Electric Arc Furnace

Steelmaking
Ken Broome
Steelmaking Consultant
October 2022

Excellence in Materials & Process Innovation

Electric Arc Furnace Steelmaking
Electric Arc Furnace Steelmaking
 Two Methods of Primary Steelmaking

Basic Oxygen Steelmaking Electric Arc

Furnace Furnace

Oxygen
Overview of the Steelmaking Process
 % World Steel Production by Process
100

Electric Arc Furnace

80

% World Steel Output

60

Oxygen Steelmaking
40

20
Open Hearth Furnace

0
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

In 2021 - 1 951 M tonnes of crude steel production

▪ Oxygen blown convertors (BOS) = 70.8%
▪ Electric Arc Furnace = 28.9%
▪ Open Hearth and other = 0.3%
 Total World Steel Output by Process
2000

1750

1500
Electric Arc Furnace

1250
M tonnes

Open Hearth

1000
Oxygen Steelmaking
750

500

250

0
2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
 CO2 Emissions
Latest World Steel Association statistics

• The steel industry accounts for 7% to 9% of total man-made

greenhouse gases producing 2.6 billion tonnes/annum of CO2

• 1.85t of CO2 per tonne of steel

• The major contribution comes from the integrated steel route as the blast furnace
is heavily dependent on coke for iron ore reduction
CO2 Emissions
 Steel Scrap – Advantages
Energy Value
• It takes a lot of energy to convert iron ore to metallic iron ~ 1400 kWh/t (5
GJ/t) by the BF/BOS route
• Intrinsic energy content of most steel scraps is ~640 kWh/t (2.3 GJ/t)
• This energy does not have to be input again when steel scrap is melted
• 1.6t of CO2 is saved for every 1t of scrap used

Recycling Value
• Remelting scrap is environmentally desirable
• 100% ? Recyclable
• Conserves resources - 1t scrap avoids 1.4t iron ore/740kg coke/120kg
limestone
EAF Process Improvements
 EAF Steelmaking
Challenges for Growth

Electricity source (most are CO2 producing)

EAF uses Carbon based chemical energy input during melting from coke and oxyfuel
injectors
Electricity prices as cheaper generation is reduced and other demands increase
(EVs)
Scrap prices relative to iron ore price
Finite Scrap and good DRI availability
➢ Competition from BOS and more EAF production
➢ 35% of total mix today, only 50% by 2050
➢ Obsolescence slow in developing countries
➢ High quality DRI is in short supply
Many BF/BOS have a long lifetime left (40 years)
➢ New technology for carbon capture
DRI production uses natural gas/coal (Hydrogen - DR ?)
Projected World Steel Output by Process

EAF
BOS
 EAF Basic Design
Roof contains 3 holes
for the electrodes

Water cooled dome shaped

roof (removable) Graphite electrodes, clamped in
place and can be raised and lowered
Cylindrical Furnace Shell Balcony Panel

Molten Steel

Hearth

Eccentric Bottom
Rocker Tilt
Tapping (EBT)
Tilt Cylinder

Teeming Ladle
 EAF - Alternating Current (AC) Furnace
High Voltage
Electrode Clamps Supply 33kV

Electrode Arms Bus bars

Electric Arc

Water Cooled
Flexible
Cables Transformer
Electrode
Masts
 EAF - Direct Current (DC) Furnace
High Voltage
Electrode Arm Bus bar Supply
33kV
Water
Cooled
Flexible
-
Cable
Electric Arc

+
Rectifier Transformer

Hearth
Connection
Anode
 Melting Process
The melting period is the heart of EAF operations with other steelmaking
processes moved to the ladle after tapping

The EAF has evolved into a highly efficient melting apparatus and modern designs
are focused on maximising the melting capacity of the EAF

The energy input can be electrical or chemical

Finding the correct balance between these energy sources is critical in good
melting operations
 Melting Process
EAF Electrical Energy
Electrode arms
Electrodes

EAF Transformer
Electrode clamps
Delta Closure

Power cables

Electrode arm masts

 Melting Process
Electrical Energy Input
Electrical energy is supplied via the electrodes to create an electric arc
between the electrode tip and the scrap and is usually the largest contributor
to energy input in EAF melting operations
Melting rate is determined by the transformer size (MVA rating) and the
secondary voltage used
The modern UHP EAF has at least 1MVA/t transformer size eg 100t furnace
capacity uses 100MVA transformer and it is capable of 1Mt per annum output.
As the voltage is increased the power input and arc length increase along with
the melting rate
➢ It is important to use the maximum power input possible to melt scrap
and optimise productivity – high voltage, long arc operation
➢ Long arc melting is not homogeneous and certain areas of the bath
melt preferentially
 AC EAF Melting Pattern
• The three arcs repel leading to
arc flare directed away from Extraction Port Arc
each electrode and towards the Flare
furnace walls.
• There are three ‘hot spot’ areas,
Slag Cold
one opposite each electrode.
Door Hot Spot Hot
• In between each ‘hot spot’, there Bull
Spot Spot
Nose
is a ‘cold spot’ which receives
less of the radiated heat from the
arcs. Cold Cold
• To achieve uniform melting of Spot Spot
the scrap, extra energy is Hot
required in the ‘cold spot’ Spot
regions. 'Fifth' Hole for
• This energy is supplied using Continuous Feeding
Chemical Energy
 Melting Process
Chemical Energy Input
Chemical energy is supplied via oxy-fuel burners and oxygen
lances (or combined oxy jet burners)
Oxy-fuel burners
Oxy
➢ Strategically placed to direct intense energy into the scrap Fuel/Jet
by burning natural gas with oxygen Burner

➢ Promote an even melting pattern in the cold spots

➢ Increase output speed by adding chemical energy input to Door
Oxygen
electrical energy input (~50kWh/t) Lance
Oxy
Oxygen lancing
Fuel/Jet
➢ Assists scrap cutting in the early stages of melting Burner Oxy Fuel/Jet
➢ Generates significant chemical energy input by reacting Burner

with oxidisable elements in the steel once a molten pool is

formed (~80kWh/t)
➢ Promotes faster melting and higher productivity
➢ Decarburises the liquid steel
 Oxyjet Burner
This includes facilities for oxy fuel burning and supersonic oxygen injection in
one unit
The burner is used initially to clear scrap in front of the injector
Once this has been done, the injection lance takes over to inject a jet of oxygen
into the steel to aid melting and start the refining process
Typical Oxy Jet Burner and Ancillary Units
EAF Steelmaking Cycle

• Scrap Selection
• Basket Preparation
• Charging
• Melting
• Refining
• Tapping
• Turnround
 Scrap Selection
Raw Materials Residual Element Content
 Typical EAF Steelmaking Costs
• In 100% scrap melting furnaces, scrap is the main component in the cost
of steel production
Basket Preparation

Good scrap layering in the basket is

important for successful emptying into
the EAF for optimum productivity by
avoiding
• wedging of scrap in basket leaves
• levelling of scrap piles in the furnace
• large sections obstructing the roof
swing
• Large pieces falling in during melting
causing electrode breakage

The Basket is loaded with respect to EAF

operational requirements
Scrap Basket Filling

Light scrap

CaO CaO
Medium scrap

Carburiser
Heavy scrap
Light scrap
Typical Layout of Scrap Basket Filled Scrap Basket
Scrap Basket Charging
 Scrap Basket Charging
• Normally two baskets to charge per heat
dependent on good scrap density.
• First basket is filled to capacity to fill the
furnace, subsequent baskets are smaller to
be added as soon as sufficient space is
available to charge
• Lime and fluxes are added in the first
basket to ensure early formation of a slag
to protect refractories from acidic oxide
attack
• A visual inspection is made to ensure no
scrap is protruding above the furnace shell
Scrap Basket Charging
 Melting – 1
• Melting starts at a low voltage tap setting
(short arc) for a few minutes to ensure
the arc has penetrated the scrap pile and
does not damage the roof, delta or
sidewalls
• A higher voltage (long arc) can now be
selected to maximise power input and
optimise productivity without radiating
arcs onto the furnace panels
• Oxy-fuel burners are used to clear scrap
in front of the sidewall oxy jets
• A liquid pool starts to form in the bath
and oxygen jets can initiate once the
scraps in front are melted away
• Melting continues with a combination of
electrical and chemical energy from
combustion with oxygen
 Melting – 2
• Once enough scrap is melted for the furnace
to accept the next basket, the furnace is
stopped, the roof removed and the next
basket dropped
• The melting process is repeated until all
baskets are added
• When the last basket charge is in the furnace.
The scrap can be fully melted with a
combination of electrical and chemical energy
• Care has to be taken during this period to
avoid arc damage to the furnace as the
sidewalls become exposed to intense radiation
• Slag foaming using carbon injection and/or
the use of a lower voltage tap setting to
reduce the arc length is necessary
 Foaming Slags
• Slag foaming during late melting
and refining is an essential
feature of EAF operation
• Carbon is injected onto the slag
and reacts with oxygen present
as FeO to create CO bubbles and
increase slag volume
• A good foaming slag covers the
electric arcs permitting the use of Watery slag Foamy Slag
a high tap setting without
increasing the thermal load onto
the walls and panels
• The electrical energy from the arc
is directed into the steel
Foaming Slags Effect on Arc Efficiency

Foaming Slag coming through the furnace door

free partially fully resistance

burning covered covered heating
 Refining - 1
• As the last scrap is melted a ‘flat bath’ is
formed
• The bath is sampled for analysis and
temperature to determine further
heating/oxygen input required
• Post melt refining operations in the modern
EAF are usually for temperature pick up and
the removal of excess carbon
➢ Refining begins during melting as soon as
chemical reactions initiate between liquid
steel and slag by injecting oxygen
➢ Lime is added to form a basic slag to
absorb any contaminants (gangue) in the
charge mix and the solid metallic oxides
produced by oxygen lancing,
➢ Lime addition will vary according to the
composition (acidic content) of the mix to
produce a good basic slag
 Slag Basicity
• Slag basicity is identified by an index which expresses its acid or basic
characteristic (V Ratio)
• The index takes into account the quantity of basic and acid components in the
slag

• In its simplest form, using only the CaO and SiO2 components, slag basicity is
given by the relationship:
%CaO
Basicity (V Ratio) =
%SiO2
• For good steelmaking conditions, the minimum basicity index must be 1.8 but
values >2.0 further improve refractory protection

• Other more complex relationships including MgO, Al2O3, TiO2 are used but the
V ratio is adequate for scrap based EAF slags

Be careful which ratio is being quoted

 Refining - 2
• Providing good slag chemistry is maintained,
refining reactions will be completed by melt out
➢ Silicon and Manganese removed to low
levels.
➢ Phosphorus and Chromium reduced
sufficiently
• Further refining should be avoided/kept to a
minimum as this affects output and energy
usage
• Sulphur is partially removed into the slag
during melting but not significantly reduced as
it requires low oxygen conditions.
• Oxygen content in the steel must be carefully
controlled to avoid excessive iron yield loss,
alloy losses and heavy usage of deoxidation
elements at tap
 Refining - 3
• Carbon content is reduced with oxygen to a
level which allows ladle additions of high C
ferroalloys
• Slag foaming with carbon is continued
throughout to protect the furnace walls & roof
from arc flare.
• Slag containing the waste elements from the
melting process is flushed off via the furnace
door to reduce volume and avoid reversion into
the steel especially from phosphorus.
• Once the desired analysis and temperature is
achieved the steel is ready for tapping.
• Tapping temperature will be determined by
alloy additions required and ladle thermal
history
 Tapping
• Tapping separates the steel from the slag which
is formed during the primary steelmaking
• The slag contains impurities such as phosphorus
and lots of oxygen (FeO)
• Important to minimise the amount of carry-over
slag from the primary steelmaking process into
the ladle on tapping
• If not, phosphorus reversion will occur and
excessive amounts of deoxidation additions will
be required to control the oxygen content of the
steel
• Furnaces are designed to achieve slag free
tapping either EBT (as shown) or submerged
taphole with sliding gate
• The EBT furnace is tilted forward gradually to
prevent slag reaching the tapping stream and
rapidly back tilted when the desired weight has
been tapped to avoid any slag vortex
 Turnround
• After tapping, the furnace is returned to the level
position and prepared for the next heat
• For EBT furnaces, the tap hole is filled with sand
before levelling to prevent hot heel steel/slag
escape
• The furnace lining is inspected for damage and
repaired if necessary by fettling or with gunned
refractories
• The electrodes are ‘jointed’ i.e. another section
screwed on the top of the electrode column or
‘slipped’ i.e. the position of the electrode column
is adjusted in the electrode clamp
Typical EAF Process Cycle

Oxy Fuel Burners

Oxygen

Carbon

Melting Melting Reach End of

Power First Basket Second Basket Tapping Tapping
Temp

3 26 28 48 49 56 60
Minutes since end of Tapping of Previous Heat
Sankey Diagram of EAF Total Energy Balance
Electrical
415 kWh/t

Burners 50 kWh/t

Oxidation Reactions 95 kWh/t

560 kWh/t

Off-Gas 80 kWh/t

Losses 10 kWh/t

Cooling Water 40 kWh/t

Slag 50 kWh/t
Steel 380 kWh/t
Sankey Diagram of EAF Total Energy
Electrical
385 kWh/t

Burners 50 kWh/t

Oxidation Reactions 95 kWh/t

Recover
30 kWh/t
560 kWh/t

Off-Gas 80 kWh/t

Losses 10 kWh/t

Cooling Water 40 kWh/t

Slag 50 kWh/t
Steel 380 kWh/t
Shaft Furnace
• Batch type scrap preheater.
• No basket charging
• Ideal conditions for maximum energy
recovery & post combustion.
➢ 75-120kWh/t savings claimed
• Reduced dust emissions = improved
yield
• Higher productivity

Natsteel Singapore 80t DC finger shaft

CONSTEEL® Process

• Continuous scrap preheater.

• No basket charging
• Lower noise and dust emissions
• Ideal conditions for maximum energy
recovery & post combustion.
• Higher productivity (30% better)
• 45 -120kWh/t savings claimed
 Decarbonisation - Reaching Net Zero

• Utilise low carbon

technology
• Increase the use of H2 as:
➢ Fuel
➢ Reductant
• Reduce energy
requirements in industry
• Increase energy efficiency
• Reduce costs of H2
production
• Where carbon is required,
use of alternate carbon
sources (biomass)
Material Economics. The Circular Economy—A Powerful Force for Climate Mitigation. Available online: https://www.climate-
kic.org/insights/the-circular-economy-a-powerful-force-for-climate-mitigation-2/ (accessed on 18 April 2019).
Use of Hydrogen in Steel Production
Environmental Impact Overview

Replacing coal by hydrogen generated with renewable energy would make it possible to largely
decarbonise the industry.

Decarbonisation of steel production processes therefore poses three major challenges:

➢ Optimising and scaling-up a hydrogen-based route for iron and steel production
➢ Scaling up the production of hydrogen, producing greater quantities at lower cost
with higher efficiency
➢ Ensuring use of Hydrogen does not affect the outputs of industrial processes
EAF Steelmaking and Hydrogen
Direct Reduced Iron (DRI) – Reduction using Hydrogen

• Iron ore is heated to high temperatures in

a reducing atmosphere
• Most DRI produced using natural gas or coal
• Typically, a mixture of carbon monoxide and
hydrogen reductants (syngas)
• Potential to produce DRI using only hydrogen
• Hydrogen could also be used as the heat source
for the reduction
• Pilot plant introduced at MPI
EAF Steelmaking and Hydrogen
Fuel Injectors using Hydrogen

• Replacement injector units being developed to

operate with H2 to replace fossil fuels
• The CoJet injector with potential to use
Oxygen/Hydrogen for scrap heating and melting
and operating at high velocity/supersonic
• Hydrogen burner introduced at MPI for ladle
preheating

CoJet Hydrogen Flame Shroud

Summary
The electric arc furnace process accounts for 29% of world steel production
Technological advances over recent years and lower capital costs have made
the process a serious competitor to the BOS route.
The EAF is environmentally desirable in terms of recycling scrap and lower
energy requirements and in particularly in respect of CO2 emissions
EAF steelmaking will continue to grow at the expense of BF/BOS at a rate
determined by
➢ scrap/DRI availability,
➢ obsolescence of integrated steelplants,
➢ carbon capture technology
➢ decarbonisation of electricity generation
Summary
There are two main designs for electrical energy input to the EAF, the AC
furnace and the DC furnace both competitive as high productivity steelmaking
processes
The EAF steelmaking process uses a combination of electrical and chemical
energy input for melting
The basic operating stages in the EAF steelmaking cycle include basket
preparation, charging, melting, refining, tapping and turnround
Measuring the total energy inputs and outputs is essential for understanding
the furnace operation
Reducing and recovering energy losses enables furnace performance to be
optimised and plant manufacturers have designed hybrid EAFs to achieve
this.
Further decarbonisation is necessary to meet agreed environmental targets
on CO2 emissions and the use of Hydrogen in future steelmaking processes
to displace carbon is essential
 Thank
You

Materials Processing Institute

Eston Road
Middlesbrough
Cleveland
TS6 6US
United Kingdom

+44 (0)1642 382000

enquiries@mpiuk.com

www.mpiuk.com

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COPYRIGHT AND DESIGN RIGHT - © 2020 - MATERIALS PROCESSING INSTITUTE
 Materials Processing Institute
Eston Road
Middlesborough
TS6 6US
Ken Broome
Steelmaking Consultant United Kingdom
+44 (0)1642 382000
enquiries@mpiuk.com
www.mpiuk.com
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