Surgery Lecture Notes

LECTURE NOTES
For Health Officers
Surgery
Mensur Osman, Zeki Abdurahman, Gashaw Messele,

Yemane Ayele, Abraham Deneke, Asrat Sime, Tariku Gelda M.D, Misgina Fisseha,
Abera A. Gobeze, Mekdim Tadesse, Yimaj Abdulwahib
Debub University, Haramaya University,

University of Gondar, Jimma University
In collaboration with the Ethiopia Public Health Training Initiative, The Carter Center,
the Ethiopia Ministry of Health, and the Ethiopia Ministry of Education
April 2004
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The team of authors form the departments of surgery of varies university would like to thank
and express their deep rooted gratitude to The Carter Center (EPHTI) for its initiation and
drive to prepare this teaching material.
The team would like to thank the administration of university of Gondar University, Jimma
University, Alemaya University and Debub University for extending support to authors
whenever it was needed.
The authors are particularly grateful to Dr. Berhanu Kotisso associate professor and Dr.
Girmaye Tamirat Asst. professor of surgery in a Addis Ababa University for their highly
professional input that shaped this teaching material for the benefit of health science
students.
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgment ................................................................................................................... i
Table of Contents .................................................................................................................. ii
Chapter One: Shock............................................................................................................. 1

Introduction ................................................................................................. 1
Classification .............................................................................................. 1
Patho Physiology of Shock ......................................................................... 2
Management of Shock ................................................................................ 3
Complications of Shock .............................................................................. 4
Chapter Two: Fluid and Electolytes ..................................................................................... 5

Introduction ................................................................................................. 5
Normal Distribution of Body Fluids.............................................................. 5
Disturbances of Fluid and Electrolytes........................................................ 7
Acid – Base Balance ................................................................................... 12
Review Questions ....................................................................................... 15
References .................................................................................................. 16
Chapter Three: Blood Transfusion ....................................................................................... 17

Indications for Blood Transfusion ............................................................... 17
Compatibility Tests ...................................................................................... 17
Component Therapy ................................................................................... 18
References .................................................................................................. 22
Chapter Four: Pre-Operative and Post-Operative Care ...................................................... 23

Introduction ................................................................................................. 23
General Consideration ............................................................................... 23
Assessment and Minimization of Surgical Risks ........................................ 24
Post-Operative Care, Complications and Their Treatment ......................... 26
Post Operative Intestinal Obstruction ......................................................... 31
Hematoma, Abscess and Seromas ............................................................ 33
References .................................................................................................. 35
Chapter Five: Aseptic and Antisepic Techniques ................................................................ 36

Introduction ................................................................................................. 36
Choice of Antiseptic ................................................................................... 37
References .................................................................................................. 42
Chapter Six: Suture Materials and Suturing......................................................................... 43

Types of Suture Materials ........................................................................... 43
Suturing Techniques ................................................................................... 44
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Chapter Seven: Wounds- Wound Healing and Care ........................................................... 47
Introduction ................................................................................................. 47
Wound Healing............................................................................................ 47
Wound Assessment and Classification ....................................................... 49
Wound Management ................................................................................... 50
Crush and Avulsion Wounds....................................................................... 53
Wound Complications ................................................................................. 55
Key To the Review Questions ..................................................................... 59
References .................................................................................................. 60
Chapter Eight: Surgical Infections ........................................................................................ 61

Introduction ................................................................................................. 61
Classification .............................................................................................. 62
Pathogenesis .............................................................................................. 62
Specific Types of Infections ........................................................................ 64
Key To the Review Questions ..................................................................... 75
References .................................................................................................. 76
Chapter Nine: Trauma.......................................................................................................... 77

Introduction ................................................................................................. 77
Treatment Priorities ..................................................................................... 78
Road Traffic Accidents ................................................................................ 79
Firearm Injuries ........................................................................................... 80
BURN INJURIES......................................................................................... 81
References .................................................................................................. 85
Head and Spinal Injuries ............................................................................ 86

Head Injury .................................................................................................. 86
Brain Injuries ............................................................................................... 87
Spinal Cord Injuries ..................................................................................... 90
References .................................................................................................. 93
Chapter Ten: Orthopedic Surgery ........................................................................................ 94

Introduction ................................................................................................. 94
Infections of Bones and Joints .................................................................... 94
Fractures ..................................................................................................... 97
Dislocations ................................................................................................. 102
Amputations ................................................................................................ 103
References .................................................................................................. 106
Chapter Eleven: Anesthesia................................................................................................. 107

Pre-Anesthetic Patient Evaluation and Preparation.................................... 107
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Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation .................................................................. 111
Systemic (General) Anesthesia .................................................................. 115
Regional Anesthesia ................................................................................... 118
References .................................................................................................. 125
SYSTEMIC SURGERY
Chapter One: The Thyroid Gland ......................................................................................... 126

Thyroid Enlargement: Goiter ....................................................................... 126
Neoplasms of the Thyroid ........................................................................... 130
References .................................................................................................. 133
Chapter Two: The Breast ..................................................................................................... 134

Introduction ................................................................................................. 134
Anatomy ..................................................................................................... 134
Breast Lumps .............................................................................................. 135
Carcinoma of the Breast ............................................................................. 137
References .................................................................................................. 141
Chapter Three: The Chest ................................................................................................... 142

Introduction ................................................................................................. 142
Upper Airway Obstruction ........................................................................... 142
Tracheostomy ............................................................................................. 143
Chest Injuries .............................................................................................. 146
Pneumothorax ............................................................................................. 149
Hemothorax................................................................................................. 149
Tube Thoracostomy (Chest Tube) .............................................................. 150
Empyema and Lung Abscess ..................................................................... 152
Lung Abscess.............................................................................................. 154
References .................................................................................................. 157
Chapter Four: Gastrointestinal Tract.................................................................................... 158

Introduction ................................................................................................. 158
Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding ................................................................. 159
Colorectal Tumors ....................................................................................... 164
Common Perianal Conditions ..................................................................... 166
Anal Fissure (Fissure in ANO) .................................................................... 170
Hemorrhoids (Piles) .................................................................................... 171
References .................................................................................................. 175
Acute Abdomen........................................................................................... 176

Intestinal Obstruction .................................................................................. 177
Sigmoid Volvulus......................................................................................... 179
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Appendicitis ................................................................................................. 180
Peritonitis .................................................................................................... 183
Hepato Biliary Diseases .............................................................................. 185
Hydatid Cyst of the Liver ............................................................................. 187
Diseases of Gall Bladder and Biliary Tree .................................................. 189
Obstructive Jaundice................................................................................... 193
Abdominal Wall Hernias ............................................................................. 198

Introduction ................................................................................................. 198
Risk Factors for Abdominal Wall Hernia Development ............................... 199
Specific Types of Hernia ............................................................................. 200
References .................................................................................................. 205
Stomach and Duodenum ............................................................................ 206

Introduction ................................................................................................. 206
Peptic Ulcer Disease ................................................................................... 206
Gastric Cancer ............................................................................................ 211
DYSPHAGIA ............................................................................................. 214

Introduction ................................................................................................. 214
Dysphagia ................................................................................................... 214
Carcinoma of the Esophagus...................................................................... 215
References .................................................................................................. 219
Chapter Five: Urology .......................................................................................................... 220

Introduction ................................................................................................. 220
Urinary Symptoms and Investigations of Urinary Tract Problems .............. 220
Acute Renal Failure (Anuria/Oliguria) ......................................................... 222
Disorder of the Kidneys and Ureters ........................................................... 223
Urinary Tract Infection ................................................................................. 224
Renal Tuberculosis ..................................................................................... 226
Urinary Bladder ........................................................................................... 230
Bladder Cancer ........................................................................................... 231
Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia ...................................................................... 231
The Urethra and Penis ................................................................................ 233
Urethral Stricture ......................................................................................... 234
References .................................................................................................. 239
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CHAPTER ONE
SHOCK
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, each student should be able to:
• State the clinical definition of shock

• List the chief characteristics and causes of all types of shock
• Describe the clinical symptoms and signs that are indicative of shock
• List the immediate treatment measures to prevent complications
Introduction
Shock is a life-threatening condition which occurs when the circulatory system fails to deliver
oxygen and nutrients to the body tissues and becomes unable to remove waste products
from the body. It is a descriptive term based on the symptoms and signs secondary to one or
more of a wide range of problems. If not recognized and corrected as early as possible,
shock may rapidly progress to an irreversible state with subsequent multi-organ failure and
death.
DEFINITION
Shock is defined as a pathological state causing inadequate oxygen delivery to the
peripheral tissues and resulting in lactic acidosis, cellular hypoxia and disruption of normal
metabolic condition.
CLASSIFICATION
Shock is generally classified into three major categories:
1. Hypovolemic shock
2. Cardiogenic shock
3. Distributive shock
Distributive shock is further subdivided into three subgroups:
a. Septic shock
b. Neurogenic shock
c. Anaphylactic shock
Hypovolemic shock is present when marked reduction in oxygen delivery

results from diminished cardiac output secondary to inadequate vascular volume.
In general, it results from loss of fluid from circulation, either directly or indirectly.
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e.g. ▪ Hemorrhage
Loss of plasma due to burns
Loss of water and electrolytes in diarrhea
Third space loss (Internal fluid shift into inflammatory exudates in
the peritoneum, such as in pancreatitis.)
Cardiogenic shock is present when there is severe reduction in oxygen delivery

secondary to impaired cardiac function. Usually it is due to myocardial infarction
or pericardial tamponade.
Septic Shock (vasogenic shock) develops as a result of the systemic effect of

infection. It is the result of a septicemia with endotoxin and exotoxin release by
gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. Despite normal or increased cardiac
output and oxygen delivery, cellular oxygen consumption is less than normal due
to impaired extraction as a result of impaired metabolism.
Neurogenic shock results primarily from the disruption of the sympathetic

nervous system which may be due to pain or loss of sympathetic tone, as in
spinal cord injuries.
PATHO PHYSIOLOGY OF SHOCK

Shock stimulates a physiologic response. This circulatory response to hypotension is to
conserve perfusion to the vital organs (heart and brain) at the expense of other tissues.
Progressive vasoconstriction of skin, splanchnic and renal vessels leads to renal cortical
necrosis and acute renal failure. If not corrected in time, shock leads to organ failure and
sets up a vicious circle with hypoxia and acidosis.
CLINICAL FEATURES
The clinical presentation varies according to the cause. But in general patients with
hypotension and reduced tissue perfusion presents with:
Tachycardia
Feeble pulse
Narrow pulse pressure
Cold extremities (except septic shock)
Sweating, anxiety
Breathlessness / Hyperventilation
Confusion leading to unconscious state
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Summary: Clinical features of hypovolemic shock in adults with estimated volume loss.
Estimated blood loss 750-1500ml 1500ml-2000ml >2000 ml
Blood pressure Normal Reduced Severely Reduced

Pulse rate >100/min >120/m >140/m
very feeble
Capillary refill Slow Slow Undetectable
Respiratory rate 20-30/m 30-40/m >35/m
Urinary flow rate 20-30/hr 10-20/hr 0-10/hr
(Normal: 30-60 ml/hr or 0.5-
1ml/kg/hr)
Mental state(CNS) Anxious confused Lethargic, comatose
MANAGEMENT OF SHOCK
Treatment is aimed at restoring oxygen delivery to the cells of vital organs as rapidly as
possible. The management depends on the cause and type of shock.
General Management
• Monitor the airway, breathing and circulation as first priority
• Stop bleeding
• Fluid resuscitation, preferably crystalloids
• Head down position
• Treat the cause
• Transfusion of compatible blood if indicated
• Oxygen and other supportive measures like inotropic agents
• Monitoring of resuscitation effectiveness: e.g. determine hourly urine output,
blood pressure and pulse rate
Specific Management
Hypovolemic Shock: The goal of treatment is to restore vascular volume. This is
effected by:
General approach as above
Fluid and blood replacement
Oxygen support etc.
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Septic Shock
Initial management as above
Appropriate antibiotics especially for gram-negative microorganisms
Inotropic support such as adrenaline and dopamine
Surgical eradication of the infection focus
Cardiogenic shock
Inotropes
Treat the causes
Etc.
Neurogenic shock
Pain relief
Treat the causes, give supportive measures like inotropic support
COMPLICATIONS OF SHOCK
The main complications of severe shock include:
1. Shock lung (ARDS)
2. Acute renal failure
3. Gastrointestinal ulceration
4. Disseminated intravascular clotting
5. Multiorgan failure
6. Death
Therefore, a patient in shock requires immediate emergency treatment. Early diagnosis and
immediate correction of shock prevents permanent organ damage and death.
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CHAPTER TWO
FLUID AND ELECTOLYTES
Learning Objective
At the end of this chapter, the learner should know:
• The anatomy and physiology of body fluids and electrolytes

• The common fluid and electrolyte changes, their causes and management
• The common acid base imbalances and their treatment
Introduction
Knowledge about fluid electrolyte and acid base changes and their management is basic to
the care of the surgical patient. Many disease processes result in changes that could result
in rapid deterioration of the patient and death. Anyone caring for surgical patients should
have a basic knowledge of fluid, electrolyte, acid and base disturbances, as well as their
causes and their management.
DEFINITIONS
Moles or millimoles: number of particles present per unit volume
Equivalents or milliequivalents: number of electric charges per unit volume.
Osmoles or milliosmoles: number of osmotically active particles or ions per unit volume.
A mole of a substance is the molecular weight of that substance in grams. An equivalent of

an ion is its atomic weight expressed in grams divided by the valence. In case of univalent
ions, one milliequivalent (meq) is the same as one millimole. In case of divalent ions such as
calcium or magnesium, one mole equals two meq. When the osmotic pressure of a solution
is considered, it is more descriptive to use units of osmole or milliosmole.
These units refer to the actual number of osmotically active particles present in solution but
they are not dependent on the chemical combining capacities of the substances. Thus, a
millimole of sodium chloride which dissociated into sodium and chloride contributes 2
milliosmole.
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION OF BODY FLUIDS
Total body water
The total body water constitutes 50 – 85% of total body weight depending on age and lean
body mass (muscle mass). In regard to this, 55% - 60% of body weight for a 70 Kg young
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man is water. Females have lower body water (45 –60%) because of the high fat content of
their body. The total body water in neonates is 80%-85%, which is higher than in adults.
Total body water is further divided into two:

1. Intracellular fluid, comprising 2/3 of total body water
2. Extra cellular fluid, comprising 1/3 of total body water. The extra cellular fluid is
sub divided into Intravascular (plasma) comprising 2/3 of extra cellular fluid and
Interstitial which comprises 1/3 of extra cellular fluid.
N.B. Physiologically all compartments of body water are interdependent.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF BODY FLUID COMPARTMENTS
CATIONS ANIONS CATIONS ANIONS CATIONS ANIONS

154meq/l 154 meq/L
C 200 meq/L 200 meq/L 154meq/l 154 meq/L
103 NA+ 144 CL 114 K+ 150 HPO4=
+
NA 142 HC3- 27 HCO3- 30 So4= 150
SO4- 3 SO4- 3
PO4
-
PO4- Mg ++ 40 HCOc3- 10
k+ 4 ORGANIC K+ Organic
ca ++ 5 ACID 5 Ca++ 3 Acid 5 Na+ Protein 40
Mg ++ 3 Protein 16 Mg ++ protein 1
Plasma Intracellular fluid Interstitial fluid
AVERAGE DAILY WATER EXCHANGE
Out put Urine: 1500 ml

Insensible loss: 1000 ml (up to 1700 in hot climate)
Stool: 200 ml
Total: 2700-3400ml
Intake Endogenous: 200 ml (from oxidation of ingested food.)
Net requirement: 2500-3200
N.B: A minimum urinary output of approximately 400 ml in 24 hours is required to excrete

the end products of metabolism.
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Commonly available replacement fluids
Ions Carbohydrate Used for replacement of

(millimol per liter) (gram per liter)
Fluid Na+ Cl Ka+
Physiologic saline 154 154 0 0 Blood/ extra cellular fluid loss

( Normal saline)
Hartmann’s solution 131 112 5 0 Blood, intracellular fluid loss
( Ringer’s lactate)
(Contains lactate and
calcium) 0 0 0 50 Maintenance and for medication
5% glucose in water
(D/W)
DISTURBANCES OF FLUID AND ELECTROLYTES
CLASSIFICATION
Disturbances in body fluids can be classified into three:

• Disturbance in fluid volume
• Disturbance in composition
• Disturbance in acid base balance
DISTURBANCE IN FLUID VOLUME

Volume deficit
Extra cellular fluid (ECF) volume deficit is the most common fluid volume disorder in the
surgical patient. The lost fluid is not water alone, but water and electrolytes in approximately
the same proportion as they exist in normal extra cellular fluid.
Causes
• Losses of gastro-intestinal fluids: e.g. vomiting, gastric tube, diarrhea and entero-
cutaneous fistulas
• Sequestration or loss of fluid in soft tissue injuries and infections such as burns
• Intra-abdominal and retroperitoneal inflammatory processes such as peritonitis,
intestinal obstruction, etc.
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Clinical feature
Depends on the severity of fluid loss
Moderate (5-10%): sleepiness, orthostatic hypotension
Severe (more than 15%): signs of hypotension, stupor or coma, sunken eye balls,
dry oral mucosa and tongue, poor skin turgor and decrease in body
temperature.
Treatment
Placement of extra cellular loss with fluid of similar composition:
Blood loss: Replace with Ringer’s Lactate, Normal Saline or Blood, if needed
Extra cellular fluid: Replace with Ringer’s Lactate, Normal Saline
Rate of fluid replacement

The Rate depends on the degree of dehydration. It should be fast until the vital signs
are corrected and adequate urine output is achieved. One liter over 30 minutes to one
hour can be given for severe dehydration.
Monitoring
The general condition and the vital signs of the patient should be followed.
The urine out put should be monitored hourly.
Auscultate the chest to follow overload especially in children and the elderly.
Volume Excess
Extra cellular fluid volume excess is generally iatrogenic or secondary to renal insufficiency,
cirrhosis, or congestive heart failure.
Clinical feature
Subcutaneous edema, basilar rales on chest auscultation, distention of peripheral veins, and
functional murmurs may be detected. Children, the elderly, patients with cardiac or renal
problems are at increased risk of dangers of fluid replacement.
Treatment
Stop IV fluids (Fluid restriction)
Diuretics: e.g. frusemide
DISTURBANCE IN ELECTROLYTES
Even though there can be disturbance in any of the electrolytes, the most commonly
encountered ones are discussed here.
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Sodium (Na+)
• It is the most abundant caution of the extra cellular fluid
• After trauma and surgery, there is a period of shut down of sodium excretion for up to
48 hours. During this period, it may not be advisable to administer large quantities of
isotonic saline.
• The concentration of serum sodium is not related to the volume status of extra-
cellular fluid. A severe volume deficit may exist with a normal low or high serum level.
• Daily requirement of sodium is one millimol/kg. The excretion of sodium by the
kidneys is under the control of aldosterone.
Sodium depletion (Hyponatremia): Na+ less than 130 milliequivalent/liter

Hyponatremia can be associated with
1. Volume depletion, sodium and water depletion. Most frequent cause of sodium
and water depletion in surgery is small intestinal obstruction. Duodenal, Biliary,
pancreatic and high intestinal fistula are also causes of hyponatremia.
2. Water intoxication with excess volume and edema, over-prescribing of
intravenous 5% D/W and colorectal washouts with plain water
Clinical feature
It can present with signs and symptoms of either fluid excess or fluid overload
depending on the primary cause.
Laboratory:
Serum sodium and other electrolytes, hematocrit drops
Treatment
Ringer’s Lactate or Normal Saline In cases of volume depletion.
Fluid restriction and sodium sparing diuretics In case of fluid excess.
Sodium Excess (Hypernatremia): Na+ more than 145 mmol
Causes
Excessive water loss in burns or sweating, insensible losses through the lungs.
Excess amount of 0.9% saline solution is given IV during the early operative period
where there is some degree of retention of sodium.
Clinical feature
Depending on the cause it can be of fluid excess or fluid deficit.
Treatment
5% D/W can be infused slowly
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Potassium (K+)
Potassium is the most abundant intracellular cation. 98% of potassium is found intracellular
with ¾ of the total body potassium in skeletal muscles. The average daily requirement is 1
mmol/kg.
Potassium depletion (Hypokalemia): K + less than 3.5 millimol
Causes
1. Loss in gastrointestinal secretions such as vomiting in GOO or diarrhea
2. Movement of potassium into cells e.g. in alkalosis
3. Prolonged administration of potassium free parenteral fluids with continued
obligatory renal loss of potassium
4. Excessive renal excretion – e.g. Diuretic use.
Clinical features
Most patients are asymptomatic. Clinical symptoms and signs such as listlessness,
slurred speech, muscular hypotonia, and depressed reflexes are presenting features.
Abdominal distention results due to paralytic ileus.
Treatment
Oral potassium in the form of milk, meat extracts, fruit juices, honey and KCl tablets
40 mmol KCl IV added to 1 liter of fluid run over 6 -8 hours. Never directly IV.
Correct the underlying cause
N.B.:- Administration should be properly controlled, the level of potassium should be
checked daily and the urine out put must be adequate.
Potassium Excess (Hyperkalemia): K + more than 5 mmol

Significant quantity of intracellular potassium is released into the extra cellular space
in response to severe injury, surgery, acidosis and a catabolic state. A significant rise
in serum potassium concentration may occur in these states in the presence of
oliguric or anuric renal failure. A renal insufficiency with hypoaldosteronism can
cause hyperkalemia.
Clinical features
Nausea, vomiting, intermittent intestinal colic and diarrhea are the presenting
pictures. Cardiovascular signs are apparent on ECG with high peaked T waves,
widened QRS complex and depressed ST segment. Disappearance of T waves,
heart block and cardiac arrest may develop with increasing levels of potassium.
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Treatment
Measures to reduce K+ level:
Administration of bicarbonate and glucose with insulin. 10 to 20 units of regular
insulin and 25 to 50 g of glucose can be used.
10 ml of 10% calcium gluconate to suppress the myocardial effect
Enteral administration of cation exchange resign (Kayexalate).
Dialysis
Avoid exogenous potassium
Calcium (Ca++)
Normal serum level is 8.5 to 10 .5 mg/dl. An increase in pH causes a fall in the ionized
proportion of calcium. Calcium imbalance is not frequently encountered.
Hypocalcaemia (serum level below 8mg/dl)

Common causes include:
Hypoparathyroidism after thyroid surgery
Acute pancreatitis
Massive soft tissue infection (necrotizing fascitis) and
Pancreatic and small bowel fistulas
Clinical feature
Latent hypocalcemia: Positive Chovestek’s and Trousseu’s sign.
Symptomatic: Numbness and tingling, hyperactive tendon reflexes, muscle and
abdominal cramp, tetany with carpopedal spasm and convulsions.
Treatment
IV Calcium gluconate (10ml of 10% solution over 10 minute) or calcium chloride.
Calcium lactate may be given orally with or without Vitamin D.
Hypercalcaemia (serum calcium over10.5mg/dl)

Hypercalcaemia occurs with hyperparathyroidism, Vitamin D intoxication, cancer and
prolonged immobilization. It is uncommon in surgical patients.
Clinical feature
Most are asymptomatic. Symptoms can include fatigue, lassitude, weakness of varying
degree, anorexia, nausea and vomiting. Other symptoms include severe headaches,
pain in the back and extremities, thirst, polydypsia and polyuria.
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Treatment
A serum level of calcium of 15 mg/dl or higher requires emergency treatment.
Vigorous volume repletion with salt solutions.
Oral or IV inorganic phosphate or mithramycin.
ACID – BASE BALABCE

Normally, the blood pH lies within the range of 7.36-7.44. The control of this tight balance is
accomplished by:
• Blood buffer:- which includes the bicarbonate and carbonic acid, phosphates ,serum
proteins and meth-hemoglobin( play a greatest role from the blood
buffers)
• The lung:- excretes acid(CO2 )
• Kidney :- the ultimate organ to maintain imbalance to near normal by its capacity to
excrete both acid and base.
Alkalosis (accumulation of Base or loss of acid)
Metabolic Alkalosis
Causes
• Loss of acid from the stomach by repeated vomiting or aspiration
• Excessive ingestion of absorbable alkali
• Hypokalemic alkalosis in patients with pyloric stenosis: potassium loss due to
repeated vomiting.
Clinical Features
• Cheyne-stokes respiration with periods of apnea
• Tetany sometime occurs.
Treatment
• Repletion of volume + potassium (check urine output )
• Use of 0.1 N or 0.2 N HCl is also effective in treatment of resistant metabolic
alkalosis.
Respiratory Alkalosis (PCO2 below the normal range of 31 – 42 mmHg)
Causes
Most common cause is excessive pulmonary ventilation by anesthetized patients in surgical
practice. It can also be caused by hyperventilation due to severe pain, hyper pyrexia and
high altitude.
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Clinical Features
The dangers of a severe respiratory alkalosis are those related to potassium depletion and
include the development of ventricular arrhythmias and fibrillation.
Treatment
Can be corrected by breathing into a plastic bag, or insufflation of carbon dioxide.
Acidosis (accumulation of acid or loss of base)
Metabolic Acidosis
Causes
Increase in fixed acids due to:
• Anaerobic tissue metabolism (shock, infection, tissue injury)
• Retention of metabolites in renal insufficiency
• Formation of ketone bodies in diabetes or starvation
Loss of bases in:
Chronic diarrhea, gastro colic or high intestinal fistula, excess intestinal aspiration
Clinical Features
Besides signs and symptoms of the primary etiology like shock and infection,
rapid, deep, noisy breathing is found. The urine becomes strongly acidic.
Treatment
Tissue hypoxia should be treated by reperfusion
Sodium bicarbonate can be given where bases have been lost or where the
degree of acidosis is so severe that myocardial function is compromised.
Respiratory Acidosis
Causes
Impaired alveolar ventilation due to:
- Airway obstruction
- Thoracic and upper abdominal incisions, abdominal distention in ileus
- Pulmonary diseases (pneumonia, atelectasis especially post operative
- Inadequate ventilation of the anesthetized patient
Clinical Features
Restlessness, hypertension and tachycardia may indicate inadequate ventilation with
hypercapnia.
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Treatment
Must focus on relieving the primary cause.
Relieving airway obstruction, adequate analgesia, and draining pleural effusion are
some of the definitive measures.
Intubation and mechanical ventilation may be used in severe cases.
ACID BASE BALANCE SUMMARY

Type of
Acid-Base
Disorder Defect Common Causes Compensation
Respiratory Retention of Respiratory center Renal
acidosis CO2 depression: morphine, Retention of bicarbonate,
(Decreased CNS injury, excretion of acid salts,
alveolar Pulmonary disease: increased ammonia
ventilation) emphysema, pneumonia formation
Chloride shift into red cells
Respiratory Excessive Hyperventilation: Renal
alkalosis loss of CO2 Emotional Excretion of bicarbonate,
(increased Severe pain decreased excretion of acid
alveolar Assisted ventilation slats decreased ammonia
ventilation) Encephalitis formation
Metabolic Retention of Diabetes, Pulmonary (rapid)
acidosis fixed acids or Azotemia, Increased rate and depth of
Loss of base Lactic acid accumulation, breathing
bicarbonate Starvation. Renal (slow)
Diarrhea, As in respiratory acidosis
Small-bowel fistula
Metabolic Loss of fixed Vomiting Pulmonary (rapid)
alkalosis acids Gastric suction Decrease rate and depth of
Gain of base (pyloric obstruction) breathing
bicarbonate Excessive bicarbonate Renal (slow)
Potassium intake As in respiratory alkalosis
depletion Diuretics
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Review Questions
1. What types of acids base balance and electrolyte changes will a patient with GOO
have? Which kind of fluid will you use for resuscitation?
2. What is the role of the kidney in electrolyte and acid -base balance?
3. What are the buffer systems of the body? Which is the most rapid one?
4. Outline treatment of a patient with metabolic acidosis
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References
1. Bialy & Love – Short Practice of Surgery, 23rd edition
2. Schwartz, Principles of Surgery, 7th edition, short pimple year of surgery
3. Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine, 14th edition
4. General Surgery at the District Hospital, WHO 1998.
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CHAPTER THREE
BLOOD TRANSFUSION
Learning objectives
After reading this chapter students should be able to:
1. Identify indications for blood transfusion
2. Mention types of blood component therapy
3. Know blood transfusion reactions and their preventions
Definition
Blood transfusion is the procedure of introducing the blood of a donor, or pre-donated blood
by a recipient into the recipient’s bloodstream.
Indications for blood transfusion

The need for blood transfusion in patients with acute hemorrhage is based on
• The volume lost
• The rate of bleeding
• The hemodynamic status of the patient; hematocrit may be normal if determined.
• A patient with acute blood loss of more than 2000ml certainly requires replacement of
blood. It must be remembered that crystalloid infusions should be provided while the
blood compound is obtained.
For patients with chronic blood loss or chronic anemia replacement of blood (RBC) should
be based on the hematocrite level. The optimal hematocrite is considered to be in the range
of 30%. But patients with chronic anemia (e.g. renal failure) seem to tolerate hematocrite as
low as 18%-20%. Symptomatic patients exhibiting air hunger, dizziness, significant
tachycardia or cardiac failure should, of course, be transfused.
Component therapy is indicated when specific factor deficiencies are demonstrated. For
instance, factor VIII concentrates is the preferred mode of therapy for classic hemophilia.
Compatibility tests
If administrated blood is incompatible with the patients own blood, life threatening reactions
may result. Blood banks routinely test for incompatibilities of the ABO and RH systems.
Cross matches allow for detection of rare antibodies (e.g. kell, duffy, kidd) that are not
detected in ABO and RH tests. Group-A contains anti-B antibodies, Group-B contains anti-A
antibodies, Group-O contains anti-A and anti B antibodies. AB-group can receive any blood.
17
Blood prepared after a full typing and cross match can be transfused safely in 99.95%
cases. In some instances when fully cross- matched compatible blood is depleted or
unavailable; type specific or O negative blood should be given. Type O Rh negative blood
can be transfused without lysine the recipients blood.. Irregular recipient antibodies cannot
be detected and extra vascular hemolysis can also occur. Overall, O negative blood, if
randomly transfused, has a serologic safety of about 99.8%.
Component therapy
Treatment of specific hematologic abnormality often requires only a single component of

whole blood. For example, factor VIII for classic hemophilic or platelet transfusion for
patients with bone marrow suppression. Blood banks reduce the whole blood received from
donors to a variety of components. The available products include whole blood, red blood
cells, white blood cells, platelet concentrates and plasma in several forms.
Cellular component
Whole blood
This is collected in citrate phosphate dextrose- adenine solution (CPDA-) and contains 450
ml of whole blood and approximately 60ml of anticoagulant preservative. When it is used
within 24 hours it is considered fresh, whole blood and after this time it is referred to as
stored. Whole blood has a shelf life of 35 days. In acute massive hemorrhage transfusion
with one unit of whole blood raises the recipient’s hematocrite by 3%.
Packed RBC
These are the remains after the plasma has been separated from whole blood. One unit
raises the recipient’s hematocrite by 3%. Packed RBC may be warmed to a temperature not
exceeding 370 c before transfusion. The storage life of red blood cells is 35 days.
Platelet concentrate
Platelets are separated from one unit of blood and suspended in a small volume of the
original plasma. Depending on this technique, platelets may be stored for 3-7 days. One unit
of platelet concentrate contains about 5.5×1010 platelets and increases the platelet count by
5000/ml. For a patient with platelet count below 25,000/mm3, 6-8 units are usually given.
Platelet concentrate must be administered through a special platelet filter.
18
Plasma components
Fresh frozen plasma
This is anti-coagulated plasma separated from a person’s blood and frozen within 6 hours of
the time of collection. It may be stored up to 1 year. It contains all clotting factors and also
provides proteins for volume expansion.
Cryoprecipitate
This is a protein fraction removed from a unit of fresh frozen plasma that is thawed at 40c.
This white precipitate is then removed and frozen. It has a shelf life of about 1 year. It
contains factor VIII, fibrinogen and factor XIII. It is used for the treatment of:
classic hemophilia,
certain consumptive coagupathies such as DIC or
Other clotting abnormalities with specific therapy commonly not available.
Albumin
This is a plasma component used for oncotic support and plasma expansion. Its
disadvantages are rapid excretion as well as expense.
Plasma protein fraction
Similar to albumin but contains additional protein molecules.
Complications and risks of blood transfusion

Hemolytic transfusion reactions
Intravascular hemolytic transfusion reactions; are potentially life threatening reactions that
can occur by blood transfusion. They are almost always due to incompatibility of the ABO
system involving the donor red blood cells and recipient plasma. These reactions are very
rare occurring in 1 out of 15,000 -20,000 transfusions.
Pathophysiology
During hemolytic transfusion reaction all donor cells hemolyze, leading to hemoglobinemia,
hemoglobinuria and renal failure. These reactions also activate the complement system with
subsequent release of vasoacative amines causing hypotension. Complement activation
also initiates the clotting mechanism which can produce intravascular thrombosis, DIC and
hemorrhage
19
Clinical manifestation: Patient often experiences fever, chills and dyspnea.
Treatment
Stop transfusion immediately

Administration of fluids and diuresis with mannitol or frusemide
Transfused blood with patients blood sample should be sent for analysis
Sodium bicarbonate may prevent precipitation of hemoglobin in the renal tubules
Steroids may ameliorate the immunologic consequences.
Transfusion reactions from mismatches involving the Rh system or minor antibodies usually
induce extravascular hemolysis, since these reactions occur slowly, serious complications
do not often develop.
Non-hemolytic transfusion reaction
Non-hemolytic reaction may occur after transfusions.
Febrile reaction: occurs in 0.5% -1% of all transfusions and is usually treated with
antipyretic drugs.
Allergic reaction: occurs in 2-3% of all transfusion and manifests by urticaria and
rashes. Antihistamins, steroids or epinephrine as indicated can accomplish
treatment.
Transmission of disease: With the exception of albumin and PPF, the use of all
blood products carries risk of transmitting infectious diseases. These include:
• hepatitis
• malaria
• Epstein- bar virus, cytomegalovirus, brucellosis, trypansomiasis and
other diseases potentially transmitted by blood transfusions
Of great concern these days is the risk of transmission of the HIV virus. It is required
to screen the donated blood using enzyme- linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).
Other complications: Complications that can occur with massive transfusion include
• Citrate toxicity
• Acidosis
• Hyperkalemia
N.B:- As blood transfusion is accompanied by various complications mentioned above, the

decision to transfuse should only be made when it is believed to be life saving.
20
Review Questions
1. What factors determine the need for blood transfusion in patients with chronic blood loss
or chronic anemia?
2. Enumerate the routine compatibility tests performed in blood banks.
3. List the cellular components of blood with their specific importance.
4. Outline the management principle of patients with hemolytic transfusion reaction.
21
References
1. Bailey and Loves: Short Practice of Surgery 22nd, ed.
2. Hardy’s Textbook of Surgery
22
CHAPTER FOUR
PRE-OPERATIVE AND POS-TOPERATIVE CARE
Learning objectives
At the end of this chapter, students are expected to
• Be familiar with pre and post-operative care and complications
• Identify factors which make patients high risk for surgery
• Differentiate postoperative complications
• Manage common post operative complications
Introduction
In the management of patients with surgical procedures, the overall outcome of the
operation mainly depends on the pre-operative diagnosis and the surgical procedure. But in
addition to this, the patient’s pre-operative situation should be well evaluated so as to make
the patient able to withstand the stress of surgery. Factors which make the patient high risk
for surgery should be controlled as much as possible. Also, the patients’ postoperative
course highly depends on the postoperative care given, and anticipation with early diagnosis
and management of postoperative complications.
General consideration
Preoperative evaluation should include a general medical and surgical history, a complete
physical examination and laboratory tests. The most important laboratory tests are:
• Complete blood count
• Blood typing and Rh-factor determination
• Urinalysis
• Chest x-ray
Further laboratory tests should be performed only when indicated by the patients’ medical
condition or by the type of surgery to be performed.
23
Assessment and Minimization of Surgical Risks
Cardiovascular System
Cardiac problems
The preoperative period is associated with significant cardiovascular stress. Patients with
heart disease should be considered high-risk surgical candidates and must be fully
evaluated.
• Patients with symptoms of previously undiagnosed heart disease (E.g. chest
pain, dyspnea, pretibial edema or orthopnea)
• Recent history of congestive heart failure
• Recent myocardial infarction
• Severe hypertension
• Varicose vein and deep venous thrombosis
Such patients should be evaluated with the assistance of medical or cardiology consultation.
The perioperative monitoring, induction, and maintenance techniques of anesthesia, and
post – operative care can be tailored to the specific cardiovascular diseases.
Pulmonary system
The following respiratory tract problems make patients high risk for surgery;
• Upper airway infections

• Pulmonary infections
• Chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases: chronic bronchitis, emphysema, asthma
Elective surgery should be postponed if acute upper or lower respiratory tract infection is
present. Pulmonary infections also predispose to postoperative bronchitis and pneumonia. If
emergency surgery is necessary in the presence of respiratory tract infection, regional
anesthesia should be used if possible and aggressive measures should be taken to avoid
postoperative atelectasis or pneumonia.
Renal system
Renal function should be appraised

• If there is a history of kidney disease, diabetes mellitus and hypertension
• If the patient is over 60 years of age
• If the routine urinalysis reveals proteinuria, casts or red cells
It may be necessary to further evaluate renal function by measuring creatinine clearance,

blood urea nitrogen and plasma electrolyte determination.
24
Rheumatologic system
Anemia
Anemia affects the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood, which can complicate the stress of
surgery. Anemia in pre-operative patients is of iron deficiency type caused by inadequate
diet, chronic blood loss or chronic disease. Care must be taken to differentiate iron
deficiency anemia from other anemias. Iron deficiency anemia is the only type of anemia in
which stained iron deposit cannot be identified in the bone marrow. Megaloblastic, hemolytic
and aplastic anemia usually are easily differentiated from iron deficiency anemia on the
basis of history and simple laboratory examinations. Patients with iron deficiency anemia
respond to oral or parenteral iron therapy. In emergency or urgent cases, a preoperative
blood transfusion preferably with packed red cells may be given.
Thrombocytopenia
The normal platelet count ranges from 150,000 to 350,000/ml. In the patient with
thrombocytopenia but normal capillary function, platelet deficiency begins to manifest itself
clinically as the count falls below 100,000/ml. typical manifestations include
• Petechia
• Epistaxis in both sexes and
• Menorhagia in females of reproductive age
• Uncontrolled bleeding which could be intra or post-operative.
Treatment - treat the underlying cause and support with platelet transfusions and clotting
factors as necessary.
Endocrine system
Diabetes mellitus
Diabetics with poor control are especially susceptible to post-operative sepsis. Preoperative
consultation with an internist may be considered to ensure control of diabetes before, during
and after surgery.
In type - II patients, avoid hypoglycemia by closely monitoring blood sugar on the day of
surgery, and possibly by not using the longer acting oral hypoglycemic agents -2 days before
operation. Insulin dependent diabetics with good control should be given half of their total
morning dose as regular insulin on the morning of surgery. This is preceded or immediately
followed by 5% dextrose solution intravenously to prevent hypoglycemia. Regular insulin
should then be given every 6 hrs based on plasma glucose level. Chronic medical conditions
associated with diabetes may also complicate the preoperative period, e.g. Hypertension,
25
myocardial ischemia which may be silent. These patients should have an extended cardiac
work up and receive metoclopromide as well as a non particulate antacid before surgery.
Thyroid disease
Elective surgery should be postponed when thyroid function is suspected of being either
excessive or inadequate. In Hyperthyroidism, The patient should be rendered euthyroid
before surgery if possible. This may take up to 2 months with anti-thyroid medications.
In hypothyroidism, thyroxin should be started before surgery if possible. In all cases,

treatment should be started with a very low dose of thyroid replacement to avoid sudden and
large workload on the myocardium. The usual tests of thyroid function include T3, T4, and
TSH levels.
In addition to the above discussed factors, there are issues which might need special
consideration in preoperative patients. The diagnosis of early pregnancy must be considered
in the decision to do elective major surgery in reproductive age female.
History of serious reactions or sickness after injections, oral administration or other uses of
substances like narcotics, anesthetics, analgesics, sedatives, antitoxins or antisera should
be sought.
The patients’ general hydration status should be assessed and made optimal. Nutritional
status of the patient also needs evaluation and correction.
After all this, prior to the operation, it is important to have an empty stomach because full
stomach can result in reflux of gastric contents and aspiration pneumonitis. In elective
surgery, patients should not eat or drink anything after midnight on the day before surgery.
Post-operative care, complications and their Treatment
Post-operative care
Post-operative care is care given to patients after an operation in order to minimize post
operative complications. Early detection and treatment of post operative complications is
possible if there is optimal care. Some of the care is given to all post operative patients,
while the rest are specific to the type of operation. Routine cares include:
Immediate care:
a. Vital sign checking
b. Chest auscultation
c. Input and output monitoring
d. Checking for bladder and abdominal distention
e. Potent analgesics for pain relief
26
On subsequent post-operative days:
a. Oral intake can be started
b. Patients encouraged to ambulate
In the following sessions, we will focus on common postoperative complications.
Cardiovascular complications
Shock
Postoperative efficiency of circulation depends on blood volume, cardiac function,

neurovascular tone and adrenal secretions. Shock, or failure of the circulation, may follow:
Excessive blood loss
Escape of vascular fluid into the extra vascular compartments (“third spacing”)
Marked peripheral vasodilatations
Sepsis
Adrenocortical failure
Pain or emotional stress
Airway obstruction
Treatment includes
Arresting hemorrhage
Restore fluid and electrolyte balance
Correct cardiac dysfunction
Establish adequate ventilation
Maintain vital organ function and avert adrenal cortical failure
Control pain and relief apprehension
Blood transfusion if required.
Thrombophlebitis
Superficial thrombophlebitis
It is usually recognized within the first few days after operation.
Clinical features
A segment of superficial saphenous vein becomes inflamed manifested by:

Redness
Localized heat
Swelling
Tenderness
27
Treatment includes
Warm moist packs
Elevation of the extremity
Analgesics
Anticoagulants are rarely indicated when only superficial veins are involved.
Thrombophlebitis of the deep veins
Occurs most often in the calf but may also occur in the thigh or pelvis.
Clinical features
It may be asymptomatic or there may be dull ache or frank pain in the affected leg or calf.
The area may be tender and spasm felt in the same area. Examination may reveal slight
swelling of the calf. Dorsiflexion of the foot may elicit pain in the calf (Homan’s sign). Major
complication is pulmonary embolism.
Treatment
• Elevation of the limbs
• Application of full leg gradient pressure elastic hose
• Anticoagulants
Prevention: Early ambulation
Pulmonary embolism
Pre-disposing factors
Pelvic surgery
Sepsis
Obesity
Malignancy and
History of pulmonary embolism or deep vein thrombosis
It usually occurs around the seventh to tenth post-operative day. The diagnosis should be
suspected if cardiac or pulmonary symptoms occur abruptly.
Clinical features
Patients with large emboli develop chest pain; severe dyspnea, cyanosis, tachycardia,
hypotension or shock, restlessness and anxiety. In small emboli, the diagnosis is suggested
by the sudden onset of pleuritic chest pain sometimes in association with blood-streaked
sputum, and dry cough may develop. Physical examination may elicit pleural friction rub, but
in many cases there are no classical diagnostic signs.
28
Investigation
Chest X-ray- findings are pulmonary opacity in the periphery of the affected lung which is
triangular in shape with the base on pleural surface, enlargement of pulmonary artery, small
pleural effusion and elevated diaphragm. ECG may show characteristic changes.
Treatment
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation measures
Treatment of acid-base abnormality
Treatment of shock. Immediate therapy with heparin is indicated even in the absence
of a definitive diagnosis.
Pulmonary Complications
About 30% of deaths that occur within six weeks after operation are due to pulmonary
complication. Atelectasis, pneumonia, pulmonary embolism and respiratory distress
syndrome from aspiration or sepsis, fluid overload or infection are the most common
pulmonary complications.
Atelectasis
Definition
Atelectasis is a pulmonary complication of early postoperative period. It is a condition

characterized by areas of airway collapse distal to an occlusion.
Predisposing factors
Include chronic bronchitis, asthma, smoking and respiratory infection. Inadequate immediate
postoperative deep breathing and delayed ambulation also increase the risk.
Clinical features
Fever in the immediate post operative period
Increased pulse and respiratory rate
Cyanosis
Shortness of breath
Dull percussion note with absent breath sounds
Investigation
X-ray findings include patchy opacity and evidence of mediastinal shift towards the
atelectatic lung.
29
Prevention and treatment
Encourage to stop smoking
Treat chronic lung diseases
Postpone elective surgery in presence of respiratory tract infections
Post operatively, encourage sitting, early ambulation and breathing exercise while
administering analgesics
Intensive chest physical therapy
Supplemental oxygen
Pneumonia and aspiration pneumonitis
Pneumonia may follow atelectasis or aspiration of vomits or other fluids. Preexisting

bronchitis also predisposes to this complication.
Clinical features
Fever in the first few postoperative days
Respiratory difficulty
Cough becomes productive
Physical examination may reveal evidence of pulmonary consolidation
Investigation
Chest-x-ray may show diffuse patchy infiltrates or lobar consolidation.
Chance of pulmonary aspiration can be minimized by

- Fasting
- Naso-gastric tube decompression
If aspiration of gastric content occurs; an endotracheal tube should be placed and the air
way suctioned and lavaged.
Treatment of pneumonia includes:

Deep breathing and coughing
Change position frequently to encourage expectoration
Broad spectrum antibiotics therapy should be instituted and revised as indicated by
subsequent sputum culture and sensitivity
Gastrointestinal complication
Paralytic Ileus
It is a functional intestinal obstruction usually noted within the first 48-72 hours
30
Clinical features
Abdominal distention
Absent bowel sounds
Generalized tympanicity on percussion
Investigation
Plain x-ray-generalized dilatation and gaseous distention of the bowel loops
Treatment
NGT decompression
Fluid and electrolyte balance
Post operative intestinal obstruction
Causes
Peritonitis
Peritoneal irritation
Fibrinous adhesion
Clinical features
Manifests between the 5th and 6th postoperative day
Significant and protracted vomiting
Crampy abdominal pain
Focal typmpanicity of the abdomen on percussion
Exaggerated bowel sounds
Investigation
Plain film of the abdomen usually reveals distension of a portion of small bowel with air fluid
levels.
Treatment
Vigorous hydration and careful electrolyte monitoring is needed. This often results in re-
alignments of the bowel loops and relief of the obstruction. Patient should be kept NOP and
NGT inserted for decompression. If the obstruction doesn’t respond within 48-72 hours, re-
operation is necessary.
URINARY TRACT COMPLICATIONS
Urinary retention
Urinary retention can follow pelvic operations and when spinal anesthesia is used. Inability of
the patient to void is often due to pain caused by using the voluntary muscles to start the
31
urinary stream. The patient should be encouraged to get out of bed. Bladder drainage by
means of a urethral catheter should be instituted.
Urinary tract infection
Pre-existing contamination of the urinary tract
Catheterization
Clinical presentation
• Fever
• Suprapubic or flank tenderness
• Nausea and vomiting
Investigation
-Urine analysis (pus or bacteria will be seen in the urinary sediments)
Treatment
Increase hydration
Encourage activity.
After urine specimen is obtained for culture, appropriate antibiotic therapy should be
instituted
Wound complications
Wound infections
Pre disposing factors
Age
General health
Nutritional status
Personal hygiene habits
Malignancy
Poor surgical technique
Diagnosis: clinical
Fever during the 4th to 5th day

Redness or indurations at operation site
32
Treatment
Sutures should be removed
The wound should be explored and cultured
Ample drainage should be established together with local wound care
Appropriate antibiotics if systemic manifestations like fever are persistent.
Hematoma, Abscess and Seromas

These may occur either in the pelvis or under the fascia of abdominal rectus muscle. They
are suspected during falling of hematocrite in association with low-grade fever. Small
hematoma or seroma often resolve spontaneously, but some can become infected.
Ultrasonography is an excellent adjunct to physical examination. Drainage of infected
hematoma should be accomplished extraperitoneally.
33
Review Questions
1. What are the important components of preoperative patient evaluation?
2. List important laboratory investigations which need to be done in almost all pre-operative
patients despite the specific diagnosis.
3. What are the risks of untreated respiratory tract infection in surgery?
4. Why is diabetes mellitus considered to be pre operative risk?
5. About post-operative shock

a) List the causes, what is the commonest cause?
b) What are the clinical manifestations?.
c) What are the important measures to be taken to combat shock?
6. What is the most common cause of fever in the immediate postoperative period ?
7. Outline the care for an infected post-operative wound.
34
References
1. Bailey and Loves: Short practice of Surgery, 22nd ed.
3. Current Textbook of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 8th ed.
35
CHAPTER FIVE
ASEPTIC AND ANTISEPIC TECHNIQUES
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, the student should know

1. The definition of the different terms used in asepsis and antisepsis
2. The properties of the most frequently used antiseptics and their use in surgical
and traumatic wounds.
3. How choose the most suitable antiseptics for his/her institution
Introduction
The most serious outcome (important factor) of impaired wound healing is infection.
Antiseptics and aseptic techniques are used in an attempt to prevent contamination to an
acceptable level making the wound less receptive to bacterial growth. It should be noted,
however, that the corner stones in decreasing wound infection are: gentle tissue handling,
sharp dissection, good homeostasis, and accurate apposition of wound edge without
tension. Proper wound debridement (wound excision) is vital in post traumatic wounds to
prevent infection.
Therefore, knowledge of aseptic and antiseptic techniques is very important for the medical
practitioner, be it in the ward, minor/major operation theaters or in the emergency out patient
department: this knowledge can help prevent infection, unnecessary morbidity and some
times mortality of patients.
DEFINITIONS
Aseptic technique: the prevention of microbial contamination of tissues and sterile
materials by excluding, removing or killing microorganisms
Disinfection: involves the killing or removal of sufficient microbes to render an inanimate

object safe for its intended purpose
Antiseptics: Chemicals which can be applied to living tissues to kill or inhibit the growth of
microbes.
Cross infection: the transfer of microbes in hospitalized patients to other patients.
36
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Auto infection: infection caused by organisms already colonizing the patient’s body or in
septic lesions.
CHOICE OF ANTISEPTIC
The ideal antiseptic will have the following four properties

a. The spectrum of activity would be broad
b. It would be resistant to inactivation by organic materials, such as blood & feces
c. There would be no toxicity or allergic reaction, and the antiseptic should be non –
staining
d. It would be inexpensive.
USE OF ANTISEPTICS AND ASEPTIC TECHNIQUES
Prevention of infection in surgical wounds
For prevention of infection in surgical wounds one has to identify the sources and routes of
infection. The source of infection in surgical wounds can be:
• The patient
• Staff (a healthy carrier, incubating an infectious disease or with overt clinical illness)
• The operation room
• Occasionally instruments.
The routes of infection are

• Personal contact: patient -to- patient, patient -to- staff, staff -to-patient
• Airborne
Ward and OPD
Patient:-
Common organisms in the absence of infection are gram-positives like
Staphylococcus and streptococcus found on the skin resisting dryness. Gram-

negatives are not resistant and are not common causes in clean wounds.
Preventative Measures
• Short hospital stay preoperatively
• Shower a day before surgery
• Treatment of any infectious site before surgery
• Aseptic methods with sterile equipment for all procedures.
• Special preparations e.g. bowel preparation for colonic surgery
37
Staff:-
Preventative Measures to be taken

• Skin disinfection between contact with patients by detergent (soap and water)
in the wards or OPD and use of antiseptic in intensive care and neonatal
units.
• Treatment for identified carriers and full blown cases e.g. boils
• Prophylactic antibiotics when indicated
Operating Theater
Most bacteria infecting surgical incisions are implanted during the operation. Therefore strict
asepsis has to be maintained.
Staff
Wear clean clothes, shoes or covers, mask and cap or hood beyond the green line
Scrubbing up of all operating team before each operation for at least 5 minutes with
an antiseptic soap or detergent. To prevent skin damage, brushes should be used
only to clean under the nails. Finally, dry with sterile towel and apply 70% alcohol
or Povidone iodine if available.
Put on sterile gloves and gowns in an aseptic manner
Patient
• Shave hair immediately before surgery
• Clean the operation field with antiseptic containing:
- Chlorohexidin and 2.5% Iodine for adults
- 70% alcohol for children
- Podovine Iodine for all ages if available
• Finally, cover with sterile drapes.
Operating Room
There are few bacteria in the air of an empty theatre but every individual liberates about
10,000 organisms per minute into the air. Therefore, to decrease airborne infections, keep
the number of personnel reduced to a minimum. Unnecessary movement should also be
discouraged.
There should be adequate ventilation for most procedures. If there is no system to provide
this, windows should be open to allow ingress of fresh outside air and escape of anesthetic
gases.
Keep all doors closed except as needed for passage of equipment and personnel.
38
Clean operating rooms between operations. At regular intervals, conduct a more thorough
cleaning by mopping the floor and washing the walls with detergents.
Instruments
All instruments and garments to be used in surgical procedures must be sterile and this is
attained by sterilization.
Sterilization: - is a process by which inanimate objects are made free of all microorganisms.
Widely used methods of sterilization in a hospital are.
Autoclaving: - This is the preferred method of sterilization. It uses steam at a pressure of 750
mmHg above atmospheric pressure and temperature of 1200 C for 15-30
minutes. The steam is helpful for penetration even into spores. Appropriate
indicators must be used each time to show that the sterilization is
accomplished.
Dry heat:-
This is a poor alternative but suitable for metal instruments. It uses a temperature of 1700C
for two hours.
N.B. Boiling is an unreliable means of sterilization and it is not recommended.
APPENDIX: properties of commonly used antiseptics
Alcohols (e.g. ethyl, isopropyl): -
Broad spectrum, rapid action, moderately expensive, most active against bacteria at
70% concentration
Chlorhexidine:-
Good activity against staphylococci and streptococci, moderate activity against gram-
negative bacteria, persistent action, moderately expensive, non-toxic, unpleasant taste
Iodine (lugols solution):-
Broad spectrum, cheap, stains, hypersensitive
Povidone iodine:-
Broad spectrum, moderately expensive, some hypersensitivity, rapid inactivation by

blood
Hexachlorophane:-
Slow, but cumulative action against staphylococci and streptococci, systemic toxicity for
neonates, moderately expensive
39
Triclosan:-
Similar activity but less toxic than hexachlorophene
Chlorine (chlorinated lime and Boric acid (Easol):-
Broad spectrum, locally toxic, expensive
Dilute sodium hypochlorite solution:-
Broad spectrum, cheap, locally toxic
Quaternary ammonium compounds :-( e.g. cetrimide in benzalkonium chloride)
Poor gram-negative activity, readily contaminated, detergent, cheap, non-toxic.
Noxythiolin:-
Releases formaldehyde in contact with tissues, broad spectrum, expensive, weak and
slowly bactericidal
Alcohol plus chlorhexidne

Alcohol plus povidon iodine useful mixtures
Chlorhexidine plus cetrimide
40
Review Questions
1. Using your knowledge of the properties of the different antiseptics which one would you
choose for your heath center?
2. Which antiseptics do you recommend for preoperative skin preparation for

adults? What about for children?
3. What is the most important measure you would take for a patient who comes to
the emergency room with a contaminated wound?
41
References
1. General Surgery at the District hospital: WHO 1998.
2. Mark Farrington, Infection and the Surgery, Surgery, The medicine group (UK) ltd, 1988
42
CHAPTER SIX
SUTURE MATERIALS AND SUTURING
Definition
Suture is a thread like material used to close surgical wounds and unite two edges of cut
tissue.
Types of Suture Materials
Suture materials can generally be classified as absorbable and non absorbable.
Absorbable:
This is a type of suture material that gets absorbed by the tissue.
E.g. Catgut (natural or biologic type)
Vicryl (Synthetic)
Non absorbable:
This is a type of suture material that remains unabsorbed by the tissue.
E.g. Silk (natural or biologic type)
Nylon (Synthetic)
SELECTION OF SUTURE MATERIALS
Different surgical stitches are used in various types of tissues for different purposes.
Important factors considered when selecting suture material for surgery include:
• Type and site of the operation

• Healing characteristics of the tissue involved
• Properties of the suture and needle
• Security of knots
• Behavior of the material in presence of infection
• Suture size (The commonest surgical suture size is between 4/0 and 1)
43
SUTURING TECHNIQUES
The basic principles of suturing technique include:
1. Inserting the needle at right angle and gently advance through the tissue
2. Avoiding tension
3. Size and interval between bites are dependent on the tissue thickness and type of
tissue to be sutured
FORMS OF SUTURING TECHNIQUES
Important types of suturing techniques commonly used include:

• Simple interrupted
• Continuous simple
• Vertical and horizontal mattress
• Subcuticular stitches
Figure 1: Simple Interrupted Sutures

Figure 1a Figure 1b
Figure 1c Figure 1d
Useful Tips:
• Insert the needle carefully at right angles to the tissue edges. Advance through,
gently avoiding shearing force.
44
• For long wounds being closed with interrupted sutures, it is advisable to start in the
middle and to keep on halving the wound.
• Tie a careful reef knot and lay to one side of the wound.
• Cut suture end about 0.5cm long to allow length for grasping during removal.
• When removing sutures, cut flush with the tissue surface so that the exposed length
of the suture, which is potentially infected, does not have to pass through the tissues.
Figure 2: Continuous Sutures
Useful Tips:
• Place a single suture and ligate but only cut the short end of the suture.
• Continue to place sutures along the length of the wound keeping tension through an
assistant following by holding the suture at the same tension as it is when handed.
• Take care and avoid too much tension.
• Secure the suture at the end by an additional reef knot.
Figure 3: Mattress Sutures
Fig 3 a: Horizontal Fig 3 b: Vertical
Mattress sutures may be either vertical or horizontal. They may be useful for ensuring either
eversion or inversion of a wound edge.
45
Figure 4: Subcuticular Sutures
This technique may be used with absorbable or non-absorbable sutures. For non-absorbable
sutures, the ends may be secured by means of beads etc. For absorbable sutures, the ends
may be secured by means of buried knots.
Small bites of the subcuticular tissues on alternate sides of the wound are taken and then
pulled carefully together.
46
CHAPTER SEVEN
WOUNDS-WOUND HEALING AND CARE
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, each student will be able to:
• Define a wound clearly

• Understand the types of wounds
• Understand managing wounds according to type
• Understand the process of healing.
Introduction
Successful wound management with rapid and complete healing and minimal complication
depends on understanding the basic principles of assessment, bacteriology and application
of the general principles of wound care.
The primary goal of wound management is to aid the natural body process to produce
optimal functional and cosmetic result. This requires an understanding of the basic principles
of wound care and the process of healing. Failure to do this may result in delay of healing
and unwanted secondary complications which may be distressing to the physician, patient
and family and may lead to greater economic loss.
DEFINITION
Wound is defined as a break in the normal continuity of a tissue. It is caused by a transfer of
any form of energy into the body which can be either to an externally visible structure like the
skin or deeper structures like muscles, tendons or internal organs.
WOUND HEALING
Wound healing is a complex biologic process of restoring normal tissue continuity. There are
integrated sequences of events leading to cellular proliferation and remodeling. under
normal conditions it starts immediately following the event of wounding and passes through
basic mechanisms with the following four phases in all wounds.
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Phases of healing
1-Coagulation phase:
This is the first phase of healing which is induced immediately following injury. It is
characterized by vaso-constriction, clot formation and release of platelets and other
substances necessary for healing and help as a bridge between the two edges.
2- Inflammatory phase:
This phase takes place from time of wounding up to three days. It is characterized by
classical inflammatory response, vasodilatation and pouring out of fluids, migration of
inflammatory cells and leukocytes and rapid epithelial growth.
3- Proliferate Phase:
This phase, also known as phase of fibroplasia, starts around the 3rd day of injury and stays
for about three weeks. This is a phase during which important events occur for healing of the
wound. It is characterized by fibroblast, epithelial and endothelial proliferation, Collagen
synthesis, and ground substance and blood vessel production.
4- Maturation phase:
Also known as phase of remodeling, this takes the longest period which may extend for up to
one year. Equilibrium between protein synthesis and degradation occurs during this phase
with cross linking of collagen bundles leading to slow and continuous increase in tissue
strength of the wound to return to normal.
Clinical types of healing
Traditionally, wound healing can be classified into three clinical types: Healing by first,
second and third intention.
Healing by first intention:
This is a type of healing of clean wound closed primarily to approximate the ends. Healing
takes place by epithelialization and leaves minimal scar.
Healing by Second intention:
This occurs in wide, contaminated wounds, which are not primarily closed. Healing takes
place by granulation tissue formation, tissue contraction and epithelialization.
Healing by third intention:
This occurs in wounds which are left open initially for various reasons and closed later
(delayed primary closure)
48
Factors affecting healing
Healing of a wound can be affected by various conditions. The following are examples of
factors which down grade a healing process.
Local factors
• Ischemia and decreased oxygen tension

• Presence of foreign bodies
• Closure under tension
• Infection
• Irradiation…
Systemic factors
• Systemic diseases like diabetes, cirrhosis, renal failure, malignancy…

• Poor nutritional State (hypo proteinemia vitamin and mineral deficiency)
• Decreased resistance due to immune suppression, chronic infection
• Drug therapy like steroids, cytotoxic agents
WOUND ASSESSMENT AND CLASSIFICATION
Assessment of wounds
For proper wound management, adequate assessment, based on relevant history and
physical examination is important. In the history, one has to answer the following principal
questions:
• How the wound was caused and what caused it? (Mechanism of injury)
• When did the wounding happen? (Time)
• Where was it caused? (Place and circumstances)
• Patient's past and current medical and vaccination/immunization history that
may influence wound healing
Careful physical examination is important to assess the integrity and function of the
structures. General inspection and specific tests have to be done to assess the following
conditions:
• Extent of skin loss

• Degree of circulation
• Damage to nerves, tendons, bone and other structures (deep under) the skin
• The degree of contamination
• Presence of foreign body and tissue necrosis
49
Classification of wounds
Once wound is carefully assessed, it is necessary to classify into a specific type in order to
plan a proper management scheme. There are many approaches of classifying wounds.
However, wounds can generally be grouped into two categories.
Closed wounds: These are wound types, which have an intact epithelial surface, and skin
cover not completely breeched.
Example: Contusion, Bruise, Hematoma
Open wounds: These are wounds caused by injury which leads to a complete breakt of the
epithelial protective surface.
Example: Abrasion, Laceration, Puncture, Missile injuries, Bites…
The following method is the traditional surgical wound classification scheme that was
introduced in 1964. This method classifies wounds according to the likelihood or rate of
wound infection.
Clean: Non-traumatic, non-infected wound, no break in sterility technique, the respiratory,

gastrointestinal or genitourinary tracts not entered.
Clean-contaminated: Minor break in technique, oropharynx entered, gastrointestinal or

respiratory tracts entered without significant spillage, genitourinary or biliary
tracts entered in absence of infected urine or bile.
Contaminated: Fresh traumatic wounds, major break in sterility, gross spillage from
gastrointestinal tract, and entrance of genitourinary or biliary tracts in the
presence of infected urine or bile
Dirty and Infected: Acute bacterial inflammation without pus, wound with heavy
contamination and evidence of infection, transection of “clean” tissue for the
purpose of surgical access for collection of pus, traumatic wound with
retained devitalized tissue, foreign bodies, fecal contamination, and/or
delayed treatment, or from dirty sources
WOUND MANAGEMENT
GENERAL
In managing wounds, care should be taken not to overlook life threatening conditions by
concentrating on less important wounds. If other serious conditions exist, which endanger
the patient’s life, the wound should be covered with sterile gauze and priorities attended to.
50
Therefore, the patient requires thorough examination before instituting wound management.
The following priority has to be set and followed.
• Stabilize the patient and correct all life threatening conditions, like airway obstruction
and bleeding.
• Take quick general history on the incident.
• Do gross physical examination to assess associated injuries.
• Assess the wound or soft tissue injury in detail.
• Plan and institute treatment according to the goal and specific wound type.
• Follow up, re-inspect the wound and assess the outcome of your management after
a day or two.
Treatment of the wound begins following initial assessment. The initial care of all wounds is
generally governed by several principles. However, the goal in all cases is to establish a
good environment to assist wound healing and prevent infection. Proper wound care
includes the following measures:
• Adequate hemostasis locally to stop bleeding.
• Adequate irrigation to reduce bacterial load and foreign particles.
• Careful debridement to remove all dead tissues and non-vascularized fragments.
• Careful decision on whether to close or leave the wound open for later closure.
• Supplementing with antibiotics and tetanus prophylaxis as required.
• Improving host response by correcting systemic diseases.
Regarding primary wound closure, each condition must be individualized. However, general
guidelines that can be followed are:
• Clean wounds should be closed primarily
• Clean-contaminated wounds can be primarily closed if they can be converted, into
clean wounds
• Untidy, contaminated wounds which cannot be converted to tidy wounds should not
be closed primarily
• All missile wounds, animal and human bites should never be primarily closed unless
strongly indicated
Primary closure
Primary closure is effective in wounds presenting within 6-8 hours and can accurately be
debrided. This is usual in civilian practice.
51
Delayed primary closure
Is done for traumatic or contaminated wounds to avoid the risk of wound sepsis. It is done
within 3 days of initial treatment.
Secondary closure
This is usually done in 3-7 days of initial treatment. It is effected in contaminated or traumatic
wounds. It provides a reliable drainage and opportunity for repeated inspection and
debridement as necessary.
SPECIFIC WOUND MANAGEMENT
As mentioned earlier, the management of specific wound types should be individualized.

This is mainly governed by local wound factors. The common wound types and their specific
management is listed below.
Bruises
These wounds are very superficial. There is no specific management needed except local
compress and analgesics if pain is severe.
Hematoma
This is a collection of extravasated blood in the soft tissues.
Management:
- It usually gets absorbed spontaneously and should be left
- Local compress to alleviate pain
- Aseptic evacuation or aspiration only if very large (expanding) or over a
cosmetic area or leading to compression of vital structures.
Abrasion
An abrasion is rubbing or scraping of skin or mucous membrane. It may affect only a part or
full layer of skin. Dirt particles can be imbedded into the skin defect.
Management:
- Cleanse using scrubbing brushes
- Use antiseptic or lean tap water and soap
- Analgesic
Punctures
These may be compound wounds which involve deeper structures. They require careful
management.
52
Management:
- Evaluate the depth of damage
- Remove pricking or other foreign bodies
- Excise damaged tissue
- Cover with antibiotics
- Tetanus prophylaxis
Lacerations
These are open wounds caused by an object moving across the skin, commonly by sharp
and thin objects which slice with minimal energy, like a knife, or glass, but can also be due to
high-energy impact. Their management should be as follows.
Management:
- Careful inspection
- Adequate cleansing
- Closure, if feasible, under appropriate anesthesia
- Proper wound debridement if needed
- Appropriate antibiotic prophylaxis
- Tetanus Prophylaxis
- Analgesics as needed
Crush and avulsion wounds
These are compound complicated wounds. They are usually associated with systemic
involvement and have more extensive damage than may appear. Manage these conditions
as follows.
Management:
- Correct associated life threatening conditions
- Proper wound debridement
- Early skin cover if possible or late graft, wound left open if contaminated
- Appropriate antibiotics
- Analgesics as needed
Missile injuries
These are type of wounds which are compound and complicated. There is excessive tissue
damage and high degree of contamination. They usually present with severe life threatening
conditions and should be carefully managed.
53
Management:
- Correct life threatening conditions to stabilize the patient’s vital functions
- Careful wound inspection
- Careful wound debridement
- Adequate effective antibiotics
- Tetanus Prophylaxis and analgesics as needed
- Avoid primary closure of the wound
BITES
Bites can be caused by humans or other animals. The wounds can be puncture or laceration
and are contaminated. Management of common bites is discussed below.
Human bites
These are relatively rare but more heavily contaminated than those of most animalss due to
polymicrobial nature including anaerobic organisms as a normal oral flora. Management
should include the following aspects.
- Careful wound inspection
- Take culture from wound site
- Thorough scrubbing and liberal irrigation with saline or plain water
- Adequate debridement
- Leave wound open except early face and head wounds
- Do not suture severed tendons and nerves primarily
- Broad-spectrum antibiotics, later to be changed to specific antibiotics according to
culture result
- Wound observation
Dog bites
Peculiar to dog bites is that infected animals can transmit the rabies virus from the saliva
which leads to rabies, a deadly disease. To avoid this complication the animal must be kept
for observation for at least 10 days. These wounds should be urgently and carefully
managed as follows.
Local management:
- Vigorous irrigation and repeated swabbing and flushing with soap and water or
antiseptics
- Local anti-rabies serum infiltration under the wound if available
- Leave wound open
54
Systemic management:
- Post exposure anti rabies prophylaxis (1ml, IM) on the 1st, 3rd, 7th, 14th and 28th
day of bite.
- Antibiotics
Snake Bites
Poisonous snakes cause severe local and systemic effects due to highly active substances
in their venom. Immediate aggressive measures should be taken to limit the affects.
Management should include:
First aid measures:

- Local wound irrigation
- Apply pressure bandage proximally to avoid or reduce venom spread with caution
on the blood supply
- Immobilize the limb to minimize venom absorption
- Transport patient immediately to nearby hospital
Hospital Measures:
- Identify the species
- Conduct necessary laboratory investigations like hemoglobin, renal function...
- Anti-venom injection, if available
- Supportive care for severe conditions
- Rest
- IV-infusions to combat shock
- Antibiotics
- Blood transfusion
- Surgery, if local complications
- Wound excision
- Fasciotomy for compartment syndrome
WOUND COMPLICATIONS
Handled and managed improperly, wounds can result in variants from normal healing and
become complicated, causing local systemic complications.
Local: Local complications may manifest as one or more of the following conditions-
- Hematoma
- Seroma
55
- Infection
- Dehiscence
- Granuloma formation
- Scar formation
- Contracture leading to loss of joint function etc
Systemic:
- Death may occur if un controlled sepsis or hemorrhage
- Systemic manifestations of hemorrhagic shock due to massive bleeding
- Bacteremia and sepsis from a source of locally infected wound
56
Review Questions
1. Which of the following is important in assessing a wound to manage it properly?

A) Duration of injury
B) The circumstance of wounding
C) The mechanism of injury
D) Local appearance of the wound
E) All of the above
2. Which of the following wounds can be categorized as “clean”?

A) Bullet wound of one hour duration
B) Human bite of 30 minutes duration
C) Glass laceration of five hours duration
D) Crush injury of the leg following car accident
E) None of the above
3. A proper wound care includes all measures except

A) Removing all devitalized tissue
B) Removing foreign bodies impregnated to the wound
C) Wound inspection following primary management
D) Inadequate hemostasis of a bleeding artery
E) Decision to close a wound primarily
4. Which of the following wounds should never be primarily closed?

A) Forearm laceration from a knife
B) Dog bite to the calf of one hour duration
C) Blast wound to the thigh of two hours duration
D) Stick wound to the scalp of four hours
E) B and C are correct
5. Which of the following wounds requires no surgical procedure?

A) Gas gangrene
B) Bruise
C) Abscess
D) Lacerations
E) Pyomyositis
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6. In a contaminated wound left open to heal without closure, healing is effected by
A) First intention
B) Second intention
C) Third intention
D) Purely by epithelialization
E) All of the above
7. Which of the following factors is unlikely to affect the healing of a wound?

A) Presence of foreign body
B) Systemic illness
C) Sex of the patient
D) Poor patient nutritional state
E) Presence of infection
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Key to the Review Questions
1. E
2. C
3. D
4. E
5. B
6. C
7. C
59
References:
1. Wound care: First edition, 1986
William M. Cocke, Jr.
Raleigh R. White
Dennis J. Lynch
Charles N. Verheyden
2. Wound care: First edition, 1985

Stephen Westaby
3. Campbell’s operative orthopedics: Ninth edition

S. Terry Canale
4. Principles of Surgery, 1999

Schwartz
5. Bailey and Love’s Short Practice of Surgery, 22nd edition.
6. Surgical care at the District Hospital: 2003

World Health Organization
60
CHAPTER EIGHT
SURGICAL INFECTIONS
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, each student will be able to:
- Define a surgical infection clearly

- Have a clear understanding on the pathogenesis of surgical infections
- Understand and define the common types of surgical infections
- Understand the management of surgical infection according to its type
- Identify types of surgical infections that require emergency procedure
Introduction
Surgical infection encompasses a wide pathologic aspect. It can be defined broadly as an
infection related to or complicating a surgical therapy and requiring surgical management.
Many infections occupy a non-vascularized space of tissue, thus are likely to respond to
non-surgical treatments. These types of infection therefore definitely require surgery as a
primary or definitive therapeutic approach.
Examples of such infections, which definitely need surgery, can be:

- Gas gangrene
- Abscess
- Appendicitis...
On the other hand, any infection that is related to surgical therapy but that may not definitely
require surgery is also categorized as a surgical infection.
Examples:
- Urinary tract infections after catheterization for surgical purpose
- Pulmonary complications following intubation for surgery
- Tracheotomy site infection
All wounds that follow operative procedure or incision are also grouped as surgical
infections.
Example:
Post-operative wound infection
61
CLASSIFICATION
Surgical infections can be classified in relation to specific conditions. According to temporal

relation to surgery, surgical infections are grouped into three types.
Ante/pre operative infections:
These infections happen before a surgical procedure. The time of initial infection may or may
not be known.
Example:
- Accidents
- Appendicitis
- Boils
- Carbuncle
- Pyomyositis…
Operative infections:
These are types of surgical infections that happen during a surgical procedure. It can occur
either due to contamination of the site or poor tissue handling technique.
Postoperative infections:
These infections occur after a surgical procedure. The contamination is usually from the
patient’s source.
Example:
- Surgical wound infections
- Urinary and respiratory tract infections
PATHOGENESIS
There are certain elements or factors present for a surgical infection to occur. These include:
- An infectious agent
- A susceptible host
- Favorable external factors or local condition with closed, less or non-per
fused space.
An infection becomes overt only when the equilibrium between the bacterial and host factors
becomes disturbed.
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Infectious agents:
Surgical infections are caused by various types of microorganisms either separately or in

combination (poly microbial). The common organisms in decreasing order are:-
1- Aerobic bacteria
- Staphylococcus aureus
- Streptococci
- Klebsiella
- E. coli…
2- Anaerobic bacteria
- Bacteroids
- Peptostreptococci
- Clostridia…
3- Fungi
- Histoplasma
- Candida
- Nocardia and actinomycetes…
4- Parasites
- Entameba hystolytica causing amebic liver abscess
- Echinococcus causing hydatid cyst…
The organisms get access through skin breaks, operative wounds, tubes, and
catheters…They lead to overt infection by various mechanisms, which commonly include
tissue invasion, local damage and toxin production. Later, the organisms or their toxins
impose more danger by systemic spread.
Host Susceptibility:
Reduced immune host defense predisposes to surgical infections. Conditions affecting the
specific and non-specific immunity and systemic diseases that suppress the immune
response, like diabetes mellitus, TB and AIDS can reduce the body's immune defense, thus
increasing the susceptibility to infection.
Local and external factors:
Closed spaces, usually with poor vascularization, are areas susceptible to infection.
Favorable situations under such condition contributing to infection include:-
- Poor perfusion of blood and oxygen
- Presence of dead tissue
63
- Presence of foreign bodies
- Closure under tension etc.
External factors like a break in the sterility technique also contribute to the development of
surgical infection.
DIAGNOSIS
Once an infection develops, it can be diagnosed by the clinical manifestation and supportive
laboratory investigation:-
Clinical manifestation: Patients with overt surgical infection may present with the following
symptoms and signs:
Symptoms and signs of local inflammation such as hotness, redness, edema/swelling,

local pain and loss of function
Non-Specific symptoms like fever, chills, tachycardia, etc.
Constitutional symptoms: Fatigue, low-grade fever, etc.
Laboratory investigations:
WBC count: usually elevated
Staining and culture of discharges and fluids can be diagnostic
Blood culture: Especially if there is bacterermia will be positive
Biopsy: Histologic inspection of tissues can also be diagnostic of infection of various
structures
Imaging studies like X-ray and ultrasound can be diagnostic.
SPECIFIC TYPES OF INFECTIONS

Common surgical infections are discussed below separately.
Post-Operative Wound Infection
This is contamination of a surgical wound during or after a surgical procedure. The infection
is usually confined superficially to the subcutaneous tissue. If it extends below the fascia, it is
considered a deep infection.
Source of infection:
The source of contamination in more than 80% cases is the patient (endogenous).
Organisms may come from the patient’s skin or transected viscus. In about 20% of cases,
the source is from the environment, operating staff or unsterile surgical equipment
(exogenous).
64
Clinical findings:
The infection usually becomes evident on the 5th-7th postoperative day. The following clinical
features may accompany the infection.
- Fever
- Wound pain
- Wound edema and induration
- Local hotness and tenderness
- Wound/stitch abscess
- Serous discharge
- Crepitation occasionally
Management:
- Remove stitches to allow drainage
- Local wound care
- Antibiotics only if systemic manifestations or signs of local spread accompany.
Abscess
An abscess is a localized collection of pus. It contains necrotic tissue and suppuration from
damage by the bacteria, and white blood cells. It is surrounded by area of inflamed tissue
due to the body’s response to limit the infection.
Etiology:
Pyogenic organisms, predominantly staphylococci are the leading causes. These organisms
lead to tissue necrosis and pus formation.
Clinical features:
Patients with an abscess anywhere in the body may present with the following findings.
- Clinical features of inflammation when superficial (Heat, pain, edema, redness
and loss of function)
- Local fluctuation if superficially located.
- Spontaneous discharge and sinus formation
- Systemic manifestations like fever, sweating, tachycardia
- Chronicity especially in granulomatous infection like mycobacteria,
Treatment:
- Primary treatment is drainage of the abscess by making incision
- Debridement and curettage to break all septations and loculations
- Delayed primary or secondary closure is preferred
- Antibiotics should not be given until systemic symptoms or signs of spread occur
65
Cellulitis
Cellulitis is an inflammation of the subcutaneous tissue characterized by invasion without

definite localization. Thin exudate spreads through the cleavage planes of tissue spaces. It
usually involves the extremities and identifiable portal of entry is detectable.
Etiology: The most common etiologic organisms are

- Beta hemolytic streptococci
- Staphylococci
- Clostridium perfringens
Clinical Features: There is usually an identifiable portal of entry which can be a surgical
wound, puncture site, skin ulcer or dermatitis. Other features include:
- Local signs of inflammation, which may be very intense
- Poorly defined brown-red edema
- Blebs and bullae in severe cases; tissue destruction and ulceration may follow
- Central necrosis and suppuration may occur late in some complicated cases
- Systemic signs of bacteremia and toxemia due to spread and toxin release
Management:
- Rest to limit spread of infection and pain
- Elevation of the involved limb
- Hot, wet pack
- High dose broad spectrum antibiotics IV
Impetigo
This is a skin infection characterized by a series of intraepithelial abscesses which present

as multiple small pustules coalescing together. Later these pustules form lesions with
erosion and crust formation. The disease is contagious in nature.
Etiology: The causative agents are streptococci and staphylococci.
Clinical Pictures:
- Series of small intra epithelial abscesses , multiple
- Bullous lesions
- Skin erosion and
- Crust formation.
66
Management:
- Local care
- Careful washing with antiseptic soap
- Local antibiotic ointments like neomycin if available
- Systemic antibiotics like cloxacilline only in resistant cases
Furuncle (Boil)
Furuncle is an acute infection of hair follicles with Para follicular inflammation. It commonly
occurs over the axillae, back of the neck and buttocks. Poor hygiene, immune suppressive
diseases and irritation are known contributing factors.
Etiology:
The causative agents are staphylococci aureus.
Clinical feature:
- There is an intense local irritation of acute onset
- Painful firm, reddish, round swelling initially, which later becomes fluctuant
- Suppuration and central necrosis occurs later
- The condition subsides and is self-limited to recur in multiple lesions (chronicity)
Treatment:
• It may subside spontaneously without suppuration (Blind boil)
• Incision /Excision if complicated
• Antibiotics
Carbuncle
Carbuncle is an infective gangrene of subcutaneous tissue which commonly occurs in

patients with diabetes and other immune suppressive conditions. It is commonly found over
the nape of the neck.
Etiology: It is caused by staphylococcus aureus.
Clinical Feature:
• Formed by multiple furuncles
• Pain
• Erythema
• Induration
• Progressive suppuration of thick pus
• Tissue loss with shallow and deep ulcer surrounded by smaller areas of necrosis
67
Treatment:
• Adequate systemic antibiotics in early stages
• Aggressive debridement
• Local wound care
• Detect and treat predisposing factors like diabetes mellitus
Pyomyositis
Pyomyositis is an acute bacterial infection of skeletal muscles with accumulation of pus in

the intra-muscular area. It usually occurs in the lower limbs and trunk spontaneously or
following penetrating wounds, vascular insufficiency, trauma or injection. Poor nutrition,
immune deficiency, hot climate and intense muscle activity are highly associated factors.
Etiology: The most common causative agent is Staphylococcus aureus. Streptococci can
also be detected in acute form.
Clinical Features: It usually has sub-acute onset and can present with
• Localized muscle pain and swelling, late tenderness
• Induration, erythema and heat
• Muscle necrosis due to pressure
• Fever and other systemic manifestations later after some days
Treatment:
• Immediate intravenous antibiotics before surgery
• Surgical drainage of all abscess
• Excision of all necrotic muscles
• Supportive care
Madura Foot
This is a chronic granulomatous disease commonly affecting the foot with extensive
granulation tissue formation and bone destruction. The disease is common in the tropics and
occurs through a prick in barefoot walkers in 90% of cases.
Etiology: The causative microorganisms for this infection are various fungi or actinomycetes
found in road dust.
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Clinical Manifestation:
• Firm, painless, pale nodule appears initially followed by others
• Vesicles surrounding the nodules which later burst and form sinuses
• Watery discharge, which may contain granules appearing yellow, red or black color
• Flattening of the convexity of inner foot
• Deep spread to bones subcutaneous plane leading to secondary infection.
Treatment:
• Sulphonamides and Dapson (prolonged course)
• Broad spectrum antibiotics for secondary infection
• Amputation if severe and disfiguring infection
Necrotizing fasciitis
This is an acute invasive infection of the subcutaneous tissue and fascia characterized by
vascular thrombosis, which leads to tissue necrosis. The skin is secondarily affected. It is
idiopathic in origin but minor wounds, ulcers and surgical wounds are believed to be initiating
factors. The condition is described as "Meleney’s synergistic gangrene" if it occurs over the
abdominal wall and “Fournier’s gangrene “if in the scrotum and perineal area.
Bacteriology:
Mixed pathogens of the following microorganisms are usually cultured.

• Streptococci
• Staphylococci
• Gram negative bacteria
• Anaerobes and
• Clostridia
Clinical Features:
• Sudden onset of localized pain
• Rapidly spreading inflammation
• Spread along chemic fascial planes
• Hemorrhagic bulla and edema
• Skin devascularization
• +/- Crepitations
• +/- Muscle necrosis
• Systemic signs of toxemia
69
Management:
• Broad spectrum combined antibiotics
• Gentamycin or Ceftriaxone for coverage of aerobic organisms and
• Cloxacilline or chloramphenicol or Metronidazole for coverage of anaerobic
organisms
• Circulatory support with intravenous fluid as much as required and transfusion of
cross matched blood when necessary
• Surgery soon as possible. The following surgical procedures may be required:
- Debridement and excision of all dead tissue
- Multiple incisions for drainage
- Repeated wound inspection
- Skin graft may be needed later if extensive skin involved.
CLOSTRIDIAL INFECTIONS
Tetanus
Tetanus is a non-invasive infection caused by anaerobic micro-organisms which requires

favorable wounds like abortions, lacerations, injections, open fractures, burns, deep
contused wounds with dead tissues and foreign body... It can practically be eliminated by
tetanus vaccine immunization if properly initiated and maintained.
Etiology:
Clostridium tetani, a gram-positive rod found in soil and manure is the causative agent. It
require anaerobic environment for growth, invasion and elaboration of toxin, tetano-spasmin
for its dramatic virulence.
Clinical Features:
- Can be latent with healed and forgotten wounds
- Local or generalized weakness
- Stiffness or cramping pain on the back, neck and abdomen
- Difficult of chewing and swallowing
- Tonic muscles spasms
- Sardonic smile as evidence of onset of tonic spasm
- Severe pain and opisothonus due to reflex convulsion of all muscles
- Progressive difficulty of respiration
- Fever, tachycardia, cyanosis
- Respiratory failure and death due to repeated cyanotic convulsive attacks.
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Treatment:
- Meticulous surgical excision of the wound regardless of immunization state to
eliminate the bacterial infection and the dead contaminated tissue
- Isolation, quietness and comfort
- Sedation with chlorpromazine up to 200mg IM/day barbiturates or diazepam
50mgIV under close followup and observation for central signs of drug over dose
- Antibiotics: crystalline penicillin is the drug of choice for parenteral medication.
Tetracycline can be an alternative antibiotic for oral therapy.
- Intensive nursing care
- Naso-gastric tube for feeding to maintain protein balance
- Immunization
- Respiratory support and consider tracheostomy if spasms becomes frequent
leading to cyanosis
- Human antitetanus globulin if available to neutralize circulating toxin
- Active immunization with 0.5 ml of tetanus toxoid if the patient is not immunized
or the wound is tetanus prone
Prevention:
Prevention of clinical tetanus depends on adequate immunization of the population and

careful surgical management of all traumatic wounds, even those which appear to be minor.
Patients with grossly contaminated wounds and no or unclear history of immunization should
receive an intramuscular antitoxin therapy. Active immunization with tetanus toxoid should
also be started.
Gas Gangrene
Gas gangrene is another clostridia associated with soft tissue infection (Clostridial
myonecrosis). It is a rare but devastating infection characterized by muscle necrosis and
systemic toxicity due to the elaboration and release of toxins. It usually follows wounding
with trauma or surgery and requires factors contributing to tissue hypoxia like foreign bodies,
vascular insufficiency or occurs as a complication of amputation.
Etiology:
Clostridium perfringens is responsible for over 80% of cases. More than one species can be
isolated or polymicrobial infection with other microorganisms can occur.
71
Clinical features:
It is characterized by fulminant local and systemic manifestations. Patients may appear

normal at early state. Clinical features include:
- Sudden and persistent severe pain at wound site.
- Localized tense edema, pallor and tenderness
- Gas noted on palpation or radiographs
- Progressive brownish discoloration of skin and hemorrhagic bullae formation
- Dirty brown discharge with offensive, sweetish odor
- Severe systemic manifestations including fever, tachycardia, hemolytic anemia,
hypotension, renal failure and finally death
- Gram’s stain from the discharge can be diagnostic
Management:
• Surgery is most important component
• Extensive, wide excision of involved muscles
• Amputation of an extremity may be needed.
• Antibiotics: high dose penicillin is the preferred drug
• Supportive measures including
- Intravenous infusions
- Blood transfusions
- Close monitoring and follow up
72
Review Questions
1. Which of the following is not categorized as “surgical infection”?

A) Urinary tract infection after catheterization for Prostatectomy
B) Abscess formation following injection on the thigh
C) Wound abscess following excision of big lipoma on the back
D) Lung atelectasis following intubation for laparotomy
2. Which of the following is a requirement for a surgical infection to occur?

A) Virulent microorganism
B) A tissue of decreased or no blood supply
C) A decrease in the immune response of a patient
D) All of the above
3. Which of the following are the most common microorganisms of surgical infection?
A) Viruses
B) Staphylococcus species
C) Clostridia
D) Candida
E) Entoameba
4. Which of these clinical states may indicate a presence of surgical infection?

A) Fever
B) Loss of function of body part
C) Local hyperemia
D) Tachycardia
E) All of the above
5. Which investigation can be helpful for diagnosing a surgical infection?

A) Gram’s stain from a discharge if there is any
B) Blood culture
C) WBC count
D) Tissue biopsy
E) All of the above
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6. The correct way of managing a patient with an abscess is
A) Start with effective antibiotics and send home
B) Drainage and no antibiotics if no systemic signs
C) Apply local ointments for aiding the abscess to burst
D) Give effective antibiotics and analgesics
E) All except B
7. In a patient with gas gangrene

A) Little circulatory support is needed
B) Surgical removal of gangrenous tissue is the primary management
C) Penicillin is the preferred antibiotic
D) B and C are correct
E) Systemic signs are not commonly seen
74
Key to the Review Questions
1. E
2. D
3. B
4. E
5. E
6. B
7. D
75
References:
1. Surgical infections: First edition, 1995; Donald E. Fry
2. Wound care: First edition, 1985; Stephen Westaby
3. Principles of Surgery: seventh ed., 1999; Schwartz
4. Bailey and Love’s short practice of surgery, 22nd edition.
76
CHAPTER NINE
TRAUMA
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, the student should be able to:
Identify the various types of trauma; understand their epidemiology,

predisposing factors and methods of their prevention.
Learn the general approach and treatment priorities of a trauma victim.
Learn the specific management of missile injuries and burn.
Introduction
Trauma is one of the leading causes of mortality, morbidity and disability worldwide. In
developing countries, the magnitude of the problem has been increasing consuming more
and more of the meager health resources of these nations. Moreover, trauma mostly affects
people in their productive years of life, hence the high economic and social burden to
society.
The causes of trauma are various and their relative incidence varies in different populations.
Deaths due to trauma tend to occur in three patterns:
1. Immediate death (50%)

• Occur in the first few minutes after the accident
• Are due to extensive and lethal injuries to the brain, heart & major blood vessels
2. Early deaths (30%)

• Occur in the first few hours
• Are due to the collections and bleedings in the chest and abdomen, extensive
fractures and increased intracranial pressure
• Early resuscitation, diagnosis and appropriate management can prevent these
deaths.
3. Late deaths (20%)

• Occur days or weeks after the injury
• Are due to sepsis and organ failure
• May be decreased by early resuscitation and appropriate treatment
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DEFINITION
Trauma is tissue damage, which occurs due to transfer of different forms of energy either
intentionally or unintentionally.
Types of Trauma: Trauma can be classified according to the:
I- Cause: Homicidal injuries
Road traffic accident and falls
Industrial accidents, burn, etc.
II- Mechanism: A/ Blunt Injury: Caused by acceleration, deceleration, rotational or

shearing force
B/ Penetrating Injury: Caused by a direct breach by penetrating object
E.g. Bullet injury, stab injury
TREATMENT PRIORITIES
Management of trauma requires adherence to an established order of priorities like the

advanced trauma life support (ATLS) protocol developed by the American College of
Surgeons. The ATLS generally consists of a primary survey and resuscitation followed by a
secondary survey and definitive management.
I- The primary survey and resuscitation
This part of management comprises a quick evaluation of the patient to detect immediately
life threatening situations and institution of measures to correct them. It has the following
components:
A- Air way: Assess the patency of air way. In a trauma victim, it may be compromised by
the back fallen tongue, broken tooth, vomitus, blood etc. If the air way is
compromised, use suctioning, jaw trust, positioning, oropharyngeal tube or
endotracheal tube to open it, taking care of the cervical spine.
B- Breathing: Assess adequacy of breathing. It may be compromised by pneumothorax,
hemothorax or multiple rib fractures causing flail chest.
C- Circulation: Assess the circulatory volume. Look for external hemorrhage and
arrest it by pressure, bandaging or tourniquet if the other methods
fail. Tachycardia, hypotension, pallor may mean bleeding into the
body cavities or from an obvious external wound. Open a wide bore
78
IV line, take blood sample for cross match and start resuscitation with
Normal saline or Ringer’s lactate.
D- Do a quick neurologic examination to assess consciousness. Use the
Glasgow coma scale (GCS) to determine the level. Look for any
Neurological deficit or lateralizing sign.
E- Expose (undress) the patient fully for examination not to miss serious injuries.
II- Secondary survey and definitive management
This is done after the life threatening conditions have been evaluated and resuscitative
measures are instituted. It includes the following aspects:
A- Take History: The informant may be the injured patient, relatives, police or
ambulance personnel. The history should include:
• Time of injury,
• Mechanism of injury,
• Amount of bleeding,
• Loss of consciousness,
• Any intervention performed or drugs given should be asked for.
B- Do a proper and systematic examination of all body systems.
C- Make necessary investigations such as hematocrite, cross-match, urinalysis, X-ray,

ultrasound, etc. However, never send a patient with unstable vital signs for
investigation or referral before resuscitation.
D- Institute the appropriate specific treatment like laparotomy for possible abdominal
organ injury, POP cast for tibio-fibular fracture.
ROAD TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS (RTA)
Road traffic accident is the leading cause of trauma deaths in industrialized nations and
many developing countries. Several factors contribute to the high magnitude. These include
poor condition and design of roads, traffic mix (sharing of road by vehicles of different
speeds and pedestrians), poor condition of the vehicles and poor traffic rule enforcement.
The incidence of this serious problem can be reduced by improving the public awareness
and the quality of training given to the drivers and strict enforcement of traffic rules.
Moreover, improving the design and quality of the roads and regular checkup of vehicle
fitness would help alleviate the problem.
79
Injuries are caused by sudden acceleration e.g. a pedestrian hit by car or decelerations
causing the passenger to collide with the interior of car, other passengers or be ejected out
of the car. There are certain patterns of injury in RTA .The presence of one of the following
injuries should alert to the possible presence of the other:
Head and cervical spine injury
Lower rib fractures and spleen or liver injuries
Pelvic fracture and urinary tract injury etc
Certain factors indicate that a RTA victim has a high risk of serious and multiple injuries.
These include:
• Presence of flail chest
• Roll over
• Death of another person in the car
FIREARM INJURIES
In civilian practice, these injuries are mostly due to homicidal violence, although accidental
injuries also occur. In many developing countries like Ethiopia, the magnitude of the problem
is big due to high distribution of firearms among civilians who have little or no knowledge on
safe handling and usage. It is made worse by the presence of large number of land mines,
which are remnants of repeated wars and conflicts in these poor nations.
Generally, missile injuries may be caused by bullets from pistols, rifles, machine guns or
fragments from exploded grenades and mines. The degree of injury sustained depends on
the amount of energy transferred from the missile to the patient as formulated below.
E=½mv2 (E = energy transferred, m = mass of the missile, v = velocity of the missile)
Thus, the speed and weight of the missile are the determinant factors. The extensive tissue
injury with the high degree of contamination creates a perfect medium for life threatening
infection to occur.
Missile injuries are classified into:
I- Low- velocity missile injuries

• Comprise missiles fired from hand guns (<400m/s)
• Injury is limited to the path of the bullet.
II- High velocity missile injuries

• Comprise bullets fired from rifles, machine guns and blast fragments (>1000m/s)
• Cause a small entrance and a larger exit wounds
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• Tissue damage occurs in the surrounding tissue as well, due to the temporary
cavitation effect
• Foreign bodies, dirt and clothing materials are sucked deep in the wound due to
the vacuum effect
Management of missile injuries
The most important factor in the management of missile injuries and prevention of serious
infection is appropriate wound debridement. Wound debridement consists of:
Excision of all dead tissue, e.g., dead muscle
Removal of all dirt, foreign bodies and free bone fragments
Thorough irrigation of wound with copious amount of saline
The debrided wound should be left open for closure later
N.B: Never close missile wounds primarily, not even the very trivial looking ones!
All patients with missile injuries should receive broad spectrum antibiotics and
tetanus prophylaxis.
BURN INJURIES
Burn is a coagulation necrosis of tissue due to thermal or chemical injury. It is mostly seen in
developing countries where there is overcrowding, poor housing designs and wide spread
usage of open fire for cooking. Women and children are affected most as majority of the
burns occur at home. Types of burns, according to the mechanism, include:
• Flame burn
• Scalding
• Chemical burn
• Electrical burn, etc.
The severity of a burn injury is a function of the burn depth (degree) and the extent or
percentage of the body surface that is burned. Determining the percentage of burn surface is
important to calculate the amount of fluid requirement while determination of burn depth is
important for burn wound management.
Classification of Burn according to depth (degree)
1- First degree burn: It involves the epidermis only and manifests with erythema.
2- Second degree (partial thickness) burn: This involves part of dermis. It manifests with
blisters, edema, moist surface and pain at the affected site.
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3- Third degree (full thickness) burn: Involves complete burn of the dermis. The burned
skin looks charred, white or grayish and the surface is pain free.
The extent or percentage of burn is determined by the “rule of nine” in which the body
surface is divided into eleven parts each constituting 9% of the total (fig.). In children, the
size of the hand may be used to estimate the burn surface, which is approximately 1%.
Management of a burn victim
General management:
Like all trauma patients, adhere to ATLS system.

• Airway obstruction may occur rapidly after inhalation injury or delayed for 24-48
hours. Endotracheal intubation or tracheotomy may be needed in patients with burns
involving the air way.
• Major burn (> 20% body surface area) needs fluid resuscitation. Open IV line with
wide bore cannula and infuse saline containing IV fluid (Ringer’s lactate if available)
- The amount of IV fluid needed for the first 24 hours is calculated as a product of
percent of the burned surface area and the body weight in kilograms added to the
daily maintenance (%BSA X Wt.) + daily maintenance. Half of the calculated
volume is given in the first 8 hours and the remaining half over the next 16 hours
from the time of burn.
- Volume and rate of fluid administration should be valid according to the vital signs
and urine output, hence the need to catheterize the patient. The optimal urine
output is 30-50ml /hr in adults and 1ml/kg/hr in children
Criteria for admission

• Adults > 20% BSA burn
• Children > 10% BSA burn
• Burns involving the face, hands, feet and genitalia
• Suspicion of inhalation injury
• Chemical and electrical burns
Burn wound management: There are several methods of managing a burn wound. The
choice depends on the degree, size and site of the burn, and availability of facilities and
expertise.
1- The exposure method: The burn wound is cleaned by antiseptic agents and left
exposed to air. It is used for burns of the face and burns of large surface area.
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2- The occlusive method: A thick dressing after cleaning with antiseptics covers the burn
wound. It is used mostly for outpatient treatment of small burns.
3- The plastic bag method: The burned part is wrapped in a transparent plastic bag. It is
used for burns of hands and feet.
4- The saline method: The burn wound is intermittently irrigated with half strength saline
solution. This is used for large surface deep burns.
5- Early excision and skin grafting: This needs skill of grafting and transfusion facilities. It
is used for deep burns.
Emergency escharotomy and fasciotomy should be done for deep circumferential burns of
limbs, neck or trunk.
Analgesia: Most burn patients are in severe pain. Therefore, analgesic doses of IV narcotics
regularly to control the pain should be stressed as part of the management.
Prevention of Infection: Burn patients have impaired resistance against infection. Most
deaths occur due to pneumonia and wound sepsis. Prophylactic antibiotics (penicillin) are
given for severe burns but, routine administration has no value. Topical antimicrobials e.g.
1% silver sulfadiazine are helpful for deep 2nd and 3rd degree burns.
Nutrition: Naso-gastric tube should be inserted after admission for patients with more than
25% burn and those who have nausea and vomiting. Enteral feeding should be resumed as
soon as possible.
Burn patients are in catabolic state and tend to lose weight very fast, thus special attention to
their diet is important. The daily calorie required is 20 Kcal/Kg + 70 Kcal/%burn. Daily protein
requirement for burn patients is 1 gm/kg + 3 gm/%burn.
Prophylaxis against tetanus: Tetanus prophylaxis should be supplemented as burn is

potentially infected wound.
Prevention of contractures and rehabilitation: Patients should constantly be urged and

made to move all joints. Failure to do this results in contractures, which may be very
disabling, unsightly and difficult to treat.
Prevention
The magnitude of burn injuries can be reduced by keeping the high risks, like children and
epileptics, away from open fire or boiling pots and enforcing strict safety precautions in
working places like factories etc.
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Review Questions
1- A 20 year old man was brought in unconscious after car accident. Describe how you
would proceed managing him.
2- What are the predisposing factors for road traffic accidents and describe the methods of
prevention.
3- What does wound debridement mean?
4- How would you manage a 24 year-old housewife who was brought in eight hours after
sustaining a 30% flame burn to her chest, arms, and face?
84
Reference
1. Schwatz Text Book of Surgery, 1999.
2. Baily and Love’s Short Practice of Surgery, 22nd edition.
3. Primary surgery, Vol. 2 .Maurice Kings and Peter Bewes, 1987.
4. WHO. Investing in health research and development: Report of the ad-Hoc

committee on health research relating to future intervention options. Geneva,
1996
5. Murray CJ, Lopez A. The global burden of disease, Vol. 1, WHO & World Bank.
6. Mensur O. et-al. Magnitude and Pattern of Injuries in North Gondar.
85
HEAD AND SPINAL INJURIES
Learning objectives
At the end of this chapter students are expected to:
• Identity types of head injuries
• List the effects of head injury
• Outline assessment of patients with head or spinal injury
• Plan for management of patients with head injury
• Outline evaluation and management of spinal injuries
HEAD INJURY
Head injury is one of the most common causes for attending emergency departments.
Craniocerebral trauma is consequently a source of major disability and huge financial and
psychological burden. Trauma to the cranium can be either blunt or penetrating and involve
the scalp, the skull or the brain. These injuries can take many forms.
Scalp Injury
Scalp lacerations are common and can result in severe hemorrhage if not controlled. Scalp
lacerations can be sutured after ruling out possible associated skull or brain injuries.
Skull Injury
Different clinical forms of skull injury may follow trauma to the skull. These include:
Simple Linear Fracture
This is a line of fracture which usually marks of severe forces of injury. No specific
neurological management is required.
Depressed skull fracture
This type of fracture is usually a result of blunt trauma. It could be either open or closed. The
open type of fracture (compound depressed fracture) has a high risk of infection so that it
should be handled as an emergency. The depressed fragments may lacerate the dura and
brain tissue.
Treatment
o Debride and irrigate contaminated wounds
o Full course of intravenous antibiotics
o Elevation if indicated: deeper than the thickness of the skull in adults or if
there is any neurologic complication
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Fracture of the base of skull
Basal skull fractures can occur at different sites (anterior, middle or posterior fossa)
They often result in CSF leak. Anterior fossa fractures present with subconjuctival
hematoma, anosmia, epistaxis and CSF rhinorrhoea. Middle fossa fracture presents with
CSF rhinorrhea or otorrhea, heamotympanum and bruising behind the ear.
Brain injuries
Mechanisms of brain injury
Abrupt deceleration of a moving head results in minor injury at site of impact (coup injury) or
contusion of the brain opposite the point of impact (contra coup injury). From clinical point of
view, brain injuries could be primary (occurring at the time of impact) or secondary (develops
subsequently).
Primary brain injury
Cerebral concussion
This is a clinical diagnosis characterized by temporary dysfunction. It is most severe

immediately after injury and resolves after variable period of time. It is often accompanied by
loss of consciousness and amnesia for the moment is common. Post-concussion syndrome
which consists of headache, irritability, depression and lassitude may be seen as late
manifestations.
Cerebral contusion and Laceration
Pia and arachnoid tearing and intracerebral bleeding characterize these conditions. It usually
produces focal neurologic deficits that persist for more than 24 hours. Blood brain barrier
defects and cerebral edema are common. Contusions may resolve spontaneously or persist.
Secondary brain injuries
Secondary brain injuries are effects which develop secondary to subsequent anatomical and
physiological derangements. The role of the health worker is to early detect and manage
these.
Intracranial hematomas
A. Extradural hematoma: This condition usually follows temporal bone fracture with
tearing of middle meningeal artery leading to hematoma collection. Patients may
present in coma after a lucid interval. Urgent evacuation of the hematoma is
required.
87
B. Acute Sudbural hematoma: This state is the most common intracranial mass lesion
following head injury. Mostly, it results from tearing of bridging veins. The lesion is
rapidly evolving and early evacuation is mandatory.
C. Chronic subdural hematoma: This is most common in infants and adults over 60
years of age. Patients usually present with progressive neurological deficit more
than 2 weeks after the trauma.
D. Intracerebral hematoma: Intracerebral hematoma results from areas of contusion

coalescing into contusion hematoma.
Cerebral swelling (Brain edema)
This results from vascular engorgement, due to loss of auto regulation and increased extra
and intracellular fluid. If not corrected early, it results in cerebral ischemia.
Infections
Compound depressed fractures or basal skull fractures can lead to meningitis or cerebral
abscess.
Patient assessment
In unconscious head injury patient, primary survey followed by resuscitation, if any

impairment, should be the initial approach. Air way, breathing and circulation should be
secured. This has to be followed by secondary survey and definitive management.
History
Points to determine in the history are:

Period of loss of consciousness
Period of post traumatic amnesia
Cause and circumstance of the injury
Presence of headache and vomiting.
Presence of seizures.
Physical examination
Then Patients will be examined for evidences of injury

Assess level of consciousness (Glasgow coma scale )
Pupillary response
Complete neurologic examination, look for lateralizing signs.
Look for evidences of basal skull fracture
88
Based on Glasgow coma scale, patients can be classified as severe, moderate or mild.
These have significant contribution on subsequent management decision and outcome.
Table 1: Glasgow coma scale.
Eye opening Best motor response Verbal response
Obeys 6
Localizes 5 Oriented 5
Spontaneous 4 Withdraws 4 Confused 4
To speech 3 Abnormal flexion 3 Inappropriate words 3
To pain 2 Extension 2 Incomprehensible sound 2
Nil 1 Nil 1 Nil 1
Investigation
• Chest X-ray is mandatory in unconscious polytrauma patients to rule out hemothorax
or pneumothorax
• Film of cervical spines in unconscious patients
• Skull X-ray when fracture is suspected
• CT- Scan helps to visualize hematoma contusions and edemas if indicated
Management
ABC
After ensuring adequate oxygen and blood flow to the patient’s body, treatment of
intracranial hypertension follows. This can be done through:
• Controlled hyperventilation
• Diuretics or
• Hyper-osmotic agents
The role of surgery in head injury is to remove mass lesions and to prevent the delayed
development of infection by treating open head injuries. Any hematoma found should be
rapidly evacuated; otherwise it can lead to deterioration of the patient’s status due to brain
compression.
Compound depressed skull fracture requires immediate operation to prevent intracranial

infection. Fractures are debrided and bone fragments washed in antibiotic solutions and
immediately replaced. Elevation is done if indicated.
89
Intracranial hypertension must also be controlled in postoperative period. Post-operative
control of amount of fluid (not to be given more than 2/3 of the daily requirement),
electrolytes, positioning in 20-30 degree elevation of the bed and management convulsion
and of late sequel of head injury should be accomplished.
SPINAL CORD INJURIES
INTRODUCTION
The spinal cord terminates at the caudal end of first lumbar vertebrae. Loose nerve roots of
cauda equina fill the lumbar spinal canal. Fracture and dislocation of the 24 movable
vertebrae can occur at any level. Displaced bone fragments and inter-vertebral disks may
herniate to the spinal cord causing compression, commonly seen in cervical and thoraco
lumbar region.
Most spinal injuries result in immediate and total paralysis. But there could also be
incomplete injuries. Among incomplete injuries, the following ones are commonly seen.
i. Brown-sequard Syndrome: Ipsilateral paresis and contra-lateral loss of pain and
temperature sensation. Vibration and position sensations are diminished on
ipsilateral side.
ii. Anterior spinal cord syndrome: Paralysis occurs below the level of the lesion with
loss of temperature, touch and pain sensation.
iii. Central cord syndrome: hand and upper extremities are affected with sparing of lower
extremities.
Both complete and incomplete injuries of the spinal cord can result in neurogenic bladder.
Immediately after injury, spinal shock ensues in which bladder reflex does not develop.
Catheterized drainage is essential in this state. There could be a finding of flaccid paralysis,
depressed deep tendon reflex and sensory level.
Patient assessment
Early detection of spinal injury will prevent further injury to the cord. During assessment and
resuscitation, the spine must be carefully immobilized. Multiple injuries, seat belt markings
and neurologic findings should alert the possibility of spinal injury. Examination should
include:
• Secure the airway, breathing and circulation (ABC rule of trauma management)
• Local examination: Sign of bruise, swelling, echymosis, pain and tenderness at any
site of spine could be secondary to fracture dislocation or disc herniation
• Sensory examination: Assess for any loss of sensation and its level
• Motor examination: Check for weakness of muscle power and tendon reflexes
90
Investigation
After complete physical examination, x-rays should be taken. In conscious patients biplanar
x-rays of the symptomatic part of spine are adequate. In cervical spines, unstable injuries
are easily overlooked in lateral and A-P films. One option is to have real-time flexion and
extension x- rays.
Treatment
• IV resuscitation should be started in patients with spinal shock.
• Majority of simple compression fractures heal without consequences. It is treated
symptomatically initially with rest, then with splinting and mobilization as necessary.
• Adequate immobilization is mandatory in unstable cervical injuries. Further
neurologic damage is prevented by suitable immobilization.
• If there is deterioration of neurological function after initial assessment, surgery
should be considered to stabilize the spine and to decompress the spinal cord and
nerve roots. Careful transfer to appropriate centers is therefore important.
• High dose steroids may improve recovery after spinal cord injuries.
• Bladder care.
• Bed sore prevention by bed care and frequent position changes.
91
Review Questions
1. Discuss the basic mechanisms of brain injury in head injury patients
2. List the secondary brain injuries following head injury
3. A patient comes to you after sustaining a road traffic accident. On physical

examination, there are no evidences of external injury. When you assess his level
of consciousness, he opens his eyes when pinched, withdraws from pain and he
is confused.
a) What is his Glasgow coma scale?
b) What further history and physical examination do you require?
c) List the investigation you order
d) Suggest your management plan
92
References
1. Bailey and Loves, Short Practice of Surgery.22nd edition
4. Primary Surgery, Trauma.
93
CHAPTER TEN
ORTHOPEDIC SURGERY
Learning Objective
After reading this chapter, the students should be able to:
• Understand the etiology, pathology and clinical presentation of bone and joint
infections.
• Learn the mechanism, classification and healing of fractures and dislocations.
• Learn the general steps and the various modalities of fracture treatment and their
complications.
• Learn about amputations, their indications and complications.
Introduction
Orthopedics deals with disorders of the musculoskeletal system. Although the
musculoskeletal system can be affected by several conditions like congenital, metabolic or
neoplastic diseases, traumatic and infectious disorders are the most important ones in
developing countries.
INFECTIONS OF BONES AND JOINTS
ACUTE OSTEOMYELITIS
Acute osteomyelitis is an acute bacterial infection of the bone and its medullary cavity. It
commonly affects children, boys more than girls.
Etiology
• Staphylococcus aureus is the agent in 80% of cases
• Gram negative rods and Staphylococcus in neonates
• H. Influenza is seen in children under 5 years of age
• History of trauma is common and may predispose children to osteomyelitis
Pathology
Bacteria reach the bone mostly via the hematogenous route. Infection begins in the
metaphysis of a long bone and spreads through the cortex and medullary cavity causing
thrombosis to vessels and bone infarction. Pus collects under the periosteum peeling it off
the cortex.
94
Diagnosis
• History of - Pain, which is gradually increasing in severity
- Fever, Toxicity
- Failure to use the involved limb
• Physical Examination - Localized bony tenderness (most important)
- Adjacent joint may contain effusion
• Lab. Investigation - Leucocytosis and raised ESR
- Positive blood culture
- X-ray changes of bone: late to develop (10-15 days)
and is thus not helpful for diagnosis of acute
osteomyelitis.
Treatment
Antibiotics
• IV antibiotic should be started empirically after taking blood sample for culture
• Choice of antibiotics depends on the age:
- Neonates:- Penicillinase resistant penicillins + Aminoglycosides
E.g. Cloxacillin + Gentamycine
- Children under 5 years:- Penicillinase resistant penicillins + Anti H.influenzae
E.g. Cloxacillin + Chloramphenicol
- Patients above 5 years:- Penicllinase resistant penicillin
E.g. Cloxacillin
The duration of antibiotic treatment is 6 weeks. IV route is changed to oral after fever and
leucocytosis have disappeared (about 7-14 days).
Surgery: Surgery to drain abscess is recommended if fever and pain fail to subside after 48
hours of IV antibiotic treatment or if there is evidence of pus collection.
Analgesics and splinting: Analgesics and splinting of the limb in functional position using
POP casts or skin traction reduces pain in the acute phase.
CHRONIC OSTEOMYELITIS
Chronic osteomyelitis usually follows a delay or inappropriate treatment of an acute stage

osteomyelitis. It may also follow direct infection of bone in compound fracture.
Pathology: The dead bone (sequester) lies in an abscess cavity surrounded by a newly
formed bone (Involcrum) under the elevated periosteum.
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Diagnosis: The usual presentation is periods of quiescence and acute exacerbation of
persistently discharging sinus. There may be skin hyper pigmentation around the
sinus and palpable bone thickening. X-ray may show sequester, abscess cavity,
involucrum or diffuse sclerosis.
Treatment
Antibiotics: Used for acute exacerbation and perioperate for about six weeks.
Surgery: Surgery is done to remove a dead bone (sequesterectomy) or to eliminate an

abscess cavity (saucerization). Conservative treatment is considered in a patient
with minimal discharge and no obvious sequestrum or bone cavity. Amputation
may be considered for extensive bone involvement and heavy discharge or
frequent flare-ups which incapacitate the patient.
SEPTIC ARTHRITIS
Definition: Septic arthritis is an acute bacterial infection of joints.
Etiology: It varies in different age groups and is similar to that of acute osteomyelitis.
Neisseria gonorrhea should be considered in the sexually active age group.
Pathology: The hip and knee joints are the commonly affected joints. Bacteria may reach
the joint via the blood, local extension of osteomyelitis or directly in penetrating
wounds of the joint. The pus formed in the joint is chondrolytic and destroys the
joint cartilage if not evacuated.
Diagnosis:
History: The usual presenting symptoms are joint pain, swelling and fever.
Physical examination: The joint becomes swollen with effusion, tender and warm. The
range of active and passive movement also gets severely limited.
Lab: Joint fluid analysis reveals opaque yellow to green fluid with
• High cell count (mostly>100,000/mm3, with >90% PMN).
• Decreased glucose level (50 mg/dl lower than blood)
• Culture is often positive.
Treatment
Start with IV antibiotics. Do joint aspiration repeatedly under aseptic condition. If frank pus is
found, drain it by making arthrotomy. Immobilize the affected joint in functional position until
inflammation subsides and physiotherapy to prevent joint stiffness.
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Complications
Early: Destruction of articular cartilage, dislocation, epiphyseal necrosis.
Late: Secondary osteomyelitis, joint stiffness and ankylosis
TUBERCULOUS ARTHRITIS
Tuberculosis of bones and joints is mostly due to hematogenous spread from a pulmonary
focus. The intervertebral discs, the hip and knee joints are the most frequently affected.
Pathology
- Necrosis and granulation tissue formation in the synovium
- Destruction of sub chondral bone and articular cartilage
- Fibrous fusion (ankylosis) of the joint
Diagnosis
History: Insidious onset of dull aching pain, weight loss, anorexia, low grade fever
Examination: - Muscular atrophy of affected limb
- Joint swelling and warmth of overlying skin
- Joint effusion
- Limitation of joint movement
Laboratory: - Raised ESR

- Joint fluid analysis reveals turbid joint fluid with increased
leukocyte count (predominantly mononuclear)
- Acid-fast stain may reveal AFB.
X-ray: - Joint space narrowing

- Sub chondral bone destruction
- Periarticular osteoporosis
Open biopsy of the joint is done if diagnosis is still in doubt.
Treatment
- Anti-TB drug treatment
- Splint joint in functional position to avoid contracture
FRACTURES
Definition: A fracture is a structural breech in the normal continuity of bone.
Mechanism of injury
1- Tubular bone: - Direct violence to the bone
- Indirectly due to twisting or angulation
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2- Cancellous bone: - may be fractured by compression
E.g. Clash fracture of vertebral body or by traction
E.g. Transverse fracture of the patella
Bone Healing
o Progresses through the phase of hematoma, cellular proliferation, callus formation and
remodeling
o Generally takes longer than soft tissue healing
o In general, a long bone takes 6-12 weeks to heal in an adult and 3-6 weeks in children.
o Several factors, both local and systemic, affect fracture healing
• Local factors: - Degree of soft tissue injury

- Pattern and site of fracture
- Presence of Infection
- Adequacy of reduction
- Adequacy of immobilization
• Systemic factors: like debilitating diseases and immunosuppressive drugs

impair healing.
Classification
- Fractures may be classified in several ways. the most important clinical
classification is:
- Closed vs open (compound) fracture
Diagnosis
Clinical: - History of trauma
- Pain, swelling, inability to use the injured body part
- Tenderness, swelling and bruising
- Deformity, abnormal movement (sure signs of fracture)
X-ray: A suspected fractured bone should be x-rayed.

- X-ray should be taken in at least two planes (AP and lateral)
- Should always include the joints proximal and distal to the fracture
- Look in the X-ray for:
Presence of fracture
The part of bone fractured
The pattern of the fracture which can be transverse,
comminuted, oblique, spiral, segmental.
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Presence and type of displacement which can be lateral
shift, angulation, rotation, overlap, distraction
Quality of bone: check for:
• Osteoporosis
• Pathological fracture, etc
Management of a patient with fracture
A) GENERAL TREATMENT
- Like any trauma patient, follow the ATLS system. Associated life threatening
injuries may be missed if evaluation of the patient is not systematic.
- Always assess the status of distal circulation and neurological function.
- Administer anti pain and splint all fractures before sending the patient for x-ray or
referring.
B) Local treatment of the fracture:-
I-Reduction
• Means bringing the fractured bone to normal or near normal anatomic position.
This is needed only for displaced fractures
• Age and function of the patient are important in considering the goals of reduction
• Reduction may be done in various ways:
1- Using gravity E.g. Humeral shaft fracture
2- Closed reduction by:
A- Manipulation e.g. Colle’s fracture
B- Traction e.g. Femoral shaft fracture
3- Open (Operative) reduction: Used when other methods are not possible,
have failed or a perfect anatomic reduction is needed.
E.g. displaced intra articular fractures.
II- Immobilization
The purpose of immobilization is to:
prevent re displacement of a reduced fracture
decrease movement at the site of fracture and prevent further soft tissue injury
relieve pain
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Methods of Immobilization
1- Plaster of Paris (POP) cast

- Is the safest and cheapest method of immobilization
- Immobilization should always include the two adjacent joints
- Joints should be immobilized in a functional position
- Complications include joint stiffness and compartment syndrome.
2- Traction
A) Using gravity: e.g. U-slab for humeral shaft fracture
B) Skin traction: A method of applying traction using bandage, usually used
in children and temporarily in adults. The maximum weight that can be
applied is 2kg.
C) Skeletal traction: Traction applied via a pin inserted into the bone distal to
the fracture. E.g. Tibial pin traction for femoral fracture
3- External fixation
- This is a method of fixing the fracture by metal pins passed through the
bone above and below the fracture and connected to a metal frame.
- It is mostly used in compound fractures as it combines good access for
wound care with immobilization
4- Internal fixation
- Internal fixation is a method of operative fixation of fractures by plates,
nails, screws, pins and wires
- The rigid fixation allows patients to get out of bed early
- It’s employed when operative reduction has been done for any of the
reasons mentioned before.
- It’s also indicated in poly traumatized patients whose confinement in bed if
treated otherwise results in high morbidity and mortality.
- Infection is the main complication and may result in chronic osteomyelitis
- It also needs expertise and orthopedic surgical facilities.
III- Rehabilitation
- Preserving muscle and joint function both during and after treatment is an
essential component of fracture treatment for a good result.
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Compound (open) fractures
Open (compound) fracture

- This is a fracture in which the fracture hematoma communicates with skin or
mucous membrane.
- Infection is the most feared complication of compound fractures and may cause
delayed healing, non union, sepsis or even death.
- It is a surgical emergency
Principles of management:
- Early wound debridement and thorough irrigation with saline
- Antibiotics: Broad spectrum e.g. Penicillin + Aminoglycoside should be given IV at
least for 48 hrs.
- Rigid immobilization with access to the wound e.g. external fixation
- Delayed wound closure!
N.B: Never close a compound fracture immediately in an attempt to convert it to a closed

one. You’ll cause a severe anaerobic infection!
Complications of Fractures
I- Soft tissue Injuries
- Arteries, Nerves and Viscera may be injured
II- Compartment syndrome

• Is a dangerously increased pressure within the enclosed fascial compartments
of extremities, especially forearm and leg.
• The high compartmental pressure causes Ischemia and necrosis of soft tissues
in the compartment.
• It may be aggravated by application of tight bandages or circular POP casts on a
freshly injured limb.
• Severe pain, especially with passive flexion of fingers is the earliest indicator.
• Paresthesia, Paralysis, Pallor or Pulselessness may develop later,
• Early diagnosis and complete splitting of a tight bandage or circular POP cast
may resolve the situation.
• Fasciotomy is done if the above measures have failed.
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III- Infection
- Usually complicates open fractures
- Chronic osteomyelitis may be the result.
- Adequate debridement is the most critical factor in preventing infection.
IV- Bone healing abnormalities

1- Delayed Union
- Failure of a fracture to heal in the expected time period.
2- Non union
- Total failure of the fracture to heal with formation of a false joint
between the fractured ends (pseudoarthrosis)
3- Malunion
- Healing occurs with deformity
4- Avascular necrosis
- Necrosis of part of the fractured bone occurs due to disruption of its
vascular supply. E.g. Femoral head.
V- Joint complications
• Joint stiffness
• Secondary Hemarthrosis
• osteoarthritis
VI- Systemic complications

• Usually follow polytrauma and major long bone fracture
• Include ARDS and fat embolism syndrome
DISLOCATIONS
A dislocation is a total disruption of joint with no remaining contact between the articular
surfaces.
A subluxation is partial joint disruption with partial remaining but abnormal contact of articular
surfaces.
Types of Dislocation
1- Traumatic dislocations
- This is a type of dislocation caused by trauma. A force strong enough to

disrupt the joint capsule and other supporting ligamentous structures
dislocates a previously normal joint.
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2- Pathological /Spontaneous dislocation
- This is a type of dislocation which occurs when a pathological condition in the

joint causes abnormality in the structural integrity of the joint.
E.g. Septic hip dislocation
3- Recurrent dislocation
- This is a dislocation which repeatedly occurs after trivial injuries due to

weakening of the supportive joint structures
4- Congenital dislocation
- A type of dislocation which is present congenitally since birth.
E.g. Congenital hip dislocation
Diagnosis
- The limb assumes an abnormally fixed position with loss of normal range of
movement in the affected joint.
- Associated soft tissue injuries should be looked for:
E.g. Popliteal artery in knee dislocation Sciatic nerve in posterior hip dislocation
- X-ray in various planes and views confirms diagnosis
Management
• Early reduction of the dislocation
• Immobilizing the joint to allow time for the supporting structures of the joint to heal
• Rehabilitation of the joint
AMPUTATIONS
An amputation is removal or excision of part or whole of a limb.
Indications
1- Dead limb (Gangrene)

- Due to: - Atherosclerosis
- Embolism
- Major arterial injury
- Diabetic gangrene…
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2- Deadly limb
- Life threatening infection (e.g. Gas gangrene) or malignancies which can’t be
controlled by other local measures
3- Dead loss
- Severe soft tissue injury especially associated with major nerve injury, which
may occur in compound fractures.
Level of amputation
The choice for the level of amputation depends on:
- Age
- The nature and extent of the pathology e.g. Neoplasm, trauma
- The vascularity of tissues
- Presence of infection
- Status of the joints
- Access to the various types of prostheses
Generally, the most distal level that will heal and still provide a functional stump is
selected.
- In the upper limb, attempt should be made to conserve every possible
inch.
- In the lower limb, the most important factor is to try and conserve the knee
joint whenever possible.
Amputations performed in the face of infection should be left open for a later closure.
Complications of amputation
- Edema
- Hematoma
- Secondary and reactionary hemorrhage
- Infection
- Ischemic necrosis
- Flexion contracture
- Chronic pain-psychogenic, neuromas, etc.
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Review Questions
1. Describe the pathogenesis of acute osteomyelitis.
2. A 25 year old man presents with severe pain and swelling of his right knee joint of two
days duration. Discuss his management.
3. Describe the management of a patient with compound fracture.
4. What is compartment syndrome? Describe its clinical manifestation and management.
5. List the indications for amputation.
6. What are the factors considered in deciding the level of an amputation?
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Reference
1. Review of orthopedics. Mark D. Miller, 1992.
2. Sabiston Text Book of Surgery, 1997.
3. Schwartz Text Book of Surgery,1999
4. Bailey and Love’s Short Practice of Surgery.
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CHAPTER ELEVEN
ANESTHESIA
Learning Objective
Get basic information and understanding about the proper pre-anesthetic preparation
of a patient before surgery,
Get basic knowledge on different types of anesthesia with their characteristics.
Get basic knowledge about the steps in the assessment and management of a
patient with cardio-respiratory arrest, needing cardiopulmonary resuscitation.
PRE-ANESTHETIC PATIENT EVALUATION AND PREPARATION

INTRODUCTION
The purpose of pre anesthetic assessment is to present the patient for surgery in the best
possible condition. Pre anesthetic assessment and preparation should include:
o Medical History
o Relevant physical examination
o Checking the results of tests or investigation
o Correct or improve any medical conditions before surgery
o Prescribing any drugs for pre-medication (if needed)
o Explaining to the patient the procedure of anesthesia
History
o Diagnosis and planned surgery
o Actual medical and surgical history
Respiratory system: Ask if there is history of shortness of breath, cough, sputum

production and wheezing
Cardiovascular system: Check if there is history of:
o Angina/previous myocardial infarction, current orthopnea, ankle swelling
Past medical history: Such as bleeding disorders, hypertension, asthma, seizures,

psychiatric disorders, previous anesthesia and any problem related to anesthesia
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Drug therapy: History of intake of drugs like:
- Anti-diabetics
- Anticoagulants
- Steroids
- Anti-hypertensive
Additional history on:

Excessive alcohol intake, smoking and allergies to drugs
Pregnancy
Dental status (loose teeth)
Fasting
Physical Examination
Respiratory System
Check for cyanosis, finger clubbing, pattern and frequency of breathing, position of trachea,
presence of added sounds on auscultation and their localization.
Cardiovascular system
Check the pulse rate, rhythm and character; blood pressure (raised or lowering of the blood
pressure), peripheral dependent edema, apex beat, extra heart sounds.
State of nutrition and hydration
Assess the body weight and height (BMI) and state of hydration.
Skin color
Check for pallor, cyanosis, jaundice (suspect liver disease which needs some attention
during anesthesia), and hyper-pigmentation.
Psychological status of the patient
This will influence the choice between regional and general anesthesia and also to give pre-
medication.
CNS: Should be assessed for level of consciousness and neurological deficit
The airway:
Assess for difficulty of the airway maintenance and laryngoscopy, anatomical problems like
receding lower jaw, protruding teeth; pathological problem like difficulty in opening jaw or
neck-extension, tumors, inflammation or burn-contractions on the neck
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Ease of venous cannulation: Finally, check for the ease of venous access
Investigations: There are routine investigations prior to any surgery which requires
anesthesia. This depends on the facilities and the condition of patient and type of surgery.
Special investigations should be ordered according to the condition of the patient.
District Hospital: (Where the facilities are restricted)

• Hemoglobin
• Urine analysis
Referral Hospital:
• Hemoglobin and full blood count
• Urine analysis
• Blood Urea Nitrogen/Creatinine
• Serum electrolytes
• Electrocardiogram (age over 40 years)
Correct or improve any medical conditions before surgery (preoperative care)
In case of elective surgery
Fluid imbalance: The volume of circulating fluid should be corrected.
Electrolyte imbalance: Correct, especially sodium and potassium imbalance.
Smoking: Smoking should be given up at least three days preoperatively because of the
increased risk of bronchial exudation and the bronchospasm.
Dental treatment should be carried out if necessary before any major surgery.
Anemia: A value below 10 g/dl should be corrected.
Cardiovascular diseases: A period of 6 months should be allowed after an attack of

myocardial infarction. Cardiac failure must be treated for achieving a maximum
compensation. Arrhythmias must not be too severe to interfere with patient’s cardiac
output and hypertension should be treated properly.
Respiratory disease: Acute respiratory disease is contraindication for elective general

anesthesia. Asthma must be treated with appropriate bronco-dilators until the chest is
clear to auscultation.
Metabolic diseases: Diabetes mellitus must be controlled. After severe case of infective
hepatitis, operation is best postponed for a minimum of 6 months. Thyroid disorders
(both hyper and hypothyroidism) must be corrected.
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In case of emergency surgery: Patients presenting for emergency surgery face additional
problems to those with elective surgery. These include full stomach with high risk of
aspiration and hypovolemia due to blood or fluid loss which has to be replaced as fast
as possible. Measures which should be taken in case of full stomach include:
- Postpone surgery for at least 4 hours.
- Empty the stomach using Naso-Gastric Tube of largest possible size.
- Magnesium tricilicate to reduce the pH of the gastric content.
- Especial “Crash induction” can be employed in the case of general anesthesia.
Crash induction:
This is a procedure used to prevent aspiration when full stomach is suspected.

¾ First preoxygenate the patient and give induction agent to make sleep.
¾ An assistant apply pressure on the cricoids just below the thyroid cartilage
to occlude the esophagus.
¾ Then, muscle relaxant given
¾ The pressure will be removed when the endotracheal tube is in the
trachea and the balloon is inflated
N.B.: In case of a life-threatening emergency, there is no contraindication for general

anesthesia!
Measures before leaving the ward to the theater
- Food and drink with held for 6 hours
- Lipstick removed, nails cleaned, etc.
- Dentures, artificial limbs and eyes removed
- Bladder emptied
- Premedication given
Premedication
Definition: Premedication is administration of drugs before surgery.
Purposes:
- To alleviate anxiety and fear with sedatives (Diazepam)
- To reduce secretions especially salivary and bronchial (Atropine)
- To prevent undesirable reflexes, e.g. bradycardia (Atropine)
- To facilitate induction and reduce the dose of anesthetic used
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Commonly used drugs:
¾ Diazepam 10 mg
¾ Atropine 0.01 mg/kg IV / 0.02 mg/kg IM (ideally 30 min prior surgery)
Route of administration:
- Oral with small amount of water
- Intramuscular (for children)

- Intravenous injection:
- Pre medication has not been given earlier in the ward

- In patients who have already intravenous infusion running
- In shocked patients
- In a patient who has a bleeding tendency
CARDIOPULMONARY RESUSCITATION (CPR)
Definition: Cardiopulmonary resuscitation is the attempt to restor the vital functions of the
body, which are the respiration and the circulation.
ABC of Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation

A = Assessment and Airway
B = Breathing
C = Circulation
D = Drugs
A. Assessment: Assess the patient for response by

gently shaking the shoulders
shouting, “are you all right?”
If the patient responds by moving or answering, leave him/her in the position in which they
were found (assuming there is no further danger) and look for any obvious injuries or causes
for collapse (Diabetic, intoxication, etc).
If there is any suspicion of a neck injury, protect the cervical spine by manual immobilization.
Provide first aid for any injuries present and carefully reassess the patient at the regular
interval.
If the patient does not respond, shout for help.
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Fig. 1: Opening the Airway
By tilting the head back, open the airway by lifting the tongue off the fall by lifting the chin.
Inspect the posterior pharyngeal wall. Remove any obvious obstruction from the mouth
including loose denture.
Fig. 1: Opening the airway. Top: Airway obstruction produced by tongue and epiglottis
Bottom: Relief by head tilt –chin lift
B. Breathing:
¾ Look, listen and feel for breathing (Fig. 2).
¾ Look for chest movement.
¾ Listen at the mouth for breathing sounds.
¾ Feel for expired air with your cheek.
¾ Look, listen and feel for up to 10 seconds before deciding whether
breathing is present or absent.
Fig. 2: Determining breathlessness
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If the patient is breathing:
¾ Turn the person into the recovery position (lateral position) unless you would
aggravate any injuries (cervical spine injuries).
¾ Observe him/her closely checking that uninterrupted breathing continues and
pulse is present.
If the patient is not breathing:

¾ Turn the patient into supine position and give two breaths of expired air
ventilation (mouth to mouth breathing) (Fig. 3) then check the circulation.
¾ Expired air ventilation provides oxygen concentration of 16%, which is
adequate to oxygenate the collapsed patient in the initial phase.
Fig. 3: Rescue breathing: Mouth to mouth breathing
C. Circulation (Fig. 4)
¾ Check the carotid pulse just lateral to the laryngeal prominence. Major pulses
like the carotid or femoral pulses are more reliable in an emergency than
peripheral pulses.
¾ Feel up to 10 seconds before deciding about the presence or absence of pulse.
¾ Look for any other signs of circulation (movement, swallowing, etc).
Fig. 4: Determining pulselessness. Locate the larynx while maintaining the head-tilt position
(left). Slide the fingers into the groove between the trachea and the muscles at the
side of the neck where the carotid pulse can be felt (right).
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If pulse is present:
¾ Continue ventilation giving 10 breaths per minute.
¾ Reassess for signs of continuing circulation every minute, taking no more than 10
seconds to do so on each occasion.
¾ If signs of a spontaneous respiratory effort appear, stop and reassess ABC again.
If there are no signs of circulation, this is a cardiac arrest.

¾ Start external chest compression (Fig. 5).
¾ Give 15 chest compressions.
¾ Reopen the airway and give a further 2 breathes of expired air ventilation.
¾ External chest compression provides only 20% of normal cardiac out put.
Fig. 5: External chest compression.

Left: Locating the correct hand position on the lower half of the sternum
Right: Proper position of the rescuer with shoulder directly over the victim’s sternum and
elbows locked
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SUMMARY: ABC OF LIFE SUPPORT
Is the patient responsive? YES Assess the need for help
NO
Is the patient breathing? YES Open the airway

Check for 10 seconds
NO
Is there a pulse? Place in the recovery position

YES
Check for 10 seconds
NO
Start external chest

compression
Give 2 ventilations Continue to ventilate and reassess

15 compressions to 2 ventilation
D. Drugs:
Open the intravenous line and start with resuscitation fluid and at the same time one of the
assistants can prepare adrenaline and give 1 mg every 3 minutes. In the meantime continue
with breathing and external cardiac compression. Check for pupilary reaction as well. After
20-30 minute if there is no sign of heart beat and pupilary reaction one can stop
resuscitation.
SYSTEMIC (GENERAL) ANESTHESIA
Definition: Several different types of drugs with different properties can produce the state of
anesthesia.
General Anesthesia: the method of making the patient pain free and unaware about what is
going on during the surgery.
Regional anesthesia: a method of blocking of nerve impulses before they reach the central
nervous system using local acting drugs in order to induce analgesia and /or
relaxation.
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Advantages of General Anesthesia
• It can be given quickly
• It makes the patient’s whole body insensitive to pain
• It makes the patient unconscious
A general anesthesia may cause both respiratory and cardio-vascular complications, which
will require intervention. To fight against the complications, one should:
¾ Keep a vein open before anesthesia
¾ Have to prepare equipments for securing air way and possible ventilation.
Steps of general anesthesia

¾ Premedication
¾ Induction
¾ Maintenance
¾ Recovery
Premedication
Premedication can be started in the ward and /or in the OR before surgery.
Induction of Anesthesia
Induction of anesthesia is to make the patient unconscious. Before giving the drugs to make
the patient sleep you should let him/her breathe 100% oxygen, which will be used as a
reserve during the time of intubation. Induction can be performed:
• With intravenous anesthetic agents: Ketamine + Atropine or Thiopentone
• With inhalation agent (e.g. Halothane)
After the patient is induced, the anesthesia can be continued with intubation or with out
(mask ventilation or spontaneous breathing).
Endo tracheal intubation:
It is a technique of passing an endotracheal tube into the trachea of the patient for securing
the airway, and to make easier ventilation. For Intubation the patient should be adequately
relaxed with inhalation agent or muscle relaxant. The relaxant used for intubation is
Suxamethonium, which has fast onset of action and short effect.
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Equipment necessary for intubation and resuscitation:
• Face mask
• Self inflating bag (Ambo)
• Oropharyngeal air way (different sizes)
• Suction machine with suction tip
• Laryngoscope with different blade sizes
• Endotracheal tubes
Maintenance of Anesthesia: The anesthesia can be maintained with:

• inhalation agent (halothane or ether ± muscle relaxant
• inhalation agent + ketamine ± muscle relaxant
• intermittent Ketamine or Ketamine drip ± muscle relaxant
• Muscle relaxants for maintenance which usually are long-acting ones (e.g.
Pancuronium, Vecuronium).
Monitoring: During anesthesia it is important to do strict monitoring of heart beat, blood

pressure, respiration, temperature, fluid balance and urine output.
The carrier gas for volatile anesthetic agent can be atmospheric air or oxygen from
compressed source depending on the type of Anesthesia machine in use.
Recovery and Extubation:
During recovery phase the patient recovers from:

• Inhalation agents by exhalation and/or metabolism
• Ketamine by excretion and metabolism
• Muscle relaxants by excretion and/or metabolism and/or reversal with
neostigmine
Before extubation
• Be sure that the patient is breathing adequately (reversed from relaxant)
• Suck oropharyngeal secretion
• Deflate the cuff (which is used for adults) and remove the endotracheal tube
Transportation and immediate postoperative care:

• Transport in the recovery position
• Check and observe closely the pulse rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, urine
output hourly, any abnormal and continuing blood loss and presence of pain.
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Ketamine Anesthesia
Ketamine can make the patient unconscious with good analgesic effect. Because of these
reasons it can be used alone for short procedures and surgery, which does not require
relaxation and intubation.
Dose and route of administration:

Intramuscular: 5-10 mg/kg
Intravenous: 1-2 mg/kg
The effect of one single dose lasts for about 15 min. A dose of 0.5 mg/kg can be repeated
intravenously for maintenance. IM-maintenance is not recommended.
• Diazepam 5-10 mg should be given for adults to prevent bad dreams of
Ketamine.
• Atropine 0.01mg/kg IV or 0.02 mg/kg IM should be given as premedication to
decrease intra-bronchial secretion, which is increased by Ketamine.
REGIONAL ANESTHESIA
Before performing conduction block, full facilities for resuscitation should be available.
Toxicity of local anesthetics
All local anesthetic drugs are potentially toxic due to:

• Allergic reactions
• Systemic toxicity due to accidental intravascular injection or overdose
CNS-Toxicity:
Drowsiness
This presents with unconsciousness, which progresses to convulsion, cardiovascular

toxicity, hypotension and cardiac dysrhythmia.
Treatment of systemic toxicity

• The best treatment of systemic toxicity is prevention by meticulous attention to
technique and recognition of intravascular injection.
• Oxygen must be administered at the first sign of toxicity.
• Control seizure with Diazepam or Thiopental.
Commonly used local anesthetic drugs
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Lidocaine (Xylocaine) 1%, 2% or 5% with or without Adrenaline in dose of:
With Adrenaline: 7 mg/kg
Without Adrenaline: 3 mg/kg
• Bupivacaine (Carbosthesin, Marcain) 0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75% without Adrenaline

Maximum dose: 2 mg/kg
Adding Adrenaline to Lidocaine has two useful effects:

• Allows larger dose of Lidocaine without toxic effect, by causing vasoconstriction
which reduces the rate of absorption of the drug.
• As the rate of absorption of local anesthetic drug is slow, the duration of anesthesia
increases.
• Never use local anesthetic drugs with adrenaline in areas supplied with end arteries
e.g.
o For finger block
o At the ear lobe
o For circumcision (on penis)
Contraindications to conduction anesthesia

o True allergy to local anesthetic drugs
o Infection at the intended site of injection
o Systemic treatment of the patient with anti coagulant drugs
Types of conduction blocks
A) Spinal Anesthesia
Definition: Spinal anesthesia is a conduction block of nerve roots achieved by injecting a

small volume of concentrated local anesthetic solution into the subarachnoidal
space through the lumbar puncture. The level of lumbar puncture is at the
interspaces between the 3rd and 4th lumbar vertebrae. The procedure should be
performed with strict aseptic technique.
Drugs used
o Heavy or isobaric 0.5% Bupivacaine, duration of anesthesia 2-3 hours
o Heavy 5% Lidocaine, duration of anesthesia 90 minutes
Indications
Spinal anesthesia is appropriate for procedures involving below the level of umbilicus like in
the lower extremities, hip, perineum, lower abdomen, lumbar spine.
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Contraindications:
Complications for spinal anesthesia include:

o Patient refusal
o Patient with uncorrected hypovolemia
o Local infection
o Bleeding tendency
o Raised intracranial pressure
Procedure of spinal anesthesia

• Choose the lumbar interspace below the 2nd lumbar vertebrae (usually the 3rd
or the 4th interspace) (Fig. 6 + 7).
• Clean and drape.
• Do the lumbar puncture (Fig. 8 top left).
• When the cerebro-spinal fluid starts to drip on removal of the stylet from the
spinal needle, (Fig. 8 top right) slowly inject a local anesthetic solution 2 - 3 ml
0.5% Bupivacaine (Fig.8). Turn the patient to a supine position with pillow
under the head in the case of heavy (hyperbaric) local anesthetic drug.
Complications of spinal anesthesia and measures to take
• Drop in blood pressure-due to high spinal block

- Give Oxygen - Make faster the drip if that does not help.
- Give smaller dose of ephedrine starting with 5mg and bolus, usually,
1-2. If prolonged effect is required give 25-50 mg IM.
• Bradycardia
- Give Atropine 0.01 mg/kg IV
• Total spinal block with anesthesia and paralysis of the whole body
- Intubate and ventilate
- Treat Hypotension
• Post spinal headache

- Bed rest
- Hydration
120
Fig. 6: Lateral positioning of the patient and selecting the lumbar interspace
Fig. 7: Sitting position of the patient and selecting the lumbar interspace
121
Fig. 8: Technique of Spinal Anesthesia
B) Nerve block
Definition: Nerve block is injection of a solution of local analgesic drug near the nerve or
nerves supplying the area to be operated on. The commonly used local
anesthetic drug is Lidocaine with concentration of 1-2%.
Commonly performed nerve blocks:
o Digital nerve block

o Axillary block of the brachial plexus
o Wrist-block
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C) Field block
Field block is injection of local analgesic so as to create a zone of analgesia around the
operative field. It can be used for:
o Repair of an inguinal hernia
o Caesarean section
o Circumcision
D) Infiltration
Infiltration is direct injection of drugs into the area to be incised and between bone ends in
fractures. Lidocaine 0.5% is adequate for simple infiltration.
E) Topical anesthesia
This can be performed simply by applying 4% lidocaine to the mucus membrane, for minor
surgery and instrumentation of:
o Nose
o Mouth
o Eye
o Pharynx and larynx
o Urethral procedures
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Review Questions
1. A 60 year old male patient presents to Emergency OPD with persistent

vomiting, abdominal distension and failure to pass flatus and feces. After
evaluation by the surgeon, it is decided to take him to the operating theater.
What preoperative preparation should be performed before surgery?
2. 35 year old man with wt of 60 kg comes for inguinal herniorrhaphy which is

planned to be done under local anesthesia.
a) What is the maximum volume of 1% Lidocaine (with Adrenaline) you can
give?
b) Immediately after injection of Lidocaine, the patient tries to say something
to you, subsequently he fails to communicate and the pulse is getting
weak. What are your immediate measures?
3. A 17 year old girl is brought to the Emergency department with polytrauma after a
car accident. At arrival her BP is not recordable, she is unconscious and
cyanotic. How do you manage this patient?
4. You receive a patient from the OR, who had major surgery. How do you follow
this patient in the immediate post-operative period?
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References
1. PG Barash, BF Calla, RK Stoepting: Clinical anesthesia. Lippincott Company,

Philadelphia, 1989.
2. L Bartholomeusz: Safe Anesthesia: A Training manual, where facilities are limited. 2nd
ed., Victoria, Australia, 1996.
3. GB Bushman, NJH Davies, JN Cashman: Lee’s Synopsis of Anesthesia. 12th edition,

Butterworth Heinemann, 1999.
4. Adult Basic life support. JAMA, October 28, Vol. 268, No. 16, 1992, pp. 2184 – 97.
5. CA Graham, D Scollon, J McGowan, M. WG Gordon: Resuscitation 1: Basic life

support. British Journal of Hospital Medicine, Vol. 56, No 2/3, 1997.
6. Dobson: Anesthesia at the District Hospital. World Health Organization, Geneva, 1988.
125
SYSTEMIC SURGERY
CHAPTER ONE
THE THYROID GLAND
Learning objective
After reading this chapter students are expected to:
1. List common causes of thyroid enlargement
2. Know course and treatment of simple goiter
3. Identify clinical manifestation of hyper and hypothyroidism
4. Enumerate types of thyroid carcinomas
5. Outline management options for thyroid carcinomas
Thyroid Enlargement: Goiter
Goiter refers to a generalized enlargement of the thyroid gland which is normally

impalpable.
Classification of thyroid swelling
1. Simple goiter (euthyroid)

• Diffuse hyper plastic
• (Multinodular)
2. Toxic
• Diffuse (Grave’s disease)
• Nodular
• Toxic adenoma
3. Neoplastic
• Benign
• Malignant
4. Inflammatory
• Autoimmune (chronic lymphocyte thyroiditis, Hashimoto’s disease)
• Infectious
• Acute (bacterial thyroiditis, viral,)
• Chronic (tuberculous, syphilitic)
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Simple Goiter
Patho-physiology: Simple Goiter is enlargement of the thyroid gland as a result of

stimulation of the thyroid gland by high levels of circulating thyroid stimulating hormone. This
high level of TSH might be due to dietary deficiency of iodine as in endemic goiter. Defective
hormone synthesis also cause goiter and it accounts for many sporadic goiters. It has stages
of development. All stages of simple goiter are far more common in females.
Diffuse hyper-plastic goiter: Persistent stimulation by TSH causes diffuse hyperplasia of

the thyroid gland. The goiter is soft, diffuse and may become large enough to cause
discomfort. In endemic goiter, it usually occurs at puberty when metabolic demands are high,
this is reversible if stimulations cease. But, it tends to recur later at times of stress such as
pregnancy. As a result of fluctuating stimulation of the thyroid gland, areas of active lobule
and inactive lobules will develop. Active lobules become more vascular and hyperplasic until
hemorrhage occurs causing necrosis. These necrotic lobules coalesce to form nodules filled
with either iodine free colloid or inactive follicles. This the nodular stage of simple goiter.
Nodular goiter can be solitary or multinodular. The nodules can be colloid when filled with
colloid or cellular. Secondary changes like cystic degeneration, hemorrhage and calcification
occur at late stages.
Diagnosis
Clinical presentation:
Discrete swelling in one lobe with no palpable abnormality else where is called solitary
(isolated) nodule. And if there is abnormality else where in the gland it is termed dominant
nodule.
Nodules are palpable and usually visible. They are smooth, firm and not hard. The Goiter is
painless and freely moves with swallowing and usually patients are euthyroid.
Investigation
Thyroid function test (T3, T4, TSH) is necessary to exclude hyper or
hypothyroidism.
Chest or thoracic inlet x-rays may show calcification, tracheal deviation and
compression.
Estimation of thyroid antibody titers to exclude auto-immune thyroiditis.
Complications
• Tracheal obstruction can occur due to gross lateral displacement or
compression.
• Secondary thyrotoxicosis may develop after long standing cases.
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• Carcinoma: malignant changes of the follicular layer might develop in simple
goiter.
Prevention
In endemic areas the incidence of goiter can be significantly reduced by the introduction of
iodized salt. In early stages, a hyper-plastic goiter may regress if thyroxin is given in a dose
of 0.1mg daily for few months. The nodular stages of simple goiter are irreversible. But most
of the patients are asymptomatic and do not require operation.
Operation might be indicated

• On cosmetic grounds
• Tracheal compression and
• When malignancy cannot be excluded
The options of surgical treatment are

• Near total thyroidectomy
• Subtotal thyroidectomy
Toxic goiters
Thyrotoxicosis - is a condition in which there is increased metabolic rate due to high level of
circulating thyroid hormone. It is about eight times more commonly seen in females than
males.
Clinical features
The most significant symptoms are

• Loss of weight in spite of good appetite,
• A recent preference of cold
• Palpitation.
• Tiredness
• Emotional liability.
The most important clinical signs of thyrotoxicosis commonly seen are

• excitability of the patient,
• the presence of goiter,
• hot and moist palms,
• exophthalmus in primary type
• tachycardia with cardiac arrhythmia
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• Weakness of the proximal limb muscles
• The goiter in primary thyrotoxicosis (Grave’s disease) is diffuse and vascular, it
may be large or small, firm or soft and bruit may be present. Whereas in
secondary thyrotoxicosis the goiter is nodular.
Diffuse toxic goiter: Primary toxic goiter or Grave’s disease is a diffuse vascular goiter
appearing at the same time as symptoms of hyperthyroidism. It usually occurs in younger
women and frequently associated with eye signs. The hypertrophy and hyperplasia are due
to abnormal thyroid stimulating antibodies
Toxic nodular goiter: A simple nodular goiter is present for a long time before the
hyperthyroidism, and hence termed secondary thyrotoxicosis. It is usually seen in middle
aged or elderly people and less frequently associated with eye signs. In many cases of toxic
nodular goiter, the nodules are inactive and it is the intermediate thyroid tissue that is
involved in hyper secretion.
Toxic nodule: This is a solitary hyperactive nodule which may be part of a generalized
nodularity or a true toxic adenoma. It is autonomous and its hypertrophy and hyperplasia are
not due to thyroid stimulating antibodies. Because TSH secretion is suppressed by the high
level of circulating thyroid hormones, the normal thyroid tissue surrounding the nodule is
suppressed and inactive.
Diagnosis of thyrotoxicosis
• Most cases are easily diagnosed by the clinical picture.
• The thyroid functional status can be determined by estimation of serum thyroxin
hormones and TSH.
• Isotope scanning is used to investigate discrete thyroid swelling. This helps to
determine the functional activity relative to the surrounding gland according to
isotope uptake.
Treatment of thyrotoxicosis
Treatment of thyrotoxicosis includes specific and non-specific measures. The specific

measures are
• the use of antithyroid drugs
• surgery
• radioiodine
The nonspecific measures which include rest and sedation are not commonly
recommended.
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Anti thyroid Drugs:
Antithyroid drugs are used to resume the patient to a euthyroid state and to maintain this for
a prolonged period. But it should be clear that antithyroid drugs cannot cure a toxic nodule
since the overactive thyroid tissue is autonomous and recurrence of the hyperthyroidism is
certain when the drug is discontinued.
Surgery:
Surgery cures thyrotoxicosis by reducing the mass of overactive tissue below critical mass.
Preoperatively, the patient must be prepared with antithyroid drugs so that the patient
becomes euthyroid. The preferred procedure is subtotal thyroidectomy.
Post-operative complications
• Hemorrhage - a tension hematoma may develop deep to the cervical fascia – which
is potentially life threatening
• Respiratory obstruction - can occur due to laryngeal edema or secondary to tension
hematoma.
• Recurrent laryngeal nerve paralysis may be unilateral or bilateral and could be
transient or permanent.
• Thyroid insufficiency. This is insidious and usually occurs after 2 years.
• Parathyroid insufficiency - is due to removal of parathyroid gland and usually seen in
immediate post operative period.
• Thyrotoxic crisis (storm) - is an acute exacerbation of hyperthyroidism. It occurs if a
thyrotoxic patient has been inadequately prepared for thyroidectomy.
• Wound infection - a subcutaneous or deep cervical abscess may occur rarely and
necessitates drainage.
Neoplasms of the thyroid
Classification of thyroid neoplasm
Benign: follicular adenoma

Malignant: Primary - Follicular epithelial: follicular, papillary, anaplastic
- Para follicular epithelium: medullary
- Lymphoid cells: lymphoma
Secondary
- Metastatic
- Local infiltrations
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Benign tumors
Follicular adenomas present as clinically solitary nodules and the distinction between a
follicular carcinoma and an adenoma can only be made by histological examination.
Treatment of follicular adenoma is by wide excision preferably lobectomy.
Malignant Tumors
Clinical feature: The commonest presenting symptom is

• thyroid swelling
• Enlarged cervical lymph node may be the presentation of papillary carcinomas.
• Recurrent laryngeal nerve paralysis may be a presenting feature on locally
advanced disease.
• Anaplastic growths are usually hard, irregular or infiltrating.
Diagnosis
Differentiated cancers: Diagnosis largely depends on

• history
• physical examination
• investigations: Thyroid function tests(T3,T4,TSH), fine needle aspiration, anti-
body assays, and radio isotope scanning
Treatment: Treatment of differentiated thyroid carcinoma principally is surgery.
Prognosis: Prognosis is influenced by histological type, age, extra thyroid spread, and size
of tumor. With regard to age, males of more than 40 years of age and females over 50 years
have worse prognosis. Distant metastatic disease has worse prognosis.
Undifferentiated (anaplastic) Carcinoma
This occurs mainly in elderly woman. Local infiltration is an early feature of these tumors with
spread by lymphatics and blood stream. They are extremely lethal tumors with death
occurring in most cases within months. Many lesions present in advanced stages with
tracheal obstruction and require urgent tracheal decompression. Radiotherapy should be
given in all cases and may provide a worth while period of palliation.
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Review Questions
1. Discuss stages of simple goiter.
2. List the most important clinical signs of thyrotoxicosis.
3. What is the most common presenting symptom of thyroid malignancies?
4. Compare and contrast papillary and follicular thyroid carcinoma with respect to root of
metastasis, overall mortality and location of recurrence?
5. What is the most important investigation in solitary thyroid nodule?
132
References
1. Bailey and Loves, Short Practice of Surgery 22nd Ed.
2. Hardy’s Text Book of Surgery
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CHAPTER TWO
THE BREAST
Learning objectives
After reading this chapter, the student is expected to:
Identify the common causes of lumps in the breast
Mention the possible methods of investigating breast lumps
Understand clinical presentation and treatment of benign breast lumps
Understand the staging evaluation of breast carcinoma
Outline the management principle of carcinoma in the breast
Diagnose and manage infectious diseases of the breast
Introduction
The breast is a modified sweat gland that produces milk under hormonal influences. Breast
carcinoma is the most common cause of death in the developed world. In underdeveloped
countries patients present usually with late stage of disease. This is due to lack of screening
facilities, low index of suspicion among health professionals, poverty and lack of knowledge.
Benign conditions of the breast are important because of the discomfort they produce and
frequent confusion with neoplastic disease.
Anatomy
• The protuberant part of the human breast is generally described as overlying the 2nd
to 6th ribs,
• It extends from the lateral border of the sternum to the anterior axillary line, between
clavicle and to the 7th and 8th ribs below.
• The ligaments of cooper are hollow conical projections of fibrous tissue filled with
breast tissue the apices of cones being attached firmly to the superficial fascia and
thereby to the skin overlying the breast.
• The areola contains involuntary muscles arranged in concentric rings as well as
radially in the subcutaneous tissue.
• The nipple is covered by thick skin with corrugations. Near its apex lie the orifices of
the lactiferous ducts. The nipple contains smooth muscle fibers arranged
concentrically and longitudinally.
• Lymphatics of the breast drain predominantly into the axillary lymph nodes on the
ipsilateral side.
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Breast lumps
Among all the problems women develop in their breasts, breast lumps are the most
common. These could be secondary to either benign disease conditions, or fatal
carcinomas. Hence, it is essential to identify different types of breast lumps. Students should
be familiar with some of differentiating mechanisms between malignant and benign breast
lumps.
Breast cysts
This is a rare condition which may occur in the last decade of reproductive life due to a non-
integrated involution of stroma and epithelium. They are often multiple and may be bilateral.
Diagnosis can be confirmed by aspiration and/or ultrasound.
Treatment – solitary or small cysts are aspirated. If there is residual lump after aspiration, if
fluid is blood stained, or if cyst recurs, local excision for histological diagnosis is advisable. .
Fibroadenoma
Usually occurs during 15-25 years of age and arises from hyperplasia of a single lobule. It
can usually grow up to 2-3 cm in size surrounded by well-marked capsule. It is smooth,
solitary, usually painless and moves freely in the breast. Most fibroadenomas can be excised
through periareolar incision with good cosmetic result.
Phyllodes Tumor
• Are benign tumors
• Usually occur in women over 40 years but can appear in younger woman.
• Present as large, massive tumor with unevenly lobulated surface and occasionally
with ulceration of overlying skin.
• Can be treated by enucleation, but massive and recurrent tumors may require simple
mastectomy.
Ductectasia/ periductal mastitis
Definition: This is dilatation of the breast ducts associated with periductal inflammation.
Pathogenesis: Dilatation of lactiferous ducts that will be subsequently filled with a stagnant
brown or green secretion. The secretion may discharge. The fluid sets up an irritant reaction
in surrounding tissue leading to periductal mastitis, even abscess or fistula formation. Some
causes chronic indurated mass, which mimics carcinoma.
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o Nipple discharge of any color,
o a subareolar mass,
o Abscess,
o Mammary duct fistula and/or nipple retraction.
Treatment:
• Excision of all major ducts.
• In case of nipple retraction, carcinoma must be excluded by mammography
and histology.
When the diagnosis of carcinoma is in doubt
There are cases where one cannot be sure whether the particular lump in the breast is area
of mammary dysplasia, benign tumor or an early carcinoma. If there is doubt on clinical,
cytological or radiological examination, it is essential to obtain a tissue diagnosis. Table ‘1’
gives an algorism for investigating a breast lump
Table “1” Investigation of a breast lump
Lump in the breast

Cystic Solid
FNA Clinically benign Clinically malignant
FNA FNA
Cytology Cytology Cytology Cytology Cytology
Benign, breast Malignant,

lump lump persists Benign Malignant Benign
disappears or bloody
Follow-up Urgent biopsy Follow-up or Treat Urgent biopsy

excise cancer
Acute mastitis
Definition
This is acute inflammation of the breast. Bacterial mastitis is the commonest variety of
mastitis and nearly always commences acutely. It is associated with lactation in the majority
of cases
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Cause
Most cases are caused by staphylococcus aureus.
o Pain
o Swelling
o Redness
o Tenderness and hotness of the affected side.
o Later on, abscess may develop.
Treatment
• Initiation of appropriate antibiotics (e.g.- cloxacilline)
• Affected breast rested with breast-feeding on the opposite side only.
• Support of breast
• Local heat and analgesics for reduction of the pain.
Complication: - breast abscess
If acute infection of breast doesn’t resolve with in 48 hours, or if after emptied of milk there
is an area of tense induration, the inflammation has resulted in an abscess. Unlike majority
of localized infections; fluctuation is a late sign so incision must not be delayed. When doubt
exists an incision and drainage should be done.
Drainage of breast abscess
Under general or local anesthesia, incision is sited in a radial direction over the affected
segment. The incision passes through the skin and superficial fascia. A long hemostat is
then inserted into the abscess cavity. Every part of abscess is palpated against the point of
hemostat and its jaw opened, all loculi that can be felt are entered. Finally the hemostat
having been removed, a finger is introduced and any remaining septa are disrupted. The
wound may then be lightly packed with gauze or drain inserted to allow dependent drainage.
Carcinoma of the Breast
Breast cancer is the commonest cause of death in middle-aged women in western countries.
In our set up, increasing incidence is being observed.
Risk factors
• Geographical - it occurs commonly in the western world accounting for 3-5 percent of
deaths but is rare tumor in Far East like Japan. In developing countries it accounts
for 1-3 percent of death.
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• Age - it is extremely rare below the age of 20, but the incidence thereafter steadily
rises so that by the age of 90 nearly 20% of women are affected.
• Genetic - it occurs more commonly in women with a family history of breast cancer.
• Diet- since it is more common in “developed” world, dietary factor may play role, a
high intake of dietary fat is associated with an increased risk.
• Endocrine - common in nulliparous women, having the first child at early age
especially if associated with late menarche. Early menopause is protective.
• Obesity.
Pathology: Breast cancer may arise from the epithelium of the duct system starting from the
nipple to the end of lactiferous ducts which is in the lobule. It may be entirely in situ (with out
breaching basement membrane) or may be invasive. The degree of differentiation of a tumor
is usually described by three grades well differentiated, moderately or poorly differentiated.
Ductal carcinoma is the most common variant. Lobular carcinoma occurs in up to 10 percent
of cases.
Spread of breast cancer
1. Local spread: Tumor increases in size and invades other parts of the breast. It tends
to involve the skin and to penetrate the pectoral muscles, and even the chest wall.
2. Lymphatic spread: Occurs primary to the axillary lymph nodes. Involvement of lymph
nodes is not necessarily a chronological event in the evolution of the carcinoma, but
rather a marker of the metastatic potential of that tumor. In advanced diseases there
may be involvement of supraclavicular nodes and of any contra lateral lymph nodes.
3. Spread by the blood stream: (hematological spread). It is by this route that skeletal
metastasis occurs in decreasing frequency to the lumbar vertebra, femur, thoracic
vertebra, rib and skull. They are generally osteolytic. Metastasis can also occur to the
liver, lungs and brain and occasionally to the adrenal glands and ovaries.
While any portion of the breast may be involved, breast cancer commences most frequently
in the upper outer quadrant.
Local findings
• Hard, irregular lump.
• In drawing of the nipple (nipple retraction).
• Skin involvement with peau d’ orange (orange peel) appearance.
• Frank ulceration and fixation to the chest wall.
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Signs of metastasis
• depends on the part of the body involved
• Lymph node enlargement
• Bone pain
• cough
These patients must undergo a staging evaluation which includes careful clinical
examination, chest x-ray, serum alkaline phosphates and liver ultrasound.
Prognosis of breast cancer: The best indicators of likely prognosis in breast cancer are
tumor size and lymph node status. Other prognostic factors include:
- Invasive and metastatic potential
- Histological grade of tumor
- Estrogen receptor status
- Patient age and menopausal status are some of the factors
Treatment of Breast Cancer: Treatment of breast cancer is a multi disciplinary approach. It

largely depends on clinical stage and other tumor characteristics described previously.
Modes of treatment include:
• surgery
• radiotherapy and
• Medical therapy (including chemotherapy and hormonal therapy.)
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Review Questions
1. What are the differential diagnoses of a lump in the breast?
2. A-20 year old female patient presents with a solitary painless lump in the breast.
Examination reveals a freely mobile 3cm lump. The most likely diagnosis is
A. Fat necrosis C. Breast cancer
B. Fibroadenoma D. Phylloides tumor
3. What is the peculiar feature of breast abscess as compared to other abscesses?

How can the diagnosis be confirmed?
4. Discuss the spread of breast cancer.
5. What are the mainstays of treatment of early breast cancer?
6. A thirty-five year-old nulliparous woman comes with history of swelling in the

breast of 2-months duration. The swelling is reported to be painful and persistent.
In association with this, the patient has moderate fever, decreased appetite and
weight loss.
A. What is the most likely diagnosis?
B. What further History and physical examination do you need to reach a
diagnosis?
C. List the most important laboratory investigations which help you confirm
the diagnosis.
On Physical examination, the tumor measured 4cm, its non-mobile and rough
surfaced. There is freely mobile axillary lymphadenopathy on the same side.
D. What is the stage of the disease?

E. Out line the management approach.
140
References
1. Bailey and Loves, Short Practice of Surgery 22nd Ed.
2. Hardy’s Text Book of Surgery
141
CHAPTER THREE
THE CHEST
Learning Objectives
- Recognize upper airway obstruction, identify causes and suggest appropriate
management.
- Identify life threatening thoracic injuries, which need immediate lifesaving measures
- Highlight the most commonly encountered thoracic injuries and their management.
- Understand the causes, clinical manifestation, surgical management and complication of
empyema thoracis and lung abscess.
Introduction
Acute upper airway obstruction is a surgical emergency with no time to lose. Infants are
vulnerable more than adults due to small diameter of the airway, longer soft palate, more
posterior pharyngeal soft tissues, compliant epiglottis, etc. Generally, in any patient with
thoracic problem, chest physiotherapy, that is incentive spirometry if available or inflating a
glove or intravenous fluid bag with deep inspiration and expiration and early movement is of
paramount importance for smooth recovery of the patient.
Upper Airway Obstruction
DEFINITION: Upper airway obstruction is an obstruction at or above the vocal cord

characterized by inspiratory stridor.
AETIOLOGY:
Acquired
• Inhaled foreign body
• Infection: - viral laryngotracheobronchitis; most common cause in children
- epiglottitis, bacterial croup, trachitis and retropharyngeal abscess
• Laryngeal spasm : e.g. tetanus
• Trauma to the neck: Most common cause in adult
• Vocal cord paralysis (Acquired or congenital)
• Complication from endotracheal intubation or tracheostomy
• External compression: e.g. huge goitre, haematoma after thyroidectomy
• Malignancy like laryngeal carcinoma
142
Congenital
• Laryngomalacia
• Laryngeal or tracheal web and stenosis
• Subglottic tumour (haemangioma, polyp)
• Aberrant vessels
• Adenoids
CLINICAL FEATURES
In most case, clear history suggesting foreign body aspiration, infection or trauma can be
elicited. It is usually characterized by stridor (noisy breathing); suprasternal retraction;
tachycardia and cyanosis develop as obstruction becomes complete.
TREATMENT
Every effort should be made short of tracheostomy to save life or treat a cause. If a foreign
body aspiration is suspected, tilt the patient’s head down and slap the patient sharply across
the back. Then, explore the pharynx and mouth by finger and if possible, urgent
laryngoscopy should be done.
If indicated, intubate the airway immediately, otherwise do emergency cricothyroidotomy

(insert wide bore needle to the cricothyroid membrane) and give 100% oxygen until
intubation or proper tracheostomy is done. Tracheostomy is indicated if long-term airway
management is considered.
TRACHEOSTOMY
DEFINITION
Tracheostomy is provision of an artificial airway by opening the trachea. It is indicated to by-

pass upper airway obstruction, for drainage of the respiratory tract and to provide assisted
ventilatory support.
PROCEDURE (see figures for illustration):
1. Tracheostomy should be performed in operating room under general anaesthesia

with intubation, if possible, especially in case of children. But if very urgent situation
is encountered, do cricothyroidotomy while preparing for tracheostomy.
2. Fully extend the head by putting pillows under patient’s shoulder
3. Palpate and count the tracheal rings. Make incision over fourth tracheal ring
transversely or vertically in case of emergency.
143
4. Dissect strictly in midline to separate the strap muscles and pre tracheal fascia to
expose the trachea.
5. Achieve complete haemostasis.
6. Open the trachea by midline incision through three adjacent tracheal rings, usually
3rd, 4th and 5th, after holding upper end of cricoid cartilage using fine cricoid hook.
Hold open cut edge by tracheal dilator and insert a tube which comfortably fits the
trachea while the anaesthesiologist withdraws the endotracheal tube. Connect the
tube to the ventilator.
7. Aspirate tracheal secretion soon after initial incision on the trachea and repeat after
the tube in place.
8. Fix the tube by tape tied around the neck.
N.B: Placement of a traction stay stitch on each side of the tracheal incision is helpful in
case the tube accidentally dislodges, in order to pull up the opening for reinsertion
Figure 1: Tracheostomy procedure illustrated (next page)

A Positioning the patient with hyperextension of the neck
B Infiltration of local anesthetic agent
C/D Palpating the location of the trachea
E Making a vertical incision
F Splitting the overlying muscles
G Retraction of the thyroid gland
H Dividing the isthmus of the gland if necessary
I Visibly cleared tracheal rings
J Elevation of the rings using ring hooks
K Opening the trachea/ cutting the rings
L Suctioning secretion from the opened trachea
M Inserting a tracheostomy tube
N Suturing of the skin incision/ removing inner tube
O Securing the tube around with a tape
144
145
POST OPERATIVE TRACHEOSTOMY CARE
1. Humidify inhaled gas as near to body temperature as can be achieved by frequent
application of saline soaked gauze over the tube.
2. Suction with a sterile catheter frequently.
3. Tracheostomy toilet from 10 minutes to as long as two hours as needed and if there is
inner tube take it out every four hours and wash it.
4. Chest physiotherapy.
5. Watch for gastric distension: to avoid aspiration.
COMPLICATIONS
1. Infection
2. Obstruction by inspissated secretions, tracheal casts or membranes
3. Tracheal ulceration and perforation (e.g. Esophagus, major vessel)
4. Haemorrhage
5. Cannulation of right main bronchus
6. Accidental dislodgement
7. Granuloma of the trachea
8. Stricture of the trachea
9. Pneumothorax
REMOVAL OF THE TUBE
Before removing a tracheostomy tube, check whether the patient breaths adequately with
the stoma closed. A tight dressing should be applied over the tracheal opening after
removal.
CHEST INJURIES
INTRODUCTION
25% of all trauma deaths are a result of chest injuries alone and respiratory problems
contributes significantly in 75% of traumatic deaths. The terrible death toll related to chest
injuries is avoidable by simple measures.
CLASSIFICATION
1. Blunt trauma: It accounts for 85% of all chest injuries. In 70%-80% cases, it results from
motor vehicle accident. The rest are due to fall and crush injuries. 84% of cases are
associated with injury to other sites.
2. Penetrating trauma: accounts for 15% of all chest injuries. Stab and gunshot wounds are
the most frequent causes. It results in hemothorax in more than 80% and pneumothorax
146
in nearly all cases. It should be considered as thoracoabdominal if penetration is below
fourth intercostal space.
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Inadequate delivery of oxygen to tissue results from
1. Ventilation-perfusion mismatch i.e. perfusion of non ventilated lung mostly as a

result of lung contusion
2. Decreased tidal volume due to pain or other cause
3. Hypovolemia from bleeding
4. Mechanical obstruction due to tension pneumothorax and cardiac tamponade
INITIAL ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT
Ensuring adequate airway: Keep cervical spine neutral. The oropharyngeal airway should
be cleared from debris and secretion. Cricothyroidothomy till intubation or tracheostomy is
made if indicated.
Ensuring adequate ventilation: Give 100% oxygen. Tightly dress any sucking wound and
look for signs of tension pneumothorax (distended neck veins, shift of the trachea, hyper
resonance with decreased air entry), cardiac tamponade (hypotension, distended neck vein
and distant heart sounds), massive hemothorax and flail chest all of which can compromise
ventilation despite patent airway and adequate oxygenation.
Control extreme hemorrhage and restore circulation: Insert wide bore cannula for fluid
and blood transfusion.
N.B: If one suspects tension pneumothorax, massive hemothorax or cardiac tamponade, the
management should be dealt as part of resuscitation and patients should not be sent
for confirmatory investigations. Besides, in case of suspected cardiac tamponade,
simple insertion of a needle through xiphoid angle pointing towards the left shoulder tip
can help enter the pericardium and aspirate accumulated blood. This could salvage the
patient’s life to reach a proper centre. Generally injury to the chest can involve:
A. The chest wall
B. Lung
C. Mediastinal structures
D. The diaphragm.
147
Chest wall injuries:
Simple rib fracture: Most common injury, defined as less than three rib fractures other than
first and second rib. Present with pain, reduced motion during breathing and point
tenderness. Confirm by Chest x-ray. Pain relief and chest physiotherapy is needed.
Major chest wall injuries: Flail chest: paradoxical movement of a segment of chest wall as
a result of fracture of four or more ribs at two points or bilateral costochondral junction
separation.
Diagnosis: Usually clinical, by closely observing paradoxical chest motion, chest x-ray
shows multiple segmental fractures.
Treatment: Aggressive chest physiotherapy, effective analgesia, close ICU observation

if available, Oxygen supplement to keep saturation ≥ 90%. Administer fluid only to
restore hemodynamic stability and selective use of intubation for PPV.
Fracture of first, second rib and the sternum: These are considered to be major injuries
since a considerable force, which usually causes associated injury to underlying structures
like vessels or nerves, is required. It is otherwise managed as simple rib fracture.
Lung contusion:
This presents with bloody sputum upon coughing.
Diagnosis: Chest x-ray (parenchymal opacity immediately after injury and increasing in
the next 24-48 hours).
Treatment: Pulmonary physiotherapy and prevention of fluid load.
Injury to mediastinal structure: Injury to trachea, bronchus, major vessel and heart are
fortunately rare. But if they occur, they are usually fatal and patient often does not reach
health facility.
Diaphragmatic rupture: Mostly occurs on the left side and diagnosis needs high index of
suspicion. Symptoms and signs are usually due to herniation of intra abdominal organ like
stomach or colon in to the chest.
Diagnosis: Insert nasogastric tube. Auscultate the chest simultaneously while

insufflating air in to the tube. Chest x-ray may reveal tube, loop of bowel or fluid level
in the thorax
Treatment: Immediate repair
148
PNEUMOTHORAX
DEFINITION: Pneumothorax is a presence of air in pleural cavity.
TYPE: Open: This is associated with chest wall wound which communicate with the external
environment.
Tension: This is a surgical emergency associated with development of pressure which

compromise breathing as well as circulation.
Simple: This is collection which is not associated with compromised breathing and no
breach of chest wall
CAUSE
Blunt and penetrating injuries
MECHANISM
• Fractured rib penetrating the lung
• Deceleration and crush disrupting the alveoli
• Sucking effect of negative intrapleural pressure
N.B: In most cases of traumatic pneumothorax, there will be associated bleeding which may
not be apparent.
CLINICAL FEATURE
Presume pneumothorax in any chest injury until proved otherwise since pain and splinting
make physical examination difficult. Look for decreased chest expansion, tracheal shift,
hyper resonant percussion note and decreased air entry. If patient’s condition is stable,
confirm by erect chest x-ray.
TREATMENT
The principal objective is to remove trapped air through tube thoracostomy (chest tube). In
case of tension pneumothorax, insertion of needle at second intercostal space over the mid
clavicular line of the same side relives the tension until chest tube insertion.
HEMOTHORAX
DEFINITION
Hemothorax is collection of blood in the pleural cavity. Bleeding usually occurs from
intercostal or internal mammary arteries. Bleeding from parenchymal injury is nearly always
self-limiting. Massive Hemothorax is a bleeding of more than 1500ml in to pleural cavity
and rarely occurs in blunt trauma.
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CLINICAL FEATURE
There is a history of trauma to chest. Signs of fluid collection in the pleural cavity (decreased
air entry, dull percussion note) are found on physical examination.
Chest x-ray: Erect chest film reveals costophrenic angle obliteration if more than 500
ml blood exists. Lateral decubitus film can demonstrate as small as 250 ml of blood.
Subpulmonic trapping can mask as much as 1000ml of blood on erect film.
Ultrasonography can reveal a small amount of fluid in the pleural recess.
TREATMENT: Chest tube insertion if sign of collection is visible on erect chest x-ray.
TUBE THORACOSTOMY (CHEST TUBE)
DEFINITION
Tube thoracostomy is the process of inserting a tube into the pleural cavity. The purpose is
to maintain the negative intrapleural pressure and allow complete re-expansion of underlying
lung. This is achieved by connecting the tube to underwater seal drainage bottle with or
without suction.
SITE (see figure 2 on next page)
The safe site to insert a chest tube is at the triangle of safety which is a triangle bordered by
fifth or sixth rib, mid axillary line and the lateral border of the pectoralis major. Skin incision is
placed one interspace below the site of pleural penetration.
PROCEDURE (STEPS) FOR CHEST TUBE INSERTION:
A Positioning of the patient and marking the site
B Infiltration of local anesthetic agent above the inferior rib
C Aspiration of fluid
D/E Making an incision and stabbing with a knife
F/G Splitting the overlying muscles and widening incision using a hemostat
H Inserting the tube along the direction of the hemostat
I Clumping the tube until it gets connected (to prevent air getting in)
J Releasing clump after connecting tube to underwater bottle
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Figure 2: Procedure for Chest Tube Insertion
CARE OF THE TUBE

♦ Immediate control chest x-ray for confirming position of the tube.
♦ Check patency of the tube by presence of air bubble and fluid oscillation.
♦ Always keep the bottle below the heart level. Clump it whenever moved.
♦ Record daily drainage
♦ Daily clinical assessment and x-ray if available
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INDICATION FOR REMOVAL
Generally, a tube should be removed as soon as it finishes its purpose, i.e. when there
is:
• Clinical evidence of complete lung expansion
• No more air leak and
• Less than 50 - 100ml of drainage in 24 hours
• Radiological evidence of complete expansion of the lung
N.B: Remove the chest tube while patient is in full inspiration and tightly close the
insertion site by gauze soaked with a lubricant.
EMPYEMA AND LUNG ABSCESS
EMPYEMA THORACIS
DEFINITION
Empyema is a collection of purulent fluid in the pleural space.
AETIOLOGY
• Pulmonary Infection (unresolved pneumonia most common cause - 50%)
• Trauma: penetrating injury, thoracic surgery, esophageal perforation etc.
• Aspiration of pleural effusion of any source
• Extra pulmonary spread: from subphrenic abscess, retropharyngeal infection,
mediastinal infection, etc.
• Bone infection: osteomyelitis of ribs and vertebra
CLASSIFICATION
• Depending on the pathological reaction, empyema is classified as follows:

- Early (acute or exudative) phase: Thin fluid differentiated as pus, with PH less
than 7, Glucose less than 40 mg/dl and LDH more than 1000 IU/litre.
- Established (sub acute or fibro-purulent) phase: characterized by thicker pus with
fibrin deposition and loculation of the pleural exudates.
- Chronic or organization phase: characterized by fibroblast proliferation and scar
formation causing lung entrapment. It forms more than 75% sediment when fluid
is allowed to precipitate.
Factors contributing to chronicity

• Delay in antibiotic treatment
• Inappropriate choice of antibiotics
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• Failure of early intervention
• Presence of foreign body
• Failure to detect underlying lung pathology
MICROBIAL PATHOGENS
In adults: Usually monomicrobial. Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumonia and

Streptococcus pyogens most common causes in healthy adult.
Immunocompromised patients are prone to Aerobic gram negative bacilli and
fungal infection.
Children: less than 6 month of age: Staphylococcus aureus most common pathogen
6 month-2 years of age: Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococci pneumonia and

H.influenza are common pathogens.
2 years- 5 years of age: H. influenza is the commonest pathogenic agent.
Fungal or tuberculous foci may be reactivated in patient with malignancy, transplant recipient
and AIDS to cause empyema.
DIAGNOSIS
History and Physical Examination:
History of predisposing factors, fever, pleuritic chest pain.
Signs of pleural effusion and signs of chronicity (chachexia, finger clubbing and
discharging sinus) can be detected.
Investigation:
1. Routine: haemoglobin, WBC, ESR
2. Chest film: shows fluid level, meniscus sign and underlying lung pathology
3. Needle aspiration and analysis:
a) Cloudy or purulent fluid suggestive of pus.
b) Gram stain and culture.
c) Acid Fast Staining if tuberculosis is suspected. Yield is less than 25%.
4. Ultrasonography: detects loculation and septation.
TREATMENT
The treatment depends on the stage, nature of primary infection and source of
contamination. The principle of treatment includes control of infection by appropriate
antimicrobials and drainage of pus to achieve full lung expansion.
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The following procedures are options for drainage:
1. Thoracentesis: This is aspiration of fluid from the pleural cavity by a surgical puncture.
If fluid analysis shows non loculated fluid without organism and serial x-ray
demonstrates lung expansion, this procedure is adequate with appropriate antibiotics for
10% of patients.
2. Closed tube thoracostomy: A procedure of inserting tube into the pleural cavity and
connecting it to underwater seal bottle with or without suction. It is indicated for patients
with loculated fluid and gross pus on aspiration.
3. Open tube drainage: Drainage procedure by cutting the tube from under water seal to
convert it to open one and follow the progressive obliteration of cavity. It is done if
empyema fails to resolve in two weeks time.
4. Rib resection and open drainage: Is a drainage procedure by resecting the rib and
break all loculation. It is done for chronic mature empyema with thick fibrous capsule.
5. Thoracotomy and decortication: A procedure of removing fibrous peel, which entraps

the lung. It is major undertaking and should be left for experienced surgeon.
N.B: Tuberculous empyema needs drainage only if super infected, a bronchopleural fistula
occurs or the patient is distressed.
PROGNOSIS
The prognosis depends on the nature of microbial agent, host defense, severity of the
disease, and duration as well as adequacy of antibiotics and drainage. The mortality rate in
healthy young patients is 5%. It can reach up to 40-70% in immunocompromised and
debilitated patients.
LUNG ABSCESS
DEFINITION: Lung abscess is a localized area of suppuration and cavitation in the lung with
parenchymal necrosis.
ETIOLOGY: Common etiologic mechanisms for lung abscess include:

1. Aspiration pneumonia (commonest cause)
2. Primary necrotizing pneumonia
3. Bronchial obstruction from neoplasm or foreign body
4. Complication of pulmonary trauma
5. Complication of systemic sepsis
6. Direct extension from extra parenchymal infection
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MICROBIOLOGY:
Usually mixed aerobic and anaerobic bacteria and sometimes parasites are involved as
pathogenic agents.
DIAGNOSIS
It presents with a history of a sudden onset of cough, productive of purulent sputum, fever
with or without hemoptysis. On examination, patients appear chronically sick, febrile with
coexisting effusive finding.
INVESTIGATION
• Sputum for Gram Stain, culture and sensitivity.

• Chest x-ray: consolidation with or without cavitation and air fluid level. A chest Wall
or parenchymal pathology can also be demonstrated.
TREATMENT
1. Conservative: Includes use of antibiotics, penicillin and metronidazole for up to six

weeks in most case, periodic sputum bacteriology, and internal drainage (postural,
percussion, coughing). It is effective in 85% of cases.
2. Operative: Surgical treatment is indicated in case of failure of conservative

approach, massive hemoptysis, thick or large cavity which is unlikely to collapse and
in case of suspected malignancy.
COMPLICATIONS
1. Bronchogenic spread
2. Empyema
3. Cerebral abscess
4. Chronicity
5. Septicemia
PROGNOSIS
In primary, uncomplicated lung abscess, the mortality rate is less than 5% with prolonged
and adequate antibiotics. However, when complicated with some other systemic illness, the
mortality rate reaches 75-90%.
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Review Questions
1. Outline the management of a two-year old male child who presented to emergency
OPD with a sudden onset of high-grade fever, cough and inspiratory stridor.
2. A 45-year old male patient involved in a motor vehicle accident presents with severe
respiratory distress. On examination, he is found to have tachypnea, hypotension and
distended neck veins. What possible causes do you consider? Brief their management.
3. A 30-year old lady who was on antibiotic therapy for severe pneumonia started to shoot
fever on the third day. She was found to be in respiratory distress and examination
revealed evidence of fluid in left hemi thorax. Outline the management of this patient.
156
References
1. Schwartz, Shires, Spence, Principle of surgery, 7th edition, 1999.
2. Steven A. Sahn, Pulmonary Emergencies, 1982.
3. Bailey and Love’s, Short practice of surgery, 23rd edition, 2000.
4. Richard E. Bryant and Christopher J. salmon Clinical infectious disease,

1996;22: 747 – 64
5. Mane Ravitea, Kenneth Welen, Clifford Penson,, paediatrics surgery, 3rd edition,
1979: 390 – 400
6. Parry. Principles of medicine in Africa, 2nd edition, 1992: 1029.
7. Thomas Sheldon, General thoracic surgery, 2nd edition, 1994: 667 – 767.
8. David V and Feliciano. Trauma, 3rd edition 1996
9. E.A. Badoe. Principles and practice of surgery, including pathology in tropics, 2nd
edition, 1994.
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CHAPTER FOUR
GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
Learning Objectives
At the end of this unit the student is expected to:
• Evaluate urgently and institute resuscitation measures promptly on acutely bleeding
patients
• Identify the common causes of gastrointestinal bleeding
• Assess the extent of bleeding
• Discuss the approach to the management of the patient with GI bleeding
Introduction
Gastrointestinal bleeding has high mortality and morbidity rates, particularly in the elderly.
Bleeding is an alarming symptom and represents the initial presenting complaint in a
significant proportion of patients. Although majority the of gastrointestinal bleeding will stop
spontaneously or with conservative management, persistent bleeding and/or recurrence
carries worse outcomes without immediate intervention.
DEFINITIONS
Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding (UGIB) is defined as blood loss originating from a site in
the GIT which is proximal to the ligament of Treitz.
Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding (LGIB) refers to blood loss arising from a site distal to the
ligament of Treitz.
Hematemesis is the vomiting of blood, which may be a coffee ground material, fresh blood
or blood clots. Often it indicates upper GI bleeding.
Melena is the passage of black tar-like stool due to mixing with altered blood. Melena
without Hematemesis usually indicates a lesion distal to the ligament of Treitz. However, it
can also occur from upper GI-bleeding without history of hematemesis.
Hematochezia is the passage of liquid blood or blood clots of varied brightness in color per
rectum. It usually indicates lower GI bleeding, but it can be seen with massive upper GI
bleeding.
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UPPER GASTROINTESTINAL BLEEDING
(Asrat Sime, M.D)
Etiology
The causes of upper GI bleeding include:
- Peptic ulcer. Peptic ulceration is the commonest cause of upper GI bleeding with
duodenal ulcer (DU) bleeding four times more common than gastric ulcer (GU) which
correlates to higher incidence of duodenal ulcer.
- Varices. Bleeding from esophageal or gastric varices is another common cause of

upper GI bleeding in patients with cirrhosis and portal hypertension
- Gastritis. Acute gastritis (acute mucosal erosions) causes frequent and possibly
massive bleeding and is usually associated with ingestion of substances such as
NSAID, alcohol, corticosteroids, anticoagulants etc.
- Gastric Neoplasms. Carcinoma of the stomach is the commonest neoplastic cause

of bleeding. Other less common neoplasms include: Adenoma, Angioma, and
Lymphoma etc.
- Stress ulcer- refers to acute gastro duodenal lesions that arise in association with
(risk factors): Multiple system trauma, Hypotension/shock, sepsis, Major burns, etc.
- Mallory-Weiss tears are longitudinal mucosal tears extending across the

esophagogastric junction and follow prolonged violent vomiting, often after a binge of
alcohol. Bleeding may be profuse, but in over 90 % of cases, it stops spontaneously
without specific therapy and responds to conservative measures such as sedation
and volume replacement.
- Others: Esophagitis, Vascular malformations, Systemic diseases leading to bleeding

and coagulation abnormalities, etc.
WORK-UP AND MANAGEMENT
The initial evaluation involves assessment of the clinical features with inquiries and
examinations aimed at:
- Identifying patients who need immediate intervention
- Having a clinical suspicion of the possible site of bleeding and the cause.
History
Features suggestive of significant upper GI bleeding include

- Collapse
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- Sweating
- Anxiety, restlessness
- Large amount of bloody vomitus
- Hematochezia/melena
Inquiries should also include about

• Scoiodemagraphic variables (e.g. Age)
• PUD history- past or present
• Ingestion of drugs implicated as causes of GI bleeding
• Liver diseases (past, present, complications)
• Co-morbid diseases
• Symptoms of bleeding diathesis, etc.
Urgent examination aims to pick up signs suggestive of seriously depleted blood volume and
probably continuing blood loss which include:
- Rising pulse rate and respiratory rate
- Decreasing blood pressure and pulse pressure
- Restlessness
- Increasing pallor
- Cold nose and extremities
- Sweating (beads of sweat on the forehead)
- Decreased urine output
Also look for:

• palpable glands, e.g. left supraclavicular lymph nodes (Virchow’s nodes)
• Signs of co-morbid and systemic diseases
• Signs of chronic liver disease and portal hypertension
Management
Resuscitation
For patients in need of immediate resuscitation and hospitalization:
¾ Insert large bore intravenous cannula (preferably two)
• Restoration of blood volume is the initial priority which is started with rapid
crystalloid infusion until blood is available (refer to the treatment of shock)
• Blood is taken at this time for necessary investigations including blood count, blood
grouping and cross matching, blood chemistry, etc. (but resuscitation is started and
continued without waiting for results which can be reviewed later).
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¾ Monitor response to resuscitation measures with:
• Clinical monitoring (frequent evaluation), e.g. vital signs, urine output, etc.
¾ Alleviate anxiety and pain, e.g. diazepam, analgesics
¾ Place nasogastric tube in all patients with significant GI bleeding to monitor rate of
bleeding and for saline lavage.
¾ Once the patient is stabilized review pertinent laboratory data and decide on further
treatment in conjunction with the clinical setup of the patient
e.g. need for transfusion
¾ Monitoring needs to be continued (e.g. frequent vital signs) for at least 3 days after
apparent cessation of hemorrhage.
Diagnostic evaluation and further management
¾ Once the patient with suspected upper GI bleeding is stabilized, the diagnostic
evaluation, in a hospital setup, in addition to more detailed history and physical
examination, involves investigations like:
• Emergency esophago-gastro-duodenoscopy
• Other studies performed based on the findings on endoscopy and availability
of facilities
¾ After establishing the cause, further management is undertaken depending on the

underlying cause. (Refer to the appropriate sections for diagnostic studies and
treatment modalities on the specific causes of GI bleeding).
- Medical therapy
- Endoscopic therapy
- Surgical (operative) - the primary goal in acute significant hemorrhage is to
control the bleeding.
LOWER GI BLEEDING
Lower gastrointestinal bleeding (LGIB) can be:

- Small intestinal bleeding
- Colorectal bleeding
- Anorectal bleeding
Small intestinal bleeding: Is uncommon, rarely is massive, difficult to diagnose and usually
a diagnosis of exclusion after other sources of bleeding have been ruled out.
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Colonic bleeding: Can be acute and massive or chronic presenting with occult blood
positive stool and anemia. The causes include:
• Neoplasms and polyps
• Diverticulosis/ diverticulitis
• Vascular malformations
• Inflammatory causes e.g. intestinal tuberculosis, inflammatory bowel diseases
Anorectal bleeding: Causes include:

- Hemorrhoids
- Anal fissure
- Tumors /polyps
- Proctitis
Clinical evaluation
This depends mainly on the history and physical examination. Assess for the homodynamic
status of the patient and clinical diagnosis of the possible underlying cause and site of
bleeding.
History -Note that:
¾ LGIB is usually suspected when patient presents with Hematochezia
¾ Although usually helpful, the distinction based on stool color is not absolute.
Bright red blood per rectum can be seen with massive UGIB and bleeding from the
right colon.
¾ Chronic bleeding may present with

- Unexplained anemia
- Orthostatic hypotension
- Fatigue and weight loss
¾ Though visible bleeding is the most alarming symptom it is commonly associated

with symptoms such as:
- Pain
- Change in bowel habits: - Stool frequency
- Stool consistency
- Excessive mucus discharge per rectum - Mixed with stool/blood in proximal
lesions, covering the stool (with blood)/sloughs in distal lesion
- Tenesmus
- Sense of incomplete defecation
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- Pruritus - ani common with local lesions
Also inquire for

Symptoms related to causes of UGIB
Symptoms related to manifestation of associated diseases e.g.-STI, AIDS
Physical examination: Vital signs and other indices of tissue perfusion and signs of chronic
blood loss should be looked for. Do complete abdominal examination including digital rectal
examination, and pelvic examination in female patients
Treatment: Patients who are low risk (e.g. - a young, otherwise healthy patient with self-
limited rectal bleeding secondary to hemorrhoid) may be evaluated as an outpatient.
Resuscitation: Resuscitation is the first priority initiated while the patient is being assessed
and its progress should be monitored closely (refer to the management of hypovolemic
shock).
Diagnostic evaluation: With further clinical assessment and investigations performed after
the patient is hemodynamically stable .Based on the patient's clinical setting and availability
investigations could be performed which include:
- NG tube lavage to exclude UGIB
- CBC (WBC, HCT/Hb, platelet count…)
- Emergency esophago-gastro-duodenoscopy (EGD) may be needed
- Blood chemistry
- Coagulation profile
- Stool examination for- parasites, blood cells, Occult blood in chronic occult cases
- Lower GI Endoscopy: procto-sigmoidoscopy: Valuable for visualization biopsy taking
and endoscopic treatment.
- Contrast studies- useful in chronic GI bleeding
Specific treatment:
The treatment depends on the underlying cause. It can be medical, operative or endoscopic.
Follow up of management:
Correction of anemia and malnutrition
Pain management
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COLORECTAL TUMORS
Learning Objectives
At the end of this unit the student is expected to:
- Understand the importance of early diagnosis and treatment of colorectal tumors.
- Discuss the clinical features of colorectal carcinoma in relation to pathologic types,

site and extent of spread.
- List the differential diagnoses of carcinoma of the colon.
- Mention investigations needed for the diagnosis of colorectal carcinoma.
Introduction
Colorectal malignant tumors (Particularly colorectal carcinoma) are among the common
causes of death due to malignant diseases. However, early diagnosis is less likely as the
symptoms are largely nonspecific early in the course of the diseases and likely to confuse
with a number of other diseases. They also add to the mortality and morbidity of patients by
causing acute complications such as GI bleeding & acute abdomen.
The effects of these diseases are made worse in places where health service availability is
minimal, and the available ones commonly lack adequate diagnostic and therapeutic
facilities. As a practitioner under these situations you will have to rely on your clinical
assessment, aided by high index of suspicion, to reach at the diagnosis of these diseases
and refer timely, patients for further workup and treatment to where the appropriate facilities
are available.
COLORECTAL CARCINOMA
Large bowelr carcinoma is common and it is the second commonest cause of death from
malignant diseases in males. Usually, it occurs in patients over 50 years of age, but may
occur at any age. Females are affected more often than males and the sigmoid, along with
the rectum, is the most frequent site of cancers (and polyps) in the gastrointestinal tract.
Pathology: Macroscopic varieties (forms) include

Polypoid
Malignant ulcer
Annular
Tubular
Microscopically, it is a columnar cell carcinoma originating in the colon (adenocarcinoma)
164
• pre-existing polyps
• Familial adenomatous polyposis
• Ulcerative colitis
Spread
• Generally the growth is comparatively slow
• Local spread-
• Lymphatic spread- to the regional lymph nodes
• Blood stream spread- to the liver and then to the lungs, skin, bone.
• Trans-coelomic spread -malignant deposits throughout the peritoneal cavity and to
non-adjacent organs.
Clinical features: The local effects of the tumor depend on the site and macroscopic variety
of the primary tumor.
Tumors in the right colon commonly present with:

- Anemia
- Loss of appetite, weight and generalized body weakness
- Palpable lump on abdominal, rectal or bimanual palpation
e.g. in the RLQ of the abdomen, cecal carcinoma, carcinoma of the ascending colon
- Features of appendiceal mass
Tumors in the left colon usually present with:

- Change in bowel habit: constipation, diarrhea, or alternating
- Passage of mucus
- Tenesmus and sense of incomplete defecation (rectosigmoid tumors)
- Rectal bleeding (bright, mixed or occult)
- Features of intestinal obstruction (acute, chronic or acute on chronic)
- Pain usually a late manifestation
- Bladder symptoms (urinary symptoms): due to pressure /invasion
Investigations: These are based on mode of presentation and availability and include:
Diagnostic investigations:
Stool examination - parasites, WBC, occult blood, culture
Sigmoidoscopy, colonoscopy
Barium enema
Biopsy under endoscopic guide
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Staging investigations:
Ultrasonography, Chest x-ray, Liver function tests etc.
Management: The management depends on mode of presentation, stage of the disease,

the site of the primary lesion and presence or absence of multiple lesions. Modalities
include:
¾ Surgery (curative or palliative)

- Emergency laparotomy- for acute significant bleeding and/or acute abdomen
with the primary aim of treating the acute complication followed by elective
surgery.
- Elective surgery
o After pre-operative colon preparation
o Resection for resectable tumors (curative)
¾ Palliative: palliative surgery, Cytotoxic chemo therapy, Radiotherapy for advanced

malignancy.
COMMON PERIANAL CONDITIONS
Learning Objectives
At the end of this unit, the student is expected to:
Perform clinical evaluation for early diagnosis of a patient with an Anorectal abscess
and identification of underlying/associated diseases
Discuss the management of a patient with Anorectal abscess
Define anal fissure and discuss conservative and operative management of anal
fissures.
Introduction
Anorectal diseases can occur at any age and in many of them, symptoms are non-specific.
Generally the inflammatory ones are common in younger patients and tumors in the middle-
aged and the elderly. It is worth remembering that common distal lesions can present with
proximal ones and they may be manifestations of proximal diseases for which the patients
need full evaluation.
The surgically important rectal, anorectal and perianal diseases, which will be dealt with in
this unit, are, anorectal abscesses, perianal fistulas, anal fissures and Hemorrhoids.
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ANORECTAL ABSCESSES
Patients with anorectal abscesses need a thorough evaluation and early and adequate
surgical management. Because, an abscess:
May be the presenting manifestation of an underlying systemic or local diseases (e.g.
- AIDS, Diabetes mellitus, rectal tumors, inflammatory bowel diseases…)
May be found in association with other diseases
Leads to complication such as fistula in ano, sepsis (perianal sepsis), etc unless
treated early and adequately.
Pathogenesis
In many cases the infection is caused by mixed micro organisms. Infection of anal gland is
the initiating factor in the majority of cases, which spreads along tissue planes. An abscess
can also develop following infection of a Perianal hematoma, infection following Perianal
injuries, extension from cutaneous boils etc.
Classification
Based on their anatomical location, anorectal abscesses are classified into four main
varieties:
Perianal(subcutaneous) abscess:-
This is the commonest type and can affect people of all age groups.
Ischiorectal abscess:-
Is also common and is located in the ischiorectal fossa
Sub mucous abscess:-

This an abscess located under the mucous membrane
167
Pelvirectal abscess:-
This is an abscess located above levator ani and follows spread from pelvic abscess
Clinical features: Patient complaints include pain (usually severe), fever, constitutional
symptoms such as sweating and anorexia, features of proctitis and
constipation
Physical findings (rectal examination) include
- A lump visible and palpable at the anal margin/anal canal or ischiorectal fossa
which is tender brownish induration palpable on the affected side
- Rectal tenderness, rectal tender mass
Management of anorectal abscess: The abscess needs drainage as soon as it is

diagnosed followed by irrigation, packing with saline soaked gauze and Sitz bath twice daily
till wound healing. Antibiotics should be used together with surgical treatment. They are
needed when there are systemic manifestations and in immunocompromised patients.
Analgesics and mild laxatives
Fig. Drainage of perianal abscess
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PERIANAL FISTULAS (FISTULA IN ANO)
Definition: A fistula in ano is a track, lined by granulation tissue, which connects the anal
canal or rectum internally with the skin around the anus externally.
Causes (risk factors) - It results from:

• Usually an untreated or inadequately treated anorectal abscess (see also
causes and risk factors for anorectal abscesses)
• Granulomatous infections and inflammatory bowel diseases
• May give rise to multiple external openings and include
e.g. Tuberculous proctitis Crohn’s disease
Classification: It can be grouped into two according to the level of the internal opening:
- Low level: with an internal opening below the anorectal ring
- High level: with an internal opening at or above the anorectal ring.
Clinical features
- Seropurulent discharge with perianal irritation
- An external opening (frequently single) seen as a small elevated opening on the skin
around the anus with a granulation
- An internal opening may be felt as a nodule on digital rectal examination (almost
always single) irrespective of the number of external openings)
- Sings of underlying/associated diseases
Management
- Emergency treatment for abscesses
- Treatment of underlying cause
- Surgery for fistula in ano
- Preceded by
• Preoperative bowel cleansing (enema)
• Examination under anesthesia
Low level fistula

• Laying open the entire fistulous tract, fistulotomy.
• Wound care
High level fistulas

• Protective colostomy to prevent infection and facilitate healing
• Staged operation that has to be performed by an expert and the patient needs
referral to hospital.
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ANAL FISSURE (FISSURE IN ANO)
Definition: Anal fissure is an elongated tear (ulcer) in the lower anal canal, which lies along
the long axis of the canal. The upper end stops at the dentate line. It is located commonly in
the posterior midline, occasionally along the anterior midline and rarely at multiple sites.
Etiology: The cause of anal fissure is not completely understood. Passage of hard fecal
mass precipitates and aggravates the condition.
Classification: Anal fissure can be classified as acute or chronic based on its pathologic
features.
- Acute fissure: is a deep skin tear at the anal margin extending in to the anal canal
with edges showing little inflammatory indurations or edema .It is accompanied with
spasm of the anal sphincter muscle.
- Chronic fissure: is characterized by Inflamed and indurated margins as a result of
inflammatory fibrosis and contracture of the internal sphincter in long standing cases
NB: specific causes are much more common with a chronic fissure (e.g. syphilis,
tuberculosis, Crohn’s disease, and carcinoma.
Clinical features: A patient with anal fissure presents with:

- Pain is the commonest feature
- Characteristic sharp, severe pain starting during defecation and lasting an hour or
more and ceases suddenly to reappear during the next bowel motion.
- Constipation: the patient tends to be constipated for fear of the pain on defecation.
- Bleeding: usually appearing as bright streaks on the stool surface or the toilet paper
- Discharge: common with chronic cases
- Manifestations related to underlying diseases and/or complications
Examination may reveal:

- Tightly closed anus due to the sphincter spasm
- Sentinel pile (skin tag) visible at the anal verge
- Lower end of the fissure on gentle parting of the buttocks
• Digital examination
- Should be done using local anesthetic gel, a cotton wool soaked in local anesthetic.
- Fissure may not be palpable in early cases.
- In fully established cases the fissure may be felt as a vertical crack in the anal canal.
NB:- Big ulcers and fissures can be found in patients with HIV and other viral infections.
170
Management
Conservative management: This is recommended especially for a small acute and

superficial fissure, which may heal spontaneously. It includes:
- A high fiber diet and high fluid intake with a mild laxative, such as liquid paraffin, to
encourage passing of soft, bulky stools
- Administration of a local anesthetic ointment or suppository
Surgical Measures:
Surgical measures are needed when the above measures fail, in chronic fissures with
fibrosis, a skin tag or a mucous polyp or recurrent anal fissures. Procedures include:
• Lateral anal sphincterotomy
• fissurectomy and
• sphincterotomy
This procedure can be used for cases with a chronic fissure. It needs an experienced
operator to reduce complications, which include hematoma formation, incontinence and
mucosal prolapse.
After care: This consists of bowel care, daily bath and softening the stool till wound healing.
HEMORRHOIDS (PILES)
Definition: Hemorrhoids are dilated sub mucosal veins in the anus. They may be classified
into:
¾ Internal hemorrhoids (Internal to the anal orifice)
¾ External hemorrhoids (External to the anal orifice)
¾ Interoexternal hemorrhoids (Prolapsing internal hemorrhoids)
INTERNAL HEMORRHOIDS
Internal hemorrhoids refer to dilatation of the sub mucosal internal venous plexus and
draining superior hemorrhoidal veins. They develop within areas of enlarged anal lining (anal
cushions’) as they slide downwards during straining. Since the internal and external
(subcutaneous perianal) venous plexus communicate (Porto-systemic anastomosis)
engorgement of the internal plexus is likely to lead to involvement of the latter.
With the patient in the lithotomy position, internal hemorrhoids are frequently arranged in
three groups at 3, 7 and 11 o’clock positions. This arrangement corresponds to the
distribution of the superior hemorrhoidal vessels (2 on the right, one on the left) but there can
be smaller hemorrhoids in between the three groups.
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Etiology: Though most hemorrhoids are idiopathic, they may also be secondary to
underlying causes, which include:
- Straining accompanying constipation
- Straining at micturition
- Recto Sigmoid mass
Clinical features: Hemorrhoids are usually asymptomatic but can present with:
- Rectal bleeding: is the main and earliest symptom which is usually slight painless
bright red occurring on passing stool as a splash into the toilet or toilet papers or
covering the stool at the end of deification.
- Prolapse of the varicose masses is a late manifestation. Hemorrhoids are graded

based on the degree of prolapse and reducibility in to:
⇒ First degree hemorrhoids: those confined to the anal canal (do not prolapse
out side the anal canal)
⇒ Second degree hemorrhoids: prolapse on defecation but reduce
spontaneously or are replaced manually and stay reduced.
⇒ Third degree hemorrhoids: prolapse, even apart from defecation, and remain
permanently prolapsed outside the anal margin. These give rise to a feeling of
heaviness in the rectum
- A mucoid discharge frequently accompanies prolapsed hemorrhoids and is due to

mucus secretion from the engorged mucus membrane.
- Pruritus ani-due to the discharge and perianal soiling accompanying prolapsed

hemorrhoids.
- Pain- is not a significant feature of uncomplicated internal hemorrhoids.
- Anemia-due to persistent/profuse bleeding
- On examination every patient should undergo at least:
¾ Complete abdominal and pelvic examination looking for underlying causes or

aggravating factors.
¾ Rectal examination: Inspection may show prolapsing hemorrhoids (piles) with or

without straining and/or redundant skin folds or skin tags. Digital rectal
examination may show prolapsing or thrombosed hemorrhoids. Internal
hemorrhoids are not felt unless they prolapse.
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Investigations
Proctoscopy- to visualize internal hemorrhoids and exclude other lesions
Complications: Complications of hemorrhoids include profuse hematochezia, strangulation

which leads to an acute pain, thrombosis, which makes the mass swollen, dark, tense and
feel solid and tender on examination. Unrelieved strangulation/thrombosis may lead to
ulceration of the exposed mucus membrane. Gangrene- may lead to spreading
infection/sepsis and Abscess formation.
Management: Any underlying or associated more important condition or disease should be

excluded or treated accordingly before commencing specific treatment for hemorrhoids.
Hemorrhoids can be managed with:
Conservative measures which include:

- High fiber-diet for a regular soft and bulky motion
- Hydrophilic creams or suppositories
- Local application of analgesic ointment /suppository.
This is recommended and usually effective for many patients with early hemorrhoids
particularly those secondary to other conditions and likely to regress with removal of the
underlying conditions (e.g. pregnancy and post partum hemorrhoids)
The following procedures need to be performed by expert hands to avoid /reduce

complications
operative treatment , hemorrhoidectomy indicated for:

- Third degree hemorrhoids
- Failure of non-operative treatment of second degree hemorrhoids
- Fibrosed hemorrhoids
- Interoexternal hemorrhoids with well defined external hemorrhoid
Treatment of complications
Strangulation, thrombosis and gangrene

¾ Immediate surgery under adequate antibiotic cover or
¾ adequate pain relief,
¾ bed rest, frequent hot sitz bath,
¾ warm saline compress with firm pressure followed by
¾ ligation or excision or anal dilation.
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¾ Severe hemorrhage
o Resuscitation with IV fluids
o Local compression with adrenaline solution
o Pain relief when present
o Blood transfusion when needed
All these are followed by definitive therapy
EXTERNAL HEMORRHOIDS
A thrombosed external hemorrhoid (perianal hematoma), is usually associated with

considerable pain. It appears as an inflamed tense tender and easily visible on inspection of
the anal verge.
Treatment
Relieving pain by local or oral analgesics and avoid constipation. Surgical evacuation of the
clot can be done under local anesthesia.
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References
1. Bailey and Loves, Short Practice of Surgery, 1995, 22nd edition
2. Schwartz, Principles of Surgery ,7th ed. 1999
3. Lecture notes on general surgery, 6th edition. Harold Ellis, Roy Yorke Calne.1983
4. Surgical Care at the District Hospital 2003 World Health Organization
5. Up To Date 2002. www.uptodate.com
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ACUTE ABDOMEN
DEFINITION: The term acute abdomen denotes any sudden condition with chief
manifestation of pain of recent onset in the abdominal area which may require urgent
surgical intervention.
CLASSIFICATION: The pathologic cause for acute abdomen can be grouped into
obstruction, inflammation, hemorrhage, infarction or perforation.
CLINICAL FEATURES
Symptoms:
Colicky and Intermittent pain ( visceral)
Continuous pain ( somatic)
Vomiting
Fever
Tachycardia
Constipation
Colic pain indicates obstruction to a hollow viscus due to stretch and contraction of smooth
muscles. Continuous pain, on the other hand, signifies infection, inflammation or ischemia.
Signs: Acute abdomen may present with one or combination of the following clinical signs
• Abdominal distention, visible peristalsis
• Direct and rebound tenderness, guarding
• Anemia, hypotension
• Toxic with Hippocratic faces
• Absence of bowel sound ( peritonitis)
• Special tests (for signs) are possible
e.g. Psoas sign in appendicitis
Murphy‘s sign in acute cholecystitis
• Dehydration with sunken eyeballs (fluid loss)
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
Surgical causes, e.g. Intestinal obstruction
Gynecologic and obstetric causes, e.g. Ectopic ruptured pregnancy
Medical causes not amenable to surgery, e.g. enteritis. A surgical cause has
however to be ruled out
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Surgical causes
A. Inflammation: e.g. Acute appendicitis, cholecystitis
B. Obstruction: e.g. Acute intestinal obstruction
C. Infarction: e.g. Mesenteric ischemia
D. Strangulation: e.g. volvulus
E. Perforation: e.g. perforated peptic ulcer
DIAGNOSIS
Clinical: History and physical examination
Laboratory: Complete blood count, cross match, urine analysis, serum amylase and
electrolytes
Radiology: Ultrasound and plain film of abdomen
MANAGEMENT
A. Preoperative preparation
• Resuscitation with IV fluids
• Antibiotics, if indicated
• Catheterization and NGT insertion
• Analgesics after confirming the diagnosis
B. Surgery: Definitive laparotomy according to the cause
C. Patient monitoring and Post operative follow up
INTESTINAL OBSTRUCTION
DEFINITION
Intestinal obstruction is partial or complete blockage of the intestine producing symptoms of

vomiting, constipation, distension and abdominal pain.
CLASSIFICATION
• Mechanical (dynamic): due to physical barrier blocks
• Paralytic ileus (adynamic): due to disordered propulsive motility
• High Intestinal obstruction (small bowel)
• Low intestinal obstruction (Large bowel)
• Simple: has adequate blood supply
• Strangulated: Mesenteric vessels occluded
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Classification of mechanical obstruction
a. Luminal
Gallstone Ileus
Food bolus
Meconium Ileus
Malignancy or inflammatory mass
Ascaris bolus
b. Mural
Stricture
Congenital
Inflammatory
Ischemic
Neoplastic
Intussusceptions
c. Extra mural
Adhesions: Congenital, inflammatory or malignant
Hernia(as cause of intestinal obstruction): External or internal hernias
Volvulus: small bowel, large bowel etc. E.g. Sigmoid volvulus.
PATHOPHYSIOLGY
Obstruction leads to proximal dilatation of the bowel and disrupts peristalsis. Bowel above
the obstruction becomes distended with fluid and gas. This stimulates excessive peristalsis
producing colicky pain. As distension increases with time, blood vessels in the bowel will be
stretched and narrowed impairing blood flow and leading to ischemia. Absorptive capacity of
the gut decreases with a net increase of water and electrolytes secretion into the lumen.
There will be increased vomiting which leads to depletion of extra cellular fluid which
eventually leads to hypovolemia and dehydration.
A strangulated loop dies and perforates to produce severe bacterial peritonitis which is often
fatal. Grossly distended abdomen restricts diaphragmatic movement and interferes with
respiration. A multiple organ failure will subsequently result if the strangulated loop is not
removed.
CLINICAL FEATURES
Symptoms: The commonest presenting symptoms are:

• Abdominal pain (colic)
• Vomiting (frequent in high obstruction)
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• Constipation (partial or absolute)
Signs: The commonest signs (physical findings) are:

• Abdominal distension with visible bowel loops
• High pitched and tinkling bowel sounds
• Abdominal tenderness and guarding
• Signs of dehydration and hypotension
• Empty rectum on digital rectal examination (Large bowel obstruction)
DIAGNOSIS
• Clinical: history and physical examination
• Laboratory: complete blood count, electrolytes, etc
• Plain film of the abdomen:
- Gaseous distension of the bowel with fluid level (general)
- Central located distended loops with multiple air fluid level (small bowel)
- Peripherally located distended bowel with haustral marks (Large bowel)
MANAGEMENT
• Fluids resuscitation to restore the circulatory state
• Early preoperative preparation
• Attempt rectal tube deflation in assumed viable large bowel obstruction
• Other supportive measures
• Early operation (Laparotomy)
• Post operative care
SIGMOID VOLVULUS
The sigmoid colon is the most frequent site of volvulus in the large bowel. The following are
believed to be the predisposing factors:
- A long redundant sigmoid with a narrow pedicle of the mesocolon
- High fiber diet
- Chronic constipation in the elderly and among chronic mental patients
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
The sigmoid is grossly redundant and twists on its base in a clockwise direction. The
mesocolic veins then become occluded and the arterial inflow into the twisted loop
perpetuates the volvulus until it becomes irreversible.
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The twisted loop distends grossly and passes up under the right side of the diaphragm.
Unless the situation is relieved, perforation may occur due to either pressure necrosis at the
base of the twist or to avascular necrosis at the apex.
DIAGNOSIS
CLINICAL
• Abdominal cramp and distension
• Constipation (early) and vomiting (late)
• Empty rectum on digital rectal examination
RADIOLOGIC FINDINGS
• Two long fluid levels in the lower quadrant
• Inverted U shape of the sigmoid lumen
• “Coffee bean” appearance or the ‘Omega sign”
MANAGEMENT
Conservative:
The uncomplicated, simple volvulus without signs of peritonitis can be deflated with a well
greased large bore rectal tube under the guide of a sigmoidoscope if available. If the
deflation fails, laparotomy and derotation of the loop has to be done followed by elective
resection to prevent recurrent attacks.
Intravenous fluid should be given to rehydrate the patient if there is a sign of dehydration.
Emergency Surgery:
In case of complicated volvulus with signs of peritonitis, the patient has to be prepared
following resuscitative measures and giving antibiotics. Resection of the gangrenous
segment with Hartman’s colostomy is done which has to be closed at a later stage.
APPENDICITIS
Appendicitis is an inflammation of the appendix that results from bacterial invasion usually
distal to an obstruction of the lumen.
PATHOPHYSILOLGY
Appendicitis begins with obstruction of the narrow lumen by lymphoid hyperplasia, fecal
material (fecolith), foreign body (seeds or worms) etc. Following obstruction of the lumen, a
continued secretion of mucus produces distension of the distal end. The distension results in
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ischemia of the wall with bacterial proliferation. Subsequently, a patchy necrosis, gangrene
and perforation develop resulting in peritonitis and sepsis and finally death.
CLINICAL PRESENTATION
Symptoms
Central abdominal colic which shifts to a pain in the right Iliac fossa.
Anorexia, nausea, episodes of vomiting and low grade fever. High grade fever
usually indicates perforation and peritonitis.
Signs
Tenderness and localized rigidity in the right lower quadrant over, MC Burney’s point,
2 inches from the anterior superior iliac spine on a line drawn to the umbilicus.
Rovsing’s sign: Pain in right lower quadrant on pressing in the left lower quadrant
Psoas sign: Pain on extension of the right flexed hip
Obturator sign: Pain on passive internal or external rotation of the flexed right hip.
Right sided tenderness on rectal examination.
Diminished bowel sounds indicating peritonitis
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
IN CHILDREN
Intussusceptions
Mesenteric adenitis
THE FEMALE PATIENTS

Pelvic inflammatory disease (right salpingitis)
Ruptured ectopic pregnancy
Twisted ovarian cyst( torsion), ruptured ovarian follicle
THE GENERAL POPULATION

Acute chlolecystitis
Perforated peptic ulcer disease
Renal or ureteric calculi, urinary tract infection
Early small bowel obstruction (volvulus)
Gastroenteritis
Referred pain from the pleura ( basal pneumonia)
MANAGEMENT
PREOPERATIVE PREPARATION
Resuscitation of the patient with fluids and other supportive treatment.
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Appropriate antibiotics (combination for coverage of gram positive, gram negative
and anaerobes)
Correct all deficits ( dehydration)
SURGERY
Surgical removal of the appendix is the definitive treatment.
N.B: Close follow up of surgical patient is very important post operatively to identify
complications as early as possible and correct in time.
COMPLICATIONS
Complications of acute appendicitis include perforation with local or generalized peritonitis,

appendiceal mass and abscess formation. Delayed diagnosis and treatment may lead to
complications and death.
MANAGEMENT OF APPEDECIAL MASS
If appendicitis is not recognized and treated early, it may progress in one of two ways:
1. Perforation and peritonitis
2. Organized appendiceal mass or progress to appendiceal abscess
The inflammatory process may become walled off in the right iliac fossa by omentum and
loops of bowel to form a mass.
The management of appendix mass is conservatively with combined antibiotics for

anaerobes, aerobes and gram negative bacterial and fluids. The drug of choice is a
combination of metronidazole and ceftriaxone if available. If this combination is not available,
use ampicilline, chloramphenicol and gentamycin instead.
Patient should be followed up, strictly monitoring

The vital signs every 4 hours
The mass size and consistency 12 hourly
Patient’s condition and laboratory every other day
If the mass settles on conservative management, the patient can be discharged and
readmitted for interval appendectomy 6 weeks later. Otherwise, if there is any sign
suggestive of progression to an abscess (Increasing mass size, fluctuation, persistence of
systemic signs), emergency laparotomy has to be done for drainage of the abscess and
appendectomy if the appendix is easily found. If the appendix is imbedded in the
conglomerated mass, one should not struggle to deliver it for fear of damage to surrounding
structures. Interval appendectomy after emergency drainage is preferred in this case.
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PERITONITIS
DEFINITION: Peritonitis is an inflammation of the peritoneum. It is an acute life threatening
condition caused by bacterial or chemical contamination of the peritoneal cavity. The major
causes of peritonitis include:
Perforated appendix
Perforated peptic ulcer disease
Anastomotic leak following surgery
Strangulated bowel
Pancreatitis
Cholecystitis
Intra abdominal abscess
Haematogenous spread of infective agent such as typhoid or tuberculosis
Typhoid perforation
Ascending infection (e.g. salpingitis) etc.
CLASSIFICATION
Primary peritonitis: caused by bacterial spread via the blood stream.
Secondary peritonitis: caused during perforation or rupture of abdominal organ allowing

access of bacteria and irritant digestive Juices to the peritoneum.
Acute peritonitis: rapid onset or brief duration with several symptoms
Chronic peritonitis: long duration since the onset involving very slow changes.
Localized peritonitis: peritonitis confined to a limited space e.g. pelvis.
Generalized peritonitis: the whole peritoneal cavity involved.
ROUTES OF BACTERIAL INVASION
1. Direct: contamination via perforation, a penetrating wound or during surgery
2. Local Extension: contamination by migration from an infected organ
e.g. -through gut wall, via the fallopian tubes
3. Blood stream: via the blood as consequence of general septicemia.
Bacteria or other pathogenic agents can gain access to the peritoneum by the above
mentioned routes. The infection can remain limited to a local area of the peritoneum or
become generalized. Factors which favor localization of the infection include:
Anatomical factors (e.g. subphrenic spaces)
Pathological factors (e.g. adhesions )
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Surgical factors (e.g. drains) Etc.
ETIOLOGY: The commonest bacterial invaders in peritonitis are :-

Escherichia coli
Streptococci
Bacteroids
Etc.
CLINICAL FEATURES: Commonest manifestations (presentation) of peritonitis are:

Sharp pain which is worse on movement
Fever and tachycardia
Abdominal distension
Tenderness and guarding
Diminished or absent bowel sounds
Shoulder pain due to referred pain from diaphragmatic irritation
Tenderness on rectal examination (pelvic peritonitis)
Abdominal distension and vomiting, etc.
DIAGNOSIS
The diagnosis of acute peritonitis is mainly made by the clinical findings i.e. suggestive
history and physical examination. Base line laboratory investigations like WBC count may be
indicative. Plain film of the abdomen can also be diagnostic with findings related to
underlying pathology e.g. air under the diaphragm in perforated viscus. Ultrasound is also
useful to detect abscess collection.
MANAGEMENT
The management of patients with peritonitis should be started immediately. It includes

various aspects of approaching the patient. Attention should be given to the following
conditions:
• Resuscitation: general patient care with intravenous fluids
• Analgesia
• Naso-gastric tube insertion (NGT)
• Triple antibiotics (ampicilline , gentamycin and metornidazole or chloramphenicol)
• Monitoring in put and out put by catheterization
• Surgery to control source of infection and do drainage and peritoneal lavage
• Supportive treatment and close follow up etc.
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HEPATO BILIARY DISEASES
Learning objectives
After reading through this topic the students are expected to:
1. Discuss the common pathologies of hepato biliary trees
2. Describe the risk factors to different hepato biliary diseases
3. Describe the clinical features of each disease entity
4. List the most pertinent investigation to reach to the diagnosis
5. Enumerate the possible complications of these diseases
6. Discuss the treatment options
7. Early diagnosis &referral when indicated
Introduction
Hepatobiliary structures have significant surgical importance not only in abdominal surgery
but also in general outcome of surgical management on any other sites of human body.
They are common sites of different surgical diseases due to their big size and very large and
double blood supply.
LIVER
Anatomy
The liver is the largest solid viscus in the abdomen. Anatomically it is divided into two lobes,
the right and left lobes. The right lobe is the larger, and gall bladder is attached to its inferior
surface. The left lobe stretches across the epigastrium towards the left hypochondrium.
Hepatic artery, portal vein, and the hepatic duct together with lymphatic vessels and nerves
enters and leave the liver at the area called porta hepatis ,which is found at the interior and
posterior aspect of right lobe.
Functions
The liver has two functional components (cells)

1. Hepatocytes
2. Reticuloendothelial cells (Kupffer cells)
Function of hepatocytes
1. Metabolic (carbohydrate, protein and fat)
2. Storage- glycogen, vitamins, minerals, intrinsic factors
3. Synthesis (plasma protein, fibrinogen, protrombin…)
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4. RBC production and destruction of the old RBC,s
5. Conjugation of circulating billirubin
6. Detoxification of drugs and certain toxic substances
Function of Kupffer cells
Phagocytosis - defense against infections
AMOEBIC LIVER ABSCESS
Amebic liver abscess is a complication of amoebic dysentery.
Incidence
The disease occurs approximately in 3% of patients with intestinal amoebiasis. It is more

common in middle aged male (M:F = 9:1)
Etiology
E. hystolytica - intestinal protozoal parasite
Pathology and pathogenesis
Amoeba reaches the liver by way of the portal vein from the focus of ulceration in the bowel
wall. Hepatic lesion usually occurs in the right lobe and has the following characters:
- Is large, single abscess
- Contains characteristic liquid material which is reddish brown anchovy paste fluid
- Has thin wall with little or no fibrosis
Clinical manifestation
History:
Chief complaints are fever, chills, right upper quadrant pain which may radiate to right
shoulder area. There could also be a history of:
- Cough, pleuritic chest pain or dyspnea
- Painful epigastric swelling if left lobe is involved
- History of antecedent diarrhea
- Weight loss
Physical examination:
Physical examination can reveal the following findings:

- Tender hepatomegaly : almost constant feature
- Tenderness over lower intercostal spaces with /without swelling and skin edema.
- Abnormal finding over the base of the lung
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Investigations
Stool examination: cysts or trophozoites of E. hystolytica
WBC: leukocytosis
Hemoglobin: anemia in prolonged illness
CXR: elevated right diaphragm, right side pleural effusion, obliteration of costophrenic or
cardio phrenic angle
Ultrasound: localizes the abscess
Aspiration:- anchovy paste aspirate is considered pathognomonic
- amoebic trophozoit can be seen from the aspirated fluid
Complications
1. Secondary infection – the most common complication
⇒ pyogenic abscess
2. Rupture: direction of rupture can be into plural cavity, lung, pericardium or

peritoneum.
3. Shock (due to rupture)
Treatment: Can be medical or surgical
1. Medical (main modality of treatment)

- Oral metronidazol 750mg TID for 10 days is effective in more than 90%
- Analgesics (paracetamol)
- Rehydration and nutritional support
- Correct anemia
2. Surgical drainage
- When there are complications like rupture or sign of imminent rupture
- When there is no response to medical treatment with in 48 to 72 hrs
HYDATID CYST OF THE LIVER
This is a parasitic disease caused by infestation with the Echinococcus granulosus.
Incidence
It occurs wherever a large number of sheep are raised.
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Life cycle
Dog eats scolices, grows
Adult parasite in the intestine

and excretes ova
Ova produces
Cysts and scolices
Ova ingested by man,

Sheep, cattle
Life cycle of E. granulosus
Pathology
The liver is the most commonly affected organ in the body. The right lobe is affected in 85%
usually in a unilocular appearance.
The hepatic hydatid cyst is usually superficial and composed of two layers laminated wall.
- An inner germinative membrane and
- An outer adventitia
Inside the main hydrated vesicle, daughter cysts are usually found that are pathognomonic
to the disease.
- Usually asymptomatic
- Symptom of pressure on adjacent organs
- Upper abdominal pain and tenderness
- Palpable mass or diffuse liver enlargement
- weight loss
- Jaundice and ascites: uncommon
- With secondary infection: fever, chills and tender hepatomegaly
- Urticaria and erythema
Complications
1. Rupture can be into biliary tree ,thoracic or peritoneal cavity-
2. Suppuration - death of the parasite and conversion in to pyogenic abscess
3. anaphylactic shock
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4. Penetration (stomach, colon, pancreas, kidney)
5. Broncho-pleural and hepato-bronchial fistulas
Investigations
- U/S of the abdomen :- cyst and daughter cysts
- Casoni skin test: if reagents are available.
- Chest X-ray - to rule out concomitant lung infection or pulmonary complication.
Treatment
Expectant: small/dead calcified cyst
Medical: Albendazol/mebendazol for 2- 4 weeks for multilocular disease or patients unfit

for surgery.
Surgical: Definitive treatment
Differential diagnosis
- Amoebic liver abscess
- Non parasitic liver cysts
- Tumor
- Pyogenic liver abscess
DISEASES OF GALL BLADDER AND BILIARY TREE
Anatomy and physiology
Gall bladder
The gall bladder is a pear shaped organ of 7.5 – 12.5 cm length and capacity of 50cc. It has
three parts: fundus, body and neck.
The cystic duct (the duct which joins the GB with common hepatic duct together to form CBD
(common bile duct)
Functions of Gall bladder: The main functions of the gall bladder is to serve as
- Reservoir for bile
- Organ for concentrating the bile
- Secretion of the mucus
GALL STONE DISEASE (cholelithiasis)
Gall stone disease is the most common pathology of the biliary tract.
189
Classification
1. Cholesterol stone (6%): usually solitary
2. Mixed stone (90%): cholesterol is the major component with others like calcium
bilirubinate. These type of stones are multiple, faceted and usually associated with
infection.
3. Pigment stone: mainly composed of calcium bilirubinate. They are usually small,
multiple and black. Commonly associated with hemolytic disease.
Incidence
Female sex and old age are the common risk factors. But the condition can occur in both
sexes and at any age.
Pathogenesis: Three important factors implicated in pathogenesis of cholelithiasis are:
1. Metabolic: cholesterol is soluble in bile salt and phospholipids. When bile salt is deficient
or when the cholesterol level is in excess in relation to the bile salt, the bile formed is
supersaturated or lithogenic
2. Infection: causes increased mucus plug formation and scarring which form a nidus for
stone formation. Also many bacteria deconjugate billirubin which will combine with
calcium to form insoluble calcium bilirubinate.
3. Stasis: important for growth of stone. Progesterone in multiparous women is believed to

be contributory.
Clinical Presentation
Most (90%) patients with gall stone diseases are asymptomatic. Symptomatic patients
present with:
History:
- Right upper quadrant colicky pain (biliary colicky)
- Dyspepsia, fatty food intolerance, flatulence, abnormal post prandial bloating
- Symptoms of acute cholecystitis or other complications
• right upper quadrant tenderness
• Risk factors can be identified
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Complications of Gall bladder stone
1. In the gall bladder:

• chronic cholecystitis
• acute cholecystitis
• gangrene
• perforation
• empyema
• mucocele
• carcinoma
2. In the bile duct:

• obstructive jaundice
• cholangitis
• acute pancreatitis
3. in intestine:
• acute intestinal obstruction (Gall stone ileus)
Diagnostic workup
Ultrasound: detects stone in the gall bladder
Plain abdominal film: Only 10% of stones are radio opaque and visible on X-ray
1. PUD
2. Hiatal Hernia
3. Carcinoma of stomach
4. Diverticular disease
5. Angina pectoris
Treatment
Surgery: Open or Laparoscopic

1) cholecystectomy. The main stay of treatment
2) cholecystostomy for bad risk patients with severe infection
(Severe Acute cholecystitis or gall bladder empyema)
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Acute Cholecystitis
Definition
Acute cholecystitis is an acute inflammation of gall bladder due to obstruction of neck of gall
bladder or cystic duct stone. Another rare form of acute cholecystitis which occurs in
absence of stone is called acalculous cholecystitis.
Pathogenesis
Direct pressure of calculus on the mucosa results in ischemia, necrosis, and ulceration with
swelling edema and impairment of venous return. This process increases and extends the
extent of inflammation and favors bacterial multiplication. The end result may be:-
- Pericholecystic abscess
- Fistula formation between gall bladder and bowel
- Gall bladder empyema/mucocele
- Rarely, perforation of gall bladder and bile peritonitis
Commonly involved bacterial species in acute cholecystitis include E. coli Klebsiella species,
Streptococci species, Enterobacter species and Clostridial species.
Clinical features
History:
• History of chronic cholecystitis or Cholelithiasis
• Women more affected than men
• Moderate to severe right upper quadrant and epigastric pain which may radiate to
the back.
• Fever and vomiting
• Right upper quadrant tenderness usually with rebound tenderness
• Gall bladder or inflammatory mass due to omentum wrapped around the GB may
be palpable.
• Murphy’s Sign may be positive: sudden arrest of inspiration due to tenderness of
inflamed gall bladder which is palpated during deep inspiration.
• Perforated or penetrated peptic ulcer disease
• Biliary colic
• Pneumonia
• Pancreatitis
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• Hepatitis
• Pleurisy
• Appendicitis
• Myocardial ischemia or infarction.
Investigation:
WBC: Leucocytosis
Plain Chest or abdominal X-ray: to check for pneumonia or radio opaque stone
Ultrasound: detects calculi, gall bladder wall thickening and pericholecystic fluid
Treatment
1. conservative
- Admit the patient
- keep the patient NPO
- Start on IV fluid
- Insert NGT
- Analgesics
- Antibiotics to cover common causative bacteria: usually ampicillin and
gentamycin are used.
- Follow the response to medical treatment with clinical improvement (fever,
abdominal findings) and WBC count reduction
- Appoint the patient to undergo cholecystectomy after 6 weeks
2. Surgical treatment: Cholecystectomy
OBSTRUCTIVE JAUNDICE
Definition
Jaundice is a yellowish discoloration of the sclera, mucous membrane and skin. It becomes
clinically evident when the level of serum billirubin reaches 2.0 to 3.0 mg/dl
Classification
I Medical: This type of jaundice could be subdivided into
Pre hepatic: - when the cause is excessive destruction of RBC (hemolytic)
Hepatic: - when the cause is due to the liver problems.
II Surgical: when the cause is obstruction of biliary trees (obstructive jaundice)
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Biochemical features of different types of jaundice.
Type of the test Pre hepatic hepatic Post hepatic

Serum billirubin:-
Total + +++ +++
Direct N ++ +++
Indirect +++ ++ N
Serum Alkaline N + +++
phos
Liver Enzymes N +++ +
Urine :
billirubin 0 N +++
urobilinogen +++ N 0
Causes of extra hepatic biliary obstruction
Obstruction in the lumen

• Gall stone(the most common)
• Parasitic occlusion e.g. Ascaris, liver flukes
• Blood clot
Obstruction in the wall:

• Atresia (congenital)
• Stricture (post traumatic)
• Tumor of the bile duct
Extrinsic compression
• Carcinoma of head of pancreas(the second most common)
• Carcinoma of ampulla of vater
• Pancreatitis
• Lymph node around porta hepatis
• Choledochal cyst
History: Helpful to differentiate surgical jaundice from medical jaundice for management
decision
- Intermittent jaundice, if it is due to stone
- Progress of jaundice (progressively deepening or intermittent)
- +/- Pruritis
194
- Urine and stool (clay color) color change is indicative of obstruction
- RUQ abdominal pain
- Loss of appetite, weight loss
- History of abdominal trauma, surgery
- General appearance: obesity, emaciation.
- Depth of jaundice/pallor
- Hepatomegaly, splenomegaly
- Ascitis
- Palpable gall bladder
- Liver mass.
- Skin scratch marks
Note the following distinctions of various causes of jaundice
¾ Surgical jaundice is characterized by

Yellow green icterus
Pruritus of the skin more during night time
Clay colored stool due to absent bile
Dark brown urine due to conjugated billirubin in the urine
¾ Jaundice due to choledocholithiasis is characterized by

history of chronic colicky right upper quadrant pain
Intermittent jaundice
Risk factors for gall bladder stone formation or
History of gall bladder stone (Diagnosed )
Usually impalpable gall bladder
¾ Jaundice of Neoplastic cause is characterized by

Progressively deepening jaundice
Anorexia, weight loss, and pallor
Palpable gall bladder with mild or no pain
Courvoisier’s Law:
If in presence of jaundice, the gall bladder is palpable, then the jaundice is unlikely to be due
to stone (True in 60%of cases).
195
Investigations
- Hemoglobin: anemia suggests malignancy
- Urinalysis: billirubin/urobilinogen
- Serum billirubin: total and direct
- Serum alkaline phosphatase
- Ultrasound: gall stone, choledochal cyst, dilated bile duct, Neoplasm
- Liver function test
- Prothrombin time
Treatment
Surgical: The patient should be sent to a hospital for surgery.
196
Review Questions
1. Correct statement regarding Amoebic Liver Abscess is/are:

A. It is more common in males.
B. Right lobe is more commonly affected
C. Hepatic lesion is usually solitary.
D. ‘Anchovy Paste’ aspirate is pathognomonic
E. All of the above
2. Complications of hydatid diseases of the liver do not include

A. Rapture
B. Suppuration
C. Hypovolemic shock
D. Penetration
E. None
3. The commonest type gall bladder stone is

A. Cholesterol
B. Oxalate
C. Mixed
D. Pigment
E. None
4. The most important diagnostic work up in cholelithisis is

A. ultrasound
B. plain abdominal X-Ray
C. Oral cholecystography
D. Serum cholesterol level
E. endoscopy
5. Stone in bile duct can cause

A. Obstructive Jaundice
B. Cholangitis
C. Acute Pancreatitis
D. All of the above
E. None
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ABDOMINAL WALL HERNIAS
Learning Objectives
1. To discuss the common types of abdominal wall hernias
2. To enumerate the risk factors
3. To describe the clinical features of different abdominal wall hernias
4. To discuss the complications of abdominal wall hernias
5. To describe the modalities of treatment
6. To emphasize the importance of early diagnosis & intervention
Introduction
Abdominal wall hernias are common surgical problems encountered in all levels of health
care facilities. Adequate knowledge to reach to the correct diagnosis and appropriate
management plan help the care provider to prevent serious complications which could be
fatal.
General consideration
Definitions – Hernia is a protrusion of a viscus through an opening in the wall of the cavity
Important terminologies
Hernial sac - is an out pouch of the peritoneum. It has four parts:
mouth, neck, body and fundus
Content- Is a viscus or any other organ inside a sac. It can be:
- Small bowel and omentum – the commonest
- Large bowel appendix
- The bladder
Reducible hernia- when the protruded viscus can be returned back to the abdomen
Irreducible hernia- when the contents can’t be returned back
Obstructed hernia- the content of the hernia (intestine) is occluded but no impairment
of vascular supply
Strangulated hernia- when the vascularity of protruded viscus is impaired
Richter’s hernia- when only one side of the wall of the intestine is herniated. Here
strangulation of the bowel can occur with out intestinal obstruction
Sliding hernia- when an extra peritoneal structure form part of the wall of the sac
198
Risk factors for abdominal wall Hernia development
Increased intra abdominal pressure resulting from:

- Chronic cough
- Straining at urination or defecation
- Heavy wt lifting
- Abdominal distension
Weakened abdominal wall

- Advanced age
- Malnutrition
- Congenital defect – ppv
- Trauma/surgery
Clinical features
History
- Lump which varies in size
- Pain, local aching, discomfort
- Factors predisposing to increased intra abdominal pressure
- Symptoms of int. obstruction/strangulation
- Patient is examined in standing and lying position.
- Lump – reducible, cough impulse with bowel sound
- May be reduced when patient is lying and increases in size when patient is
coughing or straining
- Relation of the lump with the common references – pubic tubercle, inguinal
ligament
- Signs of obstruction – tense, tender, irreducible with absent cough impulse
- Signs of strangulation – more tenderness, with warm indurated, and inflamed
overlying skin.
Investigation: Hernia is a clinical diagnosis and investigation is rarely needed.
Complications of abdominal wall hernias:

1. Irreducibility
2. Obstruction
3. Strangulation is a surgical emergency
Risk of obstruction and strangulation is very high in femoral hernia, paraumblical hernia and
indirect inguinal hernia with narrow neck
199
Principles of management
- Spontaneous resolution is unlikely
- The risks of irreducibility, obstruction and strangulation increase with time. So
surgical intervention is needed in most cases
Surgical treatment for abdominal wall hernias

1. Herniotomy - removal of the sac and closure of the neck: Done only in infants and
children
2. Herniorrhaphy - Herniotomy and repair of the wall to prevent recurrence.
Obstruction and strangulation
This is one of the causes of intestinal obstruction (acute abdomen). Therefore, one shouldn’t
forget to examine the hernial sites during evaluation of the patient with intestinal obstruction.
Treatment options
Non operative treatment:
Gentle reduction (Taxis) can be indicated in obstructed hernia in infants but not advisable in
adults due to the risk of mass reduction.
Procedure (taxis):
- Put patient in head down position
- Sedative is given
- Gentle manipulation to reduce the hernia
NB: No place for vigorous manipulation and be ready to stop the procedure when any
difficulty arises
Urgent surgery is indicated in

- Great majority of obstructed hernia and
- All strangulated hernia
Specific types of hernia
Anatomy of Inguinal and femoral canal
Inguinal canal Boundaries

Anteriorly: External oblique apponeurosis
Posteriorly: Fascia transversalis
Inferiorly: Inguinal ligament
Superiorly: Conjoined tendon and internal oblique muscle
200
This canal runs in antero inferior direction from internal to external ring. The internal ring lies
2cm above and 2cm medial to mid inguinal ligament. The external ring lies just above the
pubic crest and tubercle
Contents of inguinal canal
In male: Spermatic vessels, Vas deference, Ileo inguinal nerve, Genito femoral nerve
In female: Round ligament
Anatomy of femoral canal
Is a narrow rigid space bounded by:

- Inguinal ligament, superiorly
- Pectineal part of inguinal ligament posterior
- Lacunar part of inguinal ligament medially, femoral vein laterally
- The narrow rigid space makes this types of hernia more prone to obstruction and
strangulation.
Inguinal hernia
- accounts for 80% of all external abdominal wall hernia

- commonest is all ages and sexes
- 20 x more common is males than women
- more common on right side
Classification
1. Indirect type: passes through internal inguinal ring along the inguinal canal. May
extend down to the scrotum.
2. Direct type : Bulges through the post wall of inguinal canal
Indirect inguinal hernia

- 60% on right, 40% Lt side and 20% bilateral
- Due to congenital defect or potential defect which is the remnant of processes
vaginalis
- 20 times more common in men
Direct inguinal hernia
- due to wear and tear associated with advanced age and increased intra
abdominal pressure
201
Femoral Hernia
- acquired downward protrusion of intestinal contents into the femoral canal

- 4 times more common in females (middle-aged multiparous)
- rare in children
Clinical features
History
- Elderly or middle aged woman with thin body build
- lump on anterior and upper thigh
- may present with complaints associated with int. obstruction or strangulation
- Small lump on lower groin, lateral and below pubic tubercle
- Reducible/irreducibility
- Bowel sound/cough impulse – usually absent
Management
- surgical repair without delay
Umbilical (Para umbilical) Hernia
Umbilicus is one of the weak sites of the abdomen. A hernia can occur at this potential site.
Risk factors
¾ Female sex
¾ Multiple parities
¾ Obesity
¾ Ascites
Complications
Obstruction
Strangulation
Rupture
Treatment
Expectant: - Spontaneous closure is expected in 80% cases of umbilical hernia in
under five children.
Surgery: - Beyond five years
202
Incisional Hernia
Risk Factors
¾ Wound infection
¾ Poor surgical technique (improper facial repair)
¾ Chronic cough or straining
¾ Obesity
Clinical features
• Risk of obstruction and strangulation is very rare.
• Local discomfort
• Cosmetic problems
• Difficulties with micturation and bowel movement when very large
Treatment
Hernioplasty
203
Review Questions
1. False statement regarding abdominal wall hernia is/are

A. Indirect inguinal hernia is the commonest type
B. Femoral hernia is the commonest type in females
C. Strangulation can occur without obstruction
D. Direct inguinal hernia is common in old age
E. A & D
2. Conservative management is indicated in Obstructed hernia in

A. Obstructed inguinal hernia in infant
B. Femora hernia
C. Strangulated hernia
D. Umblical hernia in under five children
E. None
3. Incidence of obstruction is higher in which one of the following hernial type?

A. Femoral
B. Direct inguinal
C. Paraumbilical I adult
D. Incisional
E. A and C
4. Options of management of abdominal well hernia

A. Herniotomy
B. Herniorrhaphy
C. Expectant
D. All
E. None
204
References
1. Principle of Surgery, Schwartz, Seventh edition, 1999
2. Bailey and Love’s Short Practice of Surgery, 22nd edition
3. Handbook of General Surgery, Peter G.Bevan, 1992
4. Concise Surgery, Kevin Lafferty and John Rennie, 1998
205
STOMACH AND DUODENUM
Learning Objective
The student should be able to:
¾ enumerate the associated risk factors for Peptic ulcer disease (PUD) and gastric
cancer
¾ describe the clinical features and investigation modalities pertinent to PUD and
gastric cancer
¾ discuss the complications of peptic ulcer disease
¾ describe the treatment of peptic ulcer disease and gastric cancer
Introduction
Peptic ulcer disease is a common problem all over the world including Ethiopia. It had been
one of the intersecting points for the discipline of internal medicine and surgery. The recent
finding suggesting infection with Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) as an important associated
risk factor is shifting the treatment of peptic ulcer disease from surgery to medical modalities.
Gastric cancer is one of the top five cancers in frequency, however, it is one of the disease
entities with the worst prognosis because of the difficulty to diagnose it early. Therefore one
has to have a high index of suspicion to diagnose the disease early for the outcome of
treatment heavily depends on the stage of the disease at the time of diagnosis.
Peptic ulcer disease
Anatomy and physiology of the stomach and duodenum
The stomach is an asymmetric dilation of the proximal gastro intestinal tract. The adult
capacity is 1.5 to 2.0 liters. Anatomically, it is divided into the following parts:
Cardia, Fundus, Body, Antrum and Pylorus
fundus
cardia
antrum body
pylorus
206
The pyloric sphincter regulates gastric emptying and prevents reflux of duodenal content.
The wall of the stomach has four layers mucosa, submucosa, muscularis and serosa.
Region Mucosa cells Secretion
Cardia goblet cell mucus
fundus and body parietal cells acid
chief cells pepsinogen
Antrum and pylorus goblet cells mucus

G. cells gastrin
Table: Types of cells in the stomach and their secretion.
The stomach performs two interrelated functions in the initial phase of digestion
a. Food breakdown to form chyme through

- mechanical digestion and
- acid and pepsin action
b. Reservoir through receptive relaxation, i.e. the stomach increases its size as the
amount of food in it increases.
Phases of gastric secretion
There are three phases of gastric secretion

Cephalic - mediated by acetylcholin secreted by the vagus nerve.
Gastric - mediated by the hormone gastrin (by G cells)
Intestinal - mainly inhibitory through peptides like secretin
Pathogenesis
The pathogenesis of peptic ulcer is an imbalance in the aggressive activity of acid and
pepsin and the defensive mechanisms that resist mucosal digestion.
Factors contributing to the pathogenesis of peptic ulcer include:

1. Helicobacter pylori
2. Non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (e.g. aspirin)
3. Acid hypersecretion (e.g. Zollinger Ellison syndrome)
4. Rapid gastric emptying
5. Impaired duodenal acid disposal
6. Impaired gastric mucosal defense
7. Duodenogastric reflux
207
The most convincing evidence for H. pylori infection as a cause is that eradication of H.pylori
infection is associated with a near elimination of recurrence of peptic ulcer following
treatment. However, only a minority (10% over a life time) of people harboring H.pylori
develop ulcers.
Classification
Acid peptic disease of the stomach and duodenum includes
Erosive gastritis (inflammation confined to the mucosa of the stomach)
Acute gastritis - occur after major trauma, shock, sepsis, head Injury and ingestion of aspirin
and alcohol. It is generally classified as “Stress erosion”.
Chronic gastritis
Peptic ulcers - extend through the mucosa into the submucosa and muscularis. Chronic
gastric and duodenal ulcers are distinguished by the presence of an established
inflammatory reaction. Duodenal ulcer usually occurs in the proximal duodenum with in
1 to 2 cm of the pylorus, the portion of intestine first exposed to gastric secretion. In
duodenal ulcer there is acid hyper secretion while in gastric ulcer acid secretion is
either normal or decreased.
The clinical presentation is non-specific and the following features may not always be found.
Table 1: Summary of clinical features of gastric and duodenal ulcers

Gastric ulcer Duodenal ulcer
Periodicity present Well marked
Pain Soon after eating but not when lying Two hours after food
down Night pain
Vomiting Considerable vomiting No vomiting
Hemorrhage Hematemesis more frequent than Melena more frequent than
melena hematemesis
Appetite Afraid to eat Good
Diet Lives on milk and fish Eats almost anything
Weight Loses weight No loss in weight
On examination it is not unusual to find localized deep tenderness in the right hypo
chondrium.
208
Investigations
a. Gastroduodenoscopy and biopsy
b. Barium meal
c. Blood studies ↓ hemoglobin (Hgb) shows chronic blood loss
d. H.pylori test
Treatment
Medical treatment
¾ Acid reduction
- H2 – receptor antagonists– cimetidine 800 mg/night for six weeks
- Proton pump inhibitor – omeprazole 20 mg/d
- Irritants should be avoided
- Anti H. pylori treatment is given in the following manner if positive for H.pylori test
Bismuth tablets
Amoxicillin for 2 – 4 weeks
Metronidazole
Relapses are treated with the standard treatment in cases of duodenal ulcer. However
gastric ulcers need endoscopic evaluation and biopsy to rule out malignancy
Surgical treatment
The patient is referred for surgery in the following conditions:

a. Complications – obstruction, perforation or bleeding
b. Intractability (failure of medical treatment)
Complications
Overall, in men, there is a 5 percent risk of perforation. About 10 percent of patients will have
significant bleeding.
Perforated peptic ulcer

- Sex ratio 2:1 , age 45-55 years
- Anterior surface of duodenum (location)
- Past history of PUD is common
- Gastric contents spill over the peritoneum and bring about peritonism which will be
followed by bacterial peritonitis after 6 hours
209
Clinical features
• Sudden onset of abdominal pain
• Pale, anxious
• Raised pulse rate
• Abdomen still, not moving with respiration tender, board like rigidity, liver dullness
may be absent
• After 6 hrs peritonitis issue with silent abdominal distention and patient
progressively deteriorates to death
• If the perforation occurs slowly the presentation may be less dramatic
• Erect plain abdominal x-ray, preferably a chest X- ray may show air under the
diaphragm
Treatment
• Patient is resuscitated
• Antibiotic therapy, continuous gastric aspiration and breathing exercise are also
important
• Urgent laparotomy done to do peritoneal toilet and closure of perforation with
omental patch
• Anti H-pylori treatment started to avoid recurrence
• Definitive surgical treatment if symptoms persist
Bleeding Peptic Ulcer

- Slight bleeding frequently occurs following trauma from solid food
- Severe hemorrhage is due to erosion of an artery at the base of the ulcer located
posteriorly (gastoduodenal, spleenic)
- Patient presents with hematemesis and/or melena
Management
Conservative
- IV fluid resuscitation
- Blood transfusion if indicated
- Naso gastric tube insertion and saline lavage
- H2 receptor antagonist
- Endoscopic evaluation
- Serial hematocrite determination
The patient should be referred for possible operation.
210
Gastric Outlet Obstruction (G.O.O)
This is a state that results from cicatrisation and fibrosis due to long standing duodenal or
juxtapyloric ulcer.
Clinical feature
- Patient presents with pain, fullness, vomiting of large foul smelling vomit and on
examination a peristaltic wave from left to right and succession splash can be
elicited. There could also be signs of electrolyte disturbance and metabolic
alkalosis
- Barium meal shows large stomach full of food residue with delay in evacuation
Treatment
Surgery – truncal vagotomy and bypass operation after preliminary gastric lavage with saline
for 4-5 days and Correction of fluid and electrolytes using crystalloid fluids
Gastric Cancer
Epidemiology
- Age 40-60 years
- Sex M:F 3:1
More common in Far East – Japan
Etiology
Premalignant conditions and risk factors:
Gastric polyp, pernicious anemia, post gastrectomy stomach, gastritis, cigarette smoking
and genetic makeup
Pathology
Prepyloric region is the most common site
Microscopic - Adenocarcinoma
Spread
Direct, lymphatic, transperitoneal, blood stream
Clinical features
New onset dyspepsia in patients above the age of 40 years
Anorexia and loss of weight
Anemia, tiredness, weakness, pallor
Persistent pain with no response to medical treatment
211
Gastric distention
Dysphagia or fullness, belching and vomiting
Other signs
- Virchow’s nodes on the neck, Krukenberg tumor in the pelvis, etc.
- Abdominal mass
- Ascites
Investigations
- Gastroscopy and biopsy
- Hgb
- Barium meal shows filling defect
- Laparotomy (diagnostic)
Treatment
- Gastrectomy when possible
- Palliative bypass surgery
Prognosis
Over all 5 years survival is about 10 -20%
212
Review Questions
1. What are the three phases of gastric secretion?
2. Compare and contrast the clinical presentation of gastric and duodenal ulcers.
3. Mention the treatment of uncomplicated chronic duodenal ulcer.
4. Enumerate the complications of peptic ulcer disease.
5. How would you manage a perforated peptic ulcer disease?
6. Mention the premalignant conditions for gastric cancer.
7. What are the clinical features of gastric cancer and how do you reach the
diagnosis?
8. What is the overall five year survival rate of gastric cancer?
213
DYSPHAGIA
Learning Objectives
The student is expected to know:
- Common causes which bring about dysphagia.
- Clinical features and investigations which help to reach to a specific diagnosis.
- Treatment options for the common conditions which cause dysphagia.
Introduction
Dysphagia, though an infrequent occurrence in clinical practice, is a very serious problem
which makes the patient miserable for he/she can’t swallow food, fluids and even saliva. The
causes differ according to the age of the patient and the history may clearly suggest the
diagnosis in some cases like foreign body swallowing and corrosive ingestion as in achalasia
and cancer. One has to have a high index of suspicion and the help of special investigations.
Most cases need a higher level of treatment, thus one should have a tentative diagnosis and
convince the patient for early management at a hospital.
Dysphagia
Definition: Difficulty in swallowing
Classification: According to the site and cause
1. Oropharyngeal dysphagia
Causes – Local pain due to trauma, oral candida, tonsillitis etc
Neuromuscular disorders, e.g. Parkinson’s disease,
Mechanical causes, e.g. Tumor
2. Esophageal dysphagia
Causes - Mechanical, e.g. - foreign body, tumor (esophageal cancer, Goiter)
- Dysmotility, e.g. - achalasia
Diagnosis
History
- Dysphagia to solids or liquids
- Progressive, static or intermittent
- Duration
- Associated pain, heart burn or weight loss
214
Examination: Usually less revealing - weight loss, emaciation, chest findings due to
aspiration pneumonia
Investigations
Barium swallow radiography
Esophagoscopy
Endoscopic ultrasound
Manometry
Common surgical causes of Dysphagia
Achalasia of the esophagus (cardiospasm)
Etiology - motility disorder of the esophagus due to loss of ganglion cells in auerbach’s
plexus.
Pathophysiology - Incomplete relaxation of lower oesophageal sphinictor (LES)

- Stasis esophageal dilatation (functional obstruction)
- Risk for cancer (Ca), in long standing cases
clinical feature - Age 20-40 years
- Progressive dysphagia (insidious onset) regurgitation
- Retrosternal discomfort, fetid flatulence and aspiration pneumonitis
Diagnosis – Barium swallow: rat tail tapering, dilated esophagus, no gas in stomach
- Esophagoscopy
- manometry
Treatment: Disruption of the lower circular muscles- Heller’s cardiomyotomy.
Carcinoma of the esophagus
Epidemiology
> 60 years M > F
5% of all cancers
Ingestion of hot meal, smoking, alcohol intake, etc
Pathology
Microscopic: squamous cell carcinoma, Adeno carcinoma
Macroscopically: Annular stenosing, ulcer, fungating, cauli flower like
215
Spread
Direct, lymphatic and blood stream to liver and bone
Clinical feature
Dysphagia, regurgitation, anorexia, weight loss
Diagnosis
- Barium swallow - Irregular, ragged pattern of mucosa with narrow lumen
- Esophagoscopy and biopsy
- Bronchoscopy - to see bronchial involvement
- Endoluminal Ultrasonography(U/S)
- U/S - liver secondaries
- Hgb, plasma proteins, blood chemistry
Treatment
Curative - surgery
- Radiotherapy
Palliative - Intubation with specially designed tubes
- Radiotherapy
Foreign bodies
Coins, pins, dentures, etc
Diagnosis
- Radiography (neck and chest x-ray)
- Esophagoscopy
Treatment
Removal by rigid esophagoscope
Oesophagitis
Acute - burns or scalds
- Infective (spreading from the pharynx), e.g. candidiasis
- Peptic
Chronic - reflux due to hiatus hernia or previous surgery
Pathology
Bleeding granulation tissue replaces epithelium- upward displacement of the cardia
216
Clinical features
Pain, heart burn, dysphagia, occult blood, secondary anemia
Diagnosis - Barium swallow, esophagoscopy
Treatment - treat the cause, H2 blockers, omeprazole – reflux (peptic)
- surgery for sliding hernia
Caustic strictures
Treatment - acute inflammatory stage - NPO, antibiotics and cortisone
- stricture – dilation, esophageal replacement
217
Review Questions
1. Classify dysphagia according to the cause and site and give examples for each.
2. What are the investigations which are important in the differential diagnosis of
dysphagia?
3. Compare and contrast a patient with achalasia with another patient having esophageal
cancer (clinical presentation, diagnosis, treatment and prognosis).
218
References
1. Bailey and loves, short practice of surgery, 1995, 22nd edition
2. Lawrence W. way current, surgical diagnosis and treatment, 1994
3. Schwartz, principles of surgery 7th ed. 1999
4. Concise surgery, Kevin Lafferty and John Rennie, 1998
5. Jonathan Vickers and Derek Alderson, ‘Investigation of dysphagia’, surgery

international, vol. 50,2000
6. Essentials of general surgery by Peter F. Lawrance 1992
7. Clinical surgery by Michael M. Henry 2001.
8. Bailey and Love's Short Practice of surgery 1991 (21st edition)
9. Principles and practices of surgery By A.P.M. Forrest (3rd edition)
10. Essential Surgery Problems, Diagnosis and Treatment by Medical Division of long mand
group UK. 1990.
219
CHAPTER FIVE
UROLOGY
Learning Objectives
The student is expected to know:
1- Common symptoms and signs of urinary tract disorders
2- Routine and special investigations of urinary tract
3- Treatment of most of the conditions associated with these pathologies
Introduction
The urinary tract is a system for various pathologies, as it is lined by urothelium it is the
origin of transitional carcinomas. It also communicates with the external environment and
exposed to microbes causing diseases. Moreover, as in many organ systems, the urinary
tract is liable to trauma. Hence the student must be very well versed about the practice of
the common urological problems.
Urinary symptoms and Investigations of Urinary Tract problems:
Introduction
Urinary pathologies are fairly common problems that health workers encounter in his/her
daily activities. The symptoms are not always specific to urinary tract diseases; some of
these symptoms are merely feature of generalized illness. The following symptoms are
commonly related to urinary tract disease:
A. Pain: Pain in the urinary tract can arise from the kidneys (renal colic), which is due
to obstruction of one of the calyces by stone. Infection due to obstruction of other
causes could also cause a renal colic. Such patient may exhibit costovertebral angle
tenderness on examination.
If pain is sudden in onset and severe radiating to the groin from the flank, it is most
likely due to passage of stone in the ureter. Pain arising from bladder pathologies is
located in the suprapubic region, the cause of which maybe urinary retention or
cystitis.
B. Hematuria: is blood in urine. It can be divided as initial hematuria, terminal

hematuria and bloody urine throughout. It may be associated with pain, and
described as painful or without pain (painless hematuria). Microscopic hematuria is
only evident when we see red blood cells in the urine under the microscope.
220
C. Frequency: it is an increased number of voiding urine; it is due to incomplete
emptying and/or irritability of the bladder.
D. Dysuria (painful micturation)
E. Dribbling: drops of urine continues to flow even after micturation
F. Urgency: the feeling to void is very high urging the patient to void now and then
G. Hesitancy. Patient hesitates void, when he reaches to toilet though he had great
feeling to void.
Investigations
Urinalysis:
• Presence of protein, blood, glucose, ketones and PH in urine can all be determined.
• Electrolytes and chemical in the urine are measured e.g. billirubin bacteria
Bacteriology
• Urine culture and their susceptibility pattern from urine culture.
Renal function Test:
• Estimates the capacity of the kidneys to excrete waste products and capacity of
concentrating the urine.
• It is measured by assessing Blood Urea nitrogen (BUN) (normal value 20-40) and
creatinine level (normal value 0.5-1.5) in the blood.
Radiology
Plain film (KUB) is the initial film that should be taken in cases suspected to have
presence of stones along the urinary tract projections.
Intravenous Urogram (IVU, IVP):- patient is given a contrast material intravenously.

Anatomy and physiology of the Kidneys, ureters and bladder are demonstrated.
221
Other investigations modalities are listed below
Modality Advantages
Ultrasonography - Shows the size of renal parenchyma
- Hydronephrosis and stone, mass lesions
Cystoscopy - Visualizes the bladder for tumor, and the
prostate for enlargement
Urethrocystogram - Delineates the location and length of urethral
stricture
Retrograde Ureteropyelography - Displays the ureter and pelvis
e.g.- PUJ obstruction
Acute Renal Failure (Anuria/Oliguria)

Acute renal failure is said to happen when
• Oliguria (<400 ml of urine in 24 hours) or
• Anuria (no urine excretion at all). Kidneys fail to produce adequate urine out put to
wash out all harmful toxic products such as nitrogen products.
• Hyperkalemia
Causes
The following table illustrates the common causes of acute renal failure
Level Common condition

Pre renal ARF - Dehydration
- Shock
Renal (intrinsic renal diseases) - Glomeluronephritis
- Drugs, poisons
- Myoglobinuria
- Incompatible blood transfusion
Post renal (obstructive) - Calculi, pelvic malignancy
- Iatrogenic, retroperitoneal fibrosis
- Bilharzias , BPH ,etc
222
Management of acute renal failure
Treatment of acute renal failure depends on the causes.

1. Treat the cause
• If hypotension, administer fluids and correct hypotension, then most of the cases
could be reversed, urine out put is monitored hourly.
• Adequate urine out put is 0.5 –1.5ml/Kg/hr.
• Diuretic challenge
• In established cases: fluid restriction, and fluid administration based on replacement
of the ongoing losses.
2. Renal supportive methods, such as dialysis (peritoneal and hemodialysis) performed to
remove toxic chemicals and decrease the potassium level (k+) level in the blood to
normal.
3. If the cause is post renal obstruction, e.g. ureteric stone, BOO, remove or bypass
obstruction by the following means:
Catheterization
Open Surgery
Disorder of the kidneys and ureters
Hydronephrosis
Definition:
Hydronephrosis is defined as an aseptic dilatation of the pelvicalyceal system as a
consequence of a partial or complete obstruction. It can be unilateral or bilateral based on
the level of obstruction. The following table lists some causes of hydronephrosis.
Congenital Acquired
- Congenital stricture of external urethral meatus, - Benign prostatic enlargement
phymosis - Urethral stricture
- Congenital valves of the posterior male urethra - Post- circumcision phymosis
- Idiopathic pelvi-ureteric junction obstruction - Stone diseases
223
Pathophysiology
When obstruction of urine flow is not relieved the following conditions happen:
The pelvis will be dilated, and more and more urine is collected.
Then calyces and pelvis become dilated, and pressure develops in the pelvicalyceal system
Then renal parenchyma undergoes pressure atrophy and even chronic renal failure could
develop in bilateral obstructions
Clinical features
• Right side and males are commonly affected
• Insidious onset of mild pain or dull aching pain in the loin
• Sensation of drugging and heaviness
• Enlargement of kidney may be evident on palpation
• Attacks of acute renal colic may occur
• Features of chronic renal failure in untreated cases.
Diagnosis
Based on History and physical examination.
IVP/IVU
Ultrasonography:- Accumulation of urine in the pelvis , stones, thickness of the
kidney parenchyma are all visualized.
Treatment
Remove the obstructing element: e.g.
PUJ obstruction Pyeloplasty
Ureteric stone Ureterolithotomy
BPH and BOO Bladder catheterization, prostatectomy
Urinary Tract infection (UTI)
Upper urinary tract infections

Infection of the kidney: the source of pathogenic organisms in infection of the kidneys either
from distant affected organ such as boils furuncles from which the organisms reach the
kidneys or ascending infections from lower urinary tract infection. E.coli, other gram negative
organisms and proteus species are the causative organisms.
224
Classification of Kidney infections
- Acute pyelonephritis
- Chronic pyelonephritis
- Pyonephrosis
- Renal abscess
- Perinephric abscess
Acute pyelonephritis:
It commonly occurs in females, in reproductive age group, childhood and pregnancy. The
reason behind the increased prevalence of acute pyelonephritis is due to high incidence of
lower UTI, which can ascend to upper tract.
Clinical features
• General nonspecific such as headache, lassitude and nausea may occur. Later
sudden onset of pain, rigors and vomiting follows.
• Pain is localized in the flank and hypochondrium.
• When the source is lower UTI, frequency and dysuria are evident.
Diagnosis:
Mid stream urine (MSU) is taken for culture and sensitivity
• Urinalysis yields few pus cells and many bacteria
• Blood culture
• In children, cloudy and offensive urine may be the only representative, and about
50% of the children with UTI have underlying abnormality
Treatment:
• Prompt antibiotic treatment. Choice should be based on clinical and epidemiological
evidences, and then tailored by the results of culture and sensitivity. Exclude any
anatomical abnormally.
• Initiate treatment with combination of amino glycoside and penicillin
Chronic pyelonephritis
Chronic pyelonephritis is associated mainly with vesico-ureteric reflux resulting in
nephropathy and scarring of the renal parenchyma. Women and younger age groups are
commonly affected.
Clinical feature
• Flank pain, frequency and dysuria, hypertension, pyrexia, anemia
225
Diagnosis
• U/A - white cells are seen in great number
• Culture may grow E.coli, proteus species or any other organism listed above
• Ultrasonography:- may show scarred small kidney in late cases.
Treatment
• Remove the predisposing element e.g. Vesico-ureteric reflux
• Repeated courses of antibiotic treatment may be necessary
Perinephric abscess
Definition
Perinephric abscess is an infection of the perinephric fat resulting in pus collection. The
source unlike pyelonephritis can be from extension of cortical abscess. It could also result
from a distant source such as from appendix abscess.
Clinical feature
- Swinging high grade fever
- Abdominal and loin tenderness
- Flank mass
Diagnosis
Elevated WBC count,
Low or no pus cells or bacteria in urine
Ultrasound is usually diagnostic. KUB may help
Treatment
Drainage of abscess, intravenous antibiotics and fluid administration
Renal tuberculosis
Renal tuberculosis is not an uncommon condition. It is hematogenous in origin.
Pathogenesis
- The infection, once established in the kidney, tuberculous granuloma is formed.
- The granulomas are changed to ulcers and several ulcers coalesce to from an abscess.
- Healing of the inflammatory processes lead to extensive fibrosis and then to Tb
pyonephroses.
- The ultimate result is calcified or cement kidney.
Clinical feature
• painful micturition
• Minimal flank pain
226
• Bloody urine
• urinary frequency
Investigation
Sterile urine ( routine culture is negative)
Plain film of the abdomen shows calcified lesion (pseudo calculi)
IVU shows loss of outline of renal papilla, hydronephrosis , and abscess
Chest X-ray may show lung lesions
Treatment
Anti-Tb chemotherapy administration
Reconstructive surgery
Renal Stone Disease (Nephrolithiasis)

Renal stone disease is common in areas where the temperature is hot, and people are likely
to be dehydrated. Etiology of stone formation in the urinary tract is not very clear. Proposed
etiologies include:-
Urinary stasis
Infections
Lack of inhibitors
Types of renal calculi
Calcium oxalate Triple phosphate Urate stone Cystine stone

- They are irregular - Formed by ammonium - Multiple - congenital error
with sharp projection magnesium and calcium - hard, smooth of metabolism
- Radio opaque phosphate (struvite) - Radiolucent - cystinuria
- Cause bleeding - Grows in infected alkaline - Contain sulfur
(hematuria) urine - Radio-opaque
- Tends to be very large (stag
horn)
- Dirty, radio opaque
Clinical feature
- Symptoms are variable
- Silent calculi, may cause no symptoms but progressive destruction of the renal
parenchyma
- Bilateral stones may cause uremia before dilatation
- Pain(75%) located in the renal angle
227
- Stone in the ureter manifests with severe pain radiating from loin to groin, attacks may
not last longer than 8 hours
- Hematuria
- No tenderness, rebound tenderness or guarding
- Pyuria if complicated with infection
- Septicemia and urosepsis
Diagnosis and diagnostic modalities

Urinalysis: - Presence of RBC, Pus cells, calcium oxalate
Radiology: - KUB opacity in the UT projection
IVU- establish presence of stone
Ultrasonography: - - locates stone in the kidney
- detects hydronephrosis
N.B- all opacities are not necessarily kidney stones.
Differential diagnoses of opacity in X-ray film are: - calcified mesenteric lymph node
- Gall stones or concretion in appendix
- Phlebolith or any calcified lesion
Treatment:
Most small ureteric stones and non-obstructive kidney stones can be managed
conservatively by treating the pain and any underlying infection with analgesics and
antibiotics and then expecting the stone to be washed out by the urine and following the
patient taking a follow up x-ray. Big stones, obstructing the urine outflow, and failure of
expectant treatment are the indication for the following.
Open surgery (nephrolithotomy , pyelolithotomy or ureterolihotomy)
Minimal access and non invasive techniques/percutaneous nephrolithotomy, extra
corporal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL)
Renal Tumors
Renal tumors are not common. Renal malignancy is in fact a very rare tumor. Benign tumors
of the kidney vary greatly, and have little significance most of the time.
Malignant Renal Tumors

Wilms tumor : it occurs in children
Renal Cell Carcinoma /hypernephroma, Grawitz tumor/
Clinical Feature of Renal cell carcinoma

relatively rare tumor , occurs in adults
Most frequent findings are pain or hematuria alone
228
Symptoms of metastatic disease occur more frequently such as varicolele and
Hypertension
Diagnosis
• Ultrasonography shows space occupying lesion
• IVU shows space occupying lesion with destroyed and deformed pelvi-calyceal
system
• computer tomography
Treatment
The treatment depends entirely on surgical excision. It is not sensitive to radiotherapy and
chemotherapy.
Renal injuries
Renal injuries are relatively uncommon injuries partly due to the inaccessible location of the
kidneys in the retroperitoneum. Injuries to ureters are extremely rare in traumas; however
ureteric injuries are fairly common in endoscopic ureteric procedures.
Renal injuries can be divided as mild, moderate severe or first, second and third degree
renal injuries respectively.
First degree renal injury is an injury limited to the kidney parenchyma resulting in only
subcapsular hematoma, hematuria may not be there.
Second-degree renal injury is said to happen when the injury involved the pelvicalyceal
system but not the renal major vessels, hematuria is evident
Third degree renal injury is characterized by renal artery or renal vein involvement
Clinical features
Hematuria: - the most important symptom in renal injuries, extent and duration of
hematuria determines the severity
Pain in the flank area and hypochondrium
Fullness, tenderness and bruises in the flanks may be detected
Hypotension and shock in third degree injuries are seen
Treatment
Conservative: - first degree and some second degree renal injuries replacement of
fluid and blood transfusion if needed catheterization and follow up
Surgery: - severe forms of renal injury
229
Urinary Bladder
Bladder Injuries
The bladder is one of the visceral organs that are commonly involved in either blunt or
penetrating injuries. Bladder rupture can be either intra peritoneal where urine peritonitis
occurs and needs laparotomy and closure , While extra peritoneal rupture can be managed
conservatively by passing an indwelling catheter.
Bladder outlet obstruction

This is the commonest presentation of all urologic problems and quite diverse disorders
produce bladder outlet obstruction. The following table describes some of the long list of
causes.
Males Females
-BPH - Retroverted gravid uterus
-Urethral stricture - Multiple sclerosis
-Prostatitis - Hysteria
- Rupture of Urethra - Neurogenic bladder
- Meatal ulcer - Certain drugs
- Phimosis
- Neurogenic bladder
Treatment
Acute urinary retention in most cases is relieved by passing a fine urethral catheter. If the
cause is urethral stricture, suprapubic cystostomy is done to relieve the acute retention.
Bladder Stones
Stones are also formed in the bladder, and if stone is formed without any predisposing factor
it is called primary vesical calculus. Whereas, a stone formed in the presence of distal
obstruction or foreign body acting as a nidus, is called secondary vesical calculus.
Clinical Feature
- Males are more effected than females
- Pain characteristically occurs at the end of micturition
- The pain is referred at the end of the penis or labia majora
- In young boys, screaming and pulling of the penis with hand at the end of micturition
- Interruption of urinary stream and changing of body position to resume micturition.
Diagnosis
Radio opaque stone or filling defect in X-ray film
230
Treatment
Cystolithotomy (Open surgical removal)
Bladder Cancer
Bladder tumor is common in people exposed to chemical carcinogens. Occupational

exposure to chemicals such as dye factory workers and cigarette smoking are considered to
be strongly associated with bladder cancer. More than 80% of bladder cancer is transitional
cell origin and only 25% of the tumors are muscle invasive.
Superficial bladder cancers are typically exophytic growth or papillary tumors. They account
for 70% of the cases. Treatment is endoscopic resection and recurrence afterwards is
common. Cystoscopic check up is necessary at regular intervals.
Muscle invasive transitional cell Carcinoma is solid tumor, large based and possesses
potential of distant metastasis to the lungs, bones and liver.
Clinical feature
Urinary retention from blood clot
Pain, deep in the pelvis, indicating spread out of bladder territory
Painless hematuria
Recurrent UTI
Investigation
Urine for white cell and RBC
Blood BUN, Creatinine
IVU shows filling defect, irregular out line of the bladder wall and hydronephrosis
Cystoscopy
Treatment
Non- invasive tumors are treated with transurethral resection and followed with check
cystoscopies.
Intravesical chemotherapy and
BCG is also effective in prevention of recurrence.
Invasive tumors are very aggressive. Possible treatment is radical surgery, removing
the bladder and lymph nodes around it, then urinary diversion.
Benign prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH)
Surgical Anatomy
These are three zones in the prostate gland
- Peripheral zone: mainly the posterior aspect of the gland
231
- Central zone: the gland posterior to urethral lumen above the ejaculation duct.
- Periurethral zone: this part is on which most of benign enlargement of the prostate
arises.
Benign prostatic Hyperplasia starts in the periurethral zone and as it increases in size it
compresses the outer peripheral zone. This zone finally becomes the false capsule. The
gland is acted upon by testosterone, male hormone, incriminated to cause the enlargement.
Clinical Feature
- acute urinary obstruction
- Symptoms of prostatism (frequency , dysuria, urgency, dribbling, hesitancy)
- Chronic retention, overflow incontinence, and renal insufficiency.
Investigation and assessments

- Digital rectal examination
- Serum PSA(Prostatic specific antigen)
- Ultrasonography and IVU
- Cystoscopy
- Transrectal Ultrasonography
Management of BPH:-
- If associated with BOO Pass a catheter and allow drainage, then prostatectomy.
- In cases only with symptoms of prostatism, other conservative measures can be
tried.
Prostatic carcinoma
Prostatic cancer is most common malignant tumor in men over the age of 65 years.
Clinical Feature
Advanced disease gives rise to symptoms including
- Bladder out let obstruction
- Pelvic pain and hematuria
- Bone pain , renal failure
Diagnosis and assessment

- Rectal examination – stony hard gland with obliteration of the median sulcus.
- Blood tests- Hgb, PSA level, Liver function test, BUN and creatinine.
- PSA level> 10nl is suggestive > 30nl is diagnostic
N.B: PSA level is not specific. It can be affected by other conditions as BPH, UTI, etc.
232
Treatment
Based on the stages of the disease and the life expectancy of the patient, treatment is
selected. The modalities available are:
o Surgery
o Radiotherapy
o Hormonal therapy, e.g. Bilateral orchidectomy
The urethra and penis
The urethra
Congenital abnormalities
Meatal stenosis
This is a condition which usually follows fibrosis after circumcision and if left untreated leads
to chronic retention then chronic renal failure
Clinical Feature
Spraying and dribbling in lesser degree of stenosis
Urinary retention
Treatment
Meatotomy/meatoplasty (Plastic reconstruction of the meatus)
Congenital valves of the posterior urethra

This is a condition with presence of symmetrical of valves. It can cause obstruction to the
urethra of boys and is not visualized on urethroscope. Voiding urethrocystogram (VCUG) is
diagnostic
Treatment
Treatment is by initial decompression by catheterization followed by transurethral
resection of the valves.
Hypospadias
This is the most common congenital malformation where meatus open onto the under side of
the penis, perineum or prepuce. It has associated deformity called chordee (fibrous cord
deforms the penis).
Treatment
Surgical repair
Urethral Injuries
There are two types
• Rupture of the membranous urethra
233
• Rupture of the bulbar urethra: blow to the perineum is the mechanism of injury
Clinical Features
- Retention of urine
- Perineal hematoma
- Bleeding from the external meatus
Treatment
- No attempts to catheterize should be made before urethroscopy or urethrography
- Suprapubic catheter insertion then surgery (urethroplasty) after 3 months.
Rupture of the membranous urethra: most commonly due to pelvic fracture or can also be
due to penetrating injuries.
- Road traffic accidents, severe crush injuries and falls all can cause this injury
- Pain, bruising and dullness to percussion above the umbilicus
Treatment
Initial suprapubic catheter can be put to relieve urinary obstruction followed by
urethroplasty
Complication
Urethral stricture
Urinary incontinence
Urethral Stricture
Causes
- Traumatic Road traffic accident, falls, penetrating injuries
- Inflammatory Gonococcus, Mycobacterium tuberculosis
- Latrogenic Catheterization, instrumentation
Clinical Features
Bladder outlet obstruction, younger age than the prostate Patients
Diagnosis
Urethroscopy
Urethrography
Treatment
Dilation with elastic or metallic boogie
Urethrotomy , internal visual incision of stricture
Urethroplasty, Excision and end to end anastomosis, patch urethroplasty
234
The Penis
Phymosis: Is an adhesion of the foreskin. It can be congenital or post-circumcision and
results in urinary retention.
Treatment: is circumcision
Paraphymosis: Is a condition in which tight foreskin is retracted and causes constriction to

the penis.
Treatment is dorsal incision over the constricting ring.
The Testis and Scrotum
The Testis
Incomplete Descent
This is a condition in which the testis is arrested in some part of its path to the scrotum.
Ectopic testis
Is abnormally placed outside its path, e.g. perineum. The testis located out of the scrotum is
usually atrophic, grossly immature. If not treated early irreversible destruction will occur.
Clinical Features
- Right side in 50% of the cases
- Left 30%,
- bilateral in 20%
The position of the undescended testis is intra abdominal or inguinal canal or in the
superficial inguinal pouch.
Hazards
The risks of incomplete descent of the testes include
- Sterility in bilateral cases
- Pain due to trauma
- Associated inguinal hernia
- Torsion
- Epididymo-orchitis
- Atrophy
- Increased liability to malignant diseases
Treatment: Orchidopexy
Testicular Torsion
Torsion of the spermatic cord may cause ischemia and necrosis of the testis
235
Predisposing conditions
- Inversion of the testis (rotated testes, upside down, or transverse lie)
- High investment of the tunica vaginalis (clapper-bell deformity)
- Separation of epididymis from the body of testis
Clinical Features
Most common between 10-25 years of age. It presents with sudden agonizing pain in the
groin and the lower abdomen. Vomiting is also common
Treatment
emergency exploration is mandatory
orchidectomy if necrotic testis is found, orchidopexy if viable
orchiopexy is advised on the unaffected side
Hydrocele
Hydrocele is an abnormal collection of serous fluid in the tunica. Types include:-
Primary
Secondary
Etiology: - excessive production and defective absorption
Treatment: - Hydrocelectomy
Malignant tumors of the Testis
1-2% of all malignant tumors are Testicular Carcinoma. Malignant tumors of the testis are
common in young male adults. Mal descent predisposes to malignancy.
Classification
Tumors are classified based on Histologic predominant cells
- Seminoma (40%)
- Teratoma (32%)
- Combined seminoma and teratoma (14%)
- Lymphoma (7%)
- Other (7%)
Seminoma
- Occurs in age range between 35-45 years
- Extremely rare in children before puberty
- Tumor compresses the neighboring structure as it grows
- In rapidly growing tumors there may be areas of necrosis
- Spread is via the lymphatics, blood born is rare.
236
Teratomas
Teratomas arise from Totipotent cells, contain variety of cell types. They occur in relatively
younger patients compared to seminomas.
Clinical features: - Testicular tumors may be asymptomatic for several months except lump
in the testis
- Sensation of heaviness
- Pain in one - third of the cases
- On examination, the testis is enlarged, smooth, firm, and heavy.
- Testicular sensation is lost.
- Secondary Hydrocele in 10%
Diagnosis
- Blood for tumor markers such as HCG, Alpha FP
- CXR for secondary deposit
Treatment
Orchidectomy: removes primary tumor
Seminoma: - Radiotherapy after orchidectomy
Chemotherapy
Teratomas: - Chemotherapy is the treatment of choice
Follow up by serum tumor markers
Prognosis
Excellent
Seminoma, 95% 5 years survival
Teratoma, 85% 5 year survival
237
Review Questions
1. Outline the important steps of investigating a patient with right flank mass and hematuria.
2. Discuss the management of a 13 year-old patient with intermittent urinary retention and
initial hematuria.
3. Outline common causes of acute urinary retention and indicate the recommended
treatment.
4. Describe the clinical feature and treatment of benign hyperplasia.
5. List common problems associated with painful, sudden swelling of the scrotum.
6. A 40 year-old male presented with difficulty in urination of 1 year duration. How do you
work him up? (Start from clinical evaluation)
238
References
1. General Surgery at the district hospital WHO 1998.
2. Bailey and Loves, short practice of surgery, 1995, 22nd edition
239

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LECTURE NOTES

For Health Officers

Mensur Osman, Zeki Abdurahman, Gashaw Messele,

Debub University, Haramaya University,

Tap on the book for download

Chapter One: Shock............................................................................................................. 1

Chapter Two: Fluid and Electolytes ..................................................................................... 5

Chapter Three: Blood Transfusion ....................................................................................... 17

Chapter Four: Pre-Operative and Post-Operative Care ...................................................... 23

Chapter Five: Aseptic and Antisepic Techniques ................................................................ 36

Chapter Six: Suture Materials and Suturing......................................................................... 43

Chapter Eight: Surgical Infections ........................................................................................ 61

Chapter Nine: Trauma.......................................................................................................... 77

Head and Spinal Injuries ............................................................................ 86

Chapter Ten: Orthopedic Surgery ........................................................................................ 94

Chapter Eleven: Anesthesia................................................................................................. 107

Chapter One: The Thyroid Gland ......................................................................................... 126

Chapter Two: The Breast ..................................................................................................... 134

Chapter Three: The Chest ................................................................................................... 142

Chapter Four: Gastrointestinal Tract.................................................................................... 158

Acute Abdomen........................................................................................... 176

Abdominal Wall Hernias ............................................................................. 198

Stomach and Duodenum ............................................................................ 206

DYSPHAGIA ............................................................................................. 214

Chapter Five: Urology .......................................................................................................... 220

• State the clinical definition of shock

Hypovolemic shock is present when marked reduction in oxygen delivery

Cardiogenic shock is present when there is severe reduction in oxygen delivery

Septic Shock (vasogenic shock) develops as a result of the systemic effect of

Neurogenic shock results primarily from the disruption of the sympathetic

PATHO PHYSIOLOGY OF SHOCK

Estimated blood loss 750-1500ml 1500ml-2000ml >2000 ml

Blood pressure Normal Reduced Severely Reduced

• The anatomy and physiology of body fluids and electrolytes

Equivalents or milliequivalents: number of electric charges per unit volume.

A mole of a substance is the molecular weight of that substance in grams. An equivalent of

NORMAL DISTRIBUTION OF BODY FLUIDS

Total body water

Total body water is further divided into two:

N.B. Physiologically all compartments of body water are interdependent.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF BODY FLUID COMPARTMENTS

CATIONS ANIONS CATIONS ANIONS CATIONS ANIONS

Plasma Intracellular fluid Interstitial fluid

AVERAGE DAILY WATER EXCHANGE

Out put Urine: 1500 ml

N.B: A minimum urinary output of approximately 400 ml in 24 hours is required to excrete

Ions Carbohydrate Used for replacement of

Physiologic saline 154 154 0 0 Blood/ extra cellular fluid loss

DISTURBANCES OF FLUID AND ELECTROLYTES

Disturbances in body fluids can be classified into three:

DISTURBANCE IN FLUID VOLUME

Rate of fluid replacement

Sodium depletion (Hyponatremia): Na+ less than 130 milliequivalent/liter

Sodium Excess (Hypernatremia): Na+ more than 145 mmol

Potassium depletion (Hypokalemia): K + less than 3.5 millimol

Potassium Excess (Hyperkalemia): K + more than 5 mmol

Hypocalcaemia (serum level below 8mg/dl)

Hypercalcaemia (serum calcium over10.5mg/dl)

ACID – BASE BALABCE

Alkalosis (accumulation of Base or loss of acid)

Stop transfusion immediately

Plain x-ray-generalized dilatation and gaseous distention of the bowel loops

Fever during the 4th to 5th day