DESIGN IN TIMBER

CIE 817
Properties and utilization of Timber
Lesson II

Rowland Adéwùmí, PhD(Lon) MSc(Lon) FNSE FNICE FIMC

 COURSE OUTCOME
At the end of the lecture student will be able to;
◦ Understand design philosophy of permissible stress design
◦ Design flexural member

INTRODUCTION
 Timber can be used in a range of structural application (like piers), heavy
civil work (like bridge and piles) or domestic housing (like roofs and
floors)
 Timber structures are loaded with different type of loadings ie flexural,
compression, tension shear etc.
 So it is important to know the allowable and permissible stress of the
materials.
 Different materials have different strength properties.
 Permissible stress are the properties of material under bending,
compression, tension etc.
 These stresses together with the loading criteria will form the basis of
design for the various timber components.
Design of timber members
In accordance with
 BS5268: The structural use of timber
Presently, the permissible stress design
approach has become outdated as it has
been globally replaced by the limit state
design approach EN 1995. Recently,
Eurocode 5 (EC5) has replaced (BS, 2002)
and is adopted in many countries around
the world.
Design philosophy
Permissible stress design –
 derived on a statistical basis and deformations are
limited.
 Design based on the allowable and permissible stress of
the materials
 Elastic theory is used to analyse structures under
various loading conditions to give the worst design case.
 Then timber sections are chosen so that permissible
stresses are not exceeded at any point of the structure.
 BS5268 is based on permissible stress design (or elastic
design) rather than limit state design (as in BS5950).
 This means that in practice that a partial safety factor is
applied only to material properties not to the loading.
Working stress design
 Permissible stress design
 Allowable stress design
 Elastic method design
Has been used by designers and engineers in timber construction and
BS5268 adopted this design
 The adequacy of a structure is checked by calculating the working
stress to maximum expected loads and comparing them with the
permissible stresses.
 The permissible stress is equal to the failure stress design methods
to successful structures at that time
 The safety factors for the new materials were estimated in
comparison with those for traditional materials by taking into
account the nature for the new material and its uncertainty or
variability
 Elastic method of design has formed the basis of structural codes
and standards for most of the century.
 Structural timber design may be based on either
 The grade stress for the individual species for dry exposure or wet condition
given in Table 1 and 2 pg 5 – 16.
 The grade stresses for the strength group SG for dry exposure condition given
in Table 4 pg 18

Timber grade stresses

i. Since timber which is naturally occurring and has varying range of properties,
its grade has to be classified accordingly. Its properties are affected by
conditions of growth(temperature, wet or dry season, wind etc) and therefore
its strength varies
ii. Strength is also determined by the process of various strength reducing
characteristics such as knots, slope of grain, fissures and wane
iii. Strength Group, SG is defined as the classification of timber based on
particular value of grade stresses
iv. Timber having similar strength and stiffness properties have been group
together for simplicity in design procedure (Table 4 pg 18)
 Definition of stresses
a) Basic stress
➢ The stress which can safely be permanently
sustained by timber containing no strength
reducing characteristic
➢ Include – duration of loading
- size and shape of actual member
- factors of safety
- variability of strength
b) Grade stress
The stress which can safely be
permanently sustained by timber of a
particular grade.
c)Green stress
A stress applicable to timber having a
moisture content exceeding 19%
d) Dry stress
A stress applicable to timber having a
moisture content not exceeding 19%
 Derivation of Permissible Stresses
Grade stress
(individual species)

Characteristic stress

Permissible stress
Strength
properties of Basic stress
small clear
specimens

Grade stress
(strength group)
Derivation of Basic Stresses
 Test results (for at least 30 samples) for
each species were tabulated and the
average strength value (stress) is
calculated using the following equation:
n

X = X
n
X= strength value
N = number of samples X − 2.33 X
Characteristic stress
 Characteristic stress of timber is defined
as the strength value where only 1% of
the test results will be below the basic
stress value and is given in the form:

k = X – 2.33
Basic stress

Basic stress: k = X – 2.33

F.S

Where F.S is factor of safety

Safety factor
 A safety factor is applied and it is usually assumed that this
factor will cover such items as accidental overloading,
assumptions made during design and design accuracies
together with errors in workmanship, etc.
Property Reduction factor Formula
Bending and shear 2.5 X – 2.33
2.5
Compression 1.5 X – 2.33
parallel to grain 1.5
Compression 1.3 X – 2.33
perpendicular to 1.3
grain
Mean modulus of 1.0 X
elasticity
Minimum modulus 1.0 X – 2.33
of elasticity
Grade stress
“The stress can be safely permanently sustained
by timber at a particular grade”
 They are derived from individual species and are
governed by the effect of visible gross features
of defect such as knots, sloping of grains,
fissures, etc.
 Reduction strength expressed in terms of
“strength ratio” i.e of strength of piece of
timber with defects to the strength of the same
piece without defect.
Grade stress
Grade stress = Basic stress x reduction factor

Reduction factor for grade stress taking into account of varying

amounts of defects based on basic stress and this gives three stress
grades of timbers namely Select, Standard and Common

Table 2.0 Strength ratio

Property Select Standard Common
% % %
Bending, tension and 80 63 50
compression parallel to
grain
Compression perpendicular 85 80 75
to grain
Shear 72 56 45
Modulus of elasticity Same as the basic value for all grades
Permissible stress
“The stress which can be safely be sustained by
a structural component under the particular
condition of service and loading”
 Permissible stress is the final stage at which
all allowances are made for the particular
condition of services and loading

Permissible stress = grade stress x modification factor

= grade stress x K1xK2xK3xK4xK5xK6
Design considerations

 The main design considerations for flexural members are:

1. Bending stress and prevention of lateral buckling
2. Deflection
3. Shear stress
4. Bearing stress.

 The cross-sectional properties of all flexural members have to satisfy

elastic strength and service load requirements. In general, bending is the
most critical criterion for medium-span beams, deflection for long span
beams and shear for heavily loaded short-span beams. In practice, design
checks are carried out for all criteria listed above.
 The permissible stress value is calculated as the product of the grade
stress and the appropriate modification factors for particular service and
loading conditions, and is usually compared with the applied stress in a
member or part of a component in structural design calculations. In
general:

Permissible stress ( = grade stress × K-factors ) ≥ applied stress

 Bending stress and prevention of
lateral buckling
 The design of timber beams in flexure requires the application of the elastic theory
of bending as express by:
σ=M·y
I
The term I/y is referred to as section modulus and is denoted by Z.
The applied bending stress about the major (x-x) axis of the beam
(say) (see Fig. 4.1), is calculated from:
M·y M b
y
Ixx = Zxx

x x h
Where:
σm,adm,// = applied bending stress (in N/mm2)
M = maximum bending moment (in Nmm)
Zxx = section modulus about its major (x-x) axis
(in mm3). For rectangular sections y
Design considerations
 Includes all as mention above
 Additions:
➢ Depth factor (Sec 11.6 pg 23)
➢ Effective span L e

Clause 11.3 pg 22 recommends that the span of flexural

members should be taken as the distance between the
centres of bearing

Beam or joist

Effective span
Clear span
Span to centres of actual bearings
Depth factor, K6
 The grade bending stress given in Tables 1,2 and 4 of
MS544 : Part 2 apply to beams having a depth, h, of
300 mm (Clause 11.6). For other depths of beams,
the grade bending stress should be multiplied by the
depth modification factor, K6 where:

for h ≤ 72 mm, K6 = 1.17

for 72 < h< 300 mm, K6 = (300 )0.11

h
for h > 300 mm, K6 = 0.81h2 + 92 300
h2 + 56 800
 Depth to breath ratio
Lateral Stability of built in beams
Beams with large depth to thickness ratios are at risk of buckling under bending forces. BS 5268 uses
the ratio of Ixx (2nd moment of area of section about neutral axis) to Iyy (2nd moment of area of the section
perpendicular to the neutral axis ) to identify the support requirements such that there is no risk of bucking

Note: for a simple rectangular beam the Ixx/Iyy ratio is simply the square of
the d/b ratio.

I xx/ I yy 1 4 9 16 25 36 49

d/b 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Stiffness and deflection (Sec 11.7 pg 24)
➢ Stiffness is related to deflection. When a member is said
to be stiff, it means that it is able to resist deflection to
a certain extend depending on the degree of stiffness.
➢ Deflection limits are decided through practical
experience and arbitrarily fixed.
➢ For floors when fully loaded should not exceed 0.003 x
span
➢ In purlins, deflection should not exceed 0.005 x span
➢ Members may be pre-cambered to account for the
deflection under full dead or permanent load and in this
case the deflection under live or intermittent load
should not exceed 0.003 of the span
 In calculating the deflection, either the mean value or
the minimum value of modulus of elasticity (E) is
used.
➢ The mean value E is used for roof joist, floor joist
mean

and other systems where transverse distribution of

load is achieved and where the stress induced by the
dead load or permanent load is not more than 60% of
the permissible stress induced by the full design load.(
the latter statement is included because where the
permanent load is a large proportion of the total load,
will induce creep.
➢ The minimum value of E is used for principals,
min

binders and other components which acts alone.

Procedure in beam design
Design steps:
i. Calculate the loads to be applied
ii. Effective span, Le (Clause 11.3 pg 22)
iii. Find σm,g,// = bending stress (grade stresses)
parallel to grain from table 1-4
M < MR
Where M: design moment
MR: moment resistance
MR = σm,adm,// , // Zxx
Z = section modulus
σm,adm,// = permissible bending stress // to grain
= = σm,adm,// x modification factor ( K1-K8)
 What can go wrong ?
TIMBER BEAMS:

 Bending failure

 Lateral torsional buckling

 Shear failure

 Notch failure

 Bearing failure

 Excessive deflections
Bending Strength
Linear elastic stresses  max =
My M
=
I S
M =  max S
y
M for rectangula r sections
bh 2
S=
6
Design Equation:
M r =  Fb S
Where Fb is the characteristic bending strength
For timber it is Fb = fb (KDKHKSbKT)
Bending failure in compression
 Only likely for very high grade material
 Benign failure mode
Bending failure in tension
 Most likely failure mode
 Brittle
 Combination of tension and shear,
although tension fracture is the initiating
mode
Bending capacity

Lateral
Mr = φ Fb S KZb KL torsional
where φ = 0.9 buckling
and Fb = fb (KD KH KSb KT )
Glued-laminated beams

better
laminations

20f-EX and 24f-EX grades

Lateral torsional buckling of timber beams
Elastic buckling:
Mcr = π / Le √(G J E Iy )

Torsional Lateral
stiffness bending
stiffness
y
y

Le Δx
x
Δy
x θ
x

Note: The warping stiffness for y

rectangular shapes is small compared to
y
the torsional and bending stiffness
Lateral torsional
buckling of
deep I-joists
Capacity of a timber beam subject to lateral
torsional buckling

 Mu
Mr = φ Fb S KZb

material failure Mr = φ Fb S KZb KL

Mr
combination of
material failure and
elastic lateral
lateral torsional
torsional buckling
buckling

Le
 Lateral torsional
KL
buckling factor KL
1.0
KL = 1
KL = 1 – 1/3 (CB / CK)4

0.67
practical limit

0.5

KL = (0.65 E KSE KT) / (CB2 Fb KX)

CK = ( 0.97 E KSE KT / Fb )0.5

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 CB

Slenderness ratio CB = ( Le d / b2 )0.5

 d Lateral support
d/b
Prevention of b at spacing:

lateral torsional <4 no support

buckling purlins
<5 or tie rods

KL = 1.0 < 610 mm compression

when lateral < 6.5 edge held by
decking or joists
support is < 610 mm
provided as < 7.5
top edge
< 8d
shown plus bridging

<9 both edges

Shear stress in a beam
A

y
τ
d

N.A.
τmax
= V(0.5A)(d/4)
(bd3/12)b
=1.5 V/A
b

VAy VQ
= =
Ib Ib
 Shear in a timber beam

As
σv(max)
Vr = φ Fv 2/3 A KZv
where φ = 0.9 σv(avg)

and Fv = fv (KD KH KSv KT )

σv(max) = 1.5 σv(avg)
= 1.5 V / A
 Shear failures
 One of the very weak properties of wood
 Shrinkage cracks often occur at the ends of beams in
the zone of maximum shear stress
This part of the

• Direct compression load transferred in

direct
compression
transfer of loads in
the end zones
reduces the total
shear force to be 45o
carried.
critical
section
 Shear design of glulam beams
A simple approach for beams where the volume
< 2.0 m3:
Vr = φ Fv 2/3 A KN
where φ = 0.9
and Fv = fv (KD KH KSv KT )
KN = notch factor (see next section)

For larger beams this is usually quite

conservative and a more sophisticated
approach is used (see clause 6.5.7.3)
 Notch factor for Glulam beams
dn
d

dn
e

KN = ( 1 – dn/d )2 For e > d :

KN = ( 1 – dn/d )

For e < d :
KN = 1 – dne/[d(d – dn)]
 For notches on Notch effect in sawn
the tension side of lumber
supports (sawn
lumber)
 In new code:
Reaction
calculation NEW !!

Fr =  Ft A KN
 = 0.9 Area A
Ft = ft (KD KH KSt KT)
where ft = specified reaction force strength = 0.5 MPa for sawn lumber
KSt = 1.0 for dry and 0.7 for wet service conditions
A = gross cross-section area
KN = notch factor
Notch factor d1
e d
KN
dn
Based on Fracture
Mechanics theory

−0.5
   1  2 1  
K N =  0.0061.6 − 1 +   3 − 1  
     
 = 1 − (d n d ) and  = e d
 Bearing failure in a timber beam
 The “soft” property of wood
 Often governs
• Not only compression perpendicular to
grain but also tension of the fibres
along edges

compression
perpendicular
to grain

tension of fibres
along the edges
Bearing resistance
Ab

no high
bending
stress

Bearing factor

Qr =  Fcp Ab KZcp KB
 = 0.8
Fcp = fcp (KScp KT)
Critical bearing areas in woodframe construction
 Bearing resistance
(double bearing)
Ab2

Abavg= 0.5(Ab1 +Ab2)

but ≤ 1.5 Ab1
Ab1
45 deg

Qr = (2/3)  Fcp Abavg KZcp KB

 = 0.8
Fcp = fcp (KD KScp KT)
Bearing factor KB
Bearing length or
Bearing factor KB
diameter (mm)
< 12.5 1.75
25 1.38
38 1.25
50 1.19
75 1.13
100 1.10
> 150 1.0
Deflections
 A serviceability criterion
◦ Avoid damage to cladding etc. (Δ ≤ L/180)
◦ Avoid vibrations (Δ ≤ L/360)
◦ Aesthetics (Δ ≤ L/240)
 Use unfactored loads
 Typically not part of the code