PHINMA Education

Syllabus
Subject Code: ENG 018 Credit: 3 Units
Subject Title: Introduction to Linguistics Prerequisite: GEN 001

I. Course Description
This course offers a broad overview of language and the social and psychological phenomena
associated with its use. It aims to identify elements that are shared by all languages, as well as the
range of devices and strategies that different languages use to perform the same function.
In addition, this will examine the definitional characteristics of language and general aspects of its
structure and organization. Lastly, it delves into issues related to the use of language, including how
language users construct conversations, why and how languages develop dialects, how language is
learned, as well as uses and motivations of language choice.

II. Course Learning Outcomes

At the end of the semester, the students will be able to:
a. explain the main properties of human languages;
b. equip a solid foundation of the elements of a language;
c. appropriately use the linguistic terminology for describing and analyzing language and linguistic
phenomena;
d. analyze language-related phenomena using the terminology and theories they have studied in the
class; and,
e. apply basic knowledge and procedures in linguistic analysis and solve basic linguistic problems.

III. Subject Outline and Time Allotment

Day Lesson Activity/Topic In/Out
1 Introduction of Flexi-Module Learning and Course Orientation In
2 1 Defining Linguistics and Language; Elements of Language, Characteristics of In
Language
3 2 The Sounds of Language: Phonetics, Voiced and Voiceless Sounds Out
4 3 The Sounds of Language: Places and Manner of Articulation Out
5 4 The Sound Pattern of Language: Phonology; Phonemes; Phones and In
Allophones; Minimal Pairs and Set
6 5 The Sound Pattern of Language: Syllables and Cluster; Co- articulation In
Effects; Assimilation; Elision; Normal Speech
7 6 Out
8 7 Words and Word Formation Processes Out
9 1st Periodical Examination In
10 8 Morphology: Free and Bound Morphemes; Lexical and Functional In
Morphemes; Derivational and Inflectional Morphemes; Morphs and
Allomorphes
11 9 Phrases and Sentences: Grammar Out
12 10 Prescriptive Approach and Descriptive Approach Out
13 11 Long Quiz In
14 12 Syntax: Tree Diagrams; Phrase Structure Rules; Lexical Rules Back to In
Recursion; Phrase Structure Rules, Compliment Phrases; Transformational
Rules
15 13 Semantics: Conceptual and Associative Meaning; Semantic Features; Out
Semantic Roles; Agent and Theme; Instrument and Experiencer; Location;
Source and Goal
16 14 Lexical Relations; Synonymy; Antonymy; Hyponymy; Prototypes; Out
Homophones and Homonyms; Polysemy; Word Play; Metonymy; Collocation
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 17 2nd Periodical Examination In
18 15 Pragmatics: Invisible Meaning; Context; Deixis; Reference; Inference; In
Anaphora; Presupposition; Speech Acts; Direct and Indirect Speech Acts;
Politeness; Negative and Positive Face
19 16 Discourse Analysis: Interpreting Discourse; Cohesion; Coherence; Speech Out
Events; Conversation Analysis; Turn-Taking
20 17 Discourse Analysis: The Co-operative Principle; Hedges; Implicatures; Out
Background Knowledge; Schemas and Study Scripts
21 18 Long Quiz In
22 19 Neurolinguistics: Parts of the Brain; Broca’s and Wernicke’s Area; The In
Localization View; Tip of the Tongue and Slip of the Tongue Phenomenon;
Slips of the Ear
23 20 Aphasia; Broca’s Aphasia; Wernicke’s Aphasia; Conduction Aphasia; Dichotic Out
Listening; The Critical Period
24 21 Theories on the Origin of Language Out
25 3rd Periodical Examination In
26 Special Examination In

IV. Textbooks
✔ Yule, George (2006).The Study of Language. Cambridge University Press. The Edinburgh
Building Cambridge
✔ Bauer, L. (2007). The Linguistics Student's Handbook. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

V. Course Requirements
1. Periodical Examinations
2. Completed FLM activities/ Portfolio

VI. Grading System

Class Standing (CS) ( 40%) + Periodical Exam (PE) (60%) = Periodical Grade (PG)
Class Standing = Quizzes (20%) + Performance Task (20%) = 40%
The Final Grade is computed as follows:

FG = (0.33 x P1) + (0.33 x P2) + (0.34 X P3)

VII. Contact Information

Teacher:
Email Address:

Approved by:
___________________________ Date Approved: ____________________
Dean, College of Education

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #1 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson title: Introduction of Flexi-Module Learning and Course Materials:

Orientation SAS
Learning Targets:
At the end of the module, students will be able to: References:
1. be equip with the nature of flexible learning and its relevance https://webapp4.asu.edu/bookstore
to the current education set-up; and, /viewsyllabus/2171/26700
2. familiarize with the course syllabus, course requirements, https://tophat.com/glossary/f/flexibl
grading system, and other concerns. e-learning/

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction

Ladies and Gents, welcome to ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics!

This course offers a broad overview of language and the social and psychological phenomena
associated with its use. It aims to identify elements that are shared by all languages, as well as the range
of devices and strategies that different languages use to perform the same function.
In addition, this will examine the definitional characteristics of language and general aspects of its
structure and organization. Lastly, it delves into issues related to the use of language, including how
language users construct conversations, why and how languages develop dialects, how language is
learned, as well as uses and motivations of language choice.

In this module, you will be oriented with how our class will be facilitated through flexible learning.
You will also know the specific topics that will be covered under this course and the requirements that
you need to comply. The grading system and other class rules will also be discussed.

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #1 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

B.MAIN LESSON

I. Content and Skill-building

Read carefully the content notes and try to highlight or underline the key terms for greater level
of understanding.

Flexible learning is a method of learning where students are given freedom in how, what,
when and where they learn. Flexible learning environments address how physical space is used,
how students are grouped during learning and how time is used throughout teaching. It also refers
to the ability to customize one’s pace, place and mode of learning. In the context of PHINMA
Education Flexi-learning, classes will be done through a blend of face-to-face classes and home-
based learning. Students will have four days of face-to-face classes and 10 days to learn at home.

Students will use Flexible Learning Materials, which are divided, into three parts.
1. Lesson Preview/ Review (5 minutes)
2. Main Lesson (35 minutes)
3. Lesson Wrap-up (5 minutes)
Students will accomplish tasks at home for the next 10 days

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #1 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

Things That You Should Know!

1. Students are expected to abide by the school policies as mentioned in the PHINMA UI Handout.
Please refer to your student handouts.
2. Safety protocols will be strictly implemented. Students are expected to always wear face masks
inside the classroom and are suggested to sanitize as frequently as possible. For non-
compliance, the faculty-in-charge may opt to ask the student to leave the classroom.
3. Attendance will be checked during scheduled face-to-face classes. As part of additional
instructions and learning interactions, the faculty-in-charge may set class consultation
schedules while in 10-day home-study. Attendance will be checked likewise. In case of absence
in either face-to-face or digital consultations, the student is expected to inform the teacher with
an official letter (printed or electronic copy) and attachment of proof of absence (if there is any).
4. For off-school consultations, this course will utilize ZOOM app/ park their concerns via class
official group chat. For students with no smartphones, make sure to have an active mobile
phone number for your teacher to be able to reach you even off-campus.
5. To lessen physical interactions in class, requirements are expected to be submitted using
official UI email addresses or as instructed by the faculty-in-charge. For hardcopy submissions,
students must prepare their clear envelope with their names (last name, first name) and section
indicated on the top right corner of the envelope.
6. Refer to your syllabus for the topics covered in this course, grading system, and other academic
requirements

In your student activity sheet, complete this five-item true/false test. Write COCO if the statement
is correct and VIVID if otherwise. Indicate your answer on the space provided before each item. After
which, check your answers against the Key to Corrections found at the end of this SAS. Write your score
on your paper. Break a leg!

____________1. 4-10 Class scheme means that students will be learning in school for 4 day and
learning at home for ten days.
____________2. PHINMA Ed students and teachers will be using the Flexi-learning materials either
inside or outside the school premises.
____________3. Flexible learning is a method of learning where students are given freedom in how,
what, when and where they learn.
____________ 4. While learning at home, students will maximize the advent of technology for online
classes.

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #1 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

____________ 5. Students will not be allowed to enter the school premises during their 10-day off-
campus schedule.

II. Check for Understanding

Now that you are done with our lesson, let us check if you have fully understood our contents for
today. Identify the concept being discussed in each statement. Write your answers on the space provided
before each number. Once you complete the task; check your answers against the Key to Corrections
found at the end of this SAS. Write your score in your paper.

______________1. PHINMA Education will implement a 4-____ set-up for Academic Year 2020-2021.
______________2. The ability to customize the pace, place, and mode of learning depending on the
situation of the students.
______________3. It is the part of the FLM, which gives the students an overview of the topic for the
day, and a preview of what was tackled in the previous module.
______________4. The part of the FLM that checks the progress of the students.
______________5. Under the new set-up, how many days students will have the opportunity to work
on their modules?

C. LESSON WRAP-UP

FAQs

Food for Thought!

If you have questions that you cannot ask to your teacher, this may help you clarify things out.

1. During off-campus schedules, will the faculty-in-charge reach us for online classes?

Your professor will reach out to you for off-campus consultations but not merely via online platforms. It
is highly suggested that you disclose your active contact details so that your teacher may have more
options to reach you. Please write your contact information below.
_________________________________________________________________________________

2. In case of online consultations, can I use my other email addresses?

For security reasons, you are required to use your PHINMA UI email for all your academic transactions.
This will secure all our files in class and will reduce privacy breaches.

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #1 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

THINKING ABOUT LEARNING

Congratulations for finishing this module! Shade the number of the module that you finished.

Great Job! Did you finish all parts of the module? Do you have any questions you may want to ask to
clarify the topic? You may write any question to further help you learn and your teacher will get to you
on the answers.

1. What part of the lesson seems difficult for you to understand?

____________________________________________________________________________

2. Is there a question you would like to ask your teacher about the lesson?
____________________________________________________________________________

KEY TO CORRECTIONS

Answers on Content and Skill-building

1. COCO
2. COCO
3. COCO
4. VIVID
5. COCO

Answer on Check for Understanding Activity

1. 10
2. Flexible Learning
3. Lesson Preview/Review
4. Lesson Wrap-up
5. 10

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #2 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson title: Defining Linguistics: Its Elements and Materials:

Characteristics SAS
Learning Targets:
At the end of the module, students will be able to: References:
1. differentiate language to Linguistics; and Yule, George (2006).The Study of
2. identify the different elements and characteristics of a Langauge.
language. Bauer, L. (2007). The Linguistics
Student's Handbook.

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction

What comes into your mind when you hear the word linguistics? What about language? What do you
think are the elements and its characteristics? You will encounter these questions as you enter the world of
language. I know that you are excited to search and unlock for the answers, but take a deep breath, relax, and
learn.

B.MAIN LESSON

I. Content and Skill-building

Read carefully the content notes and try to highlight or underline the key terms for greater level
of understanding.

Linguistics deals with the scientific study of language. It

aims to understand how the language faculty of the mind works
and to describe how language itself works. It involves the analysis
of language form, language meaning, and language in context. In
addition, it applies the scientific method to conduct formal studies
of speech sounds, grammatical structures, and meaning across
the world.

On the other hand, language means is foremost a means

of communication, and communication usually takes place within
some sort of social context. This is why effective communication
requires an understanding and recognition of the connections
between a language and the people who use it.

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #2 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

What are the elements of language?

Linguistics spans a large number of subfields, each dealing with a

different part of the language faculty. This lesson will introduce you to
the elements of language and its definition. Comprehensive
discussions of such will be on the next lesson of this module. To wit;
1. Phonetics deals with the sounds of spoken language;
how they are made, classified and combined and how
they are perceived.
2. Phonology deals with speech sounds. If phonetics
deals with speech sounds, this one deals with the
system and pattern of sounds.
3. Morphology deals with the internal structure of words,
not in sounds but with its formation.
4. Syntax is concerned with the ways in which words are
organized into sentences and to be understood.
5. Semantics deals with the meaning of language. It
could be the connotative or denotative meaning of a
language.
6. Pragmatics deals with the ways meaning of an
utterance may be influenced by the speaker or hearer
to interpret within the context.

What then are the characteristics of a language?

1. Language is arbitrary
Language is undoubtedly arbitrary as there is no inherent connection between the nature of things or concepts
the language deals with, however by which those things and concepts are expressed. The decision of a word
chosen to mean a specific thing or thought is absolutely subjective, however, once a word is chosen for a specific
referent, it comes to remain in that capacity. It might be noticed that had language not been arbitrary, there would

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #2 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

have been just a single language on the planet.

2. Language is a social Phenomenon

In a sense, language should be considered as a social phenomenon. Language is social that exists in our human
society; it is a means of nourishing and developing culture and establishing human relations. As a member of a
particular social group, we human beings interact with each other, which allows us to identify with one another,
to connect with one another and to coordinate with one another. This is how language is the part and parcel of
our society.

3. Language is a symbolic system

Language signifies a symbolic system. It consists of different types of sound symbols and their graphological
partners that are utilized to give a few objects, occurrences or significance. These symbols are discretionarily
picked and routinely acknowledged and utilized. The words in a language are not just patterns or images but
symbols that denote meaning. The language uses words essentially as symbols and not as signs for the concept
represented by them. The core value of a language sometimes relies on the true explanation of these symbols.

4. Language is systematic
In spite of the fact that language is symbolic, its symbols are arranged in specific systems. All languages have
their arrangement of plans. Each language is an arrangement of systems. Furthermore, all languages have
phonological and syntactic systems and within a system, there are several subsystems. For instance, inside the
linguistic system, we have the morphological and syntactic system, and inside these two subsystems, we have
systems, for example, those of plural, of mindset, or perspective, of tense, etc.

5. Language is vocal, verbal and sound

Language is a system of vocal and verbal symbolism. It essentially comprises vocal sounds just created by a
physiological articulatory component in the human body. First, it shows up as vocal sounds only. Language takes
verbal elements such as sounds, words and phrases, which are fixed up in certain ways to make several
sentences. Language is vocal and sound which different speech organs produce. Writing can be considered as
an intelligent platform to represent vocal sounds. It is the graphic representation of the speech sounds of the
language.

6. Language is non-instinctive, conventional

No language was made in a multi-day out of a commonly settled upon the recipe by a gathering of people.
Language is the result of advancement and tradition. Every age transmits this tradition on to the following. Like
every single human organization, languages may also change and pass on, develop and extend. Each language
has a circulation in a particular community around the globe. However, we can consider language as non-
instinctive because naturally it is acquired by us.

7. Language is productive and creative

Language has efficiency and innovativeness. The auxiliary components of human language joined to create new
expressions, which neither the speaker nor his/her listeners may ever have made or heard previously. Truly, the
two sides comprehend without trouble. Language changes as indicated by the necessities of society. After all,
language has the power of productivity and creativity.

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #2 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

8. Language is a system of communication

Language is strong, convenient and the best form of communication. It is the best way to express everything. It
is through language that we humans express our thoughts, desires, emotions and feelings. Further, we can
interact with each other easily through the welfare of language. After all, we may say that language is the best
system of communication around the world.

9. Language is human and structurally complex

Human language is open-minded, extendable and modifiable on the other hand animal language is not.
Language should be modifiable through time to time. No species other than humans have been endowed with
language. So we can say that language is naturally human and in some cases, structurally complex and
modifiable.

10. Language is unique, complex and modifiable

Language is a unique phenomenon in the world. It has its own creativity and productivity. Despite their common
features and language universals, each language has its peculiarities and distinctive features. Moreover, this is
how language has its own potentiality to be unique, complex and modifiable by the change of time and culture.

Since you are done with all the topics, it's time you do this. Read and answer the five item multiple-
choice exercise below. Indicate your answer on the space provided before each item. After which, check your
answers against the Key to Corrections found at the end of this SAS. Write your score on your paper.

1. Bruce has a very advanced sense of what is socially appropriate. He always knows what to say in
every social context. He has which kind of linguistic competence?
a. Phonemic
b. Semantic
c. Syntactic
d. Pragmatic
2. Bruce's grammar is quite poor. He lacks which kind of competence?
a. Phonemic
b. Semantic
c. Syntactic
d. Pragmatic
3. Which statement is true about language?
a. a broad term simply referring to human patterned verbal behavior in general
b. a set of specific rules for generating speech
c. another word for a dialect.
d. it refers to once vocabulary
4. Which term is assigned to rules of language concerning how to use language effectively in context?
a. Morphology
b. Pragmatics
c. Phonology
d. Syntax

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #2 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

5. Which of these terms refers to the study of speech sounds of a given language and their function within
the sound system of that language?
a. Phonetics
b. Phonology
c. Syntax
d. Morphology

II. Check for Understanding

Now that you are done with our lesson, let us check if you have fully understood our contents for today.
Identify the concept being discussed in each statement. Write your answers on the spaces provided before
each number. One you complete the task; check your answers against the Key to Corrections found at the
end of this SAS. Write your score on your paper.

________________1. It is a scientific study of a language.

________________2. Which characteristics of a language deals with its uncertainty if where did it
came from?
________________3. Which characteristics of language refers to its openness, flexibility and
modifiable on the other hand animal language is not.
________________4. It is a means of our daily interactions and for us to understand each other.
________________5. Which subfield of language deals with the arrangement of words in a sentence?

C. LESSON WRAP-UP

FAQs

Food for Thought!

If you have questions that you cannot ask to your teacher, this may help you clarify things out.

1. Can we live without a language?

Language is one of the things that set us humans apart from other living beings. Without language, we humans
could not accomplish the feats of communication that we do in everyday speaking.

2. Why is it important to study language?

Many reasons why we need to study language. Language affects the daily lives of members of any race, creed,
and region of the world. Language helps express our feelings, desires, and queries to the world around us.
Moreover, most importantly, it helps us to communicate.

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #2 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

THINKING ABOUT LEARNING

Congratulations for finishing this module! Shade the number of the module that you finished.

Great Job! Did you finish all parts of the module? Do you have any questions you may want to ask to
clarify the topic? You may write any question to further help you learn and your teacher will get to you
on the answers.

1. What part of the lesson seems difficult for you to understand?

____________________________________________________________________________

2. Is there a question you would like to ask your teacher about the lesson?
____________________________________________________________________________

KEY TO CORRECTIONS

Answers on Content and Skill-building

1. D
2. C
3. B
4. B
5. A

Answer on Check for Understanding Activity

1. Linguistics
2. Arbitrary
3. Human and Complex
4. Language
5. Syntax

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #3 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson title: The Sounds of Language: Phonetics, Voiced and Materials:

Voiceless Sounds SAS
Learning Targets:
At the end of the module, students will be able to: References:
1. differentiate and produce voice and voiceless sounds; and Yule, George (2006).The Study of
2. transcribe words into IPA symbols. Langauge.
Bauer, L. (2007). The Linguistics
Student's Handbook.

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction

Imagine the manager of a small restaurant, a man who

always had trouble with the spelling of unusual words, writing out a
sign, which he puts in the front of the window, advertising a new
SEAGH. You see a sign and you decide to ask what kind of a new
thing is this? When you hear the pronunciation, you usually hear it
as CHEF. So, how did he arrive with the other spelling? Well, it’s
simple, he says. Take the first sound of the word sure, the middle
sound of the word dead, and the final sound of the word laugh.

This tale reminds us that if a particular letter will not

correspond to its sound, you can have many confusions, right? This
is the reason why you need to identify the letter-sound relationship.
This is called the phonetic alphabet.

In this lesson, you will look at how these symbols are used to
represent both consonants and vowel sounds of English words and
what speech organs are used to produce speech sounds.

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #3 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

B.MAIN LESSON

I. Content and Skill-building

Read carefully the content notes and try to highlight or underline the key terms for greater level
of understanding.

Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that focuses on

the production and classification of the world’s speech
sounds. The production of speech looks at the interaction
of different vocal organs, for example the lips, tongue
and teeth, to produce particular sounds.
There are three types of the study of the sounds of
language. Acoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical
properties of sounds. Auditory Phonetics is the study of
the way listeners perceive
sounds. Articulatory Phonetics is the study of how the
vocal tracts produce the sounds, made and articulated.

The discrepancy between spelling and sounds led to

the formation of the International Phonetics Alphabet
(IPA.) These symbols might not be an alien for you because
you can see these in your dictionaries, right? The symbols
used in this alphabet can be used to represent all sounds of
all human languages. The following is the American English
Phonetic alphabet. You might want to memorize all of these
symbols. Try to produce the correct sounds using this chart.

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #3 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

Let’s try this. Another way of making sure that you produce the correct IPA sound is through phonetic
transcription. All you need to do is to write the following words to its equivalent IPA symbols. The first one is
provided for you. You can refer to the chart if needed. After which, check your answers against the Key to
Corrections found at the end of this SAS. Write your score in your paper.
Word IPA Transcription
1. meat - /mi:t/
2. get
3. pole
4. want
5.find
6.rough

II. Check for Understanding

Now that you are done with our lesson, let us check if you have fully understood our contents for today.
Identify the word being transcribed. The first item is done for you. Write your answers on the spaces after
the item. One you complete the task; check your answers against the Key to Corrections found at the end
of this SAS. Write your score on your paper.

Word IPA Transcribed Word

1. that ðæt

2. ˈdɪfɪkəlt

3. ju:

4. wɪtʃ

5. ðeəʳ

6. əˈbaʊt

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #3 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

7. ˈfoʊtoʊ

8. ʃʊd

9. ˈpi:pəl

10. ˈɔ:lsoʊ

11. bɪˈtwi:n

C. LESSON WRAP-UP

FAQs

Food for Thought!

If you have questions that you cannot ask to your teacher, this may help you clarify things out.

1. What are aspirated sounds?

In phonetics, aspiration is the strong burst either of breath that accompanies the release or, in the case of
preaspiration, the closure of some obstruents. To determine whether the sound is aspirated or not, place your
palm in front of your mouth. Do you feel a puffed air?

2. What is the difference between voiced and voiceless sounds?

Sounds with vocal cord vibration are voiced and sounds without vocal cord vibration are voiceless. Contrast the
sounds of the letters v and f. Place your fingers on your throat and make the sounds. You should feel a vibration
when you make the v sound and no vibration when you make the f sound. V is voiced and f is voiceless.

The Voiced Sounds in English are b d g j l m n ŋ(ng) r v z ð (th in the) and all vowels

The Voiceless Sounds in English are ch f h k p s sh t θ (th in think)

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #3 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

THINKING ABOUT LEARNING

Congratulations for finishing this module! Shade the number of the module that you finished.

Great Job! Did you finish all parts of the module? Do you have any questions you may want to ask to
clarify the topic? You may write any question to further help you learn and your teacher will get to you
on the answers.

1. What part of the lesson seems difficult for you to understand?

____________________________________________________________________________

2. Is there a question you would like to ask your teacher about the lesson?
____________________________________________________________________________

KEY TO CORRECTIONS

Answer on Content and Skill-building

1. meat- /mi:t/
2. get - /get/
3. pole - /pəul/
4. want - /wɔnt/
5. find- /fɑend/
6. rough- /rɐf/

Answer on Check for Understanding Activity

Word IPA Transcribed Word
1. that ðæt
2.difficult ˈdɪfɪkəlt
3.you ju:
4.which wɪtʃ
5.Their ðeəʳ
6.about əˈbaʊt
7.photo ˈfoʊtoʊ
8.should ʃʊd
9.people ˈpi:pəl
10.also ˈɔ:lsoʊ
11.between bɪˈtwi:n

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #4 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson title: The Sounds of Language: Places and Manner of Materials:

Articulation SAS
Learning Targets:
At the end of the module, students will be able to: References:
1. determine the places and manner of articulation; and Yule, George (2006).The Study of
2. chart the different vowel and consonant sound according to Language.
its place and manner of articulation. Bauer, L. (2007). The Linguistics
Student's Handbook.

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction

What comes into your mind when you hear the

word articulation? Why is it important to know
and produce correct vowel and consonant
sounds? How do we produce these sounds
correctly?

In phonetics, articulation is a configuration of the

vocal tract resulting from the positioning of the
mobile organs of the vocal tract to other parts of
the vocal tract that may be rigid. Simply,
articulation is the process of producing sounds
correctly.

In this lesson, you will learn about the different

speech organs, the manner and the places of
articulation.

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Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

B.MAIN LESSON

I. Content and Skill-building

Read carefully the content notes and try to highlight or underline the key terms for greater level
of understanding.

As you follow along, be sure to say the sounds and example English words out loud so that you can feel the
places of articulation in your own mouth.

1. Bilabial
Bilabial consonants occur when you block/constrict airflow out of the mouth by bringing your lips together. English
contains the following three bilabial consonants:

▪ /p/ as in “purse” and “rap“

▪ /b/ as in “back” and “cab“
▪ /m/ as in “mad” and “clam“
2. Labio-Dental
Labio-dental consonants occur when you block/constrict airflow by curling your lower lip back and raising it to
touch your upper row of teeth. English contains the following two labio-dental sounds:

▪ /f/ as in “fro” and “calf“

▪ /v/ as in “vine” and “have”
3. Dental
Dental consonants occur when you block/constrict airflow by placing your slimy tongue against your upper teeth.
English contains the following two labio-dental sounds:
▪ /θ/ as is “thick” and “bath“
▪ /ð/ as in “the” and “rather”
4. Alveolar
The alveolar ridge is where your teeth meet your gums.
You create Alveolar consonants when you raise your tongue to the alveolar ridge to block or constrict airflow.
The English alveolar consonants are as follows:

▪ /n/ as in “no” and “man“

▪ /t/ as in “tab” and “rat“
▪ /d/ as in “dip” and “bad“
▪ /s/ as in “suit” and “bus“
▪ /z/ as in “zit” and “jazz“
▪ /l/ as in “luck” and “fully”
5. Post-Alveolar
When you retract your tongue back just a bit from the alveolar ridge, the sounds change enough to be recognized
as distinct consonants. So post-alveolar consonants are those that occur when the tongue blocks or constricts

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airflow at the point just beyond the alveolar ridge.

The post-alveolar english consonants are as follows:

▪ /ʃ/ as in “shot” or “brash”

▪ /ʒ/ as in “vision” or “measure”
▪ /tʃ/ as in “chick” or “match”
▪ /dʒ/ as in “jam” or “badge“
6. Palatal
The roof of your mouth is the hard palate. You may know it as “the place that burns like hell when I eat pizza that
is too hot.” You create Palatal consonants when you raise the tongue to this point and constrict airflow.

English has only one palatal consonant:

▪ /j/ as in “yes” and “bayou”

7. Velar
Behind your hard palate you have the velum or soft palate. Unlike the bony hard palate in front of it, this consists
of soft, mucousy tissue. You make Velar Consonants when you raise the back of your tongue to the velum to
block or restrict airflow.

English has the following velar consonants:

▪ /ŋ/ as in “going” and “uncle” (note that the ‘n sound’ in these words is NOT made at the alveolar
ridge, which is why it is distinct from /n/).
▪ /k/ as in “kite” and “back“
▪ /g/ as in “good” and “bug“
▪ /w/ as in “wet” and “howard”
8. Glottal
The glottis is actually two vocal folds (i.e. vocal cords). It acts as a sort of bottle cap to your windpipe.
Inhale and then hold your breath for a few seconds while keeping your mouth open. What you are actually doing
to keep the air from expelling out of your lungs by closing your glottis.

Glottal consonants aren’t actually consonants; they just play consonant roles in the language. In English, the
following things happen at the glottis:

▪ /h/ as in “hi” and “Bahamas.” Say these words and notice how you’re not actually constricting or blocking
airflow for this /h/ sound. You’re just exhaling a little bit harder than you would for a normal vowel sound
in transition to the following vowel sound.
▪ /?/ – This is actually the culprit behind many of the “silent syllables” we discussed in the first lesson. For
example, in the phrase “wha(t) time is it?” the /t/ in “what” is dropped and the vowel sound before it is
closed at the glottis.

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Here is the full image of the speech organ as your reference when you try producing sounds correctly.

Having described in some details the place and manner of articulation of English consonant sounds; you can
summarize the basic information in the accompanying chart. It also includes the manner of articulation, which
will be discussed in the following section.

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Manner of Articulation

The manner of articulation is the way the airstream is affected as it flows from the lungs and out the nose
and mouth.

On this lesson, you will cover six different manners of articulation in English that will distinguish one
consonant sound from the next. There is a lot of information on this page, so don’t worry if you can’t remember
everything now. You can always bookmark this page and refer back to it.

Looking at these sounds from a different perspective will help you develop your physical awareness of them.
Make sure to try these movements out loud to yourself to really feel them.

1. Nasal
Nasal consonants are created when you completely block air flow through your mouth and let the air pass
through your nose.There are three nasal consonants in English.
▪ /m/ – “mad” and “clam” – oral passage is blocked by closing the lips (bilabial).
▪ /n/ – “no” and “man‘ – oral passage is blocked by pressing tongue tip against the alveolar ridge
(alveolar).

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▪ /ŋ/ – “going” and “funk” – Oral passage is blocked by pressing the the back of your tongue against
the soft palate (velar).

2. Stop/Plosives
Like nasal consonants, stop consonants occur when the vocal tract is closed completely. But for stops the
airflow is NOT redirected through the nose. Instead, the air quickly builds up pressure behind the articulators
and then releases in a burst. English contains the following stop consonants.
▪ /p/ – purse and rap – oral passage is blocked by closing the lips (bilabial).
▪ /b/ – “back” and “cab” – oral passage is blocked by closing the lips (bilabial).
▪ /t/ – “tab” and “rat” – oral passage is blocked by pressing the tongue tip against the alveolar ridge
(alveolar)
▪ /d/ – “dip” and “bad” – oral passage is blocked by pressing the tongue tip against the alveolar
ridge (alveolar)
▪ /k/ – “kite” and “back” – block airflow with the back of the tongue against the soft palate (velar).
▪ /g/ – “good” and “bug” – block airflow with the back of the tongue against the soft palate (velar).

3. Fricative
While nasal and stop consonants involve a complete blockage of the vocal tract, fricative sounds involve
only a partial blockage of the vocal tract so that air has to be forced through a narrow channel.
For example, you create a /t/ stop consonant when you block airflow completely with your tongue against the
alveolar ridge. But if you let up with the tongue a bit and let the air seep through, you make an /s/ fricative
consonant. The English fricative sounds are as follows:

▪ /f/ – “fro” and “calf“- air is forced through the upper teeth and lower lip (labiodental)
▪ /v/ – “vine” and “have” – air is forced through the upper teeth and lower lip (labiodental)
▪ /θ/ – “thick” and “bath” – air is forced through upper teeth and tongue (dental)
▪ /ð/ – “the” and “rather” – air is forced through upper teeth and tongue (dental)
▪ /s/ – “suit” and “bus” – air is forced through tongue and alveolar ridge (alveolar)
▪ /z/ – “zit” and “jazz” – air is forced through tongue and alveolar ridge (alveolar)
▪ /ʃ/ – “shot” and “brash” – air is forced through the tongue and point just beyond alveolar ridge
(post-alveolar)
▪ /ʒ/ – “vision” and “measure” – air is forced through the tongue and point just beyond alveolar ridge
(post-alveolar)
▪ /h/ – “happy” and “hope” – actually /h/ isn’t a fricative. It’s technically not even a real consonant
sound since there’s no constriction/obstruction of airflow.

4. Affricate
When stop consonants mix with fricative consonants, the result is an affricate consonant. Affricate
consonants start as stop sounds with air building up behind an articulator which then releases through a narrow
channel as a fricative (instead of a clean burst as stops do).

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Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

The English affricate sounds are:

▪ /tʃ/ – “chick” and “match” – air is blocked with tongue just beyond the alveolar ridge (post-alveolar),
then released as a fricative.
▪ /dʒ/ – “jam” and “badge” – air is blocked with tongue just beyond the alveolar ridge (post-alveolar),
then released as a fricative.

5. Glides/ Approximant
Approximants are when two articulators come close together but not quite close enough to create air
turbulence.
The resulting sound is more like a fast vowel than anything else. For example, the /w/ approximant is like
a fast /u/ sound (say /u/ + /aɪ/ really fast and you get the word “why”). Notice how your tongue never actually
comes in contact with the top of your mouth.

There are three English approximants:

▪ /w/ – “wet” and “howard” – back of tongue raises to velum (but not too close!) and lips are rounded
(velar)
▪ /j/ – “yes” and “bayou” – tongue raises to hard palate (but not too close!) (palatal)
▪ /ɹ/ – “right” and “roar” – tongue raises to hard palate (but not too close) (alveolar/post-alveolar)

6. Liquids/ Lateral
Lateral consonants are when the tongue blocks the middle of your mouth so that air has to pass around
the sides. You create this when you

There is one lateral consonant in English

▪ /l/ – “luck”- place the tip of the tongue at the alveolar ridge (alveolar)

Activity 3.1: Let’s try this. Pronounce the initial sounds of the following words and identify the place of
articulation. You can refer to the chart if needed. After which, check your answers against the Key to Corrections
found at the end of this SAS. Write your score in your paper.

Word Place OA Word Place OA Word Place OA

1.belly 4.foot 7.mouth

2.calf 5.hand 8.thigh

3.chin 6.knee 9.toe

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Module #4 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

Activity 3.2: Let’s try this. Identify the manner of articulation of the following initial sound of the word. You can
refer to the chart if needed. After which, check your answers against the Key to Corrections found at the end of
this SAS. Write your score in your paper.

Word Manner OA Word Manner OA Word Manner OA

1.cherry 4.funny 7.loony

2.crazy 5.happy 8.merry

3.dizzy 6.jolly 9.silly

II. Check for Understanding

Now that you are done with our lesson, let us check if you have fully understood our contents for today. Do
the following activities below. One you complete the task; check your answers against the Key to Corrections
found at the end of this SAS. Write your score on your paper.

Write down the phonetic symbols representing the following descriptions and illustrate each of the sounds
with two English words.

1. A voiced labiodental fricative

_____________________

2. A voiced palatal affricate

_____________________

3. A voiceless bilabial stop

_____________________

4. A voiceless alveolar fricative

_____________________

5. A voiceless glottal fricative

_____________________

6.A voiceless dental fricative

_____________________

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C. LESSON WRAP-UP

FAQs

Food for Thought!

If you have questions that you cannot ask to your teacher, this may help you clarify things out.

1. What are vowels sounds?

A vowel is a syllabic speech sound

pronounced without any stricture in the vocal
tract. Vowels are one of the two principal
classes of speech sounds, the other being
the consonant. Vowels vary in quality, in
loudness and in quantity (length).

2. What are diphthongs?

Diphthong, in phonetics, a gliding vowel

in the articulation of which there is a
continuous transition from one position
to another. ... Many of the vowel sounds
in most dialects of English are
diphthongs: e.g., the vowels of “out”
and “ice,” represented as [au] and [ai],
respectively.

THINKING ABOUT LEARNING

Congratulations for finishing this module! Shade the number of the module that you finished.

Great Job! Did you finish all parts of the module? Do you have any questions you may want to ask to
clarify the topic? You may write any question to further help you learn and your teacher will get to you
on the answers.

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #4 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

1. What part of the lesson seems difficult for you to understand?

____________________________________________________________________________

2. Is there a question you would like to ask your teacher about the lesson?
____________________________________________________________________________

KEY TO CORRECTIONS

Answers on Content and Skill-building

Activity 3.1:
Word Place OA Word Place OA Word Place OA
1.belly Bilabal 4.foot Labiodental 7.mouth Bilabial
2.calf Velar 5.hand Glottal 8.thigh Dental
3.chin palatal 6.knee Alveolar 9.toe alveolar

Activity 3.2:
Word Manner OA Word Manner OA Word Manner OA

1.cherry Affricates 4.funny Fricatives 7.loony Lateral

2.crazy Stop 5.happy Glide 8.merry Nasal

3.dizzy Stop 6.jolly Affricates 9.silly Fricatives

Answer on Check for Understanding Activity

For the answer, please refer to the chart of places and manner of articulation. Make sure that you provide
examples in every item.

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #6 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson title: The Sound Pattern of Language: Syllables and Materials:

Cluster, Co-articulation Effects, Assimilation, SAS
Elision, and Normal Speech
Learning Targets: References:
At the end of the module, students will be able to: Yule, George (2006).The Study of
1. analyze the structure of a syllable and its cluster; and Langauge.
2. distinguish the different co-articulation effects. Bauer, L. (2007). The Linguistics
Student's Handbook.

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction

We have seen elsewhere that phonemes may be combined to form words and that there is an intermediate level
of phonological organization between the phoneme and the word known as the syllable. This lesson examines
the organization of syllables in greater depth.

B.MAIN LESSON

I. Content and Skill-building

Read carefully the content notes and try to highlight or underline the key terms for greater level
of understanding.

Three-part structure of English syllables

Syllables have a fundamental three-part structure as follows (Harley, 2006).

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The initial element is the onset. Only consonants can fill the onset slot. Similarly, the final element –
the coda – can only be filled by consonants. The central element is the nucleus (sometimes known as the peak)
and all syllables must minimally consist of a nucleus.
Technically, the basic elements of the syllables are the onset and the rhyme. As shown in the example
above, the rhyme is composed of a nucleus and a coda. Syllables like me, to or no have an onset and a nucleus,
but no coda. They are known as open syllables. When the coda is present, as in the syllables up, cup, at or hat,
they are called closed syllables. The basic structure of the kind of syllable found in English words like green
(CCVC), eggs (VCC), and (VCC), ham (CVC) is shown in the example. Consider the following examples below.

It is quite unusual for language to have consonant clusters of this type. Indeed, the syllable structure of
many languages is predominantly CV (consonant-vowel). It is also noticeable in English that large consonant
clusters are frequently reduced in casual conversational speech. This is just one example of a process that is
usually discussed in terms of co-articulation effects.

What is co-articulation?

Co-articulation is the way the brain organizes sequences of vowels and consonants, interweaving the
individual movements necessary for each into one smooth whole. It is the process of making one sound almost
at the same time as the next sound. Its general sense refers to a situation in which a conceptually isolated
speech sound is influenced by, and becomes more like, a preceding or following speech sound.
There are two well-known co-articulation effects, described as assimilation and elision.

What is assimilation?

Assimilation is a general term in phonetics for

the process by which a speech sound becomes similar or
identical to a neighboring sound. In the opposite process,
dissimilation, sounds become less similar to one another.
The term "assimilation" comes from the Latin meaning,
"make similar to." In rapid speech, for example,

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Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

"handbag" is often pronounced [ˈhambag], and "hot potato" as [ˈhɒppəteɪtoʊ]. As in these two examples, sound
segments typically assimilate to the following sound (this is called regressive or anticipatory assimilation), but
they may also assimilate to a preceding one (progressive assimilation). While assimilation most commonly
occurs between immediately adjacent sounds, it may occur between sounds separated by others ("assimilation
at a distance").

What is elision?

Elision is a process where one or more

phonemes are ‘dropped’, usually in order to
simplify the pronunciation. It may occur for both
vowels and consonants, although it is much more
common for consonants. Where it occurs for
vowels, we have extreme cases of vowel reduction
or weakening to the point that the vowel is no
longer pronounced at all, such as in words like
police, correct or suppose being realised as [pliːs], [kɹɛkt] or [spəʊz]. In rare cases, such as in some realisations
of the word perhaps, both consonant and vowel elision may even occur at the same time, e.g. yielding [pɹaps].

These two processes of assimilation and elision occur in everyone’s normal speech and should not be
regarded as some type of sloppiness or laziness in speaking. The point of investigating these phonological
processes is not to arrive at a set of rules about how language should be pronounced, but to try to come to an
understanding of the regularities and patterns which underlie the actual use of sounds in language.

Now, let us test your knowledge on finding onsets and codas!

Directions: Using this set of words, try to identify the onsets and codas of each syllable. Remember to use the
IPA transcription you made or you end up looking at letters of the alphabet, not sounds in the syllables. The first
item is done for you. Good luck.

1. Cat - cat [kæt] has [k] as the onset and [t] as the coda
2. Spot-
3. Cost-
4. Alarm-
5. Release-
6. Construct-
7. Continents-

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II. Check for Understanding

Now that you are done with our lesson, let us check if you have fully understood our contents for today.
For mastery, answer the following questions below without looking in your concept notes. Once you
complete the task; check your answers against the Key to Corrections found at the end of this SAS. Write
your score on your paper.

1. What is the difference between closed and open syllables?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

2. Identify the correct elision of the following words.

a. next day -
b. mashed potatoes -
c. the last post -
d. Liz smiled gently -

C. LESSON WRAP-UP

FAQs

Food for Thought!

If you have questions that you cannot ask to your teacher, this may help you clarify things out.

1. What is the difference between enunciation and pronunciation?

The slight difference between pronunciation and enunciation is that pronunciation is the act of making sounds or
articulating words while enunciation is the way of articulating words clearly and distinctly according to the rules
governing the language. Pronunciation defines how a word is spoken.

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Module #6 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

THINKING ABOUT LEARNING

Congratulations for finishing this module! Shade the number of the module that you finished.

Great Job! Did you finish all parts of the module? Do you have any questions you may want to ask to
clarify the topic? You may write any question to further help you learn and your teacher will get to you
on the answers.

1. What part of the lesson seems difficult for you to understand?

____________________________________________________________________________

2. Is there a question you would like to ask your teacher about the lesson?
____________________________________________________________________________

KEY TO CORRECTIONS

Answers on Content and Skill-building

1. cat [kæt] has [k] as the onset and [t] as the coda
2. spot [spat] has [sp] as the onset and [t] as the coda
3. cost [kast] has [k] as the onset and [st] as the coda
4. alarm [?.la?m] has 2 syllables
o in the first, there is no onset or coda
o in the second, [l] is the onset and [?m] is the coda
5. release [??.lis] has 2 syllables
o in the first, [?] is the onset, and there is no coda
o in the second, [l] is the onset, and [s] is the coda
6. construct [k?n.st??kt] has 2 syllables
o in the first, [k] is the onset, and [n] is the coda
o in the second, [st?] is the onset, and [kt] is the coda
7. continents [kan.t?.n?nts] has 3 syllables
o in the first, [k] is the onset, and [n] is the coda
o in the second, [t] is the onset, and there is no coda
o in the third, [n] is the onset and [nts] is the coda

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Answer on Check for Understanding Activity

1. An open syllable occurs when a vowel is at the end of the syllable, resulting in the long vowel sound, e.g.
pa/per, e/ven, o/pen, go & we. Open syllable words are open because they are not closed by a consonant.

Whereas a closed syllable occurs when a syllable ends with a consonant, resulting in a short vowel sound,
e.g., cat, sit, got & wet. The consonant closes these words. Closed syllable words are more prevalent in the
English

2.
a. next day /neɪks deɪ/
b. mashed potatoes /mæʃ pɒˈteɪtəʊz/
c. the last post /ðə lɑːs pəʊst/
d. Liz smiled gently /ˈlɪz ˈsmaɪl ˈʤentlɪ/

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #7 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson title: Word Formation Processes Materials:

Learning Targets: SAS
At the end of the module, students will be able to:
1. analyze the different morphological processes; and References:
2. determine the different types of word formation. Yule, George (2006).The Study of
Langauge.
Bauer, L. (2007). The Linguistics
Student's Handbook.

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction

People in general have no difficulty coping with the new words. We can very quickly understand a new word in
our language (a neologism) and accept the use of different forms of that new word. This ability must derive in
part from the fact that there is a lot of regularity in the word-formation process in our language.

In some aspects, the study of the processes whereby new words come into being
language like English seems relatively straightforward. This apparent simplicity
however masks a number of controversial issues. Despite the disagreement of
scholars in the area, there don't seem to be a regular process involved.

These processes have been at work in the language for some time and many words
in daily use today were, at one time, considered barbaric misuses of the language.

B.MAIN LESSON

I. Content and Skill-building

Read carefully the content notes and try to highlight or underline the key terms for greater level
of understanding.

These are the 12 common types of word formation processes.

1. Compounding
Compounding words are formed when two or more lexemes combine into a single new word. Compound words
may be written as one word or as two words joined with a hyphen.

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For example:
✔ noun-noun compound: note + book → notebook
✔ adjective-noun compound: blue + berry → blueberry
✔ verb-noun compound: work + room → workroom
✔ noun-verb compound: breast + feed → breastfeed

2. Coinage
It is a common process of word-formation in English and it is the invention of totally new terms. The most typical
sources are invented trade names for one company's product, which become general terms (without initial capital
letters) for any version of that product. These words tend to become everyday words in our language.

For example: aspirin, nylon, zipper and the more recent examples kleenex, teflon.

3. Borrowing
It is one of the most common sources of getting new words in English. That is the taking over of words from other
languages. Throughout history the English language has adopted a vast number of loan words from other
languages.

For example: Alcohol (Arabic), Boss (Dutch), Croissant (French), Piano (Italian), Pretzel (German)

A special type of borrowing is the loan translation or calque. In this process, there is a direct translation of the
elements of a word into the borrowing language. For example: Superman, Loan Translation of Übermensch,
German.

4. Blending
The combining of separate forms to produce a
single new term, is also present in the process
of blending. Blending takes only the beginning of
one word and joining it to the end of the other
word. For instance, if you wish to refer to the
combined effects of smoke and fog, there´s the
term smog.

5. Clipping
The element of reduction that is noticeable in
blending is even more apparent in the process.
This occurs when a word of more than one
syllable is reduced to a shorter form, often in
casual speech. For example, the term gasoline
is still in use but the term gas, the clipped form
is used more frequently.

Examples are Chem. Gym, Math, Prof, Typo

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Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

6. Backformation
It is a very specialized type of reduction process. Typically a word of one type, usually noun, is reduced to form
another word of a different type, usually verb. A good example of backformation is the process whereby the noun
television first came into use and then the term televise is created from it.

More examples: Donation – Donate, Option – Opt, Emotion – Emote, Enthusiasm – Enthuse, Babysit – Babysitter

7. Conversion
It is a change in the function of a word, as for example, when a noun comes to be used as a verb without any
reduction. Other labels of this very common process are “category change” and “functional shift”. A number of
nouns such as paper, butter, bottle, vacation and so on, can via the process of conversion come to be used as
verbs as in the following examples:

1) My brother is papering my bedroom. 2) Did you butter this toast?

8. Acronym
Some new words known as acronyms are formed with the initial letters of a set of other words.

Examples:
✔ Compact Disk – CD
✔ Video Cassette Recorder – VCR
✔ National Aeronautics and Space Administration – NASA

9. Derivation
It is the most common word formation process and it is accomplished by means of a large number of small bits
of the English language which are not usually given separate listings in dictionaries. These small bits are called
affixes.

Examples: Unhappy, Misrepresent, Prejudge, Joyful, Careless and Happiness

10. Affixation
In the preceding group of words, it should be obvious that some
affixes have to be added to the beginning of a word. These are
called prefixes: unreliable. The other affix forms are called suffixes
and are added at the end of the word: foolishness. Infixes is one of
the characteristics of English words is that any modifications to them
occur at the beginning or the end; mix can have something added
at the beginning re-mix or at the end, mixes, mixer, but never in the
middle, called infixes.

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
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Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

11. Analogy
Sometimes speakers take an existing word as a model and form other words using some of its morphemes as
a fixed part, and changing one of them to something new, with an analogically similar meaning. Cheeseburger
was formed on the analogy of hamburger, replacing a perceived morpheme ham with cheese. carjack and
skyjack were also formed by analogy.

12. Etymology
It is the investigation of word histories. Every word in every language has a unique origin and history; words can
be born in many ways, and often their histories are quite adventurous and informative. Etymology investigates
and documents the lives (mainly the origins) of words.

Let’s check your knowledge on the topic. Identify the word formation of the following words. Indicate your answer
in your activity sheet. Once you are done, kindly refer to the Key correction at the last part of your SAS for
checking.

Morpheme/s 1 Morpheme 2
1. Beauté beauty
2. Spangler hoover
3. Suupaamaaketto supermarket
4. Finger + print fingerprint
5. Facsimile fax
6. Channel + tunnel chunnel
7. Smoke + haxe smaze
8. Woker work
9. Compact Disc CD
10. Terror + ism terrorism

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Module #7 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

II. Check for Understanding

Now that you are done with our lesson, let us check if you have fully understood our contents for today.
Provide at least three examples of words in every type of word formation process. Once you complete the
task; check your answers against the Key to Corrections found at the end of this SAS. Write your score on
your paper.

Types of word Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3

formation

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

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Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

C. LESSON WRAP-UP

FAQs

Food for Thought!

If you have questions that you cannot ask to your teacher, this may help you clarify things out.

1. Why do we need to study the formation of words?

Word- formation is of interest to linguists because of the light it throws on the other aspects of language. The
study of word-formation is expanding and a lot of research and publications are being available. The processes
of word-formation by means of which one's vocabulary can be expanded are numerous.

2. What is vocabulary?
Vocabulary consists of the words we understand when we hear or read them (receptive vocabulary) and words
we speak or write (expressive vocabulary). We build vocabulary by picking up words that we read or hear and
through direct instruction from teachers or other professionals. Knowing a variety of words is important for
language development and reading comprehension. A limited vocabulary is usually a “red flag,” indicating a
possible language learning disability and reduced literacy skills.

THINKING ABOUT LEARNING

Congratulations for finishing this module! Shade the number of the module that you finished.

Great Job! Did you finish all parts of the module? Do you have any questions you may want to ask to
clarify the topic? You may write any question to further help you learn and your teacher will get to you
on the answers.

1. What part of the lesson seems difficult for you to understand?

____________________________________________________________________________

2. Is there a question you would like to ask your teacher about the lesson?
____________________________________________________________________________

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Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

KEY TO CORRECTIONS

Answers on Content and Skill-building

Morpheme/s 1 Morpheme 2
1. Beauté beauty = etymology
2. Spangler hoover = barrowing
3. Suupaamaaketto supermarket = barrowing
4. Finger + print fingerprint = compouding
5. Facsimile fax = clipping
6. Channel + tunnel chunnel = blending
7. Smoke + haxe smaze = blending
8. Woker work = affixation
9. Compact Disc CD = clipping
10. Terror + ism terrorism = affixation

Answer on Check for Understanding Activity

Teachers will guide the students in checking this activity. Answers may vary.

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Module #8 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson title: Word Formation Processes Materials:

Learning Targets: SAS
At the end of the module, students will be able to:
1. master the different morphological processes; and References:
2. enrich understanding of the different types of word formation. Yule, George (2006).The Study of
Language.
Bauer, L. (2007). The Linguistics
Student's Handbook.

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction

As a recapitulation, supply the needed data inside the matrix below about the
different types of word formation processes. Make sure that your responses
are not verbatim from the concept notes.

TELL SOMETHING ABOUT ME !

Word Formation Processes One thing I will share about! One question that lingers in my mind!

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

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Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

10.

11.

12.

B.MAIN LESSON

I. Content and Skill-building

Read carefully the content notes and try to highlight or underline the key terms for greater level
of understanding.

This time, you will be recapitulating the concepts about the different types of word formation processes. To do
this, you will go through again with these concepts and complete all the enrichment exercises in this module.

These are the 12 common types of word formation processes.

1. Compounding
Compounding words are formed when two or more lexemes combine into a single new word. Compound words
may be written as one word or as two words joined with a hyphen.
For example:
✔ noun-noun compound: note + book → notebook
✔ adjective-noun compound: blue + berry → blueberry
✔ verb-noun compound: work + room → workroom
✔ noun-verb compound: breast + feed → breastfeed

2. Coinage
It is a common process of word-formation in English and it is the invention of totally new terms. The most typical
sources are invented trade names for one company's product, which become general terms (without initial capital
letters) for any version of that product. These words tend to become everyday words in our language.

For example: aspirin, nylon, zipper and the more recent examples kleenex, teflon.

3. Borrowing
It is one of the most common sources of getting new words in English. That is the taking over of words from other
languages. Throughout history the English language has adopted a vast number of loan words from other
languages.

For example: Alcohol (Arabic), Boss (Dutch), Croissant (French), Piano (Italian), Pretzel (German)

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #8 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

A special type of borrowing is the loan translation or calque. In this process, there is a direct translation of the
elements of a word into the borrowing language. For example: Superman, Loan Translation of Übermensch,
German.

4. Blending
The combining of separate forms to produce a
single new term, is also present in the process
of blending. Blending takes only the beginning of
one word and joining it to the end of the other
word. For instance, if you wish to refer to the
combined effects of smoke and fog, there´s the
term smog.

5. Clipping
The element of reduction that is noticeable in
blending is even more apparent in the process.
This occurs when a word of more than one
syllable is reduced to a shorter form, often in
casual speech. For example, the term gasoline
is still in use but the term gas, the clipped form
is used more frequently.

Examples are Chem. Gym, Math, Prof, Typo

6. Backformation
It is a very specialized type of reduction process. Typically a word of one type, usually noun, is reduced to form
another word of a different type, usually verb. A good example of backformation is the process whereby the noun
television first came into use and then the term televise is created from it.

More examples: Donation – Donate, Option – Opt, Emotion – Emote, Enthusiasm – Enthuse, Babysit – Babysitter

7. Conversion
It is a change in the function of a word, as for example, when a noun comes to be used as a verb without any
reduction. Other labels of this very common process are “category change” and “functional shift”. A number of
nouns such as paper, butter, bottle, vacation and so on, can via the process of conversion come to be used as
verbs as in the following examples:

1) My brother is papering my bedroom. 2) Did you butter this toast?

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #8 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

8. Acronym
Some new words known as acronyms are formed with the initial letters of a set of other words.

Examples:
✔ Compact Disk – CD
✔ Video Cassette Recorder – VCR
✔ National Aeronautics and Space Administration – NASA

9. Derivation
It is the most common word formation process and it is accomplished by means of a large number of small bits
of the English language which are not usually given separate listings in dictionaries. These small bits are called
affixes.

Examples: Unhappy, Misrepresent, Prejudge, Joyful, Careless and Happiness

10. Affixation
In the preceding group of words, it should be obvious that some
affixes have to be added to the beginning of a word. These are
called prefixes: unreliable. The other affix forms are called suffixes
and are added at the end of the word: foolishness. Infixes is one of
the characteristics of English words is that any modifications to them
occur at the beginning or the end; mix can have something added
at the beginning re-mix or at the end, mixes, mixer, but never in the
middle, called infixes.

11. Analogy
Sometimes speakers take an existing word as a model and form other words using some of its morphemes as
a fixed part, and changing one of them to something new, with an analogically similar meaning. Cheeseburger
was formed on the analogy of hamburger, replacing a perceived morpheme ham with cheese. carjack and
skyjack were also formed by analogy.

12. Etymology
It is the investigation of word histories. Every word in every language has a unique origin and history; words can
be born in many ways, and often their histories are quite adventurous and informative. Etymology investigates
and documents the lives (mainly the origins) of words.

Let’s practice the concepts you have learned today! Identify the word formation of the following words. Indicate
your answer by encircling the letter of your best choice. Once you are done, kindly refer to the Key correction at
the last part of your SAS for checking.

1. BRUNCH
a. Blending b. clipping c. compounding d. conversion

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Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

2. TATOO
a. Coinage b. Borrowing c. Calque d. Clipping

3. Infotainment
a. Coinage b. Clipping c. Blending d. Compounding

4. PERM
a. Clipping b. Borrowing c. Blending d. Conversion

5. TELLY
a. Calque b. Hypocorism c. Acronym d. Coinage

6. PRINTOUT
a. Blending b. Derivative c. Eponym d. Conversion

7. WATT
a. Borrowing b. Clipping c. Eponym d. Derivative

8. HTML
a. Acronym b. Clipping c. Derivative d. Coinage

9. UNTIDY
a. Clipping b. Compounding c. Backformation d. Derivative

10. MOVIE
a. Clipping b. Hypocorism c. Acronym d. Borrowing

II. Check for Understanding

Now that you are done with our lesson, let us check if you have fully understood our contents for today.
Identify which type of word formation is used in the underlined word in a sentence. Once you complete the
task; check your answers against the Key to Corrections found at the end of this SAS. Write your score on
your paper.

1. My little cousin wants to be a footballer.

2. Rebecca parties every weekend.
3. I will have a croissant for breakfast..
4. Does somebody know where my bra is?
5. My family is vacationing in New Zealand.
6. I will babysit my little sister this weekend.

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #8 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

7. Would you give me your blackberry PIN?

8. She seems unhappy about her parents’ decision.
9. I always have kleenex in my car.

C. LESSON WRAP-UP

FAQs

Food for Thought!

If you have questions that you cannot ask to your teacher, this may help you clarify things out.

1. Why do we need to study the formation of words?

Word- formation is of interest to linguists because of the light it throws on the other aspects of language. The
study of word-formation is expanding and a lot of research and publications are being available. The processes
of word-formation by means of which one's vocabulary can be expanded are numerous.

THINKING ABOUT LEARNING

Congratulations for finishing this module! Shade the number of the module that you finished.

Great Job! Did you finish all parts of the module? Do you have any questions you may want to ask to
clarify the topic? You may write any question to further help you learn and your teacher will get to you
on the answers.

1. What part of the lesson seems difficult for you to understand?

____________________________________________________________________________

2. Is there a question you would like to ask your teacher about the lesson?
____________________________________________________________________________

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #8 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

KEY TO CORRECTIONS

Answers on Content and Skill-building

1) A 2) C 3) C 4) A 5) B 6) A 7) B 8) A 9) D 10)

Answer on Check for Understanding Activity

1. compounding
2. compounding
3. barrowing
4. clipping
5. affixation
6. compounding
7. acronym
8. affixation
9. coinage

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #10 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson title: Morphology Materials:

Learning Targets: SAS
At the end of the module, students will be able to:
1. classify the different types of morphemes; and References:
2. analyze the basic elements of morphology. Yule, George (2006).The Study of
Langauge.
Bauer, L. (2007). The Linguistics
Student's Handbook

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction

Throughout the preceding lessons, you learned about the description of processes involved in word
formation. Unfortunately, there are numbers of problems with using this observation as the basis of an attempt
to describe the language in general, and individual linguistic forms in particular. In this lesson, you will learn the
basic forms in language, generally known as morphology.

B.MAIN LESSON

I. Content and Skill-building

Read carefully the content notes and try to highlight or underline the key terms for greater level
of understanding.

The term morphology is generally attributed to the German poet,

novelist, playwright, and philosopher Johann Wolfgang von
Goethe (1749–1832), who coined it early in the nineteenth century
in a biological context. Its etymology is Greek: morph- means
‘shape, form’, and morphology is the study of form or forms.
In linguistics morphology refers to the mental system involved in
word formation or to the branch
of linguistics that deals with words, their internal structure, and
how they are formed.
A major way in which morphologists investigate words, their
internal structure, and how they are formed is through the
identification and study of morphemes, often defined as the
smallest linguistic pieces with a grammatical function.

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This definition is not meant to include all morphemes, but it is the usual one and a good starting point. A
morpheme may consist of a word, such as hand, or a meaningful piece of a word, such as the –ed of looked,
that cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts. Another way in which morphemes have been defined is as
a pairing between sound and meaning. We have purposely chosen not to use this definition. Some morphemes
have no concrete form or no continuous form, as we will see, and some do not have meanings in the conventional
sense of the term. You may also run across the term morph. The term ‘morph’ is sometimes used to refer
specifically to the phonological realization of a morpheme. Likewise with allophone, an allomorph is a variety of
a single morpheme.
In the sentence, The police reopened the investigation, the word reopened consists of three morphemes. One
minimal unit of meaning is re- meaning again, another minimal unit of meaning is open, and the last minimal unit
of meaning is ed- indicating past tense. Example, the English plural morpheme has 3
allomorphs:
✔ /Schwa z/ or /әz/… as in busses
✔ /z/… as in twigs
✔ /s/… as in cats

Two different morphemes may be pronounced (and even sometimes spelled) the same way. For example, the
–er in buyer means something like ‘the one who,’ while the –er in shorter means something like ‘to a greater
degree than.’ The first –er always attaches to a verb, while the second –er always attaches to an adjective. It
makes sense to consider two different morphemes that just happen to sound the same. (The first is called the
agentive morpheme {AG} since it indicates the agent of an action; the second is called the comparative
morpheme {COMP} since it indicates the comparative degree of an adjective.

Division of Morphemes into Various Types

Lexical and Grammatical Morphemes

Lexical morphemes are those that have meaning by themselves

(more accurately, they have sense). Grammatical morphemes
specify a relationship between other morphemes. But the
distinction is not all that well defined.
Nouns, verbs, adjectives ({boy}, {buy}, {big}) are typical lexical
morphemes.
Prepositions, articles, conjunctions ({of}, {the}, {but}) are
grammatical morphemes.

Free and Bound Morphemes

Free morphemes are those that can stand alone as words. They
may be lexical morphemes ({serve}, {press}), or grammatical
morphemes ({at}, {and}).
Bound morphemes can occur only in combination—they are
parts of a word.

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They may be lexical morphemes (such as {clude} as in include, exclude, preclude) or they may be grammatical
(such as {PLU} = plural as in boys, girls, and cats).

Inflectional and Derivational Morphemes

We can make a further distinction within the set of morphemes that are both bound and grammatical. Bound
grammatical morphemes (those that don’t have a sense by themselves and, additionally, always occur in
combinations) are commonly known as affixes. They can be further divided into inflectional affixes and
derivational affixes.

Here is some of the evidence for the distinction between inflectional and derivational affixes:

Inflectional Affixes

English has only eight inflectional

affixes:
{PLU} = plural Noun -s boys
{POSS} = possessive Noun -’s
boy’s
{COMP} = comparative Adj -er
older
{SUP} = superlative Adj -est
oldest
{PRES} = present Verb -s walks
{PAST} past Verb -ed walked
{PAST PART} = past participle
Verb -en driven
{PRES PART} = present participle
Verb -ing driving

Notice that, as noted above, even irregular forms can be represented morphologically using these morphemes.
E.g. the irregular plural sheep is written as {sheep} + {PLU}, even though the typically form of {PLU} is not used
here. Similarly, better = {good} + {COMP}; drove = {drive} + {PAST}.

Derivational Affixes
There are an indefinite number of derivational morphemes.For example, the following are some derivational
suffixes:
⮚ {ize} attaches to a noun and turns it into a verb: rubberize
⮚ {ize} also attaches to an adjective and turns it into a verb: normalize
⮚ {ful} attaches to a noun and turns it into an adjective: playful, helpful
⮚ {ly} attaches to an adjective and turns it into an adverb: grandly, proudly
A different {ly} attaches to a noun and changes it into an adjective: manly, friendly
English also has derivational prefixes, such as: {un}, {dis}, {a}, {anti}, all of which indicate some kind of negation:
unhappy, dislike, atypical, anti-aircraft.

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
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Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

Fill in the Blanks: Complete the table by identifying the morphological structure of a word. Indicate your answer
inside the box.
Morpheme Free Bound Lexical Functional Inflectional Derivational

Ex. gracefulness Grace full, ness Grace, -ness

graceful

1. Beautiful

2. children

3. Happiness

4. Cared

5. Empowerment

6. Uncertain

7. Longer

8. Crowned

9. Gig

10. Morphology

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
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Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

II. Check for Understanding

Now that you are done with our lesson, let us check if you have fully understood our contents for today.
Identify the concept being discussed in each statement. Using the Venn Diagram, compare and contrast the
differences of the following items. Once you are done, check your own work using the key to corrections at
the end of your SAS. Write your score on your paper.

1. Lexical vs Functional Morpheme

2. Inflectional vs Derivational

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
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Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

C. LESSON WRAP-UP

FAQs

Food for Thought!

If you have questions that you cannot ask to your teacher, this may help you clarify things out.

1. What is suppletion?
The term suppletion is typically used to refer to the phenomenon whereby regular semantic and/or grammatical
relations are encoded by unpredictable formal patterns. Standard illustrations of suppletion in English include
the forms of the verb be: am, is, are, was, were, been, the present and past tense forms of the verb go: go, went
cf. dance: danced; the degrees of comparison of some adjectives, for instance good: better: best cf. nice: nicer:
nicest;

THINKING ABOUT LEARNING

Congratulations for finishing this module! Shade the number of the module that you finished.

Great Job! Did you finish all parts of the module? Do you have any questions you may want to ask to
clarify the topic? You may write any question to further help you learn and your teacher will get to you
on the answers.

1. What part of the lesson seems difficult for you to understand?

____________________________________________________________________________

2. Is there a question you would like to ask your teacher about the lesson?
____________________________________________________________________________

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #10 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

KEY TO CORRECTIONS

Answers on Content and Skill-building

Morpheme Free Bound Lexical Functional Inflectional Derivational

Ex. gracefulness Grace full, ness Grace, -ness

graceful

1. Beautiful beauty -ful beauty -ful

2. children child -en child -en

3. Happiness happy -ness happy -ness

4. Cared care -d care -ed

5. Empowerment power -em, ment power -ment

6. Uncertain certain -un certain -un

7. Longer long -er long -er

8. Crowned crown -ed crown -ed

9. Gig gig gig

10. Morphology morph -logy morph -logy

Answer on Check for Understanding Activity

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #11 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson title: Phrases and Sentences: Grammar Materials:

Learning Targets: SAS
At the end of the module, students will be able to:
1. describe how sentences are structured; and References:
2. recapitulate the grammatical rules and parts of speech. Yule, George (2006).The Study of
Language.
Bauer, L. (2007). The Linguistics
Student's Handbook.

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction

You have already considered two levels of description used in the study of language. We have
described linguistic expressions as sequences of sounds that can be represented in the phonetic alphabet and
described in terms of their features. With these descriptions, you could characterize all the words and phrases
of a language in terms of their phonology and morphology.
However, we have not accounted for the fact that these words can only be combined in a limited
number of patterns. We recognize that the phrase “the lucky have boys” is a well-formed phrase in English but
the following two phrases are not well formed.

1. boys the lucky

2. lucky boys the

From these examples, you can see that English has strict rules for combining
words into phrases. The process of combining the structure of phrases and
sentences in such a way that you account for all grammatical sequences in a
language and rule out all the ungrammatical sequences is one way of defining
grammar.

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
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B.MAIN LESSON

I. Content and Skill-building

Read carefully the content notes and try to highlight or underline the key terms for greater level
of understanding.

In linguistics, grammar is the set of structural rules governing the composition of clauses, phrases and
words in a natural language. The term refers also to the study of such rules and this field includes phonology,
morphology and syntax, often complemented by phonetics, semantics and pragmatics.
Grammar is the system of a language. People sometimes describe grammar as the "rules" of a language;
but in fact no language has rules*. If we use the word "rules", we suggest that somebody created the rules first
and then spoke the language, like a new game. But languages did not start like that. Languages started by
people making sounds, which evolved into words, phrases and sentences. No commonly-spoken language is
fixed. All languages change over time. What we call "grammar" is simply a reflection of a language at a particular
time.

Parts of Speech

At this point, you will be reintroduced to the

different parts of speech. Also, this will provide you ample
opportunity to refresh yourself and master the different
grammatical categories of words.

1. Articles - The articles are a, an, the. Articles

are marked with a checkmark on top, and they
indicate a noun is coming. They are special
adjectives, but are marked with a checkmark.
Note that not every noun will have an article in
front of it, though many do.

2. Nouns – Name a person, place, thing or idea and can be common or proper. Proper nouns are
always capitalized and name specific things. A common noun is lady, but a proper noun is Mrs.
Johnson. A common noun is store, but a proper noun is Dick’s Sporting Goods.

Nouns are marked with a single underline.

Example: 1) The tall man on television was dressed in a nice suit.

2) My family attends church at Olive Baptist Church every Sunday.

* Practice. Checkmark the articles and underline the nouns.

a. After the violent storm, many of the houses in the city were damaged.

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b. The entire class started watching the last game of the season.
c. We met Aunt Jan for dinner at the new restaurant on Thursday.

3. Pronouns - Take the place of a noun. “Jessica went to the store so SHE could buy some ice cream.”
The pronoun “she” took the place of saying Jessica’s name again. Some pronouns can be used as
the subject of a sentence, but others are used as object pronouns or possessive pronouns. They are
marked by writing pronouns on top of the word.

Subject pronouns – I, you, he, she, it, we, they

Object pronouns – me, him, her, us, them, it, you
Possessive pronouns –our, ours, mine, my, his, her, hers, their, theirs, your, yours, its

Ex: They traveled to California for their summer vacation. (“They” is a subject pronoun since “they” is the subject
of the sentence; “their” is a possessive pronoun showing ownership of the vacation.)

4. Verbs – Every sentence must have a verb! Verbs can show action, or they can be a linking verb.

Action verbs show some kind of action – skipped, hop, throw, baked, watched, took, etc. Verbs can be
happening now (present tense), already happened (past tense), or they will happen (future tense). Depending
on the verb tense, a helping verb may be needed. If you have a sentence {I am planning a party for my sister.}
“am” is a helping verb used with the main action verb “planning.” Your complete verb is “am planning.” The
helping verbs are listed below.

Helping verbs – am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been, have, has, had, do, does, did, may, might, must, can,
could, shall, will, should, would
The other type of verb is a linking verb. Note that some of the linking verbs are also helping verbs. Linking verbs
do not show action, but are used to link the subject with a descriptive word coming after the verb.

Linking verbs – am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been (all of these can be helping verbs also) Other linking
verbs are - feel, smell, taste, sound, look, seems, becomes.

Examples:
a. The tall man on television was shopping for a nice suit. {“was” is used as a helping verb.}
b. She mixed and rolled the dough for the sugar cookies. {“mixed” and “rolled” are action verbs}
c. My father is a teacher at the college on Spring Street. {“is” is a linking verb. The linking verb
“is” links the noun teacher to the subject father.}

5. Adjectives - Describes a noun or pronoun only. Many times you can do an “adjective test” to see
your word is an adjective. The “adjective test” is to say the word between an article and a noun.

Example: the pink house – since this makes sense, “pink” is an adjective and describes the noun house

Adjectives answer the questions which one? what kind? how many? how much? whose? Adjectives are

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underlined in the sentence.

Example: The tall man on television was shopping for a nice suit. (“tall” describes the man and it comes between
an article and noun, passing the adjective test; “nice” describes the suit, and it also passes the adjective test).

6. Adverbs - An adverb can modify/ describe a verb, adjective, or another adverb. Adverbs tell when?
where? how? how often? and to what extent? Many adverbs deal with time (today, soon, sometimes).
Many adverbs end in LY. “Not”, “never”, and “always” are always adverbs. Often adverbs can move
around in sentences and still make sense.

For example:
a. We quickly ran in the hardware store and bought blue paint for our house.
b. We ran into the hardware store and quickly bought blue paint for our house.

7. Prepositions – These words add additional information to sentences. They always start a
prepositional phrase. A prepositional phrase is not necessary to the sentence, but it adds additional
information. The phrase always ends with a noun or pronoun called the object of the preposition
(OP).

A list of the major prepositions is below. aboard, about, above, across, after, against, along, among,
around, at before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, but, by down, during, except, for, from, in,
inside, into, like, near, of, off, on, out, outside, over past, since, through, throughout, to, toward, under,
underneath, until, up, upon with, within, without.

Examples:
a. Grandmother lives (around the corner) (from the library.)
b. The man (from China) visited (for several weeks.)

8. Conjunction - A conjunction is a part of speech that connects words, phrases, or clauses that are
called the conjuncts of the conjunctions. The term discourse marker is mostly used for conjunctions
joining sentences. There are three types of conjunctions and to wit:

a. Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions allow you to join words, phrases, and clauses of equal grammatical rank in a sentence.
The most common coordinating conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so; you can remember them by
using the mnemonic device FANBOYS.

Ex: I like cooking and eating, but I don’t like washing dishes afterward. Sophie is clearly exhausted, yet she
insists on dancing till dawn.

b. Correlative Conjunctions

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Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that work together. Some examples are either/or, neither/nor,
and not only/but also.

Ex: Not only am I finished studying for English, but I’m also finished writing my history essay. I am finished with
both my English essay and my history essay.

c. Subordinating conjunctions

Subordinating conjunction joins independent and dependent clauses. A subordinating conjunction can signal a
cause-and-effect relationship, a contrast, or some other kind of relationship between the clauses. Common
subordinating conjunctions are because, since, as, although, though, while, and whereas. Sometimes an adverb,
such as until, after, or before can function as a conjunction.

Ex: I can stay out until the clock strikes twelve.

9. Interjections

The interjection shows emotion or feeling and is marked with an exclamation point above the word.
Ex: Ouch! You hurt my foot. Well, I’m not sure.

These parts of speech exercises will let you understand them better.
We have written down sentences for each clause separately. Once you
are done answering, kindly check your answers on the Key to
corrections found at the last part of your SAS. Good luck!

NOUN EXERCISES
Make a list of the nouns in the following sentences and state whether each is a common, proper, collective,
abstract or material noun. Fill in the blanks from the aforementioned nouns.

1. Virtue (__________) is its own reward.

2. The committee (__________) were divided in their opinion.
3. That wall is made of stones (__________).
4. Mr. Imran came to Karachi and visited the Quaid-e-Azam tomb (__________).
5. He gave me a bunch (__________) of grapes (__________).

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Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

PRONOUN EXERCISES
Identify the type of pronoun. Fill in the blanks from the aforementioned pronouns.

1. He met the man (__________) whom (__________) I saw yesterday.

2. We love those persons (__________) who (__________) are kind to us.
3. A tree is known by its (__________) fruit.
4. A boy (__________) who (__________) is attentive is sure to excel.
5. After the servants had done their (__________) work, the master sent them (__________) away.

ADJECTIVE EXERCISES
Complete the sentences by entering the correct form of adjectives, tall, large, beautiful, fatter, better, smaller,
fast, long, comfortable.
1. A _________ policeman.
2. A _________ mountain.
3. As we eat more we get _________.
4. If I practice regularly I get _________.
5. A _________ woman.

VERB EXERCISES
Indicate the verb in a sentence.
1. He is reading a newspaper. (__________)
2. He takes tea for breakfast. (__________)
3. She studies till late night daily. (__________)
4. I can run. (__________)
5. He gave me a book.

ADVERB EXERCISES
Find out adverbs in these sentences.
1. He worked on slipper road carefully. (__________)
2. He laughed heartily. (__________)
3. The hungry lion roared furiously. (__________)
4. Jami is extremely clever. (__________)
5. Sania sings beautifully. (__________)

PREPOSITION EXERCISES
Identify prepositions in these sentences.
1. A house on a hill. (__________)
2. Cat is on the table. (__________)
3. I am living in Lahore. (__________)
4. He arrived at 6 o’ clock. (__________)
5. He had a meal at noon. (__________)

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #11 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

INTERJECTION EXERCISES
Underline the interjections in these sentences.
1. Alas! Maria failed in the test.
2. Hurrah! We have won the race.
3. Oh no! I am getting late.
4. Wow! It is a beautiful scene.
5. Oh my gosh! I missed the chance.

CONJUNCTION EXERCISES
Identify conjunctions in these sentences.
1. John likes to fish and hunt. (__________)
2. Do you prefer coffee or tea? (__________)
3. It is sunny yet cold. (__________)
4. I worked hard and passed the exams. (__________)
5. I like to eat fish but not to catch them. (__________)

II. Check for Understanding

Now that you are done with our lesson, let us check if you have fully understood our contents
for today. For mastery, answer the following questions below without looking in your concept
notes. Once you complete the task; check your answers against the Key to Corrections found
at the end of this SAS. Write your score on your paper.

1. What is the difference between grammar and syntax?

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

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C. LESSON WRAP-UP

FAQs

Food for Thought!

If you have questions that you cannot ask to your teacher, this may help you clarify things out.

1. What is traditional grammar?

The term traditional grammar refers to the collection of prescriptive rules and concepts about the structure of
language that is commonly taught in schools. Traditional English grammar, also referred to as school grammar,
is largely based on the principles of Latin grammar, not on modern linguistic research in English. Traditional
grammar defines what is and is not correct in the English language, not accounting for culture or modernizing in
favor of maintaining tradition

THINKING ABOUT LEARNING

Congratulations for finishing this module! Shade the number of the module that you finished.

Great Job! Did you finish all parts of the module? Do you have any questions you may want to ask to
clarify the topic? You may write any question to further help you learn and your teacher will get to you
on the answers.

1. What part of the lesson seems difficult for you to understand?

____________________________________________________________________________

2. Is there a question you would like to ask your teacher about the lesson?
____________________________________________________________________________

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KEY TO CORRECTIONS

Answers on Content and Skill-building

Activity no 3.1 : Noun Activity no 3.2: Pronoun Activity no 3.3: Adjective
Abstract noun Antecedent, relative pronoun Tall
Collective noun Antecedent, relative pronoun Large
Material noun Personal pronoun Fatter
Proper noun Antecedent, relative pronoun Better
Collective noun, Personal pronoun, personal Beautiful
common noun pronoun

Activity no 3.4: Verb Activity no 3.5: Adverb

Reading Carefully
Takes Heartily
Studies Furiously
In this sentence, “run” is called a principal verb and “can” is Extremely
called helping verb (auxiliaries) Beautifully
In this sentence, some transitive verbs have two objects;
“me” is called an indirect object and “a book” is called a
direct object.

Activity no 3.6: Preposition Activity no 3.7: Interjections Activity no 3.8: Conjunctions

On Alas And
On Hurrah Or
In Oh no Yet
At Wow And
At Oh my gosh But

Answer on Check for Understanding Activity

English Grammar and Syntax defines the two as follows: Grammar is a set of rules that set forth the correct
standard of usage in a language. Syntax is the study of sentences and their structure, and the constructions
within sentences. Syntax tells us what goes where in a sentence.

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #12 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson title: Prescriptive and Descriptive Grammar Materials:

Learning Targets: SAS
At the end of the module, students will be able to:
1. analyze the sentence structure; and References:
2. differentiate prescriptive and descriptive grammar Yule, George (2006).The Study of
Language.
Bauer, L. (2007). The Linguistics
Student's Handbook

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction

Grammar is used to refer to a number of different things: it can be used

to refer to books that contain descriptions of the structure of a language;
it can be used to refer to the knowledge that a native speaker has of his
or her language and to descriptions of that knowledge; it can be used to
refer to a set of rules developed to control certain aspects of the usage of
native speakers; and it can be used to refer to a set of rules typically
taught in school about “appropriate usage” and about writing.

You are concerned with three of these kinds of grammars: descriptive

grammar, which has as its goal a description of the usage of native
speakers of a language; prescriptive grammar which has as its goal to control the usage of native speakers of a
language; and school grammar which is primarily the simplified subset of prescriptive grammar taught in school.

B.MAIN LESSON

I. Content and Skill-building

Read carefully the content notes and try to highlight or underline the key terms for greater level
of understanding.

What is Descriptive Grammar?

The following definitions are taken from various valid sources and to wit:

1. A descriptive grammar is a study of a language, its structure, and its rules as they are used in daily
life by its speakers from all walks of life, including standard and nonstandard varieties. That is,

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descriptive grammar describes the language, its structure, and the syntactic rules that govern
sentence and phrase constructions (Greenbaum & Quirk, 1990).
2. A descriptive study of grammar is non-judgmental, and it does not have the goal of determining what
represents good or bad language, correct or incorrect structures, or grammatical or ungrammatical
forms (Leech, Deuchar, & Hoogenraad, 2006).
3. Linguists, anthropologists, ethnographers, psychologists, typically study descriptive grammar or
other researchers who seek to identify how the grammar of a language is actually used in various
contexts and for various purposes. (Non-specialists call Books that describe and present the
grammar of any language reference grammars, or sometimes “a grammar”.
4. In an academic sense, a descriptive grammar of a language is a theory that has attempts to explain
how a particular language works (Leech, Deuchar, & Hoogenraad, 2006). Anthropologically
speaking, a descriptive grammar seeks to formulate syntactic rules that are based on the way a
language is actually used for communication, but not what these rules should be.

In this light, sentences such as Him and me, we are neighbors or I don't know nothing simply reflect
how the language is used by its speakers. Among other considerations, a good descriptive grammar also takes
into account cultural and social variables that, in many cases, determine how language is produced and
understood.

What is Prescriptive Grammar?

A prescriptive grammar, on the other hand, specifies how a language should

be used and what grammar rules should be followed. A prescriptivist view of
language implies a distinction between "good grammar" and "bad grammar,"
and its primary focus is on standard forms of grammar and syntactic
constructions. Among native speakers of practically any language, a
prescriptivist approach to grammar often encompasses many ideas, opinions,
and judgments about how and when grammar rules should be used.
Thus, for example, the sentence Him and me, we are neighbors would be
considered ungrammatical because it violates at least two grammar rules:

1. object forms of pronouns "him and me" should not be used in the sentence-initial or subject-noun
position, and,
2. only one noun or noun phrase can play the role of the sentence subject, and in this case, "we"
(Greenbaum, 1996).

Prescriptive grammars supply the rules for using or not using (e.g., ain't or nobody knows nothing) specific
grammar constructions.

To simplify the descriptive and prescriptive grammar dichotomy and their practical characteristics, most linguists
or language hobbyists are likely to be descriptive grammarians who analyze and explain a
language's uses while most practicing teachers probably work with prescriptive grammars (Andrews,

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2006).

Examples of prescriptive grammar rules can be found in practically every guide to "good" language
usage, grammar rule book, or grammar guide. The classical examples of prescriptive English grammar
rules that seem to be broken more often than not include, for instance:

⮚ A sentence (or a clause) should not end on a preposition (also called "stranded prepositions"),
e.g., This is what I came here for or Where are you going to?.
⮚ Singular subject nouns (or pronouns) should have singular pronoun references,
e.g., Every student needs to open their books on page 20 or Nobody did their homework.
⮚ In the subject position, the pronoun "who" should be used, and in the object position, "whom “is
appropriate
e.g., I gave it to who I always give it or Who did you talk to?
⮚ With non-count nouns (e.g., money, water, or equipment), "little" or "less" should be used, and
"few" or "fewer" is for countable nouns,
e.g., I work in a small office with less than 20 people or The crowd that comes here gets fewer and
fewer every year.

Many similar prescriptivist grammar rules are highly frequently broken by native and nonnative speakers of
English alike (more on this below). That is, if prescriptive grammar rules are intended for language users from
all walks of life, prescriptions can be less than useful if only a small minority of language users follow them. On
the other hand, grammar descriptions and explanations are not without their own conundrums.

Let’s try this one. In your SAS, answer the following items with the best of your knowledge. Be honest with your
answers. Once you are done answering, kindly check your answers on the Key to corrections found at the last
part of you SAS. Good luck!

1. Which is an accurate statement about prescriptive and descriptive approaches to grammar?

a. Prescriptive grammar has value while descriptive grammar does not.

b. Descriptive grammar has value while prescriptive grammar does not.
c. Both prescriptive and descriptive grammar have their own role and value related to the understanding
of language.
d. Prescriptive grammar emphasizes how people speak the way they do, while descriptive grammar
emphasizes how they should speak.

2. An editor modifying the organization of words in a magazine article to make them fit with proper grammar
is an example of which approach?

a. Prescriptive grammar
b. Descriptive grammar
c. Code-switching

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d. All of the answers are correct.

3. Linguists want to study the patterns of speech in an isolated rural community using a descriptive
approach. Which of the following will be their aim?
a. Listening and learning about how the community uses language and then describing this in their
research.
b. Telling the local people how to correct their grammar to make it fit with established grammar
guidelines.
c. Changing the rules of grammar to include the way that the people of this community speak in
everyday life.
d. None of the answers are correct.

4. What prescriptive rules are NOT obeyed in the following sentences and how you should correct them?

1. The old theory consistently failed to fully explain all the data.

Problem:_______________________________________________________________
Corrected Version: ______________________________________________________________________

2. I can’t remember the name of the person I gave the book to.

Problem:_______________________________________________________________
Corrected Version: _______________________________________________________________________

II. Check for Understanding

Now that you are done with our lesson, let us check if you have fully understood our contents for today. For
mastery, answer the following questions below without looking in your concept notes. Once you complete
the task; check your answers against the Key to Corrections found at the end of this SAS. Write your score
on your paper.

Complete the table below. Identify the differences of prescriptive and descriptive grammar. Provide at least
three salient features of each type. Once you are done, compare your answers on the Key to Corrections at
the last part of your SAS. You can do this! Keep it up!
Descriptive Grammar Prescriptive Grammar

1.

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2.

3.

C. LESSON WRAP-UP

FAQs

Food for Thought!

If you have questions that you cannot ask to your teacher, this may help you clarify things out.

1. What is split infinitive?

Split infinitives happen when you put an adverb between to and a verb, for example:

a. She used to secretly admire him.

b. You have to really watch him.

2. What’s wrong with split infinitives?

Some people believe that split infinitives are grammatically incorrect and should be avoided at all costs. They
would rewrite these sentences as:

a. She used secretly to admire him.

b. You really have to watch him.

But there’s no real justification for their objection, which is based on comparisons with the structure of Latin.
People have been splitting infinitives for centuries, especially in spoken English, and avoiding a split infinitive
can sound clumsy. It can also change the emphasis of what’s being said. The sentence:

You really have to watch him. [i.e. ‘It’s important that you watch him’] doesn’t have quite the same meaning as:
You have to really watch him. [i.e. ‘You have to watch him very closely’]

3. To split or not to split?

The ‘rule’ against splitting infinitives isn’t followed as strictly today as it used to be. Nevertheless, some people
do object very strongly to them. As a result, it’s safest to avoid split infinitives in formal writing, unless the
alternative wording seems very clumsy or would alter the meaning of your sentence.

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THINKING ABOUT LEARNING

Congratulations for finishing this module! Shade the number of the module that you finished.

Great Job! Did you finish all parts of the module? Do you have any questions you may want to ask to
clarify the topic? You may write any question to further help you learn and your teacher will get to you
on the answers.

1. What part of the lesson seems difficult for you to understand?

____________________________________________________________________________

2. Is there a question you would like to ask your teacher about the lesson?
____________________________________________________________________________

KEY TO CORRECTIONS

Answers on Content and Skill-building

1. C
2. A
3. A
4. Problem: Split infinitive
Corrected version: The old theory consistently failed to explain fully all the data.
5. Problem: Sentence ends with preposition
Corrected version: I can’t remember the name of the person to whom I gave the book.

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Answer on Check for Understanding Activity

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
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Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson title: LONG QUIZ Materials:

SAS

Directions: This test is good for one hour and thirty minutes. Inappropriate communications between
examinees will be dealt with severely. Read each item carefully and identify what was asked. Indicate
your answer in your quiz booklet. Write your answers legibly.

Part I. List the morphemes in each word below, and state whether each morpheme is free (F) or bound (B). The
first item is done for you.

1. creating - create (F), ting (B) 6. unhealthy

2. seaward 7. waiter
3. wastage 8. reconsider
4. poetic 9. keys
5. modernize 10. Incompletion

Part II. Word Trees. For each word below, draw a word tree. See the sample item below for you to be guided
with the correct response.
Example: rehospitalize
where:
N is noun ; V is verb; Af is affix
Note: for affixes, identify either it is derivational (D) or
inflectional (I) by indicating D or I

1. shipper 6. simply

2. disobey 7. Jumping

3. resettled 8. Digitizes

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Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

4. anticlimaxes 9. Activity

5. unemployment 10. confrontational

Part III. For each word below, indicate whether the word is morphologically simple (S), includes an inflectional
affix (I), or includes a derivational affix (D). Indicate your answers before each item.
1. rider 6. reader
2. colder 7. redder
3. silver 8. radish
4. lens 9. redness
5. legs 10. rotation

Part IV. For each underlined word in the following sentences, identify and then write the part of speech on the
line next to the number. Each part of speech is used at least once. Indicate your answers on the space preceding
each item.
1. They attended the concert last weekend.
2. Several cats ran into Rob’s garage.
3. The truck driver delivered the packages quickly.
4. Fast runners won all the awards at the track meet.
5. My friends and I walked home after school.
6. I wanted a peanut butter and jelly sandwich for lunch yesterday.
7. She was counting the ballots during social studies class.
8. Hey ! That is my seat.
9. Will they finish the test on time?
10. I love you.

Part V. For each sentence, (a) identify the violation, (b) give the preferred prescriptive form, and (c) provide the
prescriptive grammar rule. The first item is done for you.
1. It's time for you and I to talk this over
a. It's time for you and I to talk this over.
b. It's time for you and me to talk this over.
c. Use me, not I, in object position.
1. We love Steak ’n Shake. Her and I eat grilled cheese and chili there.
a. ___________________________________________________________________________
b. ___________________________________________________________________________
c. ___________________________________________________________________________

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2. This site uses a Google Maps interface for users to quickly locate international, national, regional, or
local news.
a. ___________________________________________________________________________
b. ___________________________________________________________________________
c. ___________________________________________________________________________

3. Then she cursed and screamed and told my grandma she didn’t want to live no more.
a. ___________________________________________________________________________
b. ___________________________________________________________________________
c. ___________________________________________________________________________

4. He was certain that he could – and would – once again return to the lifestyle he had grown accustomed
to.
a. ___________________________________________________________________________
b. ___________________________________________________________________________
c. ___________________________________________________________________________

5. If you choose the most expensive items, you will be able to serve less people.
a. ___________________________________________________________________________
b. ___________________________________________________________________________
c. ___________________________________________________________________________

6. We’ve signed a trade agreement between the three countries.

a. ___________________________________________________________________________
b. ___________________________________________________________________________
c. ___________________________________________________________________________

7. I feel badly that I was even involved.

a. ___________________________________________________________________________
b. ___________________________________________________________________________
c. ___________________________________________________________________________

8. It's a most unique water vehicle.

a. ___________________________________________________________________________
b. ___________________________________________________________________________
c. ___________________________________________________________________________

9. There's some really bad people there.

a. ___________________________________________________________________________
b. ___________________________________________________________________________
c. ___________________________________________________________________________

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10. And I don’t know how they do it, but they sure do it good.
a. ___________________________________________________________________________
b. ___________________________________________________________________________
c. ___________________________________________________________________________

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Lesson title: Syntax Materials:

Learning Targets: SAS
At the end of the module, students will be able to:
1. distinguish deep and surface structures of sentences; and References:
2. create a tree diagram for structural analysis. Yule, George (2006).The Study of
Language.
Bauer, L. (2007). The Linguistics
Student's Handbook.

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction

In the previous chapter, you moved from the general categories and concepts of traditional grammar to more
specific methods of describing the structure of the phrases and sentences. When we focus on the structure
and ordering of components within the sentence, we are studying the syntax of a language.
The word syntax comes originally from Greek word and literally means “putting together”, or
“arrangement”. In this lesson, you will be discussing generative grammar, syntactic structures, either deep or
surface structure, structural ambiguity, recursion and tree diagrams. For you to substantiate the lesson, it takes
much focus and attention.

B.MAIN LESSON

I. Content and Skill-building

Read carefully the content notes and try to highlight or underline the key terms for greater level
of understanding.

In linguistics, generative grammar is grammar (the set of language rules) that indicates the structure and
interpretation of sentences that native speakers of a language accept as belonging to their language. Adopting
the term generative from mathematics, linguist Noam Chomsky introduced the concept of generative grammar
in the 1950s. This theory is also known as transformational grammar, a term still used today.

Generative Grammar
✔ Generative grammar is a theory of grammar, first developed by Noam Chomsky in the 1950s, that
is based on the idea that all humans have an innate language capacity.

✔ Linguists who study generative grammar are not interested in prescriptive rules; rather, they are
interested in uncovering the foundational principles that guide all language production.

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✔ Generative grammar accepts as a basic premise that native speakers of a language will find certain
sentences grammatical or ungrammatical and that these judgments give insight into the rules
governing the use of that language.

Syntactic Structures

A generative grammar defines the syntactic structures of a language. The grammar will generate all the well-
formed syntactic structures (sentences) and only grammatical sentences only will be produced. That is why it is
also called the only and all criterion of generative grammar.
The standard theory of Syntactic Structures and especially of Aspects of the Theory of Syntax employed a
phrase-structure grammar—a grammar in which the syntactic elements of a language are defined by means of
rewrite rules that specify their smaller constituents (e.g., “S → NP + VP,” or “a sentence may be rewritten as a
noun phrase and a verb phrase”)—a large number of “obligatory” and “optional” transformations, and two
levels of structure: a “deep structure,” where semantic interpretation takes place, and a “surface structure,”
where phonetic interpretation takes place.

Deep and Surface Structure

In transformational and generative grammar, deep structure (also known as deep grammar or D-structure) is
the underlying syntactic structure—or level—of a sentence. In contrast to surface structure (the outward form
of a sentence), deep structure is an abstract representation that identifies the ways a sentence can be
analyzed and interpreted. Deep structures are generated by phrase-structure rules, and surface structures are
derived from deep structures by a series of transformations.

In contrast to deep structure (an abstract representation of a sentence), surface structure

corresponds to the version of a sentence that can be spoken and heard. A modified version of the concept of
surface structure is called S-structure. In transformational grammar, deep structures are generated by phrase-
structure rules, and surface structures are derived from deep structures by a series of transformations.

Let’s try to look at this example for you to clearly understand: Consider the following sentences below.
1. Charlie broke the window.
2. The window was broken by Charlie.

The first sentence is active and the second one is passive, and both sentences focus on the window and what
happened to it. The difference between their syntactic form is based on the surface structure. However, if we
compare two sentences in terms of their basic components (noun phrase + verb), you can say that they are
totally distinct from each other.

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What is structural ambiguity?

In English grammar, syntactic ambiguity (also called structural

ambiguity or grammatical ambiguity) is the presence of two or
more possible meanings within a single sentence or sequence of
words, as opposed to lexical ambiguity, which is the presence of
two or more possible meanings within a single word. The
intended meaning of a syntactically ambiguous phrase can
generally—although not always—be determined by the context of
its use. Here are some examples:

1. The professor said on Monday he would give an

exam. This sentence means either that it was on Monday
that the professor told the class about the exam or that the exam would be given on Monday.
2. The chicken is ready to eat. This sentence either means the chicken is cooked and can be eaten now
or the chicken is ready to be fed.

What then is recursion?

Recursion is the repeated sequential use of a particular type of linguistic element or grammatical structure.
Another way to describe recursion is linguistic recursion. More simply, recursion has also been described as
the ability to place one component inside another component of the same kind.

Recursive rules have the capacity to be applied more than once in generating a structure. For example, we can
have one prepositional phrase describing the location (on the table) in the sentence The gun was on the table.
You can also repeat this type of phrase, using different words (near the window), for as long as the sentence
still makes sense (in the bedroom). So, in order to generate a sentence such as The gun was on the table near
the window in the bedroom, you must be able to repeat the rules that create a prepositional phrase over and
over again.

Symbols used in syntactic description

Having reviewed some important concepts in the study of syntax, you can now look at some of the ways in
which syntactic analysis is presented. First things first is to identify the list of symbols and abbreviations below.

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D - Determiner or article
CP - complement clause is a subordinate clause that serves to complete the meaning of a noun or verb in
a sentence. It is accompanied by the word that which is a complementizer.
* - ungrammatical sentence
- consists of
() - optional constituent
{} - one and only one of these constituent must be selected

What is a parse tree?

A parse tree or parsing tree or derivation tree or concrete syntax

tree is an ordered, rooted tree that represents the syntactic structure of a
string according to some context-free grammar. The term parse tree itself
is used primarily in computational linguistics; in theoretical syntax, the term
syntax tree is more common.

So how do you interpret this example at the right?

You begin with a sentence and divide it into two constituents (NP)
and (VP). In turn, the NP constituent is divided into two other constituents,
the D and N. Likewise with the VP, it follows the same parsing.

Phrase Structure Rules

This second approach of parsing is very appealing because it would enable us to generate a very large
number of sentences unlike with the tree diagram. As the name suggests, these rules state that the structure of
a phrase of a specific type will consist of one or more constituents in one particular order. The example below
will show you the other way of using tree diagrams.

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Consider this new way:

1. S 🡪 NP VP
2. NP 🡪 Det N
3. VP 🡪 Vt NP PrepP
4. PrepP 🡪 Prep NP

Let us try out your knowledge about the content. Complete the following tasks below. Once you are done
answering, kindly check your answers on the Key to corrections found at the last part of your SAS. Good luck!

Activity no. 1: In what way are these expressions structurally ambiguous?

a. The parents of the bride and groom were waiting outside.

1. ______________________________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________________________

b. We met an English history teacher.

1. ______________________________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________________________

c. Flying planes can be dangerous.

1. ______________________________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________________________

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Activity no. 2:

II. Check for Understanding

Now that you are done with our lesson, let us check if you have fully understood our contents for today.
Draw the full tree structure of the following sentences: Once you complete the task; check your answers
against the Key to Corrections found at the end of this SAS. Write your score on your paper.

1. Jack was ignored and he seemed quite angry.

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2. Did it appear to be safe?

C. LESSON WRAP-UP

FAQs

Food for Thought!

If you have questions that you cannot ask to your teacher, this may help you clarify things out.

1. What is the difference between competence and performance in language?

Chomsky separates competence and performance; he describes 'competence' as an idealized capacity that is
located as a psychological or mental property or function and 'performance' as the production of actual
utterances.

THINKING ABOUT LEARNING

Congratulations for finishing this module! Shade the number of the module that you finished.

Great Job! Did you finish all parts of the module? Do you have any questions you may want to ask to
clarify the topic? You may write any question to further help you learn and your teacher will get to you
on the answers.

1. What part of the lesson seems difficult for you to understand?

____________________________________________________________________________

2. Is there a question you would like to ask your teacher about the lesson?
____________________________________________________________________________

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KEY TO CORRECTIONS

Answers on Content and Skill-building Activity 1&2

Please take note that the answers may vary depending on your interpretation of the ambiguous sentences.

Answer on Check for Understanding Activity

Please refer your answers to the teacher as he/she plots these on the board.

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Lesson title: Semantics Materials:

Learning Targets: SAS
At the end of the module, students will be able to:
1. distinguish conceptual and associative meaning; and References:
2. analyze the semantic features of the sentence. Yule, George (2006).The Study of
Language.
Bauer, L. (2007). The Linguistics
Student's Handbook.

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction

“ I once referred to a character in one of my cartoons as a

"dork" (a popular insult when I was growing up), but my editor
called me up and said that "dork" couldn't be used because it
meant "penis." I couldn't believe it. I ran to my New Dictionary
of American Slang and, sure enough, he was right. All those
years of saying or being called a "dork" and I had never really
known what it meant. What a nerd. “
- Gary Larson (1989)
Looking into the above-mentioned situation, indeed, you can
say that a word has many meanings. These word meanings
are dealt in the study of semantics.

B.MAIN LESSON

I. Content and Skill-building

Read carefully the content notes and try to highlight or underline the key terms for greater level
of understanding.

Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences. In semantic analysis, there is always
an attempt to focus on what the words conventionally mean, rather than on what a speaker might want the words
to mean on a particular occasion. This technical approach to meaning emphasizes the objective and the general.
It avoids the subjective and the local. Linguistic semantics deals with the conventional meaning conveyed by the
use of words and sentences of a language.

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Conceptual versus associative meaning

When linguists investigate the meaning of words in a language, they are normally interested in
characterizing the conceptual meaning and less concerned with the associative or stylistic meaning of words.
Conceptual meaning covers those basic, essential
components of meaning which are conveyed by the literal
use of a word. Some of the basic components of a word like
needle in English might include 'thin, sharp, steel,
instrument'. These components would be part of the
conceptual meaning of needle. However, you may have
'associations', or 'connotations', attached to a word like
needle, which lead you to think of 'painful' whenever you
encounter the word. This 'association' is not treated as part
of the conceptual meaning of needle. In a similar way, you
may associate the expression low-calorie, when used to
describe a product, with 'good for you', but we would not want to include this association within the basic
conceptual meaning of the expression. Poets and advertisers are, of course, very interested in using terms in
such a way that their associative meanings are evoked, and some linguists do investigate this aspect of language
use. However, in this chapter we shall be more interested in characterizing what constitutes the conceptual
meaning in conceptual terms.

Semantic features

So, how would a semantic approach help us to understand something about the nature of language?
One way it might be helpful would be as a means of accounting for the 'oddness' we experience when we read
English sentences such as the following:
a. The hamburger ate the man.
b. My cat studied linguistics.
c. A table was listening to some music.
Notice that the oddness of these sentences does not derive from their syntactic structure. According to some
basic syntactic rules for forming English sentences, we have well-structured sentences:

The hamburger ate the man

NP V NP

This sentence is syntactically good, but semantically odd. Since the sentence The man ate the
hamburger is perfectly acceptable, what is the source of the oddness we experience? One answer may relate
to the components of the conceptual meaning of the noun hamburger which differ significantly from \hose of
the noun man, especially when those nouns are used as subjects of [he verb ate. The kinds of nouns which
can be subjects of the verb ate must denote entities which are capable of eating. The noun hamburger does
not have this property (and man does), hence the oddness of the first sentence above.

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We can, in fact, make this observation more generally applicable by tryIng to determine the crucial
component of meaning which a noun must have in order to be used as the subject of the verb ate. Such a
component may be as general as 'animate being'. We can then take this component and use it to describe part
of the meaning of words as either plus (+) or minus (-) the feature. So, the feature becomes +animate (= denotes
an animate being) or -animate (= does not denote an animate being).

This procedure is a way of analyzing meaning in terms of semantic features. Features such as +animate,
-animate; +human, -human; + male. -male, for example, can be treated as the basic features involved in
differentiating the meanings of each word in the language from every other word. It you were asked to give the
crucial distinguishing features of the meanings of this set of English words (table, cow, girl, woman, boy, man),
you could do so by means of the following diagram:

From a feature analysis like this, you can say that at least part of the basic meaning of the word boy in English
involves the components (+human. +male, -adult). You can also characterize that feature which is crucially
required in a noun in order for it to appear as the subject of a verb, supplementing the syntactic analysis with
semantic features:

The ______________________ is reading a book.

N( +human)

This approach then gives us the ability to predict what nouns would make the above sentence
semantically odd. Examples would be table, or tree, or dog, because they all have the feature ( -human). The
approach, which has just been outlined, is not without problems. For many words in a language it may not be so
easy to come up with neat components of meaning. If you try to think of which components or features you would
use to distinguish the nouns advice, threat and warning, for example, you will have some idea of the scope of
the problem. Part of the problem seems that the approach involves a view of words in a language as some sort
of container that carries meaning components. There is clearly more to the meaning of words than these basic
types of features.

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Semantic Roles

A semantic role is the underlying

relationship that a participant has with the main
verb in a clause. Semantic role is the actual role a
participant plays in some real or imagined
situation, apart from the linguistic encoding of
those situations.

Let’s discuss each of these roles.

Agent, theme, instrument

In the sentence The boy kicks the ball,

one role is taken by the boy as 'the entity that
performs the action', technically known as the
agent.

Another role is taken by the ball, as 'the entity that is involved in or affected by the action', technically
known as the theme. The theme can also be an entity (the ball) that is simply being described, as in, the ball
was red. Identifying entities denoted by noun phrases as the agent or the theme is a way of recognizing the
semantic roles of those noun phrases in a sentence.

Although agents are typically human, they can also be non-human forces, (the wind blew the ball
away), machines (the car ran over the ball), or (the dog caught the ball). If an agent uses another entity in
performing an action, that other entity fills the role of instrument. The theme can also be human. Indeed, the
same physical entity can appear in two different semantic roles, as in The boy kicked himself. Here, the boy is
an agent and himself is the theme.

Experiencer, location, source, goal

When a noun phrase designates an entity as the person who has a feeling, a perception or a state, it
fills the role of experiencer. If you see, know or enjoy something, you do not really have to perform any action
(hence, you are not an agent). You are in the role of experiencer. If someone asks, Did you hear: hat noise?, the
experiencer is you and the theme is that noise. A number of other semantic roles designate where an entity is in
the description of the event. Where an entity is (on the table, in the room) fills the role of location. Where an
entity moves from is the source and where it moves to is the goal.

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The first item is done for you. Indicate your answers here.

1. 6.
we – Agent
Mary – Theme/Agent
the job – Goal
bus driver – Role

2. 7.

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3. 8.

4. 9.

5. 10.

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II. Check for Understanding

Now that you are done with our lesson, let us check if you have fully understood our contents for today.
Draw the full tree structure of the following sentences: Once you complete the task; check your answers
against the Key to Corrections found at the end of this SAS. Write your score on your paper.

Differentiate associate and conceptual meaning.

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C. LESSON WRAP-UP

FAQs

Food for Thought!

If you have questions that you cannot ask to your teacher, this may help you clarify things out.

1. What is the difference

between connotative
and denotative meaning?

THINKING ABOUT LEARNING

Congratulations for finishing this module! Shade the number of the module that you finished.

Great Job! Did you finish all parts of the module? Do you have any questions you may want to ask to
clarify the topic? You may write any question to further help you learn and your teacher will get to you
on the answers.

1. What part of the lesson seems difficult for you to understand?

____________________________________________________________________________

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Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

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2. Is there a question you would like to ask your teacher about the lesson?
____________________________________________________________________________

KEY TO CORRECTIONS

Answers on Content and Skill-building

Answer on Check for Understanding Activity

Please refer your answers to the concept notes.

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
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Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

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Lesson title: Lexical Relations Materials:

Learning Targets: SAS
At the end of the module, students will be able to:
1. discuss the different lexical relations; and References:
2. analyze the semantic features of the sentence. Yule, George (2006).The Study of
Language.
Bauer, L. (2007). The Linguistics
Student's Handbook.

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction

Not only can words be treated as 'containers' or as

fulfilling 'roles', they can also have 'relationships'. In
everyday talk, we frequently give the meanings of words in
terms of their relationships. If you were asked to give the
meaning of the word conceal, for example, you might simply
reply "it's the same as hide", or give the meaning of shallow
as "the opposite of deep", or the meaning of daffodil as "it's
a kind of flower".
In doing so, you are characterizing the meaning of a
word not in terms of its component features, but in terms of
its relationship to other words. This procedure has also
been used in the semantic description of languages and is
treated as the analysis of lexical relations. The types of
lexical relations which are usually analyzed are defined and exemplified in the following sections.

B.MAIN LESSON

I. Content and Skill-building

Read carefully the content notes and try to highlight or underline the key terms for greater level
of understanding.

A lexical relation is a culturally recognized pattern of association that exists between lexical units in a
language. The following are types of lexical relations and to wit:

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1. Synonyms
Synonyms are two or more forms with very closely related
meanings, which are often, but not always, inter substitutable in
sentences. Examples of synonyms are the pairs broad - wide, hide
- conceal, almost - nearly, cab – taxi, liberty - freedom, answer -
reply.
It should be noted that the idea of 'sameness of meaning'
used in discussing synonymy is not necessarily 'total
sameness'.There are many occasions when one word is appropriate
in a sentence, but its synonym would be odd. For example, whereas
the word answer fits in this sentence:
Cathy had only one answer correct on the test, its near-synonym,
reply, would sound odd. Synonymous forms may also differ in terms of formality. The sentence My father
purchased a large automobile seems much more serious than the following casual version, with four
synonymous replacements: My dad bought a big car.

2. Antonymys

Two forms with opposite meanings are called antonyms, and commonly used examples are the pairs quick
- slow, big - small, long - short, rich poor, happy -sad, hot- cold, old - young, male - female, true-false, alive-
dead. Antonyms are usually divided into two main types, those which are 'gradable', and those which are 'non-
gradable'. Gradable antonyms, such as the pair big - small, can be used in comparative constructions like bigger
than smaller than.
Also, the negative of one member of the gradable pair does nol necessarily imply the other. For example, if
you say that dog is not old, you do not have to mean that dog is young. With non-gradable antonyms, also called
'complementary pairs', comparative constructions are not normally used (the expressions deader or more dead
sound strange), and the negative of one member does imply the other. For example, that person is not dead
does indeed mean that person is alive. So, the pairs male - female and true-false must also be non-gradable
antonyms, whereas the others in the list above are gradable. Although it works for the small number of non-
gradable antonyms in a language, it is important to avoid describing most antonym pairs as one word meaning
the negative of another. Consider the opposites tie - untie. The word untie doesn't mean 'not tie'. It actually
means 'do the reverse of tie'. Such pairs are called reversives. Other common examples are enter-exit, pack -
unpack, lengthen - shorten, raise -lower, and dress - undress.

3. Hyponymy
When the meaning of one form is included in the meaning of another, the relationship is described as by
hyponymy, and some typical example pairs are daffodil- flower, dog - animal, poodle - dog, carrot - vegetable,
banyan -uree. The concept of inclusion involved here is the idea that if any object is a daffodil, then it is
necessarily a flower, so the meaning of flower is 'included' in the meaning of daffodil or, daffodil is a hyponym of
flower. When we consider hyponymous relations, we are essentially looking at the meaning of words in some
type of hierarchical relationship. You could, in fact, represent the relationships between a set of words such as
animal, IUlt, asp, banyan, carrot, cockroach, creature, daffodil, dog, flower, horse, insect, living things, pine,

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plant, snake, tree and vegetable as a hierarchical diagram in the following way:

From this diagram, we can say that horse is a hyponym of animal" or that 'ant is a hyponym of insect'. We
can also say that two or more terms which share the same superordinate (higher-up) term are co-hyponyms. So,
horse and dog are co-hyponyms, and the superordinate term is animal. The relation of hyponymy captures the
idea of 'is a kind of', as when you give the meaning of a word by saying "an asp is a kind of snake". It is often
the case that the only thing some people know about the meaning of a word in their language is that it is a
hyponym of another term. That is, you may know nothing more about the meaning of asp other than that it is a
kind of snake. It is worth emphasizing that it is not only words for 'things' that are hyponyms. Terms for actions,
such as cut, punch, shoot and stab, can all be found as co-hyponyms of the superordinate term injure.

4. Prototypes

While the words canary, dove, duck, flamingo, parrot, pelican, robin, swallow and thrush are all equally co-
hyponyms of the superordinate bird, they are not all considered to be equally good exemplars of the category
'bird'. For many American English speakers, the best exemplar, or the prototype, of 'bird' is the robin. The concept
of a prototype helps explain the meaning of certain words, like bird, not in terms of component features (e.g. 'has
feathers', 'has wings'), but in terms of resemblance to the clearest exemplar. Thus, even native speakers of
English might wonder if ostrich and penguin should be hyponyms of bird (technically, they are), but have no
trouble deciding about sparrow or pigeon. The last two are much closer to the prototype.

5. Homophony, homonymy and polysemy

There are three other, less well-known terms, which are often used to describe relationships among words
in a language. The first of these is homophony. When two or more different (written) forms have the same
pronunciation, they are described as homophones. Some examples are bare - bear, meat-meet, flour- flower,
pail- pale, sew -so.
The term homonymy is used when one form (written and spoken) has two or more unrelated meanings.

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Examples of homonyms are the pairs bank (of a river) - bank (financial institution), bat (flying creature) - bat
(used in sports), race (contest of speed) - race (ethnic group), pupil (at school) pupil (in the eye) and mole (on
skin) - mole (small animal). The temptation is to think that the two types of bank must be related in meaning.
They are not. Homonyms are words which have quite separate meanings, but which have accidentally come to
have exactly the same form.
Relatedness of meaning accompanying identical form is technically known as polysemy, which can be defined
as one form (written or spoken) having multiple meanings which are all related by extension. Examples are the
word head, used to refer to the object on top of your body, on top of a glass of beer, on top of a company or
department; or foot (of person, of bed, of mountain), or run (person does, water does, colors do).
The distinction between homonymy and polysemy is not always clear-cut. However, one indication of the
distinction can be found in the typical dictionary entry for words. If a word has multiple meanings (polysemic),
then there will be a single entry, with a numbered list of the different meanings of the word. If two words are
treated as homonyms, they will typically have two separate entries.
You could check in your dictionary and probably find that the different meanings of words like head, get, run,
face and foot are treated as examples of polysemy, whereas mail, bank, sole and mole are treated as examples
of homonymy.

Of course, one form can be distinguished via homonymy, then shown to have various uses via polysemy.
The words date (= oblong, fleshy fruit) and date (= point in time) are homonyms. But the 'point in time' kind of
date is polysemous in terms of a particular day and month (= on a letter), an arranged meeting time (= an
appointment), a social meeting (= with someone of the opposite sex) and even a person (= that someone of the
opposite sex). The question: How about a date? could have many interpretations.

These last three lexical relations are, of course, the basis of a lot of wordplay, particularly used for humorous
effect. In the nursery rhyme, Mary had little lamb, we think of a small animal, but in the comic version of Mary
had a little lamb, some rice and vegetables, we tend to think, instead, of a small amount of meat. The polysemy
of lamb allows the two interpretations. The Pillsbury Flour Company once took advantage of homophony to
promote a brand of flour with the slogan Everybody kneads it. If you are asked the following riddle: What's black
and white and red all over?, you may initially be confused by the answer: a newspaper. The trick depends on
the homophony of red and read. And if you have come across this riddle: Why are trees often mistaken/or dogs?,
then you will have encountered the use of homonymy in the answer: Because of their bark.

6. Metonymy
The relatedness of meaning found in polysemy is essentially based on similarity. The head of a company is
similar to the head of a person on top of (and controlling) the body. There is another type of relationship between
words, based simply on a close connection in everyday experience. That close connection can be based on a
container-contents relation (bottle coke; can - juice), a whole-part relation (car - wheels; house - roof) or a
representative-symbol relationship (king- crown; the President- the White House). These are examples of
metonymy.

7. Collocation
One other distinct aspect of our knowledge of words has nothing to do with any of the factors considered so
far. We know which words tend to occur with other words. If you ask a thousand people what they think of when

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you say hammer, more than half will say nail. If you say table, they'll mostly say chair and for butter - bread, for
needle - thread, and for salt - pepper. One way we seem to organize our knowledge of words is simply in terms
of collocation, or frequently occurring together. Some collocations are joined by pairs of words such as salt and
pepper or husband and wife. However, salt will also make some people say water because of the common
collocation of salt water.

What is the semantic relationship between (or among) the following words

a couch : sofa ____________________ i) vehicle : car, truck, SUV, bicycle ___________________

b) awake : asleep ____________________ j) take : grasp, carry, go ___________________
c) stop : go ____________________ k) I’ll stand (be on my feet) : (resist) __________________
d)strong : weak ____________________ l) do : undo _ __________________
e)lead /led/ : lead /li…d/.__________________ m) fast : slow ___________________
f) mammal : dog, cat, pig, cow _____________ n) alive : dead ___________________
g) get : obtain, become, buy. _______________ o) beginning : debut ___________________
h) crown : king or queen ________________ p) I saw the spring (season) : (metal coil) _______________

II. Check for Understanding

Now that you are done with our lesson, let us check if you have fully understood our contents for today.
Complete the task below. Once you complete the task; check your answers against the Key to Corrections
found at the end of this SAS. Write your score on your paper.

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Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

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1. Give an antonym of this word. __________________________________

2. Give a homophone of this word. __________________________________
3. Give an antonym of this word. __________________________________
4. Give an antonym of this word. __________________________________
5. Give an antonym of this word. __________________________________
6. Give a homophone of this word. __________________________________
7. Give an antonym of this word. __________________________________
8. Give an antonym of this word. __________________________________
9. Give an antonym of this word. __________________________________
10. Give an antonym of this word. __________________________________
11. Give an antonym of this word. __________________________________
12. Give a homophone of this word. __________________________________
13. What semantic relationship is there between this word and the word lift?
__________________________________

14. What semantic relationship is there between this word and the expression huge?
__________________________________

15. Give an antonym of this word. __________________________________

16. Give a synonym of this word. __________________________________
17. Give a synonym of this word. __________________________________
18. What semantic relationship is there between this word and the word just in the following sentence?
John is a just person.
__________________________________

19. What semantic relationship is there between this word and the word dog?
__________________________________

C. LESSON WRAP-UP

FAQs

Food for Thought!

If you have questions that you cannot ask to your teacher, this may help you clarify things out.

1. What does it mean if the sentence is syntactically correct but semantically wrong?
If something is syntactically correct but semantically incorrect, it means the grammar is fine, but the sentence
is meaningless. The most famous example is "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously." It's grammatically correct
but means nothing. Another example is “The egg yolk is color white.”

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THINKING ABOUT LEARNING

Congratulations for finishing this module! Shade the number of the module that you finished.

Great Job! Did you finish all parts of the module? Do you have any questions you may want to ask to
clarify the topic? You may write any question to further help you learn and your teacher will get to you
on the answers.

1. What part of the lesson seems difficult for you to understand?

____________________________________________________________________________

2. Is there a question you would like to ask your teacher about the lesson?
____________________________________________________________________________

KEY TO CORRECTIONS

Answers on Content and Skill-building

This is adopted from the work of Prof. Argenis A. Zapata

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Answer on Check for Understanding Activity

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Lesson title: Pragmatics Materials:

Learning Targets: SAS
At the end of the module, students will be able to:
1. recognize meanings of words in different context; and References:
2. distinguish different types of speech acts. Yule, George (2006).The Study of
Language.
https://media.neliti.com/media/publi
cations/60843-EN-speech-acts-
force-behind-words.pdf

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction

In the previous chapter, you focused on the conceptual meaning and the
relationships between words. There are aspects of meaning that depend more
on the context of communicative intentions of the speaker. For instance, you see
a large sign with the text, heated attendant parking. You read the sign, knowing
what each other word means and what the sign as a whole. However, you don’t
normally think that the sign is advertising a place where you can park your “
heated attendant”. ( You take an attendant , you heated him/her, and this is
where you can park him/her.)

Alternatively, the sign may indicate a place where attendants who have
been heated will carry out parking. Thus, our interpretation varies depending on
the context of the utterance. With this lesson, it will discuss what the speaker
means of his/her utterances. This is what you call pragmatics.

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B.MAIN LESSON

I. Content and Skill-building

Read carefully the content notes and try to highlight or underline the key terms for greater level
of understanding.

Pragmatics deals with the study of the practical aspects of human action and thought; and of the use
of linguistic signs, words and sentences, in actual situations.

Pragmatics outlines the study of meaning in the interactional context

It looks beyond the literal meaning of an utterance and considers how meaning is constructed
as well as focusing on implied meanings. It considers language as an instrument of
interaction, what people mean when they use language and how we communicate and
understand each other.

Jenny Thomas says that pragmatics considers:

✔ the negotiation of meaning between speaker and listener.

✔ the context of the utterance.
✔ the meaning potential of an utterance.

What exactly are the factors which are relevant for an account of how people use language?

You distinguish several types of contextual information:

1. Physical context – this encompasses what is physically present around the speakers/hearers at the time of
communication. What objects are visible, where the communication is taking place, what is going on around, etc.
a. I want that book.(accompanied by pointing)
b. Be here at 9:00 tonight. (place/time reference)

2. Linguistic context – what has been said before in the conversation. The “history” of things said so far.
a. I can’t believe you said that!
b. If my mom heard you talk like that, she’d wash your mouth out with soap!

3. Social context – the social relationship of the people involved in communication.

a. # Mr. President, stop bugging me and go home. (You can’t talk like this to the President.)
b. # I do hereby humbly request that you might endeavor to telephone me with news of your arrival at your
domicile when such arrival occurs. (A bizarre sentence if said to a friend instead of “call me when you get home”.)

Note: # commonly used to mark a sentence that is inappropriate.

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4. Epistemic – Knowledge and beliefs of the speaker/hearer.

How deixes affects the meaning of utterances?

In modern linguistic studies as according to (Levinson S. anthropology , 1995, p. 10) it means as:

”Deixis (pointing) is an important field studied in pragmatics, semantics and linguistics. Therefore, Deixis refers
to the phenomenon where in understanding the meaning of certain words and phrases in an utterance requires
contextual information.

However, Deixes does not only have the function of a grammatical constituent, but it has the duty to point out
the different meaning the words have even in cases they are used in the same way in different situations.

Deictic expressions

Like English ‘this, that, here, and there occur in all known human languages. In addition to this, they are typically
used to individuate objects in the immediate context in which they are uttered. This is done by pointing at them
so as to direct attention to them.

There are three types of deictic expressions: 1) person deixis- referring to the subject in the sentence, 2) spatial
deixis- referring to the location, and 3) temporal deixis- referring to time element.

Examples:
1.
A: Oh, there’s that guy again (pointing)
B: Oh yeah, now I see him (fixing gaze on the guy)

2.
A:I’ll have that one over there (pointing to a dessert on a tray)
B:This? (touching pastry with tongs)
A:yeah, that looks great
B:Here (handing pastry to customer)

In (1), First, A’s utterance spotlights the individual guy, second, directing B’s attention to him, then, B’s response
(both verbal and ocular) displays that he has recognized him. In (2) First, A’s utterance individuates one pastry
among several, Second, B’s response makes sure he’s attending to the right one. As a result, A reconfirms and
B completes by presenting the pastry to him. If we compare the two examples, it is clear that the underscored
deictic can pick out or present individuals without describing them

In a similar way,
“I, you, he/she, we, now, then,” are all used to pick out individuals (persons, objects, or time frames), apparently
without describing them. Without a common frame of reference between the speakers, the Deixes on its own
would be too vague to be understood.

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Speech Acts

Speech acts are characteristically performed in the utterance of sounds or the making or marks.

What is the difference between just uttering sounds or making marks and performing a speech act? One
difference is that the sounds or marks one makes in the performance of a speech act are characteristically said
to have meaning, and a second related difference is that one is characteristically said to mean something by
those sounds or marks. Characteristically when one speaks one means something by what one says, and what
one says, the string of morphemes that one emits, is characteristically said to have a meaning.

TYPES OF SPEECH ACTS

There are three types of acts in the speech acts, they are locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary.

1. Locutionary

Locutionary speech act is roughly equivalent to uttering certain utterance with certain sense and reference, which
again is roughly equivalent to meaning in traditional sense (Austin, 1962: 108). In line with this, Cutting (2002:
16) states that locutionary is what is said. also proposed by Yule (1996) who states that locutionary act is the act
of producing meaningful utterances.

The example of the locutionary speech act can be seen in the following sentences:
1. It’s so dark in this room.
2. The box is heavy.

The above two sentences represent the actual condition. The first sentence refers to
the lighting of the room and the second sentence refers to the weight of the box.

2. Illocutionary
The illocutionary act is performed via the communicative force of an utterance,such as promising, apologizing,
offering (Yule, 1996:48). This act is also called the act of doing something in saying something. The most
significant level of action in a speech act is the illocutionary act because the force, which has been desired by
the speakers, determines this act.

Illocutionary act can be the real description of interaction conditions. For example:
1. It’s so dark in this room.
2. The box is heavy.

Based on the examples above, the first sentence shows a request to switch the light
on and the second sentence shows a request to lift up the box.

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3. Perlocutionary
Hufford and Heasley (1983:250) states that perlocutionary act is the act that is carried out by a speaker when
making an utterance that causes a certain effect on the hearer and others. Perlocutionary act is also the act
offering someone. Perlocutionary act refers to the effect the utterance has on the thoughts or actions of the other
person. A perlocutionary act is specific to the circumstances of issuance, and is therefore not conventionally
achieved just by uttering that particular utterance, and includes all those effects, intended or unintended, often
indeterminate, that some particular utterance in a particular situation causes. For example:
1. It is so dark in this room.
2. The box is heavy
Based on the example it can be inferred that the first sentence is uttered by someone while switching the light
on and the second sentence is done by someone while lifting up the box.

Read and understand the item. Identify what kind of deictic expression is used in the following utterances.
Indicate your answers on the space provided. (e.g. I-person deixis). Please refer your answers for checking at
the KEY corrects of your SAS.

1. I’m so busy so you can stay here. Come back later. ______________________________________
2. What time are you going to meet her? ______________________________________
3. You can take a break now. ______________________________________
4. Can you please stay away right now? ______________________________________
5. Vivid will meet Coco today. ______________________________________

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II. Check for Understanding

Now that you are done with our lesson, let us check if you have fully understood our contents for today.
Complete the task below. Once you complete the task; check your answers against the Key to Corrections
found at the end of this SAS. Write your score on your paper.

Provide at least three utterances for each type of speech acts.

1. locutionary
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________

2. illocutionary

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________

3. perlocutionary.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________

C. LESSON WRAP-UP

FAQs

Food for Thought!

If you have questions that you cannot ask to your teacher, this may help you clarify things out.

1. What is the presupposition?

In the branch of linguistics known as pragmatics, a presupposition is an implicit assumption about the world or
background belief relating to an utterance whose truth is taken for granted in discourse. Examples of
presuppositions include: Jane no longer writes fiction. Presupposition: Jane once wrote fiction

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THINKING ABOUT LEARNING

Congratulations for finishing this module! Shade the number of the module that you finished.

Great Job! Did you finish all parts of the module? Do you have any questions you may want to ask to
clarify the topic? You may write any question to further help you learn and your teacher will get to you
on the answers.

1. What part of the lesson seems difficult for you to understand?

____________________________________________________________________________

2. Is there a question you would like to ask your teacher about the lesson?
____________________________________________________________________________

KEY TO CORRECTIONS

Answers on Content and Skill-building

1. I’m so busy so you can stay here. Come back later. I-person, you-person,here-spatial, later-temporal
2. What time are you going to meet her? You-person, her-person
3. You can take a break now. You-person, now-temporal
4. Can you please stay away right now? You-person, now-temporal
5. Vivid will meet Coco today. Vivid,Coco-person, today-temporal

Answer on Check for Understanding Activity

(Answers may vary)

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Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

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Lesson title: Discourse Analysis Materials:

Learning Targets: SAS
At the end of the module, students will be able to:
1. analyze different conversations; and References:
2. differentiate coherence from cohesion. Yule, George (2006).The Study of
Language.

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction

In the study of language, some most interesting observations

are made, not in terms of the component of the language, but in
terms of the way language is used, even how pauses are used.
When we carry this investigation further and ask how we made make
sense of what we read, how we recognize well-constructed texts as
opposed to those that are jumbled or incoherent, how we understand
speakers who communicate more than what they say, and how they
successfully take part in the conversation, we are understanding
what is known as discourse analysis.

B.MAIN LESSON

I. Content and Skill-building

Read carefully the content notes and try to highlight or underline the key terms for greater level
of understanding.

In linguistics, discourse refers to a unit of language longer than a single sentence. The word discourse is
derived from the latin prefix dis- meaning "away" and the root word currere meaning "to run". Discourse,
therefore, translates to "run away" and refers to the way that conversations flow. To study discourse is to analyze
the use of spoken or written language in a social context.

On the other hand, discourse analysis, also called discourse studies, was developed during the 1970s
as an academic field. Discourse analysis is a broad term for the study of the ways in which language is used
between people, both in written texts and spoken contexts.

Discourse analysis is sometimes defined as the analysis of language 'beyond the sentence'. This
contrasts with types of analysis more typical of modern linguistics, which are chiefly concerned with the study of

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grammar: the study of smaller bits of language, such as sounds (phonetics and phonology), parts of words
(morphology), meaning (semantics), and the order of words in sentences (syntax). Discourse analysts study
larger chunks of language as they flow together.

Interpreting discourse

Discourse and Frames

'Reframing' is a way to talk about going back and re-interpreting the meaning of the first sentence. Frame
analysis is a type of discourse analysis that asks, What activity are speakers engaged in when they say this?
What do they think they are doing by talking in this way at this time? Consider how hard it is to make sense of
what you are hearing or reading if you don't know who's talking or what the general topic is. When you read a
newspaper, you need to know whether you are reading a news story, an editorial, or an advertisement in order
to properly interpret the text you are reading.

Coherence and Cohesion

Coherence is defined as the quality of being logical, consistent and able to be understood. Imagine
coherence as a building (It’s an analogy, go with it). On the other hand, cohesion on the other hand refers to
the act of forming a whole unit. It is effectively a subset of coherence.

Imagine that you construct a building. Bricks and cement can be put together to create any form of structure.
However, it is only when they are laid together properly that they form a building. Similarly, a text will be cohesive
if cohesive ties are used however it will only be coherent if the cohesive ties are used appropriately to create
meaning.

You can have cohesion without coherence but you cannot have coherence without cohesion. The picture does
not make sense unless the correct pieces are placed in the correct order, even if certain pieces may be the same
size and shape.

“I bought some hummus to eat with celery. Green vegetables can boost your metabolism. The Australian Greens
is a political party. I couldn’t decide what to wear to the new year’s party.”

In the example above, there are lexical links from one sentence to the next; cohesive ties are used to join the
sentences. There is evidence of lexical repetition, ‘green’ ‘party’ and collocations, ‘new years’.

However, this string of sentences do not make any sense; there is no binding semantic link. This is an example
of cohesion without coherence.

Cohesive devices effectively help the discourse flow. They include collocations, lexical repetition, linking
adverbials, substitution, ellipsis, conjunctions, synonymy/antonymy, hypernyms/hyponyms and referencing
(anaphoric, cataphoric, deictic). These devices create physical links between the words in a discourse.

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Coherence which we previously defined as understanding can be achieved through devices such as cohesive
ties, formatting techniques, inference, logical ordering of information, semantic patterning and consistency.

These all enhance the ability of a text to be successfully interpreted and understood. Recipes, terms and
condition documents, informative brochures all make use of formatting in the form of headings, bolding,
underlines etc. to emphasize certain aspects of the text and draw audience attention to the most important
elements.

The focus of coherence factors is determined by the social purpose of the text. Is the text made to entertain?
Inform? Persuade? Celebrate? If so, why? What is the overarching intention of the text? Answering such
questions can help explain the purpose of coherence factors and cohesive devices within a discourse.

Conversation Analysis

Conversation analysis (CA) is an approach within the social sciences that aims to describe, analyze and
understand talk as a basic and constitutive feature of human social life. CA is a well-developed tradition with a
distinctive set of methods and analytic procedures as well as a large body of established findings...
"At its core, conversation analysis is a set of methods for working with audio and video recordings of talk and
social interaction.

Turn-Taking

In conversation analysis, turn-taking is a term for the manner in which orderly conversation normally
takes place. A basic understanding can come right from the term itself: It's the notion that people in a
conversation take turns in speaking. When studied by sociologists, however, the analysis goes deeper, into
topics such as how people know when it's their turn to speak, how much overlap there is between speakers,
when it's OK to have overlap, and how to consider regional or gender differences.

The underlying principles of turn-taking were first described by sociologists Harvey Sacks, Emanuel A. Schegloff,
and Gail Jefferson in "A Simplest Systematics for the Organization of Turn-Taking for Conversation" in the journal
Language, in the December 1974 issue.

Competitive vs. Cooperative Overlap

Much of the research in turn-taking has looked into competitive versus cooperative overlap in
conversations, such as how that affects the balance of power of those in the conversation and how much rapport
the speakers have. For example, in competitive overlap, researchers might look at how one person dominates
a conversation or how a listener might take some power back with different ways of interrupting.

In cooperative overlap, a listener might ask for clarification on a point or add to the conversation with further
examples that support the speaker's point. These kinds of overlaps help move the conversation forward and aid
in communicating the full meaning to all who are listening. Or overlaps might be more benign and just show that

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the listener understands, such as by saying "Uh-huh." Overlap like this also moves the speaker forward.

Cultural differences and formal or informal settings can change what's acceptable in a particular group dynamic.

Examples and Observations

Television programs, books, and films present some fine examples of turn-taking.

Christine Cagney: "I'm being quiet now. That means it's your turn to talk."
Mary Beth Lacey: "I'm trying to think of what to say.
("Cagney & Lacey," 1982)

"Once a topic is chosen and a conversation initiated, then matters of conversational 'turn-taking' arise. Knowing
when it is acceptable or obligatory to take a turn in conversation is essential to the cooperative development of
discourse. This knowledge involves such factors as knowing how to recognize appropriate turn-exchange points
and knowing how long the pauses between turns should be. It is also important to know how (and if) one may
talk while someone else is talking—that is if the conversational overlap is allowed. Since not all conversations
follow all the rules for turn-taking, it is also necessary to know how to 'repair' a conversation that has been thrown
off course by undesired overlap or a misunderstood comment.
"Cultural differences in matters of turn-taking can lead to conversational breakdown, misinterpretation of
intentions, and interpersonal intergroup conflict." (Walt Wolfram and Natalie Schilling-Estes, "American English:
Dialects and Variation." Wiley-Blackwell, 2006)

The Wolf: "You're Jimmie, right? This is your house?"

Jimmie: "Sure is.
"The Wolf: "I'm Winston Wolfe. I solve problems."
Jimmie: "Good, we got one."
The Wolf: "So I heard. May I come in?"
Jimmie: "Uh, yeah, please do."

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Photo Exercise: Create a script that shows a conversation using the following photos below. Indicate your
answer on the space provided. Make it sure that the conversation is cohesive and coherent. Observe as well the
rules in having correct turn taking.

Photo # 1:

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Photo # 2
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II. Check for Understanding

Now that you are done with our lesson, let us check if you have fully understood our contents for today.
Complete the task below. Once you complete the task; check your answers against the Key to Corrections
found at the end of this SAS. Write your score on your paper.

Create a dialogue about this scenario.

____________________________________________________
Location: Coffee room in the morning, ____________________________________________________
Hospital. ____________________________________________________
Roles: nurse-student and a nurse ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
The nurse cannot find their own coffee- ____________________________________________________
mug in the morning. Everyone ____________________________________________________
knows which one is the nurse's coffee ____________________________________________________
mug because it has the nurse's ____________________________________________________
name in it. One student has the nurse's
____________________________________________________
mug and is drinking coffee from it.
The nurse is kindly supposed to remind ____________________________________________________
the student about the fact that the ____________________________________________________
mugs are personal. Students can use the ____________________________________________________
common mugs or that would be ____________________________________________________
required. ____________________________________________________
The scenario begins with the nurse
____________________________________________________
entering the coffee room. They say
"Good morning". The student is already in ____________________________________________________
the room drinking coffee from ____________________________________________________
their mug ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
___________________________________________________

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C. LESSON WRAP-UP

FAQs

Food for Thought!

If you have questions that you cannot ask to your teacher, this may help you clarify things out.

1. What is an inference and reference?

You have already come across the notion of reference in the section on Semantics where it was contrasted to
sense, and defined as the relation between the linguistic expression and the entity in the real world to which it
refers. However, words themselves actually do not refer to anything but the people using them.

Those referring expressions can be:

1) proper nouns 'John L. Austin' 'Osnabrück'
2) definite noun phrases 'the philosopher' 'the city'
3) indefinite noun phrases 'a man' 'a place'
4) pronouns 'he, him' 'it'

Reference, as the act of the speaker/writer using a linguistic form to enable a listener/reader to identify
something, depends on the speaker's intentions (e.g. to refer to sth.) and on the speaker's beliefs (e.g. so the
listener can identify the speaker's intention).

Since successful reference does not only depend on the speaker but also on the listener, we have to include
the notion of inference, which denotes the process of decoding the pragmatic meaning of an utterance. In
order to do so, the listener uses additional knowledge to make sense of what has not been explicitly said.

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THINKING ABOUT LEARNING

Congratulations for finishing this module! Shade the number of the module that you finished.

Great Job! Did you finish all parts of the module? Do you have any questions you may want to ask to
clarify the topic? You may write any question to further help you learn and your teacher will get to you
on the answers.

1. What part of the lesson seems difficult for you to understand?

____________________________________________________________________________

2. Is there a question you would like to ask your teacher about the lesson?
____________________________________________________________________________

KEY TO CORRECTIONS

Answers on Content and Skill-building

(Answers may vary)

Answer on Check for Understanding Activity

(Answers may vary)

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
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Lesson title: Discourse Analysis Materials:

Learning Targets: SAS
At the end of the module, students will be able to:
1. analyze different conversations; and References:
2. apply Gricean Maxims in conversation. Yule, George (2006).The Study of
Language.

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction

In our previous topic, you learned about the difference

between cohesion and coherence of a discourse. Likewise, you
learned as well as the process of doing discourse analysis. You
created conversations that observed proper turn-taking and
correct completion points.
As you continue with this lesson, you will learn more
about the co-operative principle. Hedges, implicatures, schema
and scripts and the different Gricean maxims.

B.MAIN LESSON

I. Content and Skill-building

Read carefully the content notes and try to highlight or underline the key terms for greater level
of understanding.

In Grice’s paper, ‘Logic and conversation’ (1975),

he argued that in order for a person to interpret what
someone else says, some kind of cooperative principle
is assumed to be in operation.

In order to examine the CP, we will first outline

briefly the basic concepts behind the CP and Maxims.
Previous work by Austin (1962) and Searle (1969) had
largely been concerned with the relationship between
direct and indirect speech acts, and the concept that you
could ‘do’ things with words: language is as much of an

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action as opening a door or closing a window. These proponents of the Use theory had moved away from the
truth values approach, and the reliance on sense and reference as the source of meaning ( Frege & Russell).

There was also a growing interest in the meaning of utterances rather than just sentences. It has been
noted that at the discourse level there is no one-to-one mapping between linguistic form and utterance meaning.
A particular intended meaning (which could be produced via a direct speech act) can in fact be conveyed by any
number of indirect speech acts. Grice is concerned with this distinction between saying and meaning. How do
speakers know how to generate these implicit meanings, and how can they assume that their addresses will
reliably understand their intended meaning. His aim is to discover the mechanism behind this process.

A: Is there another pint of milk?

B: I’m going to the supermarket in five minutes.

In the above example, a competent speaker of English would have little trouble inferring the meaning that there
is no more milk at the moment, but that some will be bought from the supermarket shortly. Grice posits the CP
and its attendant four maxims as a way of explaining this implication process:

The Cooperative Principle

“Make your contribution such as required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction
of the talk exchange in which you are engaged” Grice (1975:45)

The Maxims

Quantity: Make your contribution as informative as is required

Do not make your contribution more informative than is required

Quality: Do not say what you believe to be false

Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence

Relation/Relevant: Be relevant

Manner : Avoid obscurity of expression

Avoid ambiguity
Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity)
Be orderly

1. The maxim of quantity, where one tries to be as informative as one possibly can, and gives as much
information as is needed, and no more.
2. The maxim of quality, where one tries to be truthful, and does not give information that is false or that is
not supported by evidence.
3. The maxim of relation, where one tries to be relevant, and says things that are pertinent to the discussion.

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4. The maxim of manner, when one tries to be as clear, as brief, and as orderly as one can in what one
says, and where one avoids obscurity and ambiguity.

As the maxims stand, there may be an overlap, as regards the length of what one says, between the maxims of
quantity and manner; this overlap can be explained (partially if not entirely) by thinking of the maxim of quantity
(artificial though this approach may be) in terms of units of information. In other words, if the listener needs, let
us say, five units of information from the speaker, but gets less, or more than the expected number, then the
speaker is breaking the maxim of quantity. However, if the speaker gives the five required units of information,
but is either too curt or long-winded in conveying them to the listener, then the maxim of manners is broken. The
dividing line however, may be rather thin or unclear, and there are times when we may say that both the maxims
of quantity and quality are broken by the same factors.

Hedges

Hedges allow speakers and writers to signal caution, or probability, versus full certainty. It is used to show that
the speaker is not sure or certain of his/her utterances. Hedges can also allow speakers and writers to introduce
or eliminate ambiguity in meaning and typicality as a category member.

Examples:

✔ There might just be a few insignificant problems we need to address. (adjective)

✔ The party was somewhat spoiled by the return of the parents. (adverb)
✔ I'm not an expert but you might want to try restarting your computer. (clause)
✔ That's false, isn't it? (tag question clause)

Implicatures

“Implicature” denotes either (i) the act of meaning or implying one thing by saying something else, or (ii)
the object of that act. Implicatures can be determined by sentence meaning or by conversational context, and
can be conventional (in different senses) or unconventional. Figures of speech such as metaphor and irony
provide familiar examples, as do loose use and damning with faint praise. Implicature serves a variety of goals:
communication, maintaining good social relations, misleading without lying, style, and verbal efficiency.
Knowledge of common forms of implicature is acquired along with one’s native language.
Conversational implicatures have become one of the principal subjects of pragmatics. An important
conceptual and methodological issue in semantics is how to distinguish senses and entailments from generalized
conversational implicatures. A related issue is the degree to which sentence meaning determines what is said.
Historical linguistics traces the evolution of conversational implicatures into idioms.

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1. List three “rules” that you think should be followed when having a conversation: [From your own common
sense, not according to Grice.]

Example: * Be interesting. / Tell me something I don’t know.

1. _________________________________________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________________________________________
3. _________________________________________________________________________________
4. _________________________________________________________________________________
5. __________________________________________________________________________________

2. Have any of your friends or family members ever violated the Gricean rules? Try to think of two cases when
they were violated. Describe them and how the violation made you feel.

1.
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________

2.
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________

II. Check for Understanding

Now that you are done with our lesson, let us check if you have fully understood our contents for today.
Complete the task below. Once you complete the task; check your answers against the Key to Corrections
found at the end of this SAS. Write your score on your paper.

Creative dialogue observing the four maxims of conversation.

Maxim of quantity

Person 1:
_______________________________________________________________________________

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Person 2:
_______________________________________________________________________________

Maxim of quality

Person 1:
_______________________________________________________________________________
Person 2:
_______________________________________________________________________________

Maxim of relation

Person 1:
_______________________________________________________________________________
Person 2:
_______________________________________________________________________________

Maxim of manner

Person 1:
_______________________________________________________________________________
Person 2:
_______________________________________________________________________________

C. LESSON WRAP-UP

FAQs

Food for Thought!

If you have questions that you cannot ask to your teacher, this may help you clarify things out.

1. What are schemas and scripts in discourse analysis?

Our ability to arrive automatically at interpretations of what is unsaid or unwritten (yet communicated) must be
based on pre-existing knowledge-structures. These structures function like familiar patterns from previous
experience that we use to interpret new experiences. The most general term for a pattern of this type is a schema.
A schema is a pre-existing knowledge structure in memory.

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If there is a fixed, static pattern to the schema, it is called a frame, like the one already mentioned in the previous
section. When more dynamic types of schemata are considered, they are more often described as scripts. A
script is a pre-existing knowledge structure involving event sequences. We use scripts to build accounts of what
happened. For example, we have scripts for what normally happens in all kinds of events, such as going to a
doctor's office, a movie theatre, a restaurant, or a grocery store. Thus, the concept of a script is simply a way of
recognizing some expected sequence of action in an event. Because most of the details of scripts are assumed
to be known, they are unlikely to be stated.

THINKING ABOUT LEARNING

Congratulations for finishing this module! Shade the number of the module that you finished.

Great Job! Did you finish all parts of the module? Do you have any questions you may want to ask to
clarify the topic? You may write any question to further help you learn and your teacher will get to you
on the answers.

1. What part of the lesson seems difficult for you to understand?

____________________________________________________________________________

2. Is there a question you would like to ask your teacher about the lesson?
____________________________________________________________________________

KEY TO CORRECTIONS

Answers on Content and Skill-building

(Answers may vary)

Answer on Check for Understanding Activity

(Answers may vary)

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
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Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

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Lesson title: LONG QUIZ Materials:

SAS

Directions: This test is good for one hour and thirty minutes. Inappropriate communications between
examinees will be dealt with severely. Read each item carefully and identify what was asked. Indicate
your answer in your quiz booklet. Write your answers legibly.

1. What is pragmatics?
a. It is a subfield of linguistics and semiotics that studies the ways in which context contributes to
meaning. It encompasses speech act theory, conversational implicature, talk in interaction and
other approaches to language behavior in philosophy, sociology, linguistics and anthropology.
b. It features that appear when we put sounds together in connected speech. It is as important to
teach learners features as successful communication depends as much on intonation, stress
and rhythm as on the correct pronunciation of sounds.
c. This to verbal communication that is not words. Body language, gestures, facial expressions,
tone and pitch of voice are all examples of.
d. It is a conceptual generalization of conversation within each modality and context of
communication.

2. Bruce has a very advanced sense of what is socially appropriate. He always knows what to say in
every social context. He has which kind of linguistic competence?
a. phonemic
b. semantic
c. syntactic
d. pragmatic

3. Inference is best defined as _______________________?

a. the process of deriving implied meanings
b. the process of signalling attitude
c. the concept of how all communication relies on presenting a 'face'
d. a statement about what you think will happen in the future

4. Which of these is TRUE about deixis?

a. A word that is quite hard to spell
b. An implied meaning that has to be inferred as a result of a conversational maxim being broken.
c. Words that are context bound where meaning depends on who is being referred to, where
something is happening or when something is happening.
d. None of these

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5. An example of an analytic sentence is __________________________.

a. ice cream is too hot to eat
b. a fatal heart attack caused his demise
c. the new language building has four storeys
d. the family sailed to Davao on the newest Super Ferry

6. When the grandfather fetched Rex for a walk in the Park, he found the 4-year old boy crying. Asked
why Rex is crying, his mother replied, “He has S-U-M-P-O-N-G”. What conversation maxim was
violated by the mother’s response?
a. Maxim of manner
b. Maxim of quality
c. Maxim of relation
d. Maxim of quantity
e.
7. All of the following are conversational maxims EXCEPT:
a. Tell the whole truth.
b. Relate what you say to the topic discussed.
c. Pause before speaking.
d. Be orderly in what you say.

8. What are the maxim of quantity?

a. Speakers should be brief and orderly, and avoid obscurity and ambiguity.
b. Speakers should be as informative as is required, that they should give neither too little
information nor too much.
c. Speakers are assumed to be saying something that is relevant to what has been said before.
d. Speakers are expected to be sincere, to be saying something that they believe corresponds to
reality.

9. What are the maxim of quality?

a. Speakers should be brief and orderly, and avoid obscurity and ambiguity.
b. Speakers should be as informative as is required, that they should give neither too little
information nor too much.
c. Speakers are assumed to be saying something that is relevant to what has been said before.
d. Speakers are expected to be sincere, to be saying something that they believe corresponds to
reality.

10. What are the maxim of relation?

a. Speakers should be brief and orderly, and avoid obscurity and ambiguity.
b. Speakers should be as informative as is required, that they should give neither too little
information nor too much.
c. Speakers are assumed to be saying something that is relevant to what has been said before.
d. Speakers are expected to be sincere, to be saying something that they believe corresponds to
reality.

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11. What are the maxim of manner?

a. Speakers should be brief and orderly, and avoid obscurity and ambiguity.
b. Speakers should be as informative as is required, that they should give neither too little
information nor too much.
c. Speakers are assumed to be saying something that is relevant to what has been said before.
d. Speakers are expected to be sincere, to be saying something that they believe corresponds to
reality.

12. When speakers are flouting the maxims _______________

a. they have an imperfect knowledge or performance of language.
b. they seem unwilling to cooperate in the way the maxim requires.
c. they appear not to follow the maxims but expect hearers to appreciate the meaning implied.
d. they know that the hearer will not know the truth and will only understand the surface meaning
of the words.

13. The speaker who flouts the maxim of quantity _________________

a. by using hyperbole, metaphor, irony and banter.
b. appears to be obscure, is often trying to exclude a third party.
c. expects that the hearers will be able to imagine what the utterance did not say.
d. seems to give too little or too much information.

14. The speaker flouting the maxim of quality ___________________

a. by using hyperbole, metaphor, irony and banter.
b. appears to be obscure, is often trying to exclude a third party.
c. expects that the hearers will be able to imagine that the utterance did not say.
d. seems to give too little or too much information.

15. When speakers flout the maxim of relation____________________

a. they may use hyperbole, metaphor, irony and banter.
b. they appear to be obscure, are often trying to exclude a third party.
c. they expect that the hearers will be able to imagine that the utterance did not say.
d. they seem to give too little or too much information.

16. When speakers flout the maxim of manner ___________________

a. they may hyperbole, metaphor, irony and banter.
b. they appear to be obscure, are often trying to exclude a third party.
c. they expect that the hearers will be able to imagine that the utterance did not say.
d. they seem to give too little or too much information.

17. A speaker can be said to violate a maxim when __________________

a. they have an imperfect knowledge or performance of language.
b. they seem unwilling to cooperate in the way the maxim requires.
c. they appear not to follow the maxims but expect hearers to appreciate the meaning implied.

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d. they know that the hearer will not know the truth and will only understand the surface meaning of
the words.

18. Nathan has a difficulty in taking turns when talking to someone. He lacks which kind of competence?
a. Phonemic
b. Semantic
c. Syntactic
d. Pragmatic

19. Speaking with names is ___________________________.

a. an indirect way of offering comfort
b. a polite way of speaking in which people use formal terms (like "Sir") to address one another
c. an impolite way of speaking in which people are on a first-name basis with everyone, including
those above them in status
d. a way people threaten one another by calling each other insulting names

20. Which of the following occur(s) normally in conversational closings?

a. Partners let each other know when or if they will see each other again.
b. Partners indicate supportiveness.
c. Partners summarize main topics.
d. All of the above

21. Which is true about deictic expressions?

a. Words that are context bound where meaning depends on who is being referred to, where
something is happening or when something is happening.
b. An implied meaning that has to be inferred as a result of a conversational maxim being broken.
c. It is an implicit assumption about the world or background belief relating to an utterance whose
truth is taken for granted in discourse.
d. These are expressions use to make inference with the utterances

22. Which is the best definition of speech act?

a. It uses paralinguistic features when speaking.
b. Communicative acts that carry meaning beyond the words and phrases used within them, for
example, apologies and promises.
c. The awareness of others' needs to be approved of and liked.
d. This refers to the ability of the speaker to use and understand language in a particular context.

23. What does conversational implicature mean?

a. study of language
b. process in which the speaker implies and a listener infers
c. vague or unclear meaning
d. being ambiguous

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24. Among these types of speech acts. Which one refers to the act of affecting the listeners?
a. Locutionary act
b. Illocutionary act
c. Perlocutionary act
d. Face-saving act

25. Which type of speech acts refers to the speaker’s intention and what the speaker intends to
accomplish?
a. Locutionary act
b. Illocutionary act
c. Perlocutionary act
d. Face-saving act

26. Which principles states that, “make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at
which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged”?
a. Co-operative principle
b. Maxims principle
c. Politeness principle
d. Greecian principle
27. Which of the following utterances uses hedges?
a. 'I'm not sure if this is right'
b. ' A hamburger is a hamburger'
c. 'business is business'
d. 'boys will be boys'

28. It is defined as terms of what follows or what precedes a particular segment that is undergoing a sound
change?
a. Co-text
b. Context
c. Linguistic context
d. All of these

29. “Here she comes!” What type of deixis is used in the utterance?
a. Temporal
b. Spatial
c. Person
d. All of these

30. “Your brother is waiting outside”. You can presuppose that ______________________.
a. he/she has a brother
b. his/her brother is young.
c. his/her brother is a teacher
d. he/she missed his/her brother

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31. Which of the following utterances shows a face-threatening act?

a. “ Get out!”
b. “ Excuse me!”
c. “ Can you please bring my bag?”
d. “ May I pass?

32. There is enormous variation in what people say and do in different circumstances (debate, interview,
discussion); speaker roles; what is said and how it is said; topic, setting and ____________________.
a. coherence
b. implicatures
c. schema
d. speech events

33. In simple terms, English conversation can be described as an activity in which, for the most part, two or
more people ___.
a. the Quantity maxim
b. take turns at speaking
c. turn-taking
d. the Quality maxim

34. Speakers learn how to participate in conversation. Conversational exchanges can be viewed as
______________ (describes how people normally behave in conversation).
a. coherence
b. cohesion
c. co-operative
d. Conversation

35. How do speakers mark completion points at the end of a turn?

a. completion point
b. Speakers can mark completion points by asking a question or by pausing at the end of a
completed syntactic structure such as a phrase or sentence.
c. Intonation, pausing, phrasing
d. interpret (or to be interpreted) and how we accomplish it

36. Even when we know something is said or written wrong, we try to figure out what should have been
conveyed, rather than _______________.
a. discourse
b. script
c. cohesion
d. dismiss it

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37. Analysis of __________________gives us some insight into how writers structure what they want to
say.
a. conversation
b. cohesive ties
c. coherence
d. Cohesion

38. What are hedges in discourse?

a. interpret (or to be interpreted) and how we accomplish it
b. Quality, because the speaker indicates that he or she "may be mistaken."
Quantity, because the speaker is avoiding "all the details."
c. words or phrases used to indicate that we're not really sure that what we're saying is sufficiently
correct or complete.
d. These are head nods, listener feedback, eye contact
39. For the most part, participants wait until one speaker indicates that he or she has finished, usually by
signaling a __________________.
a. cohesive ties
b. conversation
c. cohesion
d. completion point

40. “er, em, you know” are examples of _________________.

a. hedges
b. filled pauses
c. implicatures
d. Discourse

41. How is the word "discourse" usually defined?

a. language beyond the sentence
b. take turns at speaking
c. coherence
d. social boundaries

42. It is an activity in which, for the most part, two or more people take turns speaking?
a. cohesion
b. conversation
c. coherence
d. co-operative

43. This refers to general term for a conventional knowledge structure that exists in memory; comes from
your background knowledge (classroom, supermarket, car dealership); fixed features
a. grammar
b. cohesion

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
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Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

c. schema
d. Script

44. What do you call the ties and connections that exist within texts (My father once bought a Lincoln
convertible? “He did it by saving every penny he could. --> father-he, Lincoln-it)”
a. cohesion (cohesive ties)
b. completion point
c. cohesive ties
d. Cohesion

45. It is a concept that exists in people, rather than word structures, where one tries to arrive at an
interpretation that is in line with their experience of the way the world is
a. co-operative
b. hedges
c. cohesion
d. Coherence

46. What makes a good listener?

a. speech events
b. language beyond the sentence
c. the Quality maxim
d. head nods, listener feedback, eye contact

47. If you and your communication partner do not share the same assumptions about ________________,
one or both may claim to feel "interrupted."
a. script
b. turn-taking
c. tautology
d. Grammar

48. Texts must have a certain structure that depends on factors quite different from those required in the
structure of a single sentence. This is called __________________.
a. coherence
b. hedges
c. cohesion
d. Conversation

49. It makes text semantically meaningful; using deictic expressions, presuppositions, and implications; fits
under the term__________________.
a. hedges
b. co-operative
c. coherence
d. Cohesion

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50. Which maxims do these speakers seem to be particularly careful about?

Speaker 1: I may be mistaken, but I thought I saw a wedding ring on his finger.
Speaker 2: I won't bore you with all the details, but it wasn't a pleasant experience.
a. language beyond the sentence
b. interpret (or to be interpreted) and how we accomplish it
c. Hedges are words or phrases used to indicate that we're not really sure that what we're saying
is sufficiently correct or complete.
d. Quality, because the speaker indicates that he or she "may be mistaken."
Quantity, because the speaker is avoiding "all the details."

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #22 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson title: Neurolinguistics Materials:

Learning Targets: SAS
At the end of the module, students will be able to:
1. identify the basic parts of the brain; and References:
2. distinguish the different language functions of the brain. Yule, George (2006).The Study of
Langauge.
Bauer, L. (2007). The Linguistics
Student's Handbook.

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction

Neurolinguistics is the study of how language is represented in the brain: that is, how and where our
brains store our knowledge of the language (or languages) that we speak, understand, read, and write, what
happens in our brains as we acquire that knowledge, and what happens as we use it in our everyday lives.
Neurolinguistics try to answer questions like these: What about our brains makes human language possible –
why is our communication system so elaborate and so different from that of other animals? Does language use
the same kind of neural computation as other cognitive systems, such as music or mathematics? Where in your
brain is a word that you've learned? How does the word ‘come to mind’ when you need it (and why does it
sometimes not come to you?)

B.MAIN LESSON

I. Content and Skill-building

Read carefully the content notes and try to highlight or underline the key terms for greater level
of understanding.

Language and the brain

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The areas of the brain necessary for processing language: Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area, the primary motor
cortex, the posterior middle temporal gyrus, and the middle and posterior superior temporal gyrus.

Broca’s Area

Broca’s area, located in the frontal lobe of the brain, is linked to speech production, and recent studies have
shown that it also plays a significant role in language comprehension. Broca’s area works in conjunction with
working memory to allow a person to use verbal expression and spoken words. Damage to Broca’s area can
result in productive aphasia (also known as Broca’s aphasia), or an inability to speak. Patients with Broca’s can
often still understand language, but they cannot speak fluently.

Wernicke’s Area

Wernicke’s area, located in the cerebral cortex, is the part of the brain involved in understanding written and
spoken language. Damage to this area results in receptive aphasia (also called Wernicke’s aphasia). This ty pe
of aphasia manifests itself as a loss of comprehension, so sometimes while the patient can apparently still
speak, their language is nonsensical and incomprehensible.

Tip of the tongue (also known as TOT or

lethologica) is the phenomenon of failing to
retrieve a word or term from memory,
combined with partial recall and the feeling
that retrieval is imminent. TOT states
should be separated from FOK (feeling of
knowing) states.

A speech error, commonly referred to as a

slip of the tongue or misspeaking, is a
deviation from the apparently intended
form of an utterance. They can be
subdivided into spontaneously and
inadvertently produced speech errors and
intentionally produced word-plays or puns.

Slip of the ear, on the other hand, is a misperception of speech results from a weak representation of the
difference between what we expect to hear and what is actually said, according to a human neuroimaging
study published in JNeurosci.

The areas of the brain necessary for language. Spoken word, cognition, and written word all are processed in
different parts of the brain in different orders.

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Auditory Cortex and Angular Gyrus

The primary auditory cortex, located in the temporal lobe and connected to the auditory system, is organized
so that it responds to neighboring frequencies in the other cells of the cortex. It is responsible for identifying
pitch and loudness of sounds.

The angular gyrus, located in the parietal lobe of the brain, is responsible for several language processes,
including number processing, spatial recognition and attention.

Read and understand the following items. Choose the letter of the best choice. Encircle your answers.

1. The complete or partial loss of language production is called_____________.

a. Broca's aphasia
b. Anomia
c. Conduction aphasia
d. Wernicke's aphasia

2. In _______________, language is fluent and articulate, but words are jargon-like and speech
comprehension is poor.
a. Conduction aphasia
b. Broca's aphasia
c. Dyslexia
d. Wernicke's aphasia

3. One problem in studies of Wernicke's area is that __________________.

a. it is involved in the same behaviours as Broca's area
b. different research groups delineate the area in different ways
c. it overlaps with Broca's area
d. the area does not exist

4. In _________________, there is an inability to speak fluently.

a. Broca's aphasia
b. Expressive aphasia
c. Non-fluent aphasia
d. All of the above

5. Why might some patients with Broca's aphasia be able to produce speech?
a. Speech is automatic and over-learned
b. Broca's area is not damaged
c. They were misdiagnosed
d. An area outside Broca's area is damaged

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
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Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

II. Check for Understanding

Now that you are done with our lesson, let us check if you have fully understood our contents for today.
Identify the concept being discussed in each statement. Using the Venn Diagram, compare and contrast the
differences of the following items. Once you are done, check your own work using the key to corrections at
the end of your SAS. Write your score on your paper.

Identify the basic parts of the brain and their language functions.

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Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

C. LESSON WRAP-UP

FAQs

Food for Thought!

If you have questions that you cannot ask to your teacher, this may help you clarify things out.

1. What is localization of function?

Localization of function is the idea that certain functions (e.g. language, memory, etc.) have certain locations or
areas within the brain. This idea has been supported by recent neuroimaging studies, but was also examined
much earlier, typically using case studies.

One such case study is that of Phineas Gage, who in 1848 while working on a rail line, experienced a drastic
accident in which a piece of iron went through his skull. Although Gage survived this ordeal, he did experience
a change in personality, such as loss of inhibition and anger. This change provided evidence to support the
theory of localization of brain function, as it was believed that the area the iron stake damaged was responsible
for personality.

THINKING ABOUT LEARNING

Congratulations for finishing this module! Shade the number of the module that you finished.

Great Job! Did you finish all parts of the module? Do you have any questions you may want to ask to
clarify the topic? You may write any question to further help you learn and your teacher will get to you
on the answers.

1. What part of the lesson seems difficult for you to understand?

____________________________________________________________________________

2. Is there a question you would like to ask your teacher about the lesson?
____________________________________________________________________________

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
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Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

KEY TO CORRECTIONS

Answers on Content and Skill-building

1) A 2) D 3) C 4) A 5) B

Answer on Check for Understanding Activity

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #23 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson title: Aphasia Materials:

Learning Targets: SAS
At the end of the module, students will be able to:
1. identify the different types of aphasia; and, References:
2. determine the effects of aphasia in language production. Yule, George (2006).The Study of
Langauge.
Bauer, L. (2007). The Linguistics
Student's Handbook.

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction

Last meeting, you have learned about the brain and its connection to language, and this deals within the
study of neurolinguistics. As a recap, neurolinguistics is the study of how language is represented in the brain:
that is, how and where our brains store our knowledge of the language (or languages) that we speak, understand,
read, and write, what happens in our brains as we acquire that knowledge, and what happens as we use it in
our everyday lives.

B.MAIN LESSON

I. Content and Skill-building

Read carefully the content notes and try to highlight or underline the key terms for greater level
of understanding.

Aphasia is a communication disorder that results from

damage or injury to language parts of the brain. It's more
common in older adults, particularly those who have had
a stroke.

Aphasia gets in the way of a person's ability to use or

understand words. Aphasia does not impair the
person's intelligence. People who have aphasia may
have difficulty speaking and finding the "right" words to
complete their thoughts. They may also have problems
understanding conversation, reading and
comprehending written words, writing words, and using
numbers.

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
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Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

What Causes Aphasia?

Aphasia is usually caused by a stroke or brain injury with damage to one or more parts of the brain that deal with
language. According to the National Aphasia Association, about 25% to 40% of people who survive a stroke get
aphasia. Aphasia may also be caused by a brain tumor, brain infection, or dementia such as Alzheimer's disease.
In some cases, aphasia is a symptom of epilepsy or other neurological disorder.

What Are the Types of Aphasia?

There are types of aphasia. Each type can cause impairment that varies from mild to severe. Common types of
aphasia include the following:

1. Expressive aphasia (non-fluent): With expressive aphasia, the person knows what he or she wants to
say, yet has difficulty communicating it to others. It doesn't matter whether the person is trying to say
or write what he or she is trying to communicate.

2. Receptive aphasia (fluent): With receptive aphasia, the person can hear a voice or read the print, but
may not understand the meaning of the message. Oftentimes, someone with receptive aphasia takes
language literally. Their own speech may be disturbed because they do not understand their own
language.
3. Anomic aphasia. With anomic aphasia, the person has word-finding difficulties. This is called anomia.
Because of the difficulties, the person struggles to find the right words for speaking and writing.

4. Global aphasia. This is the most severe type of aphasia. It is often seen right after someone has a
stroke. With global aphasia, the person has difficulty speaking and understanding words. In addition,
the person is unable to read or write.

5. Primary progressive aphasia. Primary progressive aphasia is a rare disorder where people slowly lose
their ability to talk, read, write, and comprehend what they hear in conversation over a period of time.
With a stroke, aphasia may improve with proper therapy. There is no treatment to reverse primary
progressive aphasia. People with primary progressive aphasia are able to communicate in ways other
than speech. For instance, they might use gestures. And many benefit from a combination of speech
therapy and medications.

Aphasia may be mild or severe. With mild aphasia, the person may be able to converse, yet have trouble finding
the right word or understanding complex conversations. Severe aphasia limits the person's ability to
communicate. The person may say little and may not participate in or understand any conversation.

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #23 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

Read and understand the following items. Match the characteristics of aphasia in Column A to its type in
Column B. Indicate your answer on the space provided before each item.

Column A Column B

____ 1. the person knows what he or she wants to say, a. Primary progressive aphasia
yet has difficulty communicating it to others

____ 2. the person can hear a voice or read the print, b. Global aphasia
but may not understand the meaning of the message

____ 3. the person has word-finding difficulties c. Anomic aphasia

____4. the person has difficulty speaking and d. Receptive aphasia

understanding words.

____5. where people slowly lose their ability to talk, read, write, e. Expressive aphasia
and comprehend what they hear in conversation

II. Check for Understanding

Now that you are done with our lesson, let us check if you have fully understood our contents for today.
Enumerate language activities that are affected by each type of aphasia. Once you are done, check your
own work using the key to corrections at the end of your SAS. Write your score on your paper.

Primary progressive aphasia

_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________

Global aphasia

_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________

Anomic aphasia
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #23 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

Receptive aphasia
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________

Expressive aphasia
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________

C. LESSON WRAP-UP

FAQs

Food for Thought!

If you have questions that you cannot ask to your teacher, this may help you clarify things out.

1. What is localization of function?

Localization of function is the idea that certain functions (e.g. language, memory, etc.) have certain locations or
areas within the brain. This idea has been supported by recent neuroimaging studies, but was also examined
much earlier, typically using case studies.

One such case study is that of Phineas Gage, who in 1848 while working on a rail line, experienced a drastic
accident in which a piece of iron went through his skull. Although Gage survived this ordeal, he did experience
a change in personality, such as loss of inhibition and anger. This change provided evidence to support the
theory of localization of brain function, as it was believed that the area the iron stake damaged was responsible
for personality.

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

4
 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #23 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

THINKING ABOUT LEARNING

Congratulations for finishing this module! Shade the number of the module that you finished.

Great Job! Did you finish all parts of the module? Do you have any questions you may want to ask to
clarify the topic? You may write any question to further help you learn and your teacher will get to you
on the answers.

1. What part of the lesson seems difficult for you to understand?

____________________________________________________________________________

2. Is there a question you would like to ask your teacher about the lesson?
____________________________________________________________________________

KEY TO CORRECTIONS

Answers on Content and Skill-building

1) E 2) D 3) C 4) B 5) A

Answer on Check for Understanding Activity

(Answers may vary)

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #24 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson title: Theories on the Origin of Language Materials:

Learning Targets: SAS
At the end of the module, students will be able to:
1. trace the origin of language; and References:
2. identify the different theories of language Yule, George (2006).The Study of
Language.
Bauer, L. (2007). The Linguistics
Student's Handbook.

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction

How did language begin? Words don’t leave artifacts behind—writing began long after language did—so
theories of language origins have generally been based on hunches. For centuries, there had been so much
fruitless speculation over the question of how language began that when the Paris Linguistic Society was founded
in 1866, its bylaws included a ban on any discussions of it. The early theories are now referred to by the
nicknames given to them by language scholars fed up with unsupportable just-so stories.

B.MAIN LESSON

I. Content and Skill-building

Read carefully the content notes and try to highlight or underline the key terms for greater level
of understanding.

THE DIVINE SOURCE

In the biblical tradition, as described in the book of Genesis, God created Adam and “whatsoever Adam
called every living creature, that was the name thereof. “Alternatively, following a Hindu tradition, language came
from Sarasvati, wife of Brahma, creator of the universe. In most religions, there appears to be a divine source
who provides humans with language. In an attempt to rediscover this original divine language, a few experiments
have been carried out, with rather conflicting results. The basic hypothesis seems to have been that, if human
infants were allowed to grow up without hearing any language around them, then they would spontaneously
begin using the original God-given language. The Greek writer Herodotus reported the story of an Egyptian
pharaoh named Psammetichus (or Psamtik) who tried the experiment with two newborn babies more than 2,500
years ago. After two years of isolation except for the company of goats and a mute shepherd, the children were
reported to have spontaneously uttered, not an Egyptian word, but something that was identified as the Phrygian
word bekos, meaning “bread.” The pharaoh concluded that Phrygian, an older language spoken in part of what
is modern Turkey, must be the original language. That seems very unlikely. The children may not have picked

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Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

up this “word” from any human source, but as several commentators have pointed out, they must have heard
what the goats were saying. (First remove the -kos ending, which was added in the Greek version of the story,
then pronounce be- as you would the English word bed without -d at the end. Can you hear a goat?) King James
the Fourth of Scotland carried out a similar experiment around the year 1500 and the children were reported to
have spontaneously started speaking Hebrew, confirming the king’s belief that Hebrew had indeed been the
language of the Garden of Eden. It is unfortunate that all other cases of children who have been discovered
living in isolation, without coming into contact with human speech, tend not to confirm the results of these types
of divine-source experiments. Very young children living without access to human language in their early years
grow up with no language at all.

This was true of Victor, the wild boy of Aveyron in France, discovered near the end of
the eighteenth century, and also of Genie, an American child whose special life
circumstances came to light in the 1970s From this type of evidence, there is no
“spontaneous” language. If human language did emanate from a divine source, we have
no way of reconstructing that original language, especially given the events in a place
called Babel, “because the Lord did there confound the language of all the earth,” as
described in Genesis (11: 9).

THE NATURAL SOUND SOURCE

A quite different view of the beginnings of language is based on the concept of

natural sounds. The human auditory system is already functioning before birth (at
around 2 seven months). That early processing capacity develops into an ability to
identify sounds in the environment, allowing humans to make a connection between a sound and the thing
producing that sound. This leads to the idea that primitive words derive from imitations of the natural sounds that
early men and women heard around them. Among several nicknames that he invented to talk about the origins
of speech, Jespersen (1922) called this idea the “bow-wow” theory.

THE BOW-WOW THEORY

In this scenario, when different objects flew by, making a

Caw-Caw or Coo-Coo sound, the early human tried to imitate the
sounds and then used them to refer to those objects even when they
weren’t present. The fact that all modern languages have some
words with pronunciations that seem to echo naturally occurring
sounds could be used to support this theory. In English, in addition
to cuckoo, we have splash, bang, boom, rattle, buzz, hiss, screech,
and of course bow-wow. Words that sound similar to the noises they
describe are examples of onomatopoeia. While it is true that a
number of words in any language are onomatopoeic, it is hard to see
how most of the soundless things (e.g. “low branch”) as well as abstract concepts (e.g. “truth”) could have been
referred to in a language that simply echoed natural sounds. We might also be rather skeptical about a view that
seems to assume that a language is only a set of words used as “names” for things.

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THE POOH-POOH THEORY

Another of Jespersen’s nicknames was the “pooh-pooh” theory, which proposed that speech developed
from the instinctive sounds people make in emotional circumstances. That is, the original sounds of language
may have come from natural cries of emotion such as pain, anger and joy. By this route, presumably, Ouch!
came to have its painful connotations. But Ouch! and other interjections such as Ah!, Ooh!, Phew!, Wow! or
Yuck! are usually produced with sudden intakes of breath, which is the opposite of ordinary talk. We normally
produce spoken language as we breathe out, so we speak while we exhale, not inhale. In other words, the
expressive noises people make in emotional reactions contain sounds that are not otherwise used in speech
production and consequently would seem to be rather unlikely candidates as source sounds for language

THE SOCIAL INTERACTION THEORY

Another proposal involving natural sounds was nicknamed the “yo-he-ho” theory. The idea is that the
sounds of a person involved in physical effort could be the source of our language, especially when that physical
effort involved several people and the interaction had to be coordinated. So, a group of early humans might
develop a set of hums, grunts, groans and curses that were used when they were lifting and carrying large bits
of trees or lifeless hairy mammoths. The appeal of this proposal is that it places the development of human
language in a social context. Early people must have lived in groups, if only because larger groups offered better
protection from attack. Groups are necessarily social organizations and, to maintain those organizations, some
form of communication is required, even if it is just grunts and curses. So, human sounds, however they were
produced, must have had some principled use within the life and social interaction of early human groups. This
is an important idea that may relate to the uses of humanly produced sounds. It does not, however, answer our
question regarding the origins of the sounds produced. Apes and other primates live in social groups and use
grunts and social calls, but they do not seem to have developed the capacity for speech.

THE PHYSICAL ADAPTATION SOURCE

Instead of looking at types of sounds as the source of human speech, we can look at the types of physical
features humans possess, especially those that are distinct from other creatures, which may have been able to
support speech production. We can start with the observation that, at some early stage, our ancestors made a
very significant transition to an upright posture, with bi-pedal (on two feet) locomotion, and a revised role for the
front limbs. Some effects of this type of change can be seen in physical differences between the skull of a gorilla
and that of a Neanderthal man from around 60,000 years ago. The reconstructed vocal tract of a Neanderthal
suggests that some consonant-like sound distinctions would have been possible. We have to wait until about
35,000 years ago for features in reconstructions of fossilized skeletal structures that begin to resemble those of
modern humans. In the study of evolutionary development, there are certain physical features, best thought of
as partial adaptations, which appear to be relevant for speech. They are streamlined versions of features found
in other primates. By themselves, such features wouldn’t guarantee speech, but they are good clues that a
creature with such features probably has the capacity for speech.

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
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Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

A. Teeth and lips

Human teeth are upright, not slanting outwards like those of apes, and they are roughly even in height. Such
characteristics are not very useful for ripping or tearing food and seem better adapted for grinding and chewing.
They are also very helpful in making sounds such as f or v. Human lips have much more intricate muscle
interlacing than is found in other primates and their resulting flexibility certainly helps in making sounds like p, b
and m. In fact, the b and m sounds are the most widely attested in the vocalizations made by human infants
during their first year, no matter which language their parents are using.

B. Mouth and tongue

The human mouth is relatively small compared to other primates and can be opened and closed rapidly. It is
also part of an extended vocal tract that has much more of an L-shape than the fairly straight path from front to
back in other mammals. In contrast to the fairly thin flat tongue of other large primates, humans have a shorter,
thicker and more muscular tongue that can be used to shape a wide variety of sounds inside the oral cavity. In
addition, unlike other primates, humans can close off the airway through the nose to create more air pressure in
the mouth. The overall effect of these small differences taken together is a face with more intricate muscle
interlacing in the lips and mouth, capable of a wider range of shapes and a more rapid and powerful delivery of
sounds produced through these different shapes. Larynx and pharynx The human larynx or “voice box”
(containing the vocal folds or vocal cords) differs significantly in position from the larynx of other primates such
as monkeys. In the course of human physical development, the assumption of an upright posture moved the
head more directly above the spinal column and the larynx dropped to a lower position. This created a longer
cavity called the pharynx, above the vocal folds, which acts as a resonator for increased range and clarity of the
sounds produced via the larynx and the vocal tract. Other primates have almost no pharynx. One unfortunate
consequence of this development is that the lower position of the human larynx makes it much more possible
for the human to choke on pieces of food. Monkeys may not be able to use their larynx to produce speech
sounds, but they do not suffer from the problem of getting food stuck in their windpipe. In evolutionary terms,
there must have been a big advantage in getting this extra vocal power (i.e. a larger range of sounds) to outweigh
the potential disadvantage from an increased risk of choking to death.

THE GENETIC SOURCE

We can think of the human baby in its first few years as a living example of some of these physical
changes taking place. At birth, the baby’s brain is only a quarter of its eventual weight and the larynx is much
higher in the throat, allowing babies, like chimpanzees, to breathe and drink at the same time. In a relatively
short period of time, the larynx descends, the brain develops, the child assumes an upright posture and starts
walking and talking. This almost automatic set of developments and the complexity of the young child’s language
have led some scholars to look for something more powerful than small physical adaptations of the species over
time as the source of language. Even children who are born deaf (and do not develop speech) become fluent
sign language users, given appropriate circumstances, very early in life. This seems to indicate that human
offspring are born with a special capacity for language. It is innate, no other creature seems to have it, and it
isn’t tied to a specific variety of language. Is it possible that this language capacity is genetically hard-wired in
the newborn human? As a solution to the puzzle of the origins of language, this innateness hypothesis would

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #24 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

seem to point to something in human genetics, possibly a crucial mutation, as the source. This would not have
been a gradual change, but something that happened rather quickly. We are not sure when this proposed genetic
change might have taken place or how it might relate to the physical adaptations described earlier. However, as
we consider this hypothesis, we find our speculations about the origins of language moving away from fossil
evidence or the physical source of basic human sounds toward analogies with how computers work (e.g. being
pre-programmed or hardwired) and concepts taken from the study of genetics. The investigation of the origins
of language then turns into a search for the special “language gene” that only humans possess.

Read and understand the following items. Choose the letter of your best choice about the origin of language
theories.

1. This theory posits the idea that the sounds of a person involved in physical effort could be the source of our
language, especially when that physical effort involved several people and the interaction had to be
coordinated (hums, grunts, groans, and curses).
a. social interaction source (yo-he-ho theory)
b. the pooh-pooh theory
c. natural sound source (bow-wow theory)
d. social interaction source

2. Humans have an innate capacity for language.

a. genetic source
b. divine source
c. The tongue
d. The mouth

3. This source suggests that language is only a set of words used as 'names' for things.
a. bow-wow and pooh-pooh
b. newborns today
c. bow-wow theory
d. pooh-pooh theory

4. Words developed from the imitation of sounds in the environment.

a. the pooh-pooh theory
b. pooh-pooh theory
c. bow-wow theory
d. newborns theory

5. Words developed from the imitation of sounds in the environment.

a. the pooh-pooh theory
b. pooh-pooh theory
c. bow-wow theory
d. newborns theory

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #24 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

II. Check for Understanding

Now that you are done with our lesson, let us check if you have fully understood our contents for today.
Choose one of the language origin theories and discuss its importance of existence in relation to today’s
language. Write your answer on the space provided.
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With which of the six “sources” would you associate this quotation? Chewing, licking and sucking are
extremely widespread mammalian activities, which, in terms of casual observation, have obvious
similarities with speech. (MacNeilage, 1998). Discuss your answer here.

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #24 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

C. LESSON WRAP-UP

FAQs

Food for Thought!

If you have questions that you cannot ask to your teacher, this may help you clarify things out.

1. What is localization of function?

Localization of function is the idea that certain functions (e.g. language, memory, etc.) have certain locations or
areas within the brain. This idea has been supported by recent neuroimaging studies, but was also examined
much earlier, typically using case studies.

One such case study is that of Phineas Gage, who in 1848 while working on a rail line, experienced a drastic
accident in which a piece of iron went through his skull. Although Gage survived this ordeal, he did experience
a change in personality, such as loss of inhibition and anger. This change provided evidence to support the
theory of localization of brain function, as it was believed that the area the iron stake damaged was responsible
for personality.

THINKING ABOUT LEARNING

Congratulations for finishing this module! Shade the number of the module that you finished.

Great Job! Did you finish all parts of the module? Do you have any questions you may want to ask to
clarify the topic? You may write any question to further help you learn and your teacher will get to you
on the answers.

1. What part of the lesson seems difficult for you to understand?

____________________________________________________________________________

2. Is there a question you would like to ask your teacher about the lesson?
____________________________________________________________________________

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 ENG 018: Introduction to Linguistics
Module #24 Student Activity Sheet

Name:______________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: _______________ Schedule:____________________________ Date: _______________

KEY TO CORRECTIONS

Answers on Content and Skill-building

1)A 2)A 3)A 4)C 5)C

Answer on Check for Understanding Activity

(Answers may vary)

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