5.ISCA RJEngS 2023 011
5.ISCA RJEngS 2023 011
5.ISCA RJEngS 2023 011
Review Paper
Transcritical carbon dioxide refrigeration and air conditioning cycles and
applications: State of the art
Louis O. Aredokou1,2*, Victorin K. Chegnimonhan1,3, Clotilde T. Guidi3, Pascalin Tiam Kapen4 and Basile Kounouhewa1
1
Beninese Center for Scientific Research and Innovation, Cotonou, Benin
2
Laboratory of Processes and Technological Innovations of Lokossa, UNSTIM, Benin
3
Thermal and Energy Laboratory of Nantes (LTeN), UMR 6607 CNRS Nantes, France
4
Industrial Systems and Environmental Engineering Research Unit (URISIE), Bandjoun, Cameroon
belantonious@gmail.com
Available online at: www.isca.in, www.isca.me
Received 28th July 2023, revised 24th October 2023, accepted 3rd December 2023
Abstract
The use of less polluting refrigerants is now a reality in the framework of research to lessen the environmental impact of
refrigeration units. The drive to employ ecologically benign and safer-to-handle refrigerants has resulted in the recent
increased usage of carbon dioxide in refrigeration cycles, which develops substantial benefits, particularly in Western
countries. CO2 systems are less efficient than conventional systems due to the transcritical nature of the CO2 refrigeration
cycle. As a result, numerous cycle adjustments can be included to increase system performance. This review article contains
a database showcasing the state of the art in theoretical, practical, and technological developments made on transcritical
CO2 cycles, as well as their field of application. According to research, the biggest improvement in the transcritical cycle can
be obtained by replacing the expansion device with a work-recovery expansion machine or by using numerous stages of
compression. However, these are expensive upgrades in terms of buying price. As a result, recent research has mostly
focused on ejector-driven transcritical cycles due to the large performance boost, lack of moving parts in the ejector, and low
cost. Current developments and challenges in important application areas are summarised, and future research directions
are highlighted.
Keywords: Refrigeration, Transcritical Cycle, Carbon Dioxide, Energy performance, Sustainable Development.
Introduction This property has also enabled the development of very compact
tube heat exchangers with reduced pipe diameters. Carbon
Global environmental consciousness has lead to the hunt for dioxide is also appropriate for low-capacity applications such as
refrigerants with the least amount of environmental impact. automobile air conditioning. Due to its low viscosity, it
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), which are commonly utilised encounters low pressure drop. When a suitable refrigerant is
refrigerants in the refrigeration industry, have negative paired with carbon dioxide in cascade refrigeration systems,
environmental effects1. In fact, the majority of first-generation which are generally highly compact and less demanding in
HFCs contribute to global warming. Hydrocarbons are highly terms of refrigerant quantity, low temperatures (-30°C to -
efficient but very combustible fluids. On the other hand, the 100°C) can be attained. These fundamental advantages
olefin family (HFO), which has minimal global warming distinguish CO2 as a refrigerant in the refrigeration industry and
potential, is dangerous because to its flammability. As a result, make it a solid choice for limiting the use of high GWP (Global
they are not permitted to be used in dry expansion setups for Warming Potential) refrigerants4.
commercial or industrial refrigeration.
A considerable pressure loss occurs in the expansion process in
Carbon dioxide (CO2 or R744), on the other hand, is a non- transcritical operating mode due to the large difference between
flammable, non-toxic, less expensive, and more ecologically high and low pressure during system operation. This has a
friendly fluid that was one of the earliest refrigerants employed negative impact on the efficiency of systems and is also the
in refrigeration history1. CO2 is known to all since it is present cause for the low performance of CO2 transcritical cycles.
in the atmosphere at a volume concentration of 0.04% 2. It was Faced with the phasing out of a range of refrigerants already on
widely utilised around the turn of the twentieth century, the market, as well as the technological challenges experienced
particularly in naval refrigeration, where it was the dominating when installing CO2 refrigeration systems, it is imperative to
refrigerant from 1950 to 19603. The high volumetric capacity of push additional research programmers on the use of CO2 as a
the refrigerant induces the use of small-dimensioned refrigerant.
components (compressors and pipes)4.
Following that pattern, the article attempted to review existing vapor generated by the low-stage compressor combines with the
research on the CO2 refrigeration cycle, transcribe it, and inform vapor exiting the medium-temperature evaporator (point 12) and
about future research possibilities to investigate. It gave ideas the vapor released from the sub-cooler (point 7). The mixed
for the enhancement of transcritical systems with the goal of vapour flows towards the high stage compressor (point 1), is
generating more environmentally friendly refrigerating compressed and discharged then into the gas cooler (point 2).
machines, resulting in lower greenhouse effect gas emissions, as Such booster refrigeration systems are widely adopted for
well as a long-term reduction in energy consumption. refrigeration in supermarkets, due to their negligible
environmental impacts7–9.
Transcritical refrigeration cycles
Cascade refrigeration cycles: A cascade refrigeration system
For negative refrigeration, the low pressure in transcritical is made up of two refrigeration units, one at a lower temperature
cycles is around 40 bar, while the high pressure evolves about and one at a higher temperature. An internal cascade heat
100 bar. While heat transfer from the refrigerant to the outside is exchanger connects both units thermally. Carbon dioxide can be
taking place, the high pressure is over its critical value of 73.8 used for the low temperature stage. The internal heat exchanger
bar (Figure-1). As a result, there is no longer any phase change. serves as a condenser for the low temperature unit whereas an
The gas cooler's outlet temperature remains unaffected by evaporator for the high temperature unit, increasing the
pressure within the supercritical zone. Several simulations, refrigerating machine's performance10. Figure-3 depicts an
however, have shown that there is an optimum gas cooler NH3/CO2 cascade system in action. Each refrigeration system in
pressure for a given end-of-cooling temperature5. Heat this system comprises of a compressor, a condenser, an
transmission in the gas cooler occurs in sensible heat rather than expander, and an evaporator. The condenser in this refrigeration
condensation. system rejects a heat flux Qh from the condenser at the
condensing temperature Th into its surroundings while the
Booster type transcritical refrigeration cycles: Figure-2 evaporator absorbs the cooling load Qb from the cooling space at
depicts the system diagram of a booster type transcritical the evaporation temperature Tb. The heat absorbed by the
refrigeration cycle. CO2 released from the low-pressure evaporator at low temperature plus the energy corresponding to
compressor is directed into the suction of the high-pressure the work of the compressor of the same cell is equal to the heat
compressor (point 1). Following vapor-liquid separation in the absorbed by the evaporator of the high temperature cell. If TecB
intermediate tank (point 8), the saturated vapor undergoes and TecH represent respectively the condensing and evaporating
expansion through an electronic valve (5 and 6) to interact with temperatures of the cascade condenser. The temperature
the separated liquid, facilitated by the sub-cooler. The sub- difference ΔT=TecB-TecH across the cascade condenser is an
cooled liquid, upon exiting the sub-cooler (9), proceeds to the important design parameter. Its order of magnitude of ΔT vary
different evaporators (medium and low-temperature) through from 6°C to 10°C.
suitable expansion valves (nbr 10 and 11). The superheated
Ejector refrigeration cycles: Air conditioning and refrigeration however, the expansion process proceeds very quickly, making
systems can benefit from the usage of ejectors11. Figure-4 it practically impossible to preserve the two-phase mixture's
depicts the block diagrams of the conventional cycle and the hydrodynamic and thermodynamic equilibrium. As a result,
ejector-equipped cycle. The isenthalpic process is illustrated in meta stabilities (the feature of a seemingly stable condition that
Figure 4 by the transformation between points 3 and 11, a disturbance can fast transform to an even more stable one)
whereas the isentropic process is represented by the could induce delayed evaporation of the flux, influencing the
transformation between points 3 and 4. The refrigerant fluid ejector's performance. The high velocity two-phase flow offers
specifies a cycle between points 8, 2b, 3, 11, and 8 for the momentum transfer and secondary fluid entrainment as it exits
conventional cycle. The ejector cycle, on the other hand, the evaporator. The extremely high velocity flow reduces
involves two fluid flows: the primary flow and the secondary pressure at point 4 and promotes secondary fluid flow from
flow. A compressor circulates the primary flow via the gas point 8 to point 9. The two flows are combined at the mixing
cooler, ejector, and separator (points 1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 5, and 1), chamber's input to form a single flow in the constant section
while the secondary flow circulates in the expansion valve, the area. The mixed flow is directed from point 10 to the diffuser
evaporator, the ejector and the separator (points 4 to 10 The through the secondary nozzle. The refrigerant decelerates in the
constant-section mixing of the primary and secondary flows diffuser, increasing its pressure (point 5). At point 5, the
reaches the diffuser (points 10 and 5). In the ideal cycle, refrigerant flows to the separator. The vapour phase refrigerant
saturated vapour from the liquid-vapor separator enters the in the separator runs as the primary flow via the compressor
compressor and isentropically compressed to a high pressure (points 1–2), while the liquid refrigerant from the separator
while increasing in temperature. In the gas cooler, heat is flows through the expansion valve and into the evaporator
rejected at constant pressure. The supercritical primary fluid is (points 6, 7, and 8), as the secondary flow. The points A and B
expanded (isentropic evolution) at the pressure of the mixture in depicted on figure 4 represent the enthalpies at the pressure of
the primary nozzle. The main fluid gains kinetic energy during the diffuser when the process is respectively isenthalpic and
expansion. The pressure at point 1 is greater than the suction isentropic. Meanwhile, points 1 and 8 represent the points at the
pressure at point 8 in the typical cycle. This causes the compressor suction and at the evaporator outlet, respectively. A
compressor work of the cycle with ejector expansion to be less high ejector compression ratio decreases the compressor
than that of the regular cycle. The motive flow, or primary flow, compression ratio. Increasing the entrainment rate will reduce
is accelerated and expanded through the motive nozzle from 3 to the mass flow rate of the compressor for a given refrigeration
4. Furthermore, as the fluid approaches the saturation curve, it output. Ejector efficiency increases as drive rate and/or
partially vaporises and becomes two-phase. In actuality, compression rate increases.
Figure-4: CO2 transcritical refrigeration cycle (a); Two-phase ejector cycle (b); pressure - specific enthalpy diagram of the two
cycles (c)6.
Commercial and industrial refrigeration: After the research fundamental transcritical system, Robinson and Groll's
conducted by Lorentzen and Pettersen13, which explored the simulation demonstrated a notable 7% enhancement in COP 21.
application of carbon dioxide (CO2) as a refrigerant in vehicle
air conditioning systems, showing that these systems can The relationship between performance and secondary fluid
surpass conventional ones using R12 or R134a in terms of temperature: According to the studies of Laipradit and others,
power, energy efficiency, installation cost, weight, and secondary fluid temperature has a substantial effect on system
dimensions, other industry communications also emerged. Some performance in carbon dioxide refrigeration systems. The results
writers have described air conditioning and refrigeration of their heat pump investigation show that the coefficient of
systems in supermarkets and buses that employ carbon dioxide performance (COP) improves with decreasing water
as a refrigerant14,15. Cecchinato et al.16 investigated transcritical temperature at the gas cooler inlet22. The reduction in water
carbon dioxide water coolers for commercial refrigeration with temperature at the inlet corresponds to a drop in refrigerant
the goal of improving performances. The cycle's ideal high (CO2) temperature at the outlet of the gas cooler. This leads to
pressure was maintained in transcritical mode by using a flash an increased temperature differential between the refrigerant's
reservoir and two electronic valves. When the gas cooler inlet and outlet at the gas cooler stage, thus accounting for the
incoming air permits for subcritical working conditions, valve observed rise in COP. To confirm the effect of the temperature
management improves refrigeration machine efficiency. The differential between the intake and exit of the CO 2 gas cooler.
results of a chiller simulation model were validated using Cecchinato et al. conducted a theoretical and experimental
experimental data. A measuring trial was conducted, testing the investigation of a heat pump. According to the findings, the
chiller at outside temperatures ranging from 18 to 35°C, with COP of the heat pump utilised to heat the water increased
the unit's energy efficiency varying from 3.1 to 2.0 16. greatly as the water temperature at the gas cooler outlet
decreased23.
Cogeneration: Novel cogeneration systems are being
developed, analysed, and optimised to showcase the Gas cooler: Because of the importance of heat transfer
effectiveness of heat recovery technology, generating both heat mechanisms in a carbon dioxide (CO2) refrigeration system, the
and/or refrigeration. The operating fluid in these systems is design of a gas cooler requires special consideration1,24. To
carbon dioxide. It is a hybrid of the compression Brayton cycle improve the performance of CO2 refrigeration machines, the
and the transcritical carbon dioxide refrigeration cycle 17. When design and experimental study of a carbon dioxide transcritical
a system cogenerates power and refrigeration or produces solely chiller for commercial refrigeration has been explored 16. Fronk
refrigeration, it is optimised. It should be observed that when the and Garimella highlighted the significance of the ratio of CO2
evaporation temperature falls, the system's exergy efficiency transfer coefficients and secondary fluid in 2011. Air has a
improves. Certain authors have delineated the benefits of the lower transfer coefficient than CO2, whereas water has a greater
integrated system compared to the conventional approach18. transfer coefficient than CO225. The overall heat transfer
They discovered that the combined system's exergy efficiency is coefficient in a water-cooled heat exchanger is more sensitive to
2.45% higher than that of the individual system at evaporation the CO2 transfer coefficient, whereas the overall heat transfer
temperatures of 273.15 K and 253.15 K, respectively. To coefficient in an air-cooled heat exchanger is more susceptible
address the conflict between investment and system to the air side heat transfer coefficient. Enhancing the
performance, multi-objective optimisation with exergy performance of the gas cooler occurs when minimizing the
efficiency (to be maximised) and annual cost per heat temperature difference between CO 2 and the secondary fluid at
consumption (to be minimised) is undertaken. all points within the gas cooler. Sarkar et al. delved into the
irreversibility in the gas cooler and determined that temperature
Studies on carbon dioxide refrigeration cycles discrepancies between the refrigerant and the secondary fluid
contribute to approximately 90% of heat exchanger losses 26.
Effect of the intermediate exchanger in a transcritical cycle: Conversely, the losses attributed to pressure drop across the gas
Kim et al.19 investigated the impact of an intermediate cooler were relatively insignificant. The minimal difference
exchanger on the COP of a heat pump for heating water. They (dtmin) in a counter-current gas cooler represents the distinction
validated a simulation model using experimental data from their between the CO2 exit temperature and the inlet temperature of
research. The sizing of the intermediate exchanger was then the secondary fluid. Fronk and Garimella have shown that as
optimised using this model. The model indicated that elongating dtmin falls, so does the optimum pressure of the gas cooler 25. As
the interstage exchanger enhances the system's COP moderately a result, the compressor's workload is reduced. Losses generated
(by 4%). Additionally, the researchers found that elongating the by temperature differences can be mitigated by expanding the
interstage exchanger results in a reduction in the optimal gas heat transfer area, although this method has a limit to its
cooler pressure. These results corroborate the findings of Chen efficiency. Sarkar et al.27 performed a theoretical optimisation of
and Gu, who found that an increase in intercooler efficiency the geometry of a concentric tube type heat exchanger. In 2015,
leads to a reduction in optimal pressure and an increase in Dai and his colleagues developed a model to evaluate the gas
COP20. Upon integrating an intermediate exchanger into a cooler's performance under different oil concentrations28
Evaporator: In 2007, Yun et al.29 employed a numerical model investigated the heat exchange and flow characteristics of a
to conduct a comparison between a microchannel evaporator capillary tube within a transcritical cycle, employing a non-
designed for air conditioning and a conventional evaporator. adiabatic flow model20. They determined that at a given
The validation of the model was based on results from a system diameter and internal pressure, the cooling capacity of the
operating with R134 a and insights from Beaver et al.30. In system diminishes as capillary length grows.
contrast to a conventional heat exchanger, the micro-channel
evaporator exhibited a higher heat transfer capacity (33%). Expansion turbines: The goal of using an expansion turbine in
Similarly, Kim and Bullard formulated a model to analyze the a transcritical cycle is to increase the cooling effect on one hand
performance of a microchannel evaporator. Their model because the expansion process is no longer isenthalpic, and on
incorporated established correlations for pressure drop and heat the other hand to reduce the energy consumed by the
transfer coefficients. This particular model proves useful in the compressor through the recovery of the turbine's work8.
design of compact microchannel evaporators 31. Jin et al. created Chegnimonhan and his colleagues tested the performance of
a new correlation-based model that was designed exclusively for four refrigeration systems in the Cotonou (Benin) weather
CO2. The model has been experimentally tested and is conditions. The results revealed that, when compared to the
applicable for high or even superheated steam systems31. other cycles tested, refrigeration systems using expansion
Because of its high operating pressure and high vapour density, turbines operate well in the climatic circumstances considered.
CO2 can then be employed in micro-channel evaporators to The inclusion of a heat exchanger in the turbine system lowered
decrease the problem of phase misdistribution. cycle performance by 85.6%8. Yang and colleagues
demonstrated that utilising an expander instead of a
Expansion valve: Capillary expansion valve: Agrawal and conventional throttle device reduces the gas cooler's optimal
Bhattacharyya undertook a series of numerical studies focused pressure and increases the COP in cooling mode by 33% 35.
on the flow characteristics of carbon dioxide (CO 2) within Huff and Radermacher's theoretical research allowed them to
adiabatic capillary tubes, as well as an evaluation of the compare the performance of a CO2 system with a turbine and an
performance of transcritical systems including the capillary R22 system with a throttle valve. It was found that the
expander32. In this study, the capillary expander was utilized transcritical system outperforms the R22 system at low ambient
within a system engineered for concurrent heating and cooling temperatures. Experimental and theoretical study has been
purposes. conducted on a wide range of turbines, including scroll, piston,
rolling piston, screw, and vane turbines36.
The system's coefficient of performance (COP) was juxtaposed
with a system explored by Sarkar et al.33, which incorporated an Ejector expansion valve: In the field of CO2 refrigeration,
adjustable regulator. The length of the capillary has a major ejector expansion valves have also been researched. The
impact on the pressure of the gas cooler and the system's COP. employment of an ejector as an expansion element decreases
A system has been equipped with an optimum capillary and expansion losses while increasing compressor inlet pressure and
tested for several gas cooler outlet temperatures. The COPs with thereby lowering compressor effort37. Because of the ejector
the expansion valve and the capillary tube were almost the cycle's superior performance compared to the basic cycle and its
same. However, the refrigerating capacity of the capillary lower cost compared to the turbine cycle, research has focused
expansion system exhibited a marginal improvement. on this component. Sarkar examined the implementation of an
ejector within a transcritical cycle for the purpose of integrated
Adiabatic expansion: The operation of CO2 refrigeration heating and cooling38.
systems is influenced by adiabatic expansion. Madsen and The author modelled two systems: an ejector cycle and Li and
colleagues investigated the COP of a transcritical CO2 cycle Groll's modified ejector cycle39. Except at low evaporator
with capillary expansion. A capillary tube was compared to a temperatures, where the modified cycle performed somewhat
fixed-pressure and adjustable expansion valve 34. An adiabatic worse, the difference in performance between the two cycles
expansion model was used in the simulation. The capillary tube was minimal.
system had a greater COP than the fixed-pressure regulator, but
the adjustable regulator performed the best. The outcomes demonstrate that both ejector cycles lowered the
optimal discharge pressure in comparison to the expansion valve
Non-adiabatic capillary expansion: During expansion of CO2 cycle. As per the authors' analysis, both ejector cycles exhibited
in a non-adiabatic capillary tube, the refrigerant rejects heat to higher COP values than the conventional cycle, with the turbine
the environment. This heat is useful for superheating steam. system yielding the most exceptional performance. Elbel and
Hrnjak conducted a study on a prototype of a transcritical
By welding a segment of the capillary to the refrigerant line system incorporating an ejector, and the conclusions were
between the evaporator outlet and the compressor inlet, the employed to validate a mathematical model. The
capillary tube can be utilised as an internal heat exchanger. This implementation of the ejector led to a 7% increase in COP 40.The
mechanism supplies superheated vapour to the compressor akin table below summarises the most recent studies on the
to the function of an intermediate exchanger. Chen and Gu transcritical CO2 ejector.
The compression: Intermediate cooling: In a transcritical CO2 intermediate heat exchanger resulted in a performance
system, intermediate cooling (Figure-5) between two stages enhancement of 7.6%. The dual trigger increased performance
increases system performance. Cecchinato et al50 investigated by 21.1%. The combination of the two improvements improves
the performance of a two-stage system with intercooling in performance by 24% above the baseline system performance.
order to increase the performance of a CO2 refrigeration system. Another method of intermediate cooling is to use a flash tank
The two-stage cycle enhanced cooling performance by 9% when (Figure-6), which is one of the various ways of cooling the
compared to a single-stage compression system. Because of the refrigerant between compression stages by mixing the expanded
greater temperatures in the transcritical cycle, the CO2 can reject vapour in the tank and lowering the intermediate temperature of
heat to the surrounding air via a heat exchanger for intercooling, CO2. Unlike other intercooling approaches, Agrawal and
according to the authors. Cavallini et al. investigated the Bhattacharyya discovered that two-stage compression with
performance of a two-stage experimental system at various intercooling in a flash tank reduced COP compared to an
intercooler temperatures. Under optimal discharge pressures, the analogue single-stage system51. This is mainly due to the fact
performance achieved was 2.1 for temperatures of 20.5°C and that splitting the compression ratio reduces the energy
21.5°C, and 1.8 for a temperature of 33°C. Additionally, a consumption of the compressors. This is mostly because
simulation model was constructed to investigate three distinct splitting the compression ratio minimises compressor energy
modifications to the two-stage system. The inclusion of an usage.
Introduction of an economizer: The economizer is a sort of the primary refrigerant vapour to be subcooled. According to
subcooler that evaporates a portion of the refrigerant, often 10- Torrella et al.53, the COP increase that the savings allow is
20%, at a greater evaporation temperature than the main dependent on the thermal efficiency of the subcooler or closed
evaporator while drastically subcooling the balance of the flash tank separator, and the improvement for 100% efficiency
refrigerant flow52. The installation of an economizer port is reaches the performance of the open flash separator at
known to considerably boost the capacity of screw compressor- intermediate pressure. By adding an economizer to an
based low temperature refrigeration installations. The use of experimental two-stage system, Cho et al. increased
two-stage cycles allows for the use of more particular and performance by 16.5%54. Cecchinato et al. theoretically
regulated subcooling systems, such as the economizer cycle or analysed a similar system, resulting in a 16.8 to 28.7%
the two-stage cycle with subcooler, as shown in Figure 7. The performance gain over a single-stage system50. Sarkar and
refrigerant leaving the gas cooler is split into two streams in this Agrawal55 investigated a parallel compression system with an
design. The auxiliary flow is throttled to intermediate pressure economizer. When compared to the standard transcritical
and evaporated within the economizer or subcooler, allowing system, the performance is improved by 47.3%.
Several research on an experimental system with an economizer Perspectives in this area include: i. Because CO2 refrigeration
and a single-stage compressor have been conducted56,57. Single- systems are complex, experimental research with integrated
stage compression cycles with and without an economizer were mechanical subcooling systems and economizer cycles is
compared. Economizer cycles improve heating capacity under required, as existing research has not yet reached the limits of
all working conditions, but only at low compressor speeds and improvement. Furthermore, dedicated subcooling systems
low evaporation temperatures. The installation of an economizer should be investigated experimentally, where the employment
port is known to considerably boost the capacity of screw of refrigerant mixtures in the auxiliary refrigeration cycle may
compressor-based low temperature installations. Cecchinato et increase performance even further. Heat recovery systems that
al.50 investigated a transcritical system that differed from earlier are integrated into the refrigeration cycle, as well as those that
investigations. The system is divided into two loops, each with use phase change materials, should be considered. The ejector is
its own compressor. Only at low intermediate pressures did the a hot research topic these days, but there are many issues, such
cooling COP outperform the more complex two-stage cycles. as its geometry and operating conditions. In addition, simulation
software is necessary to visualize the internal flow of two-phase
Conclusion flows, in particular when there seems to be a lack of
investigation of the physical phenomena linked to the presence
This article examines the most recent advancements in CO2 of the nozzle at the inlet of the refrigerant fluid; ii. The
refrigeration system technology (transcritical and subcritical) as combination of CO2 refrigeration cycles with heat recovery
well as the various applications of CO2 refrigeration machines. systems for subcooling such as absorption refrigeration systems
CO2 performs admirably as a natural refrigerant. Because or adsorption systems is almost non-existent. Published
carbon dioxide has a low critical temperature (31°C), it operates theoretical work indicates that the combination of these systems
on a transcritical cycle, evaporating in the subcritical region and would be very positive, however, experimental evaluation of its
rejecting heat above the critical point into a gas cooler rather combination is a mechanical challenge. iii. To optimise the
than a condenser when the high-pressure heat exchanger is air- required cooling power, the evaporation phenomenon should be
cooled at temperatures above 21°C. When compared to typical considered. Heat transfer should be given special consideration
cycles, this design has poor performance. However, transcritical in order to improve heat transfer correlations tailored to carbon
cycle performance can be enhanced by combining cold dioxide. iv. The survey carried out on the refrigeration systems
production with heat energy recovery at the compressor output installed in Benin reveals that the transcritical CO2 systems are
for hot water needs, as is common in the food industry where not yet introduced in Benin and do not seem to be in
cold and hot needs are frequently simultaneous. A cascade neighboring countries. Moreover, no studies appear on these
system of two natural refrigerants (NH3 / CO2) is an transcritical systems in the literature in African contexts. In a
advantageous method for obtaining low temperatures ranging future perspective, this study deserves to be pursued by
from -30°C to -100°C. When working temperatures are very developing experimental prototypes operating in the demanding
low, this technology not only ensures higher environmental climatic conditions of West Africa. The analysis of the results
safety and good product packaging with investment and will enable the design of the CO2 refrigeration installations
competitive operation. Cascades also have the advantage of adapted to tropical regions.
being small and sturdy systems in general.
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