ASHRAE Hong Kong Chapter: Technical Workshop

27 Jun 2019 (Thu)

Fundamentals of Refrigeration
Ir Dr. Sam C. M. Hui
Faculty of Science and Technology
Technological and Higher Education Institute of Hong Kong
E-mail: sam.cmhui@gmail.com

Download presentation file:

http://ibse.hk/190627_ASHRAE-HKC_Refrigeration_Workshop.pdf
Jun 2019
 World Refrigeration Day (WRD) 2019, Wednesday, 26 June 2019
https://worldrefrigerationday.org/

An international awareness
campaign to raise the profile
of the refrigeration, air-
conditioning and heat-pump
sector and focuses attention on
the significant role that the
industry and its technology
play in modern life and society

26 June every year

(in commemoration of the
birth date of Lord Kelvin)

(Video: World refrigeration day CLIMALIFE 2019 (2:12) https://youtu.be/XIz3dvkQDfM)

 Number of refrigeration systems in operation worldwide per application

(Adapted from: http://www.iifiir.org/userfiles/file/publications/notes/NoteTech_29_EN.pdf)

 ASHRAE Journal: Special Collection for World Refrigeration Day,
June 26, 2019
https://images.magnetmail.net/images/clients/ASHRAE/attach/Refrigerat
ion-Applications_The_George_Briley_Collection.pdf

ASHRAE Refrigeration Page https://www.ashrae.org/technical-resources/refrigeration

- Refrigeration Resources:
- ASHRAE Handbook – Refrigeration 2018
- ASHRAE Handbook – Fundamentals 2017
- Chapter 2. Thermodynamics and Refrigeration Cycles
- Chapter 29. Refrigerants
- Chapter 30. Thermophysical Properties of Refrigerants
- Chapter 31. Physical Properties of Secondary Refrigerants
 New definitions of five refrigeration keywords
[developed by ASHRAE and International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR)]

Cooling
1. Removal of heat, usually resulting in a lower temperature and/or phase change
2. Lowering temperature
Refrigeration
1. Cooling of a space, substance or system to lower and/or maintain its temperature
below the ambient one (removed heat is rejected at a higher temperature)
2. Artificial cooling
Chilling
• Cooling of a substance without freezing it
Freezing
• Solidification phase change of a liquid or the liquid content of a substance, usually
due to cooling
Cold Chain
• Series of actions and equipment applied to maintain a product within a specified
low-temperature range from harvest/production to consumption

(Source: https://eurovent.eu/sites/default/files/field/file/GEN%20-%201015.00%20-%20New%20definitions.pdf)
Contents

• 1. Introduction

• 2. Basic principles High Temperature Reservoir

Heat Rejected
• 3. Key components Work Input
R

• 4. Refrigeration systems Heat Absorbed

Low Temperature Reservoir

1. Introduction

• Refrigeration
製冷

• The cooling effect of the process of extracting heat

from a lower temperature heat source, a substance
or cooling medium, and transferring to a higher
temperature heat sink, to maintain the temperature
of the heat source below that of surroundings
• Refrigeration systems
• Combination of components, equipment & piping
connected to produce the refrigeration effect
1. Introduction

• Refrigeration can offer cooling, dehumidifying,

and also heating (by heat pump) for air
conditioning
• Common space & product temperatures
• Air Conditioning = 24 °C
• High temperature refrigeration = 12 °C
• Medium temperature refrigeration = 2 °C Industrial,
food, cold
• Low temperature refrigeration = -23 °C chain,
• Extra low temperature refrigeration = -32 °C medicine,
cryogenics
 Thermal energy moves from left to right through five loops of heat
transfer (i.e. heat pump)
1) 2) 3) 4) 5)
Indoor air Chilled Refrigerant Condenser Cooling
loop water loop loop water loop water loop

* The knowledge of refrigeration systems would help HVAC engineers in selection

of the equipment and fitting it properly into overall system, defining practices
consistent with safety and safety standards of the industry, and restrictive regulations
on refrigerant production, recovery, and release for environmental concerns.
(Source: www.energyefficiencyasia.org)
 Basic principles of refrigerator and heat pump

Refrigerators and
heat pumps are
essentially the same
devices; they differ in
their objectives only.

(Source: Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 8th edition, by Yunus A. Çengel and Michael A. Boles)
 An ordinary household refrigerator

(Source: Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 8th edition, by Yunus A. Çengel and Michael A. Boles)
1. Introduction

• Terminology
• Refrigerant:
• A primary working fluid to produce refrigeration in a
refrigeration system
• Cooling medium:
• Working fluid cooled by refrigerant during evaporation
to transport refrigeration from a central plant to remote
equipment
• Liquid absorbent:
• Working fluid to absorb vaporised refrigerant (water)
after evaporation in an absorption refrigeration system
 1. Introduction

• Numbering system for refrigerants

• For hydrocarbons & halocarbons (halogenated)
• ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 34
• 1st digit: number of unsaturated carbon-carbon bonds
• 2nd digit: number of carbon atoms minus one
• 3rd digit: number of hydrogen atoms plus one
• Last digit: number of fluorine atoms
• For example, R-11 = CFCl3 ; R-12 = CF2Cl2 ; R-22 =
CHF2Cl; R-123 = CHCl2CF3
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
• Contains only chlorine, fluorine & carbon atoms
• Cause ozone depletion & global warming
(* See also: https://www.ashrae.org/technical-resources/standards-and-guidelines/ashrae-refrigerant-designations)
1. Introduction

• Impacts of refrigerants
• Ozone depletion potential (ODP)
• Ratio of ozone depletion rate compared with R-11
• Global warming potential (GWP)
• Global warming effect compared with R-11
• Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
• Contains only hydrogen, fluorine, and carbon
atoms and cause no ozone depletion
• R-134a, R-32, R-125 and R-245ca
Ozone depletion in the atmosphere
 Time line for refrigerants

(Source: Hundy, G. F., Trott, A. R. and Welch, T. C., 2008. Refrigeration and Air-conditioning, 4th ed.)
1. Introduction

• Three types of refrigeration systems:

• Vapour compression 蒸氣壓縮
• Mechanical refrigeration using compressors, condensers and
evaporators
• Vapour absorption 蒸氣吸收
• Produce refrigeration effect by thermal energy input
• Liquid refrigerant produce refrigeration during evaporation; the
vapour is absorbed by an aqueous absorbent
• Air or gas expansion (air or gas cycle) 空氣膨脹
• Air or gas is compressed to a high pressure; it is then cooled by
surface water or air and expanded to low pressure to produce
refrigeration effect
• For air conditioning and pressurization of aircrafts
Vapour compression system

Vapour absorption system

Videos:
VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM ! LEARN AND GROW (3:34)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cobFAMZDS0o
VAPOUR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM ! LEARN AND GROW (3:38)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ll8Ku-mFQxE
 The air cycle – the work from the expander provides a portion of the
work input to the compressor

Air cycle refrigeration works on the reverse

Brayton or Joule cycle.
qL qL
COPR  
wnet , in wcomp , in  wturb , out
(* See also: Air cycle machine - Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_cycle_machine)

(Source: Hundy, G. F., Trott, A. R. and Welch, T. C., 2008. Refrigeration and Air-conditioning, 4th ed.)
 1. Introduction

• Modern refrigeration and air-conditioning

equipment is dominated by vapour
compression refrigeration technology built
upon the thermodynamic principles of the
reverse Carnot cycle*
• Refrigerant changes phases during cooling and
used again and again

(* See also: The Reversed Carnot Cycle http://thermodynamics-engineer.com/429-2/)

2. Basic principles

• Refrigeration process
• Change of thermodynamic properties and the
energy & work transfer
• 1 ton of refrign. (TR) = 12,000 Btu/h (3.516 kW)
• Refrigeraton cycles
• Closed cycle and open cycle
• Vapour compression cycles:
• Single-stage, multi-stage, compound, cascade
• Pressure-enthalpy (p-h) or Mollier diagram
• Temperature–entropy (T-s) diagram
 Refrigeration cycle -- vapour compression cycle

3
Condenser
High
4 Pressure
Side

Expansion
Device Compressor

2 Low
1
Pressure
Side
Evaporator

(Video: Refrigeration Cycle Video Animation (1:30) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MqnyaUNxs9A)

 The refrigeration cycle

(Source: Delmar, Cengage Learning)

 The ideal reversed Carnot cycle:
(a) circuit and (b) temperature–entropy (T-s) diagram

(Source: Hundy, G. F., Trott, A. R. and Welch, T. C., 2008. Refrigeration and Air-conditioning, 4th ed.)
2. Basic principles

• Ideal single-stage cycle

• Isentropic compression, pressure losses neglected
• qrf = refrigeration capacity
• Win = work input to compressor
• Coefficient of performance (COP)
• COP = qrf / Win
• Refrigerator: produce refrigeration effect
• Heat pump: produce heating effect
• Subcooling and superheating
 Refrigeration cycle -- vapour compression cycle

3 2

4 1

Enthalpy kJ/kg

System COP normally includes all the power

inputs associated with the system, i.e. fans and
pumps in addition to compressor power.
A ratio of System COP to Carnot COP (for the
process) is termed system efficiency index,
SEI.
 Simple vapour compression cycle
with pressure and enthalpy values for R134a

(Source: Hundy, G. F., Trott, A. R. and Welch, T. C., 2008. Refrigeration and Air-conditioning, 4th ed.)
 The temperature rise or ‘ lift ’ of the refrigeration cycle is increased by
temperature differences in the evaporator and condenser

Refrigerant
condensing
temperature

(Hot reservoir)

(Cold reservoir)

Refrigerant
evaporating
temperature
(Source: Hundy, G. F., Trott, A. R. and Welch, T. C., 2008. Refrigeration and Air-conditioning, 4th ed.)
2. Basic principles

• Energy efficiency of a refrigeration system

• Minimize the required heat extraction
• Insulate the refrigerated room and low-temperature parts
of the refrigeration system, minimize ambient air
infiltration (e.g. door openings and leakage) and
reducing energy use in refrigerated applications (e.g.
fans and forklifts)
• Reduce the difference between TC (condensing
temperature) and T0 (evaporating temperature)
• Maximize condenser and evaporator heat transfer
performance and minimize refrigerant pressure drops in
suction and discharge pipelines
2. Basic principles

• Two-stage compound systems w/ flash cooler

• Multi-stage compression connected in series
• Higher compression efficiency, greater refrig. effect
• Compressor ratio
• Flash cooler: an economizer to subcool liquid
refrigerant to saturated temperature
qref (1  x)(h1  h9 )
COPref  
Win (1  x)(h2  h1 )  (h4  h3 )
 Two-stage compound systems w/ flash cooler

* Where the ratio of suction to discharge pressure is high enough to

cause a serious drop in volumetric efficiency or an unacceptably high
discharge temperature, vapour compression must be carried out in
two or more stages.
 Two-stage compound systems and T-s diagram

(Source: Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 8th edition, by Yunus A. Çengel and Michael A. Boles)
2. Basic principles

• Casade system characteristics

• Two independently operated single-stage systems
• Connected by a cascade condenser
• Main advantages
• Different refrigerants, oils and equipment can be used
• Disadvantages: more complicated

qref m l (h1  h4 )
COPref  
Win m l (h2  h1' )  m h (h6  h5 )
Cascade system
 Cascade system and T-s diagram

(Source: Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 8th edition, by Yunus A. Çengel and Michael A. Boles)
2. Basic principles

• Absorption cycle
• Such as ammonia and lithium bromide systems
• Absorption of ammonia gas into water, and of water
vapour into lithium bromide
• Refrigerant vapour from the evaporator is drawn into
the absorber by the liquid absorbant. The liquor is then
pumped up to condenser pressure and the vapour is
driven off in the generator by direct heating
• The heat energy to the generator may be any form of
low-grade energy such as oil, gas, hot water or steam, or
from solar radiation
 Basic absorption cycle

(Source: https://www.cibsejournal.com/cpd/modules/2009-11/)
 Absorption cycle: basic circuit

(Source: Hundy, G. F., Trott, A. R. and Welch, T. C., 2008. Refrigeration and Air-conditioning, 4th ed.)
 Vapour absorption refrigeration

Condenser Generator

Hot
Side

Evaporator

Cold Absorber
Side
 Absorption refrigeration system with solar energy at generator

(Source: Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 8th edition, by Yunus A. Çengel and Michael A. Boles)
3. Key components

• Four basic components of vapour compression

refrigeration systems
• Compressor – raises the temperature and pressure
of the refrigerant
• Condenser – removes heat that was added to the
system by the evaporator and compressor
• Metering device – controls refrigerant flow to the
evaporator
• Evaporator – heat is absorbed from the space
 Basic components and piping of a refrigeration system

Discharge
Line

Compressor Condenser
Suction Metering
Line Device Liquid
Line

Evaporator

(Source: Thomson Delmar Learning)

 Basic components illustrated in the shape of a “baseball diamond”
Metering
Device

Evaporator Condenser

Compressor
(Source: Thomson Delmar Learning)
Simple refrigeration system (e.g. in a window-type air conditioner)
Heat Out

High Pressure Condenser High Pressure

Liquid Vapour

Expansion Work In Compressor

Device

Low Pressure Evaporator Low Pressure

Liquid & Vapour Vapour

Heat In
 Refrigeration system for a walk-in cooler

(Source: http://www.refrigerationbasics.com/RB2/rb3.htm)
3. Key components

• Evaporator
• It is where the heat is removed
• It blows cold air
• It removes heat
• It can collect frost
• The refrigerant goes in as a liquid and comes off as
a gas
• Usually, a fan will move warm air from the space
across the evaporator finned coils
3. Key components

• Expansion device
• Such as thermostatic expansion valve (TXV)
• Changes the refrigerant from high temperature high
pressure to low pressure low temperature
• Controlling the refrigerant flow
3. Key components

• Condenser
• Heat is rejected
• The heat can be reclaimed
• Various types:
• Air-cooled
• Water-cooled
• Evaporative
3. Key components

• Compressor
• The engine
• The pump
• Sucks and blows
• Driven by a motor
• Various types & sizes
• It generates heat
• It compresses the gas
3. Key components

• Electric drive motor

• Used to drive the compressor
• Generates heat
• Various types
• Different speeds
• Various sizes
3. Key components

• Interconnecting piping
• Efficiency can be reduced if interconnecting piping
is of the wrong size or is arranged in ways that
cause unnecessary pressure drop or inhibit oil
return (e.g. excessive bends and fitting)
• Importance of controls
• The components are correctly matched and
controlled to maximize energy efficiency
4. Refrigeration systems

• Common types of compressors used in chillers

(HVAC refrigeration plant):
• Reciprocating -- piston-style, positive displacement
• Rotary screw -- positive displacement; 2 meshing
screw-rotors rotate in opposite directions
• Scroll -- positive displacement; one spiral orbits
around a second stationary spiral
• Centrifugal -- raise the pressure by imparting
velocity or dynamic energy, using a rotating
impeller, and converting it to pressure energy
 Common types of compressors used in chillers

Reciprocating Rotary screw

Scroll Centrifugal
4. Refrigeration systems

• Arrangement of compressor motor or external

drive:
• Open type
• Hermetic (or sealed) type
• Semi-hermetic (or semi-sealed) type
4. Refrigeration systems

• Common refrigeration systems in HVAC

• Direct expansion (DX) systems & heat pumps
• Centrifugal chillers
• Screw chillers
• Absorption systems
• Either single-stage or multistage
• Compressor lubrication
• Use mineral or synthetic oil
• Use magnetic bearings (oil-free chiller/compressor)
4. Refrigeration systems

• Direct expansion (DX) systems

• Part of the packaged air-conditioning system
• R-22 and R-134a widely used
• Range 3-100 TR
• Components & accessories
• Compressor(s): reciprocating and scroll
• Condensers
• Refrigeration feed
• Oil lubrication
• Refrigerant piping
 Direct expansion (DX) system (air-cooled condenser)

Cooling mode Heating mode

4. Refrigeration systems

• Direct expansion (DX) systems (cont’d)

• Capacity control
• On-off control
• Cylinder unloader
• Speed modulation
• Safety control
• Low- & high-pressure control
• Low-temperature control
• Motor overload control
• Pump-down control
• Full- and part-load operation
Capacity control of a DX system
4. Refrigeration systems

• Heat pumps
• Three types:
• Air-source (air-to-air)
• R-22 often used, range 1.5 to 40 TR
• Water-source
• Ground-coupled
• Extract energy from ground, water, or ambient air
• Cooling and heating mode operartion
• Winter may require defrosting
• High COP & EER (energy efficiency ratio)
4. Refrigeration systems

• Centrifugal chillers
• Chiller = a refrigeration machine using a liquid
cooler as an evaporator to produce chilled water
• R-11, R-12, R-22 were used
• R-11 replaced by R-123
• R-12 replaced by R-134a
• System components
• Centrifugal compressor, evaporator, condenser, flash
cooler, orifice plates & float valves, purge unit (optional)
Two-stage water-cooled centrifugal chiller
4. Refrigeration systems

• Centrifugal chillers (cont’d)

• Performance rating: ARI Standard 550
• COP and Integrated part-load value (IPLV)
• Water-cooled chillers: COP = 5 (= 0.7 kW/TR)
• Air-cooled chillers: COP = 2.5 to 2.8 (1.26-1.4 kW/TR)
• Capacity control:
• Inlet vanes and variable compressor speed
• Centrifugal compressor performance map
• Partload operation
4. Refrigeration systems

• Centrifugal chillers (cont’d)

• Specific controls
• Chilled water leaving temperature and reset
• Condenser water temperature control
• On/off of multiple chillers based on measured coil load
• Air purge control
• Safety controls e.g. oil pressure, freezing protection, etc.
• Incorporating heat recovery
• Double-bundle condenser
4. Refrigeration systems

• Screw chillers
• Helical rotary chiller: use screw compressor
• Twin-screw compressors are widely used
• Capacity 100 to 1000 TR
• Variable volume ratio
• Economizer
• Similar to a two-stage compound system w/ flash cooler
• Oil separation, oil cooling and oil injection
• Oil slugging is not a problem
Twin-screw compressor
Useful E-learning

• NPTEL E-learning course -- Refrigeration and Air

Conditioning http://nptel.ac.in/courses/112105129/
• Lesson 10 Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems
• Lesson 11 Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems:
Performance Aspects And Cycle Modifications
• Lesson 12 Multi-Stage Vapour Compression Refrigeration
• Lesson 13 Multi-Evaporator And Cascade Systems
• Lesson 14 Vapour Absorption Refrigeration Systems
• Lesson 25 Analysis Of Complete Vapour Compression
Refrigeration Systems
• Lesson 26 Refrigerants
Useful References

• ASHRAE Guide for Sustainable Refrigerated

Facilities and Refrigeration Systems (2018)
• Refrigeration Commissioning Guide for
Commercial and Industrial Systems (2013)
Relevant Standards

• ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 15-2016, Safety

Standard for Refrigeration Systems
• ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 34-3016,
Designation and Safety Classification of
Refrigerants
• ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 147-2013,
Reducing Release of Halogenated Refrigerants
from Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Equipment and Systems.