p.m. of calcium carbonate in water.
Hardness of water is determined by EDTA method. For potable water hardness ranges from
5 to 8 degrees.
HARDNESS REMOVABLE
Generally a hardness of 100 to 150 mg/litre is desirable. Excess of hardness leads to the
following effects. 1. Large soap consumption in washing and bathing 2. Fabrics when
washed become rough and strained with precipitates. 3. Hard water is not fit for industrial
use like textiles, paper making, dye and ice cream manufactures. 4. The precipitates clog the
pores on the skin and makes the skin rough 5. Precipitates can choke pipe lines and values 6.
It forms scales in the boilers tubes and reduces their efficiency and cause in erustations 7.
Very hard water is not palatable When softening is practices when hardness exceed
300mg/lit. Water hardness more than 600 mg/lit have to rejected for drinking purpose.
CHLORIDE CONTENT
The natural waters near the mines and sea dissolve sodium chloride and also presence of
chlorides may be due to mixing of saline water and sewage in the water. Excess of chlorides
is dangerous and unfit for use. The chlorides can be reduced by diluting the water. Chlorides
above 250p.p.m. are not permissible in water.
NITROGEN CONTENT
The presence of nitrogen in the water indicates the presence of organic matters in the
water. The nitrogen may be present in the water may be in one or more of the following
forms. 1. Nitrates 2. Nitrates 3. Free ammonia 4. Albuminoid nitrogen. Excess presence of
nitrogen will cause “MATHEMOGLOBINEMIA” disease to the children.
DISSOLVED GASES
oxygen and carbondi-oxide are the gases mostly found in the natural water. The surface
water contain large amount of dissolved oxygen because they absorb it from the
atmosphere. Algae and other tiny plant life of water also give oxygen to the water. The
presence of oxygen in the water in dissolved form keep it fresh and sparkling. But more
quantity of oxygen causes corrosion to the pipes material. Water absorbs carbon-dioxide
from the atmosphere. If water comes across calcium and magnesium salts, carbon-dioxide
reacts with the salts and converts them into bicarbonates, causes hardness in the water. The
presence of carbon-dioxide is easily determined by adding lime solution to water gives milky
white colour.
BIO-CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND
If the water is contaminated with sewage, the demand of oxygen by organic matter in
sewage is known as biochemical oxygen demand. The aerobic action continues till the
oxygen is present in sewege. As the oxygen exhausts the anerobic action begins due to
which foul smell starts coming. Therefore indirectly the decomposable matters require
oxygen, which is used by the organisms. The aerobic decomposition of organic matters is
done in two stages. The carbonaceous matters are first oxidized and the oxidation of
nitrogeneous matters takes place in the latter stage.
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
1. Name the different characteristics of water.
2. What are the physical characteristics of water?
3. What is the unit for the measurement of turbidity?
4. Define hardness of water.
5. What is temperory hardness of water?
6. What is permanent hardness of water?
7. Name any four chemical characteristics of water.
8. Define PH.
9. What are effects of excess nitrogen content?
10. Name the dissolved gases in the water.
11. Define B.O.D.
ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Explain different characteristics of water.
2. What is the turbidity? How it is measured?
3. Define PH of water. Explain the significance of PH.
4. List out the drinking water standards.
TREATMENT OF WATER

GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Water available in various sources contains various types of impurities and cannot be
directly used by the public for various purposes, before removing the impurities. For
potability water should be free from unpleasant tastes, odours and must have sparkling
appearance. The water must be free from disease-spreading germs. The amount and type of
treatment process will depend on the quality of raw water and the standards of quality of
raw water and the standards of quality to be required after treatment as per the table No.
The surface sources generally contains large amount of impurities therefore they requires
sedimentation, filtration and chlorination as treatment. If the water contains algae or other
micro organisms, pre chlorination has to be done tastes and odours , dissolved gases like
CO2, H2S are removed by aeration. During the flood season , the turbidity of the surface
water may be high and flocculation may become necessary to remove turbidity. Ground
water which are usually clear may require only disinfection and chemical treatment for the
removal of pathogens, Iron removal, Softening etc. Sometimes ground water contains
dissolved gases like hydrogen sulphide (H2S) carbon dioxide (CO2), which gives very bad
odour and requires its removal by aeration.
TREATMENT UNIT FLOW DIAGRAM
Water treatment includes many operations like Aeration, Flocculation, Sedimentation,
Filtration, Softening, Chlorination and demineralization. Depending upon the quality of raw
water and the quality of water desired. Several combinations of the above processes may be
adopted as shown in the flow diagram. When turbidity of water is less than 10 N.T.U
THE LOCATION OF TRETMENT PLANT
One complete water treatment plant requires the following process starting from the source
of water upto the distribution zone in order of sequence.

Waste water treatment

Wastewater can be defined as the flow of used water discharged from homes, businesses,
industries, commercial activities and institutions which is directed to treatment plants by a
carefully designed and engineered network of pipes. This wastewater is further categorized
and defined according to its sources of origin. The term “domestic wastewater” refers to
flows discharged principally from residential sources generated by such activities as food
preparation, laundry, cleaning and personal hygiene. Industrial/commercial wastewater is
flow generated and discharged from manufacturing and commercial activities such as
printing, food and beverage processing and production to name a few. Institutional
wastewater characterizes wastewater generated by large institutions such as hospitals and
educational facilities. Typically 200 to 500 litres of wastewater are generated for every
person connected to the system each day. The amount of flow handled by a treatment plant
varies with the time of day and with the season of the year.
TREATMENT OBJECTIVES
The overall water management objectives of wastewater treatment are associated with the
removal of pollutants and the protection and preservation of our natural water resources.
Of specific concern is protection of human health by the destruction of pathogenic
organisms present in wastewater prior to treated effluent being discharged to receiving
waters.
WASTEWATER TREATMENT PROCESS
By definition, process means a series of actions or changes. Treatment facilities incorporate
numerous processes which in combination achieve the desired water quality objectives.
These processes involve the separation, removal and disposal of pollutants present in the
wastewater. The treatment of wastewater is accomplished by four basic methods or
techniques; physical, mechanical, biological and chemical. Physical methods of treatment
include the use of tanks and other structures designed to contain and control the flow of
wastewater to promote the removal of contaminants. Mechanical treatment techniques
involve the use of machines, both simple and complex in design and operation. The action of
bacteria and other micro-organisms are biological methods of treatment, which play a vital
role in the removal of pollutants which cannot be effectively achieved by other means.
Chemical treatment methods enhance the efficiency of other process operations and
provide specialized treatment as a result of their addition at various treatment stages.

The following table shows the application of physical unit

  Operation Application
Sl.
No

1 Screening Removal of floating matter

2 Comminution Grinding and shredding of big objects

 3 Equalization Equalization of flow and BOD loading

4 Mixing Mixing of chemical and gases in wastewater and keeping

solids in
suspension
5 Flocculation Enlarging small particles

6 Sedimentation Removal of settleable solids

7 Floatation Thickening of biological sludge

8  Filtration Removal of fine material after biological or chemical

treatment

9 Micro Removal of algae from stabilization ponds, oxidation ponds

screening  effluent

The following table shows the application of chemical unit processes in wastewater
treatment.

  Process Application
Sl.
No

1 Chemical Removal of phosphorus and enhancement of

precipitation  suspended
solids removal in sedimentation
2 Gas transfer  Addition and removal of gases

3 Adsorption Removal of organics

4 Disinfection Killing of disease causing organisms

5 Dechlorination  Removal of chlorine residuals

6  Miscellaneous  Specific wastewater treatments

Hazardous Waste Treatment

Several options are available for hazardous-waste management. The most desirable is to
reduce the quantity of waste at its source or to recycle the materials for some other
productive use. Nevertheless, while reduction and recycling are desirable options, they are
not regarded as the final remedy to the problem of hazardous-waste disposal. There will
always be a need for treatment and for storage or disposal of some amount of hazardous
waste.
Treatment
Hazardous waste can be treated by chemical, thermal, biological, and physical methods.
Chemical methods include ion exchange, precipitation, oxidation and reduction, and
neutralization. Among thermal methods is high-temperature incineration, which not only
can detoxify certain organic wastes but also can destroy them. Special types of thermal
equipment are used for burning waste in either solid, liquid, or sludge form. These include
the fluidized-bed incinerator, multiple-hearth furnace, rotary kiln, and liquid-injection
incinerator. One problem posed by hazardous-waste incineration is the potential for air
pollution.

Incineration plant
Incineration plant in Brescia, Italy.

Biological treatment of certain organic wastes, such as those from the petroleum industry, is

also an option. One method used to treat hazardous waste biologically is called landfarming.
In this technique the waste is carefully mixed with surface soil on a suitable tract of land.
Microbes that can metabolize the waste may be added, along with nutrients. In some cases
a genetically engineered species of bacteria is used. Food or forage crops are not grown on
the same site. Microbes can also be used for stabilizing hazardous wastes on previously
contaminated sites; in that case the process is called bioremediation.
The chemical, thermal, and biological treatment methods outlined above change the
molecular form of the waste material. Physical treatment, on the other hand, concentrates,
solidifies, or reduces the volume of the waste. Physical processes include evaporation,
sedimentation, flotation, and filtration. Yet another process is solidification, which is
achieved by encapsulating the waste in concrete, asphalt, or plastic. Encapsulation produces
a solid mass of material that is resistant to leaching. Waste can also be mixed with lime, fly
ash, and water to form a solid, cement like product.

Surface storage and land disposal

Hazardous wastes that are not destroyed by incineration or other chemical processes need
to be disposed of properly. For most such wastes, land disposal is the ultimate destination,
although it is not an attractive practice, because of the inherent environmental risks
involved. Two basic methods of land disposal include landfilling and underground injection.
Prior to land disposal, surface storage or containment systems are often employed as a
temporary method.
Temporary on-site waste storage facilities include open waste piles and ponds or lagoons.
New waste piles must be carefully constructed over an impervious base and must comply
with regulatory requirements similar to those for landfills. The piles must be protected from
wind dispersion or erosion. If leachate is generated, monitoring and control systems must
be provided. Only noncontainerized solid, nonflowing waste material can be stored in a new
waste pile, and the material must be landfilled when the size of the pile becomes
unmanageable.
A common type of temporary storage impoundment for hazardous liquid waste is an open
pit or holding pond, called a lagoon. New lagoons must be lined with impervious clay soils
and flexible membrane liners in order to protect groundwater. Leachate collection systems
must be installed between the liners, and groundwater monitoring wells are required.
Except for some sedimentation, evaporation of volatile organics, and possibly some surface
aeration, open lagoons provide no treatment of the waste. Accumulated sludge must be
removed periodically and subjected to further handling as a hazardous waste.
Many older, unlined waste piles and lagoons are located above aquifers used for
public water supply, thus posing significant risks to public health and environmental quality.
A large number of these old sites have been identified and scheduled for cleanup, or
remediation, around the world.

Secure landfills
Landfilling of hazardous solid or containerized waste is regulated more stringently than
landfilling of municipal solid waste. Hazardous wastes must be deposited in so-called secure
landfills, which provide at least 3 metres (10 feet) of separation between the bottom of the
landfill and the underlying bedrock or groundwater table. A secure hazardous-waste landfill
must have two impermeable liners and leachate collection systems. The double leachate
collection system consists of a network of perforated pipes placed above each liner. The
upper system prevents the accumulation of leachate trapped in the fill, and the lower serves
as a backup. Collected leachate is pumped to a treatment plant. In order to reduce the
amount of leachate in the fill and minimize the potential for environmental damage, an
impermeable cap or cover is placed over a finished landfill.

Hazardous-waste landfill
Schematic diagram of a secure hazardous-waste landfill with a double leachate collection
system.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

A groundwater monitoring system that includes a series of deep wells drilled in and around
the site is also required. The wells allow a routine program of sampling and testing to detect
any leaks or groundwater contamination. If a leak does occur, the wells can be pumped to
intercept the polluted water and bring it to the surface for treatment.
One option for the disposal of liquid hazardous waste is deep-well injection, a procedure
that involves pumping liquid waste through a steel casing into a porous layer of limestone or
sandstone. High pressures are applied to force the liquid into the pores and fissures of the
rock, where it is to be permanently stored. The injection zone must lie below a layer of
impervious rock or clay, and it may extend more than 0.8 km (0.5 mile) below the surface.
Deep-well injection is relatively inexpensive and requires little or no pretreatment of the
waste, but it poses a danger of leaking hazardous waste and eventually polluting subsurface
water supplies.

Remedial action
Disposal of hazardous waste in unlined pits, ponds, or lagoons poses a threat to human
health and environmental quality. Many such uncontrolled disposal sites were used in the
past and have been abandoned. Depending on a determination of the level of risk, it may be
necessary to remediate those sites. In some cases, the risk may require emergency action. In
other instances, engineering studies may be required to assess the situation thoroughly
before remedial action is undertaken.
One option for remediation is to completely remove all the waste material from the site and
transport it to another location for treatment and proper disposal. This so-called off-site
solution is usually the most expensive option. An alternative is on-site remediation, which
reduces the production of leachate and lessens the chance of groundwater contamination.
On-site remediation may include temporary removal of the hazardous waste, construction
of a secure landfill on the same site, and proper replacement of the waste. It may also
include treatment of any contaminated soil or groundwater. Treated soil may be replaced
on-site and treated groundwater returned to the aquifer by deep-well injection.
A less costly alternative is full containment of the waste. This is done by placing an
impermeable cover over the hazardous-waste site and by blocking the lateral flow of
groundwater with subsurface cutoff walls. It is possible to use cutoff walls for this purpose
when there is a natural layer of impervious soil or rock below the site. The walls are
constructed around the perimeter of the site, deep enough to penetrate to the impervious
layer. They can be excavated as trenches around the site without moving or disturbing the
waste material. The trenches are filled with a bentonite clay slurry to prevent their collapse
during construction, and they are backfilled with a mixture of soil and cement that solidifies
to form an impermeable barrier. Cutoff walls thus serve as vertical barriers to the flow of
water, and the impervious layer serves as a barrier at the bottom.