OCR A LEVEL CHEMISTRY

REVISION NOTES
Module 5 Physical and transitional chemistry& module 6 Organic chemistry
and analysis

MISS THANDIWE BANDA

The content within this module assumes knowledge and understanding of the chemical concepts
developed in Module 2: Foundations in chemistry and Module 3: Periodic table and energy.

This module extends the study of energy, reaction rates and equilibria, and the periodic table. The
main areas of physical chemistry studied include:

• rate equations, orders of reaction, the rate determining step

• equilibrium constants, Kc and Kp

• acid–base equilibria including pH, Ka and buffer solutions

• lattice enthalpy and Born–Haber cycles

• entropy and free energy

• electrochemical cells. T

he main areas of inorganic chemistry studied include:

• redox chemistry

• transition elements.

5.1 Rates, equilibrium and Ph

Key terms
i rate of reaction
During a chemical reaction, the concentration of the reactants decreases and the
concentration of the products increases. The rate of a reaction is the decrease in
concentration of reactants per unit time, or the increase in concentration of products per
unit time. The units of rate of reaction are

ii rate equation and order with respect to a substance

The relationship between the rate of a chemical reaction and the concentration of the
reactants is shown by the rate equation of the reaction.
Conside
The rate of this chemical reaction is given by the equation

[A] is the concentration of A, and [B] is the concentration of B.

m and n are the orders of reaction with respect to A and B respectively.
The order of reaction with respect to a given reactant is the power of that reactant's
concentration in the rate equation.
iv overall order of reaction
The sum of these powers, in this case m + n, is known as the overall order of reaction:
The overall order of reaction is the sum of the powers of the reactant concentrations in
the rate equation

v rate constant
k is the rate constant of the reaction.

The rate constant is the constant of proportionality in the rate equation.

vi half-life
The half-life of a reaction, t1/2, is the amount of time needed for a reactant concentration
to decrease by half compared to its initial concentration. Its application is used in chemistry
and medicine to predict the concentration of a substance over time

vii rate-determining step

The rate determining step is the slowest step of a chemical reaction that determines the
speed (rate) at which the overall reaction proceeds.

viii activation energy

In chemistry, activation energy is a term introduced in 1889 by the Swedish scientist Svante
Arrhenius to describe the minimum energy which must be available to a chemical system
with potential reactants to result in a chemical reaction.

ix heterogeneous and homogenous catalyst

Catalysts can be divided into two main types - heterogeneous and homogeneous. In a
heterogeneous reaction, the catalyst is in a different phase from the reactants. In a
homogeneous reaction, the catalyst is in the same phase as the reactants.
 DETERMINING ORDERS OF REACTION

The orders of reaction with respect to each reactant in the reaction can be determined by
carrying out the reaction with various different initial concentrations and measuring the
change in initial rate of reaction. The orders of reaction can be determined arithmetically or
graphically.

If the order of reaction with respect to one reactant is being determined, the concentration of
one reactant only should change; the others should remain constant so that the change in rate
can be attributed to the change in concentration of that reactant alone.

If the overall order is being determined, the concentration of all reactants should change by
the same factor.

1. The arithmetic method

(change in concentration)order of reaction = change in rate

If the reaction is first order, then if the concentration doubles the rate will also double. If the
concentration triples the rate will also triple, etc.

If the reaction is second order, then if the concentration doubles the rate will quadruple. If the
concentration triples the rate will increase ninefold, etc.

If the reaction is zero order, then the change in concentration will have no effect on the rate
of reaction.

Example 1

Consider the reaction RX + OH-  ROH + X-

The following rate data were obtained at constant temperature:

Initial concentration of RX/ Initial concentration of OH/ Initial rate/ moldm-3 s-1
moldm-3 moldm-3
0.01 0.04 8 x 10-3
0.01 0.02 4 x 10-3
0.005 0.04 4 x 10-3

From expt 2 to expt 1, the concentration of hydroxide ions doubles and the concentration of
RX is unchanged. The rate also doubles, so the order of reaction with respect to OH- is 1.

From expt 3 to expt 1, the concentration of RX doubles and the concentration of hydroxide
ions is unchanged. The rate also doubles, so the order of reaction with respect to RX is also 1.

The rate equation can thus be written as follows: rate = k[RX][OH-]

Having deduced the rate equation, the rate constant can be calculated using the data in one of
the experiments.

Eg in expt 1, k = rate/([RX][OH-]) = 8 x 10-3/(0.04 x 0.01) = 20 mol-1dm3s-1.

Example 2

Consider the reaction PCl3 + Cl2  PCl5

The following rate data were obtained at constant temperature:

Initial concentration of Initial concentration of Cl2/ Initial rate/ moldm-3 s-1

PCl3/ moldm-3 moldm-3
0.2 0.1 0.0004
0.4 0.1 0.0008
0.8 0.2 0.0064

From expt 1 to expt 2, the concentration of PCl3 doubles and the concentration of Cl2 is
unchanged. The rate also doubles, so the order of reaction with respect to PCl3 is 1.

From experiment 2 to experiment 3, the concentration of both reactants doubles. The rate
increases eightfold, so the overall order of reaction is three.

The order of reaction with respect to chlorine is therefore 3 – 1 = 2.

The rate equation can thus be written as follows: rate = k[PCl][Cl]2

So k = rate/[PCl3][Cl2]2 = 0.0004/(0.2 x 0.12) = 0.2 mol-2dm6s-1

2. The Graphical method

If the concentrations in the different experiments are not simple whole number ratios of each
other, it is not easy to compare the concentrations and rates. The order of reaction with
respect to each reactant can be deduced by plotting a graph of concentration vs initial rate (an
initial rate-concentration graph)

a) first-order reactions

If Rate = k[A], then a plot of initial rate against initial concentration will be a staight line
through the origin of gradient k:

b) second-order reactions

If rate = k[A] 2, then a plot of initial rate against initial concentration will be a curve through
the origin.

c) zero order reactions

If rate = k, then a plot of initial rate against initial concentration will be a horizontal line:

An even better method is to plot log (rate of reaction) against log (concentration). This should
always give a straight line, the gradient of which is the order of reaction.

Half lives
The half-life is the time needed for any reactant concentration to fall to half of its initial
value.
3. Measuring initial rates of reaction

In some reactions, it is not easy to measure the rate of reaction directly, and easier to mention
the time taken for a particular stage in the reaction to be reached.

Since rate is the change in concentration per unit time, it follows that the rate is inversely
proportional to time taken. A graph of 1/t against initial concentration will give curves
like those shown above.

Examples of such measurements could be:

- time taken for fixed amount of gas to be produced

- time taken for absorbance to change by a certain amount

- use of a clock reaction: the appearance of a certain coloured product is delayed by

adding a fixed amount of another species.
Eg S2O82-(aq) + 2I-(aq)  2SO42-(aq) + I2(aq)
Iodine is produced in this reaction. If starch was added to the original mixture, a blue-
black colour would appear immediately. However if a fixed amount (ie 0.02 moles) of
sodium thiosulphate is also added to the mixture, it reacts with the iodine and a blue-black
colour is only seen when all the thiosulphate has been used up.
It is possible to measure the time taken for the blue-black colour to appear.
 CONCENTRATION-TIME GRAPHS

It is not always possible to carry out several different experiments. It is possible to obtain
much useful information about the kinetics of a reaction by monitoring how the concentration
of a reaction changes over time in a single reaction, and then plotting a graph of
concentration against time (a concentration-time graph).

A typical concentration-time graph would look like this:

Eg for the reaction SO2Cl2  SO2 + Cl2

Concentration-time graph for the

decomposition of SO2Cl2
0.6
[SO2Cl2]/mol/dm3

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
time/s

a) finding the rate of reaction from the graph

The rate of reaction is the change in concentration per unit time and can therefore be
calculated from the gradient of the line at a particular time.

As the graph is a curve (its gradient is steadily decreasing with time), the gradient of the line
at a particular point must be calculated by drawing a tangent to that line at a particular point
and calculating the gradient of that tangent.

www.avogadro.co.uk
The initial rate of reaction is the gradient of the tangent to the curve at t = 0.

The rate of reaction at a particular time is the gradient of the tangent to the curve at that
particular time.

b) Deducing the order of reaction and the rate constant from the graph

By measuring the gradients of the tangents at different points on the curve, it is possible to
deduce the order of reaction by the arithmetic method:

Taking the concentration-time graph for the decomposition of SO2Cl2 (above):

Start by measuring the initial rate of reaction:

The initial concentration of SO2Cl2 is 0.5 moldm-3.
The gradient of the tangent to the curve at this point is 1.6 x 10-4 moldm-3s-1

Then measure the rate of reaction after the concentration of SO2Cl2 has fallen to half of its
initial value:
After 2200 s, the concentration of SO2Cl2 is 0.25 moldm-3.
The gradient of the tangent to the curve at this point is 8.0 x 10-5 moldm-3s-1

It is clear that when the concentration of SO2Cl2 halves, the rate of reaction also halves. This
shows that the order of reaction with respect to of SO2Cl2 is 1 and that the rate equation is
therefore rate = k[SO2Cl2].

If the rate of reaction has fallen by a factor of 4 when the concentration had halved, it would
show that the reaction was second order.
If the rate of reaction had not fallen at all when the concentration had halved, it would show
that the reaction was zero order.

The rate constant can be determined by rearranging the rate equation: k = rate/[SO2Cl2]

EXPLAINING ORDERS OF REACTION

The orders of reaction for a chemical equation are not always the same as the reaction
coefficients:

Eg the reaction NO2 + H2  NO + H2O has the following rate equation:

rate = k[NO2]2
It is therefore not possible to predict the rate equation of a reaction simply by looking at the
reaction coefficients.

Many reactions consist of a series of different steps, some of which are slow and some of
which are very fast.
It is the slowest step in a chemical reaction which determines how fast a reaction is. For this
reason the slowest step in a chemical reaction is called the rate-determining step. Changing
the rate of this step will affect the overall rate of reaction; changing the rate of fast steps
won’t.
Eg consider the reaction NO2 + H2  NO + H2O
This reaction happens in two steps:
Step 1: NO2 + NO2  NO3 + NO this step is slow
Step 2: NO3 + H2  NO2 + H2O this step is fast
Step 1 is the slowest step and is therefore the rate-determining step. This involves two
molecules of NO2, and so doubling the concentration of NO2 will make collisions in this step
four times more likely. So the reaction is second order with respect to NO2. H2 is not
involved in this step; it is only involved in the second, fast step. Changing the concentration
of H2 therefore has no effect on the rate of reaction, and the reaction is zero order with
respect to H2.

The rate equation of a chemical reaction is determined by the number of each species
involved in the rate-determining step of that reaction.

EFFECT OF CHANGING CONDITIONS ON THE RATE CONSTANT

1. Effect of concentration, pressure and temperature on the rate constant

The rate equation shows the relationship between the concentration of reactants and the rate
of reaction.

If the concentration of one of the reactants increases, the rate of reaction will also increase,
the rate constant, k will not change.

If the pressure increases, the concentration of all the reactants will increase and so the rate of
reaction will also increases. Again the rate constant will not change.

The rate constant k is thus independent of concentration and pressure.

If the temperature increases, however, or a catalyst is added, the rate of reaction increases
without a change in concentration, and so it must be the rate constant, k, that is changing.

The rate constant k thus varies with temperature, and is also affected by the addition of a
catalyst.

If the temperature is increased, the rate constant k will increase.

If the temperature is decreased, the rate constant k will decrease.

If the concentration or pressure is changed at constant temperature, the rate constant

will not change.
Kinetics of the reaction between propanone and iodine in acid solution

Hydrogen ions catalyse this reaction.

• The rate equation has the form of rate = k[CH3COCH3 ] x [I2] y [H1] z
• Varying the concentration of each species in turn gives the order of each species – x, y and
z.
• The reaction can be followed by titrating the remaining unreacted iodine with standard
sodium thiosulfate using starch indicator. Alternatively, a colorimeter can be used to
monitor the brown colour of the iodine.
• Experimental data shows the reaction to be first order with respect to both propanone
and hydrogen ions, but zero order for iodine.
• The reactant iodine is not in the rate equation at all but hydrogen ions are present,
despite not being reactants.
Example calculation

Use this data to establish which species are involved in the rate determining step.
Answer:
In experiments 1and 2, doubling concentration of propanone doubles the rate initially. (First
order)
In experiments 1 and 4 doubling hydrogen ions doubles the rate. (First order)
In experiments 1 and 5, doubling the concentration of iodine has no effect on rate. (Zero
order)
The rate determining step therefor involves both hydrogen and propanone but not
iodine.
Rate equations as evidence for SN1 and SN2 mechanisms for tertiary and primary
halogenoalkane hydrolysis

Nucleophilic substitution mechanisms of halogenoalkanes- Two substitution mechanisms

are possible when an iodoalkane reacts with aqueous alkali:

Only the experimental rate data can show which mechanism actually takes place.

The single step illustrated for the substitution of 1-iodopropane, a primary halogenoalkane,
involves two different species – both the hydroxide ion and the primary halogenoalkane. •
The reaction will be second order – it depends on the concentration of both the hydroxide
ion and the primary halogenoalkane. So, rate

We call this an SN2 mechanism, meaning substitution/nucleophilic/second order. Tertiary

halogenoalkanes hydrolyse by the alternative SN1mechanism, meaning
substitution/nucleophilic/first order.

The C-halogen bond breaks first (slow step) followed by attack by the hydroxide ion (fast
step).
• The slow step involves only one species and does not depend on the concentration of
hydroxide ions. Hence the reaction is first order overall: rate = k[RI]

The mechanism must be consistent with the evidence:

• if the reaction is second order overall it must involve two different species
• if the reaction is first order overall (only one species in the rate equation) then this is the
rate-determining step and it must be a two-step reaction.
 2. The Arrhenius Equation and activation energy determination

Activation energy is the smallest amount of energy needed by reactants for products to form.
The relationship between the rate constant of a reaction and the temperature can be quantified
using the Arrhenius equation:

k = Ae(-Ea/(RT))

In this equation, Ea is the activation energy for the reaction (in Jmol-1), T is the temperature
(in K), R is the molar gas constant (in Jmol-1K-1) and A is the Arrhenius constant (which
varies from reaction to reaction)

Taking the logarithm of both sides of this equation gives you:

logk = logA – Ea/(RT)

A graph of logk against 1/T should therefore give a straight line of gradient Ea/R. This
gradient can be used to determine the activation energy of the reaction.

The activation energy of a reaction can therefore be determined experimentally by comparing

the rate of reaction at different temperatures, by plotting a graph of log (rate of reaction)
against 1/T and finding the gradient of the line.

For example, the initial rate of reaction between HCl and Na2S2O3 can be monitored at
different temperatures by measuring how long it takes for the Sulphur produced during this
reaction to prevent an X on a piece of paper under the reaction flask from being visible.
A value proportional to k can be found by calculating (1/time taken)

Time taken for X to (1/time taken)/s-1

T (K)
cease to be visible (s)

298 105 9.5 x 10-3

308 52 1.9 x 10-2

318 25 4.0 x 10-2

328 13 7.7 x 10-2

Then logk and 1/T can be calculated:

T (K) 1/T (K-1) (1/time taken)/s-1 Log (1/time taken)

298 3.36 x 10-3 9.5 x 10-3 -2.02

308 3.25 x 10-3 1.9 x 10-2 -1.72

318 3.14 x 10-3 4.0 x 10-2 -1.40

328 3.05 x 10-3 7.7 x 10-2 -1.11

A graph of log(1/time taken) against 1/T can then be plotted:

0.00340

0.00335

0.00330
llog(1/time taken)

0.00325

0.00320

0.00315

0.00310

0.00305

0.00300
-2.50 -2.00 -1.50 -1.00 -0.50 0.00
1/T(K-1)

The gradient of this line can then be taken and it is approximately -2900K

According to the Arrhenius equation, this gradient = -Ea/R

So Ea = -2900 x R = 24000Jmol-1 = 24kJmol-1
When a reaction is at equilibrium, the forward reaction and reverse reaction have the same
rate. The concentrations of the reaction components stay constant at equilibrium, even
though the forward and backward reactions are still occurring.
Equilibrium constants are used to define the ratio of concentrations at equilibrium for a
reaction at a certain temperature. In general, we use the symbol , to represent
equilibrium constants. When we use the symbol , the superscript c means that all

concentrations are being expressed in terms of molar concentration, or When a

reaction component is a gas, we can also express the amount of that chemical at
equilibrium in terms of its partial pressure. When the equilibrium constant is written with
the gases in terms of partial pressure, the equilibrium constant is written as the symbol .

Points to remember:
Equilibrium constant values are only changed by temperature changes

Liquids and solids do not appear in the equilibrium equation.

All the partial pressures should have the same unit
Make sure the reaction is balanced otherwise the stoichiometric coefficients will be
incorrect

Calculating Kp
Calculating Kc
Value of Kc or Kp :

Predicting extent of reactions using Kc values

The Bronsted-Lowry Theory of acids and bases
The theory states that:
An acid is a proton (hydrogen ion) donor.
A base is a proton (hydrogen ion) acceptor
Acid base reactions involve transfer of electrons.

Brønsted–Lowry conjugate acid-base pairs

Consider an acid HA, and think of the reaction as being reversible.

In the forward reaction:

The HA is an acid because it is donating a proton (hydrogen ion) to the water.
The water is a base because it is accepting a proton from the HA.
In the back reaction between the hydroxonium ion and the A- ion:
The H3O+ is an acid because it is donating a proton (hydrogen ion) to the A- ion.
The A- ion is a base because it is accepting a proton from the H3O+.
The reversible reaction contains two acids and two bases. We think of them in pairs, called
conjugate pairs.

pH
pH is a measure of the dissociation of an acid or base, and also of the concentration of that acid /
base (and is related to the concentration of H3O+ ions).

Calculating pH from hydrogen ion concentration

Logarithmic scale is used when dealing with pH calculations as the concentration of
hydrogen ions at room temperature is very small.

Examples:
Example 1:
Calculate the pH of a 0.01 moles dm-3solution of a strong acid HCl.
As the acid only contains one hydrogen atom it will only produce one hydrogen ion per
molecule when dissolved in water.
Therefore the H+ concentration is = 0.01 moles dm-3
log 0.01 = -2
pH = 2

Example 2:
Calculate the pH of a 0.01 moles dm-3 solution of a strong base NaOH
As the base only contains one OH group it will only produce one hydroxide ion per molecule
when dissolved in water.
Therefore the OH- concentration is = 0.01 moles dm-3
As the ionic product of water at 25ºC [H+] x [OH-] = 1 x 10-14
Then [H+] = 1 x 10-12
log 1 x 10-12 = -12
pH = 12

Calculating concentration of hydrogen ions in mol dm-3 from pH

Expression used:

dm3

Strong Acids & Bases

A strong acid is one which is 100% ionised in solution
pH of strong acid:

pH = -log10[H+]

=> [H+] equals concentration of the acid e.g. HCl, unless it is a diprotic acid, like H2SO4,
which has double the H+ concentration

Monoprotic (monobasic): HCl -> H+ + Cl-

Diprotic (dibasic): H2SO4 -> 2H+ + SO42-

The stronger the ability of an acid to donate protons, the stronger the acid
An acid can become a base if paired with a stronger acid, forming new conjugated acid-base
pairs:

HNO3(l) + H2SO4(l) H2NO3+(l) + HSO4-(l)

base1 acid2 acid1 base2

H2SO4/HSO4- are a conjugated acid-base pair

pH of a weak acid
A weak acid is one that is only partially ionised e.g Ethanoic acid

Acid dissociation constant, Ka, for a weak acid

Weak acid are only about 1% ionised in most cases so a new equilibrium constant Ka is
calculated. To work out Ka for a weak acid the formula below is used.

which can also be written as

Example:

or

Example
Ka for some simple acids
Acid Ka (mol dm-3)
Hydrofluoric acid 5.6 x 10-4
Methanoic acid 1.6 x 10-4
Ethanoic acid 1.7 x 10-5
Hydrogen sulphide 8.9 x 10-8
The smaller the Ka value the weaker the acid

pKa
This is the acid dissociation constant

Formula:
the pKa value is directly proportional to the standard Gibbs free energy change for the
reaction. The value of the pKa changes with temperature and can be understood
qualitatively based on Le Châtelier's principle: when the reaction is endothermic, Ka
increases and pKa decreases with increasing temperature; the opposite is true for
exothermic reactions.

Ionic product of water Kw:

H2O H+ + OH- (slightly dissociated)

At room temperature kw = [H+] x [OH-] = 10-14 mol2 dm-6

 pkw = -log kw = 14

-> increase of temperature increases kw => more dissociation

Knowledge of Kw enables us to calculate the pH of strong bases.

pH of strong base:
pH = 14 + log[OH-]
[OH-] equals concentration of the base, unless the chemical formula of the base contains
more than one mole of OH- ions (e.g. Ca(OH)2 -> double [OH-])
H+ forms H3O+ (hydronium ions) with water

Example:
Titration curves
Key definitions of terms
End point: When indicator changes colour
Equivalence point: When colour change occurs after solutions are mixed in exact equation
proportions
Types of curves

 Strong acid and strong base

 Weak acid and strong base
 Strong acid and weak base
 Weak acid and weak base

When constructing curves,

1. Measure initial pH of acid
2. Add alkali in small amounts and record volume added
3. Stir mixture to equalise pH
4. Add even smaller volumes when close to end point
5. Alkali is added in excess

Strong acid versus strong base titrations

Equivalence point lies at mid point

of the extrapolated vertical part of
curve.

Weak acid versus strong base titration

Strong acid versus weak base titration

Rapid fall at start but rate of fall slows

down . This is due to a buffer solution being
set up.

Equivalence point is now in the acidic range

Weak acid and weak base

Equivalence point is about 7. This is a

difficult titration as there isn’t a steep part
of the graph.
 Summary of titration curves

Summary of equivalence points

Type of titration pH at equivalence point pH change at equivalence
point

Strong acid - strong alkali 7.0 4 to 10

Weak acid - strong alkali Approx 8.5 7 to 10

Strong acid - weak alkali Approx 5.5 4 to 7

Weak acid - weak alkali Approx 7 No sudden change

Choosing indicators for titrations

Indicators are considered to be weak acids therefore must have a different colour to their
conjugate bases. The end-point of a titration is reached when [HIn] =[In-]. To choose a
correct indicator for a titration one should pick an indicator whose end-point coincides with
the equivalence point for the titration.
Applying Le Chatelier will give us the colour. In an acid solution the H+ ions present will push
this equilibrium towards the reactants. Therefore colour A is the acidic colour. In an alkaline
solution the OH ions will react and remove H+ ions causing the equilibrium to shift to the
products. Colour B is the alkaline colour.
Use methyl orange with titrations with strong acids but not weak acids
Colour change: red acid to yellow alkali
(Orange end point)
Only use phenolphthalein in titrations with strong bases but not weak bases
Colour change: colourless acid to pink alkali

Buffers
A buffer solution can resist changes in pH when small amounts of acid or base are added. An
acidic buffer maintains a pH below 7 and consists of a weak acid and its salt. A basic buffer
maintains pH above 7 and consists of a weak acid and its salt.
For example, an acidic buffer could contain ethanoic acid and sodium ethanoate. This will
produce the following reactions:

The equilibrium for the first reaction is far to the left and the equilibrium for the second
reaction is shifted to the right. If an acid is added the H+ reacts with the excess CH3COO-
and this become ethanoic acid, which doesn't change the equilibrium. If a base is added the
OH- reacts with hydrogen from reaction 1 to become water. However, this disrupts the
equilibrium and more H+ is produced to compensate. Some ethanoic acid molecules are
changed to ethanoate ions but as there is a large concentration of the salt ion in the buffer
the ratio [CH3CO2H]/ [CH3CO2-] stays almostconstant, so the pH stays fairly constant.
Calculating pH of buffer solutions

Use expression then rearrange to

Calculating pH of buffers on addition of small volumes of acid or alkali

If a small amount of alkali is added to a buffer then the moles of the buffer acid would
reduce by the number of moles of alkali added and the moles of salt would increase by the
same amount so a new calculation of pH can be done with the new values.

If a small amount of acid is added to a buffer then the moles of the buffer salt would reduce
by the number of moles of acid added and the moles of buffer acid would increase by the
same amount so a new calculation of pH can be done with the new values.

Example:
0.005 mol of NaOH is added to 500cm3 of a buffer where the concentration of ethanoic
acid is 0.200 mol dm-3 and the concentration of sodium ethanoate is 0.250 mol dm-3.
(Ka = 1.7 x 10-5)
Calculate the pH of the buffer solution after the NaOH has been added.
Work out the moles of acid and salt in the initial buffer solution
Moles ethanoic acid= conc x vol = 0.200 x 0.500 = 0.100mol
Moles sodium ethanoate = conc x vol = 0.25 x 0.500 = 0.125mol
Work out the moles of acid and salt in buffer after the addition of 0.005mol NaOH
Moles ethanoic acid = 0.100 - 0.005 = 0.095 mol
Moles sodium ethanoate = 0.125 +0.005 = 0.130 mol
 Making buffers
Buffers can be made in several ways:
 Adding a salt solution
What would be the pH of a buffer made from 45cm3 of 0.1M ethanoic acid
and 50cm3 of 0.15 M sodium ethanoate (Ka = 1.7 x 10-5) ?
Work out the moles of both solutions
Moles ethanoic = conc x vol = 0.1 x 0.045 = 0.0045mol
Moles sodium ethanoate = conc x vol = 0.15 x 0.050 = 0.0075

 Adding a solid salt

A buffer solution is made by adding 1.1g of sodium ethanoate into 100 cm3 of 0.4M
ethanoic acid. What is its pH? Ka =1.7 x10-5
Work out the moles of both solutions
Moles ethanoic = conc x vol = 0.4 x 0.1 = 0.04mol
Moles sodium ethanoate = mass/Mr= 1.1/82 = 0.0134

To prepare a buffer solution of a given pH, it is necessary to have the acid and base
concentrations in a suitable ratio.
 Eg to prepare an NH3/NH4Cl buffer of pH = 10
[H3O+] = [acid] so [NH4+] = 1 x 10-10 = 1/5.6
Ka [base] [NH3] 5.6 x 10-10

So 5.6 moles of NH3 are required for every 1 mole of NH4Cl

Given equimolar solutions of both, 100 cm3 of this buffer could be made by taking
10 cm3 of NH4Cl, adding 56 cm3 of ammonia and the total volume made up to 100
cm3.
It is possible to express the pH directly in terms of the concentrations of the
reactants:

[H3O+] = Ka[acid]
[base]
so log10[H3O+] = log10Ka + log10([acid]/[base])
so -log10[H3O+] = -log10Ka + log10([base]/[acid])
so pH = pKa + log10([base]/[acid])

pH = pKa + log10([base]/[acid])
pH = pKa + log10([base]/[acid])

Natural buffers

There are many biological systems which rely on a fairly constant pH, and which rely
on the use of buffer solutions to maintain this pH.

a) Blood

The pH of blood must be maintained at around 7.4. Hydrogen carbonate ions are
used for this purpose:
HCO3-(aq) + H3O+ (aq) CO2 (g) + 2H2O(l)
HCO3-(aq) + OH-(aq) CO2 (aq) + H2O (l)
 b) Tears

The pH of tears must also be maintained at around 7.4, in this case by the use of
amino acids:

H2NCH2COOH(aq) + H3O+(aq) H3N+CH2COOH(aq) + H2O(l)

H2NCH2COOH(aq) + OH-(aq) H2NCH2COO-(aq) + H2O(l)

Enthalpy changes of neutralisation

The standard enthalpy change of neutralisation is the enthalpy change when
solutions of an acid and an alkali react together under standard conditions to produce 1
mole of water. Enthalpy changes of neutralisation are always exothermic. For reactions
involving strong acids and alkalis, the values are similar, with values between -56 and -58 kJ
mol-1 because the same reaction is occurring H+ + OH- H2O
Weak acids have a less exothermic enthalpy change of neutralisation because energy is
absorbed to ionise the acid and break the bond to the hydrogen in the un-dissociated acid.

Lattice energy Is the energy change when one mole of an ionic solid is formed from its
gaseous ions.
Enthalpy change of atomisation, ΔatH
The enthalpy of atomisation of an element is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of gaseous
atoms is formed from the element in its standard state
Na (s) Na(g) [∆atH = +148 kJ mol-1]
½ O2(g) O (g) [∆atH = +249 kJ mol-1]

Electron affinity
Electron affinity of an atom or molecule is defined as the amount of energy released or
spent when an electron is added to a neutral atom or molecule in the gaseous state to form
a negative ion.
First electron affinities have negative values. For example, the first electron affinity of
chlorine is -349 kJ mol-1. By convention, the negative sign shows a release of energy.
Group 7 electron affinities
F -328 kJ mol-1
Cl -349 kJ mol-1
Br -324 kJ mol-1
I -295 kJ mol-1
The first electron affinity is exothermic for atoms that normally form negative ions because
the ion is more stable than the atom and there is an attraction between the nucleus and the
electron.
As you go down the group, first electron affinities become less (less energy is evolved when
the negative ions are formed). Fluorine however breaks that pattern.
The electron affinity is a measure of the attraction between the incoming electron and the
nucleus - the stronger the attraction, the more energy is released. The factors which affect
this attraction are exactly the same as those relating to ionisation energies - nuclear charge,
distance and screening.
Second electron affinity- this is the enthalpy change when one mole of gaseous 1- ions
gains one electron per ion to produce gaseous 2- ions.
O –(g) + e- O2- (g) [∆Hea = +798 kJ mol-1]
The second electron affinity for oxygen is endothermic because it take energy to overcome
the repulsive force between the negative ion and the electron

Born haber cycles

Lattice enthalpies for ionic compounds give a good indication as to the strength of the ionic
bonding in the lattice.
Lattice enthalpies cannot be measured directly; they are calculated indirectly using a Born-
Haber cycle.
This splits up the enthalpy of formation into individual enthalpy changes; one of which is the
lattice enthalpy. For example, the above reaction can be split up into several steps:

 The elements in their standard states are turned into gaseous atoms.
 The gaseous atoms become gaseous ions.
 The gaseous ions come together to form solid sodium chloride.
 By applying Hess’s Law, the lattice enthalpy can then be calculated.

The following enthalpy changes are often used in Born-Haber cycles:

At each stage of the Born-Haber scale, one change occurs.

Applying Hess’s law to this cycle, which states that the enthalpy change for a reaction is the
same regardless of how many steps occur in that reaction, it is possible to calculate the
lattice enthalpy.
The arrows pointing upwards represent endothermic changes, those pointing downwards
show exothermic changes.
From the Born-Haber Cycle, the enthalpy change associated with the route depicted by the
blue arrow is equal to the enthalpy change of the route shown by the red arrow.
The Born-Haber cycle for sodium chloride is shown below:

Therefore from the cycle:

Trends in lattice enthalpies

The strength of enthalpy of lattice formation depends on the following
factors
1. The sizes of the ions:
The larger the ions, the less negative the enthalpies of lattice formation (i.e. a weaker
lattice). As the ions are larger the charges become further apart and so have a weaker
attractive force between them.
2. The charges on the ion:
The bigger the charge of the ion, the greater the attraction between the ions so the stronger
the lattice enthalpy (more negative values).
Theoretical lattice enthalpies and Born- Haber lattice enthalpies.
Theoretical lattice enthalpies assumes a perfect ionic model where the ions are 100% ionic
and spherical and the attractions are purely electrostatic. The Born Haber lattice enthalpy is
the real experimental value. When a compound shows covalent character, the theoretical
and the born Haber lattice enthalpies differ. The more the covalent character the bigger
the difference between the values.

Polarisation
Ions

Ionic bonds can be polarised by the cations strongly attracting the outer shell
electrons of the anion. This polarisation will depend on:
 Its charges density – dependent on ion size and charge
 Radius of ion- smaller ionic radii = greater charge so greater
charge density
 For anions, larger radii = easier polarisation
Enthalpy change of hydration ΔHhyd
Even though energy is needed to break up the lattice, many ionic substances do dissolve.
Therefore, something else must happen to supply that energy.
Water molecules possess a dipole and are attracted to the ions on the surface of the lattice
when an ionic compound is added to water.
The water molecules pull the ions from the surface of the compound; the ions in the
solution become hydrated; they have water molecules bound to them:
The smaller the ion and the higher its charge, the more water molecules it attracts.
The strength of the attractions between the ions and the water molecules is measured by
the enthalpy of hydration (ΔHhyd).

The enthalpy change of hydration is defined as the enthalpy change for the production of
a solution of ions from one mole of gaseous ions.
For example:

Enthalpies of hydration depend upon the concentration of the solution produced.

Values quoted refer to an infinitely dilute solution.
Enthalpies of hydration are always negative (exothermic).
Once again, the most exothermic values occur when the ionic radii decreases and the ionic
charge increases.
Molecules of some other solvents, such as ethanol, are also polar and can bind to ions.

Enthalpy change of solution ΔHsol

The difference between the enthalpies of hydration of ions and the lattice enthalpy gives
the enthalpy change of solution (ΔHsol).

The enthalpy of solution, enthalpy of dissolution, or heat of solution is the enthalpy change
associated with the dissolution of a substance in a solvent at constant pressure resulting in
infinite dilution. The enthalpy of solution is most often expressed in kJ/mol at constant
temperature. Enthalpies of solution may be either positive or negative - in other words,
some ionic substances dissolved endothermically (for example, NaCl); others dissolve
exothermically (for example NaOH)
Hess’ law is used to calculate enthalpy changes of solution
The hydration of ions favours dissolving and helps to supply the energy needed to separate
the ions from a lattice.
The process of dissolving can be broken down into two steps:

 The solid ionic compound is split up into a gas of ions (requires the energy equal to
the lattice energy to be supplied).
 The ions dissolve in solution and become hydrated; the energy equal to the
hydration energies of the two ions is given out.
Examples of enthalpy changes of solutions

 When ΔHsol is slightly negative

 When ΔHsol is slightly positive

 The value of Hsolution depends upon the difference between the enthalpy of hydration
of the individual ions and the lattice enthalpy of the compound.

Even if the value of Hsolution is positive, the substance may still dissolve; this is related
to the change in entropy of the system that occurs.

HLE and HHyd values are often very large and are dependent on the size and charge of
the ions involved.

As a result, the values of Hsolution are often small by comparison, and can be either
positive or negative.

Since some endothermic reactions can occur at room temperature, enthalpy changes alone
do not control whether reactions occur. Consideration of entropy is vital.
Entropy is a measure of the disorder of a system and the natural direction of change is
increasing total entropy (positive entropy change)
The entropy of a system increases when a solute dissolves, as it becomes more disordered
as the ions spread out through the solution.
Substances with more ways of arranging their atoms and energy (more disordered) have a
higher entropy.
An increase in entropy favours dissolving- even if a small amount of energy is needed.
So substances with a small positive enthalpy change of solution are still able to dissolve,
provided there is a sufficient increase in entropy.
This can be used to explain why salt (NaCl) dissolves, but calcium carbonate (chalk) does
not.
When salt dissolves there is a large increase in entropy, which counteracts the small positive
enthalpy change of solution value that it has.
Calcium carbonate, on the other hand, has a small negative enthalpy change of solution;
however a decrease in entropy results from it dissolving and so it is insoluble in water.
The decrease in entropy occurs because the solvent, water, is becoming more ordered as
the water molecules cluster around the doubly charged ions.
When considering entropy it is useful to split the system (the chemicals) from the
surroundings.
A system will consist of reactants and then products. It does not change temperature or
pressure, and mass cannot be transferred to the surroundings. Energy can be transferred to
 the surroundings.

Solids have lower entropies than liquids which are

lower than gases.
When a solid increases in Temperature its entropy
increases as the particles vibrate more.
There is a bigger jump in entropy with boiling than
that with melting.
Gases have large entropies as they are much more
disordered
Elements in their standard states do not have zero
entropy. Only perfect crystals at absolute zero (T = 0 K) will have zero entropy:
∆S˚system = Σ S˚products - ΣS˚reactants

Entropy of surroundings
Exothermic versus endothermic reactions

In an exothermic reaction energy is given In an endothermic reaction energy is

out into the surroundings. The number of transferred from the surroundings. The
ways of arranging the energy therefore number of ways of arranging the energy in
increases and so ∆Ssurrounding increases the surroundings therefore decreases and
and is positive. so ∆Ssurrounding decreases and is
negative.
Predicting feasibility

 It follows from this formula that feasibility is dependent on temperature

 An exothermic reaction with a positive entropy change will be feasible at all
temperatures
 An endothermic reaction with a negative entropy change will be infeasible at
all temperatures
 An exothermic reaction with a reduction in entropy will become feasible at
low temperatures (when ΔH outweighs TΔS) – see example below
 An endothermic reaction with an increase in entropy will become feasible at
high temperatures (when TΔS outweighs ΔH)
 In the last two cases, the temperature at which the reaction becomes feasible
is when ΔG =0 (i.e. ΔH = TΔS, or T = ΔH/ΔS)
Example

TiO2(s) + C(s) + 2Cl2(g)  TiCl4(l) + CO2(g)

For this reaction, ΔH = -258 kJ mol-1 and ΔS = -35.6 J K-1 mol-1
Calculate the temperature at which this reaction ceases to be feasible
 T = ΔH/ΔS
= (-258 x 1000)/-35.6 (common mistake is to leave out x 1000)
= 7247K (infeasible above this temperature)

 For changes of state, such as melting and boiling, ΔG = 0 and the two states are in
equilibrium

If the reaction involves an increase in entropy (∆S is +ve) then increasing Temperature will
make it more likely that ∆G is negative and more likely that the reaction occurs
If the reaction involves an decrease in entropy (∆S is -ve) then increasing Temperature will
make it more less likely that ∆G is negative and less likely for the reaction to occur .
If the reaction has a ∆S close to zero then temperature will not have a large effect on the
feasibility of the reaction as - T∆S will be small and ∆G won’t change much

Equilibrium constants values may also be used to predict feasibility of

reactions. Large equilibrium constants lead to more negative values for Gibbs
free energy and thus high feasibility.

Oxidation can be defined as loss of electrons and reduction as gain of electrons. For
example:

The oxidation gives a compound its name, for example Iron (IV) oxide means the oxidation
state of iron is 4 so therefore there must be two oxygen atoms bonded to it. S-block metals
loose their electrons in a reaction, so are good reductants (they are oxidized easily). There
are also p-block elements which can have different oxidation states; and those in group VII,
gain electrons in reactions so are good oxidants (they gain electrons easily).
Electrode potentials- Standard hydrogen electrode
This is the 'potential' of a redox system to lose or gain electrons when compared to the
standard hydrogen electrode - assigned a value of 0 volts.
In any reduction-oxidation half equation the electrons are gained by the species on the left
hand side:

Cu2+ + 2e Cu

The electrode potential measures the tendency of electrons to flow away from or towards a
redox equilibrium. They are always measured with respect to the standard hydrogen
electrode (which is assigned a value of zero volts).
Components of a standard hydrogen electrode.
To make the electrode a standard reference electrode
some conditions apply:
1. Hydrogen gas at pressure of 100 kPa
2. Solution containing the hydrogen ion at 1.00 mol dm-3
(solution is usually 1M HCl)
3. Temperature at 298K
Standard conditions are needed because the position of the redox equilibrium will change
with conditions.
Equilibrium redox systems with the reduced side (usually a metal) more reactive than
hydrogen have a negative electrode potential, i.e. they can lose electrons more easily than
hydrogen.
Equilibrium redox systems with the reduced side less reactive than hydrogen have a positive
electrode potential, i.e. they can lose electrons less easily than hydrogen.

Example: Zinc has a standard electrode potential of - 0.76 volts

Consequently the equilibrium...

Zn Zn2+ + 2e
has more of a tendency to move to the right hand side than the equilibrium...

H2 2H+ + 2e
Hence if the two equilibria are brought into electrical contact using an external wire
and a salt bridge, the electrons will be pushed from the zinc equilibrium to the
hydrogen equilbrium with a force of - 0.76V (the negative sign simply indicates the
direction of flow - from zinc to hydrogen ions)
The two equations then may be summed together to give the reaction occuring in the
whole cell.

Zn Zn2+ + 2e

2H+ + 2e H2
overall cell reaction

Zn + 2H+ Zn2+ + H2

Using the SHE to measure electrode potential

In the actual experimental setup the two half cells are connected together via an external
circuit wire and a salt bridge to make the whole cell.

In the above apparatus setup the copper | copper sulphate (aq) half cell is connected to the
SHE via an external circuit containing a high resistance voltmeter (high resistance to prevent
passage of current)
There is a salt bridge to complete the circuit - this allows the ions to flow from one side to
another to equalise the movement of charge.
Once the apparatus is setup the reading on the high resistance voltmeter records the
electrode potential of the Cu|Cu2+(aq) system
In this particular case the voltmeter will read +0.34 V indicating that copper is less reactive
than hydrogen and that there is a force pushing electrons around the external circuit from
the hydrogen half cell to the copper half cell.

Representing the cell

The whole cell can be represented by showing the half cells in order of phase (solid, |
solution, |salt bridge | solution | solid)
The above cell diagram can be represented as:
H2(g),Pt | H+(aq) || Cu2+(aq) | Cu (s)

Electrochemical cells
•A cell has two half–cells.

•The two half cells have to be connected with a salt bridge.

•Simple half cells will consist of a metal (acts an electrode) and a solution of a compound containing
that metal (eg Cu and CuSO4 ).

•These two half cells will produce a small voltage if connected into a circuit. (i.e. become a Battery
or cell).

Why use a High resistance

voltmeter? The voltmeter needs to be of very high resistance to stop the current
from flowing in the circuit. In this state it is possible to measure the
maximum possible potential difference (E).
The reactions will not be occurring because the very high resistance voltmeter stops the
current from flowing.
Salt Bridge
The salt bridge is used to connect up the circuit. The free moving ions conduct the charge. A
salt bridge is usually made from a piece of filter paper (or material) soaked in a salt solution,
usually Potassium Nitrate. The salt should be unreactive with the electrodes and electrode
solutions. E.g. potassium chloride would not be suitable for copper systems as Chloride ions
can form complexes with copper ions. A wire is not used because the metal wire would set
up its own electrode system with the solutions
What happens if current is allowed to flow? If the voltmeter is removed and replaced with a
bulb or if the circuit is short circuited, a current flows. The reactions will then occur
separately at each electrode. The voltage will fall to zero as the reactants are used up. The
most positive electrode will always undergo reduction.

Cu2+ (aq) + 2e-  Cu(s) (positive as electrons are used up)

The most negative electrode will always undergo oxidation.

Zn(s)  Zn2+ (aq) + 2e- (negative as electrons are given off)

Systems that do not include metals to act as electrodes use platinum which provides a
conducting surface and allows for electron transfer.
Calculating the EMF of a cell
In order to calculate the Ecell, we must use ‘standard electrode potentials’ for the half cells.
Use the equation
Ecell= Erhs – Elhs
Using electrode potentials
If we want to work out the Ecell that corresponds to this spontaneous change then use Ecell
= Ered – Eox A spontaneous change will always have a positive Ecell

The more negative half cell will always oxidise (go backwards)
Mg2+ (aq) + 2e- Mg(s) E= -2.37V
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- Cu (s) E = +0.34V
The more positive half cell will always reduce (go forwards)

Summary of standard electrode potentials

Standard electrode potentials (redox potentials) are one way of measuring how easily a
substance loses electrons. In particular, they give a measure of relative positions of
equilibrium in reactions such as:

The more negative the E° value, the further the position of equilibrium lies to the left.
Remember that this is always relative to the hydrogen equilibrium - and not in absolute
terms.
The negative sign of the zinc E° value shows that it releases electrons more readily than
hydrogen does. The positive sign of the copper E° value shows that it releases electrons
less readily than hydrogen.
Whenever you link two of these equilibria together (either via a bit of wire, or by allowing
one of the substances to give electrons directly to another one in a test tube) electrons flow
from one equilibrium to the other. That upsets the equilibria, and Le Chatelier's Principle
applies. The positions of equilibrium move - and keep on moving if the electrons continue to
be transferred.
The two equilibria essentially turn into two one-way reactions:
 The equilibrium with the more negative (or less positive) E° value will move to the
left.

 The equilibrium with the more positive (or less negative) E° value will move to the
right.

Predicting reactivity trends of metals using electrode potentials

As an example;
Copper is well known not to react with dilute sulphuric acid
Using E®values,

If we start from copper metal,

the copper equilibrium is
already completely to the right.
If it were to react at all, the
equilibrium will have to move
to the left - directly opposite to
what the E° values are saying.

Similarly, if we start fro

 is directly proportional to the total entropy change and to
ln K for a reaction.
Limitations of using standard electrode potentials to predict reactions

At times, E° values suggest that a reaction ought to happen, but it doesn't. Occasionally, a
reaction happens although the E° values seem to be the wrong way around
All the E° values show is that a reaction is possible. They don't tell you that it will actually
happen. There may be very large activation barriers to the reaction which prevent it from
taking place. Always treat what E° values tell you with some caution. All they tell you is
whether a reaction is feasible - they tell you nothing about how fast the reaction will
happen.
SPONTANEOUS REACTIONS

If two half-cells are connected electrically and a current allowed to flow, the more positive
electrode will undergo reduction and the more negative electrode will undergo oxidation.
The oxidising agent at the more positive electrode is reduced, and thus oxidises the reducing
agent at the more negative electrode.

Eg If the zinc electrode and the copper electrode are connected, the following reaction takes
place:
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq)  Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

It can be assumed that if a reaction occurs electrochemically, it will also occur chemically.
Thus if zinc metal is added to a solution of copper (II) sulphate, the above reaction will
occur.
If copper metal is added to a solution of zinc (II) sulphate, however, no reaction will occur. If
any reaction did occur, it would have to be
Cu(s) + Zn2+(aq)  Cu2+(aq) + Zn(s)

This reaction is not the one which takes place if the two half-cells are connected, and
therefore cannot be expected to take place in other circumstances.

1. Oxidising agents and reducing agents

Since the more positive electrodes are at the bottom of the electrochemical series, the
oxidising agents in these systems will oxidise any reducing agent which lies above it in the
electrochemical series.

Eg H+(aq) will oxidise Pb(s) to Pb2+(aq), and any other metal above it, but will not oxidise
Cu(s) to Cu2+(aq) or any metal below it.
Pb(s) + 2H+(aq)  Pb2+(aq) + H2(g)

Acids such as nitric acid, however, which contains the more powerful oxidising agent NO 3-
(aq), will oxidise any reducing agent with a standard electrode potential more negative than
+0.81V, eg Cu(s)
Cu(s) + 4H+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq)  Cu2+(aq) + 2NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Reducing agents will reduce any oxidising agent which lies below it in the electrochemical
series.

Eg Fe2+(aq) will reduce VO2+(aq) to VO2+(aq), but not VO2+(aq) to V3+(aq) or V3+(aq) to V2+(aq)
VO2+(aq) + 2H+(aq) + Fe2+(aq)  VO2+(aq) + H2O(l) + Fe3+(aq)

2. Cell potential

A more systematic method of predicting whether or not a reaction will occur is to construct
two half-equations, one reduction and one oxidation, for the reaction trying to take place.
Since reduction occurs at the more positive electrode, consider the reduction process to be
the right-hand electrode and the oxidation process to be the left-hand electrode.
The cell potential for the reaction is given by ERHS - ELHS, or EReduction - EOxidation.
If the cell potential is positive, the reaction will occur.
If the cell potential is negative, the reaction will not occur.
This method can be used to predict whether or not any given redox reaction will take place.

a) Displacement reactions

Eg. Predict whether or not zinc metal will displace iron from a solution of FeSO 4(aq).
The reaction under consideration is Zn(s) + Fe2+(aq) == Zn2+(aq) + Fe(s)
Reduction: Fe2+(aq) + 2e == Fe(s) (Eo = -0.44V)
Oxidation: Zn(s) == Zn2+(aq) + 2e (Eo = -0.76V)
ECELL = -0.44 -(-0.76) = +0.32V
So the reaction will occur.

Eg Predict whether or not zinc metal will desplace manganese from a solution of
MnSO4(aq)
The reaction under consideration is Zn(s) + Mn2+(aq)  Zn2+(aq) + Mn(s)
Reduction: Mn2+(aq) + 2e == Mn(s) (Eo = -1.19V)
Oxidation: Zn(s) == Zn2+(aq) + 2e (Eo = -0.76V)
ECELL = -1.19 -(0.76) = -0.43V
So the reaction will not occur.

Eg Predict whether or not bromine will displace iodine from a solution of KI(aq)
The reaction under consideration is Br2(aq) + 2I-(aq) == 2Br-(aq) + I2(aq)
Reduction: Br2(aq) + 2e == 2Br-(aq) (Eo = +1.09V)
Oxidation: 2I-(aq) == I2(aq) + 2e (Eo = +0.54V)
ECELL = 1.09 - 0.54 = +0.55V
So the reaction will occur.
Eg Predict whether or not bromine will displace chlorine from a solution of NaCl(aq)
The reaction under consideration is Br2(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) == 2Br-(aq) + Cl2(aq)
Reduction: Br2(aq) + 2e == 2Br-(aq) (Eo = +1.09V)
Oxidation: 2Cl-(aq) == Cl2(aq) + 2e (Eo = +1.36V)
ECELL = 1.09 - 1.36 = -0.27V
So the reaction will not occur.

b) Disproportionation

Standard electrode potentials can be used to predict whether or not a species will
disproportionate.

Eg Predict whether or not Ag+ ions will disproportionate in aqueous solution.

Ag+ might be expected to disproportionate according to the following half-reactions:
Ag+(aq) + e == Ag(s) reduction, Eo = + 0.80V
Ag+(aq) == Ag2+(aq) + e oxidation, Eo = + 1.98V
ECELL = 0.80 - 1.98 = -1.18V
Therefore Ag+ will not disproportionate

Eg Predict whether or not H2O2 will disproportionate in aqueous solution.

H2O2 might be expected to disproportionate according to the following half-
reactions:
H2O2(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2e == 2H2O(l) reduction, Eo = +1.77V
H2O2(aq) == 2H+(aq) + O2(g) + 2e oxidation, Eo = +0.68V
ECELL = 1.77 - 0.68 = +1.09V
Therefore H2O2(aq) will disproportionate:
2H2O2(aq) + 2H+(aq)  2H+(aq) + O2(g) + 2H2O(l)
2H2O2(aq)  2H2O(l) + O2(g)

3. Non-standard conditions

Though cell potential is often a correct prediction of whether or not a given reaction will
take place, it does strictly apply only to standard conditions. If the solutions used are either
very concentrated or very dilute, then the electrode potentials will not be the standard
electrode potentials and the sign of the cell potential may be different from that predicted
under standard conditions. Thus many reactions which are not expected to occur do in fact
take place if the solutions are hot or concentrated, and many reactions which are expected
to occur do not take place if the solutions are too dilute.

Eg The reaction between manganese dioxide and hydrochloric acid.

MnO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)  Mn2+(aq) + Cl2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Reduction: MnO2(s) + 4H2+(aq) + 2e == Mn2+(aq) + 2H2O(l) Eo = +1.23V
Oxidation: 2Cl-(aq) Cl2(g) + 2e Eo = +1.36V
ECELL = Er - Eo = -0.13V
 This reaction does not occur under standard conditions. However if hot
concentrated HCl is used, the high Cl- concentration favours oxidation, the electrode
potential becomes less positive and ECELL thus becomes positive and the reaction
occurs.
Eg The reaction between potassium dichromate (VI) and hydrochloric acid.
Cr2O72-(aq) + 14H+(aq) + 6Cl-(aq)  2Cr3+(aq) + 3Cl2(g) + 7H2O(l)
Reduction: Cr2O72-(aq) + 14H+(aq) + 6e == 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l) Eo = +1.33V
Oxidation: 2Cl-(aq) == Cl2(g) + 2e Eo = +1.36V
ECELL = Er - Eo = -0.03V
This reaction does not occur under standard conditions. However if solid potassium
dichromate is dissolved in hydrochloric acid, the high Cr2O72- concentration favours
reduction and makes the electrode potential more positive. Thus E CELL becomes
positive and the reaction occurs.

4. Kinetic stability

Cell potentials can be used effectively to predict whether or not a given reaction will take
place, but they give no indication as to how fast a reaction will proceed. In many cases ECELL
is positive but no apparent reaction occurs. This is because the reactants are kinetically
stable; the reaction has a high activation energy so is very slow at room temperature. There
are many examples of this in inorganic chemistry:

Eg Mg(s) + 2H2O(l)  Mg2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + H2(g)

E = -0.42V, E = -2.38V so ECELL = Er - Eo = +1.96V
So a reaction is expected but no reaction takes place.
This is because the activation energy is too high (magnesium will react with steam
and slowly with hot water).

Thus if a reaction is expected to take place but is found not to, there are two possible
reasons:
- the solutions are too dilute (ie conditions are non-standard)
- the reaction is very slow (ie reactants are kinetically stable)

If a reaction is not expected to take place but does take place, then it is because the
conditions are non-standard (ie the solutions are concentrated).
Rechargeable and non-rechargeable cells

Electrochemical cells are the basis for all batteries. Batteries contain two separate half-cells.
The solutions are connected by a salt bridge or semi-permeable membrane which allows
ions to flow through without allowing complete mixing of the solutions. The electrodes are
connected to the terminals of the battery, and when the battery is connected to an
electrical device a current can flow.
If the reactions taking place in the half-cells are reversible, the battery is rechargeable. By
connecting the battery to another power supply with a larger emf, electrons and ions are
forced around the circuit in the opposite direction. This reverses the spontaneous chemical
reaction and hence recharges the battery.
If the reactions taking place in the half-cells are irreversible the battery is non-rechargeable.
Fuel Cells

A fuel cell is a cell in which a chemical reaction between a fuel and oxygen is used to create
a voltage. The fuel and oxygen flow into the cell continuously and the products flow out of
the cell. Therefore the cell does not need to be recharged.

The most widely used fuel cell is the hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell:

A fuel cell, like a regular electrochemical cell, consists of two half-cells connected by a semi-
permeable membrane. An aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide is used as the electrolyte.

Oxygen is pumped into one of the half-cells:

O2(g) + H2O(l) + 4e- = 4OH-(aq) E0 = +0.40 V

Hydrogen is pumped into the other half-cell:

H2O(l) + 2e- == H2(g) + 2OH-(aq) E0 = -0.83 V

The oxygen half-cell is more positive and therefore undergoes reduction. The hydrogen half-
cell is more negative and undergoes oxidation:

O2(g) + H2O(l) + 4e-  4OH-(aq) reduction

H2(g) + 2OH-(aq)  H2O(l) + 2e- oxidation

O2(g) + 2H2(g)  2H2O(l) overall cell reaction, emf = 1.23 V

Hydroxide ions are generated in the oxygen half-cell and travel through the membrane into
the hydrogen half-cell, where they are used up.

Water is the product of the reaction and it is allowed to run off.

 - +

H2 in
O2 in

OH-

H2O out

There are a number of advantages of fuel cells as a way of producing energy:

- The hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell produces water as the only product. It therefore does
not produce any of the greenhouse or polluting gases associated with combustion
engines. The process of generating hydrogen for use in fuel cells does produce a
small quantity of carbon dioxide, but much less than would be generated by a
combustion engine.

- Fuel cells are more efficient than combustion engines. Typically fuel cells are
approximately 50% efficient but combustion engines are approximately 20%
efficient.

However there are also a number of limitations of fuel cells as a way of producing energy:

- Hydrogen is a flammable gas with a low boiling point. It is therefore both difficult
and dangerous to store and transport. It can be stored as a liquid under pressure or
as a solid adsorbed to the surface of a solid, but both of these techniques are
expensive.
- As a result, obtaining hydrogen as a fuel is difficult and this means that people will
not buy hydrogen-powered vehicles.
- Fuel cells use toxic chemicals in their manufacture
- Fuel cells have a limited lifetime

Redox Titrations

Oxidising agents in aqueous solution can be determined by titrating against standard

solutions of reducing agents. Reducing agents in aqueous solution can be determined by
titrating against standard solutions of oxidising agents.
Potassium manganate (VII), KMnO4 is a powerful oxidizing agent:
MnO4-(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5e  Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
It can be used to determine the amount of a reducing agent present by titration.

It can therefore be used to determine reducing agents. Common examples of reducing

agents which are determined using KMnO4 are Fe2+(aq) and C2O42-(aq)

Fe2+(aq)  Fe3+(aq) + e
MnO4- (aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5Fe2+(aq) Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l) + 5Fe3+(aq)

C2O42-(aq)  2CO2(g) + 2e
2MnO4- (aq) + 16H+(aq) + 5C2O42-(aq) 2Mn2+(aq) + 8H2O(l) + 10CO2(g)

The most important principles involved in titrations involving KMnO 4 are:

i) The colour change associated with the above reduction is:

MnO4- (intense purple)  Mn2+ (colourless)

The colour change is so intense that no indicator is required for the reaction.

ii) Since the MnO4- ion is only an effective oxidising agent in acidic medium, it is
necessary to add excess acid to the conical flask before carrying out the titration.
Sulphuric acid is generally used for this purpose. Hydrochloric acid should not be used since
Cl- is a reducing agent and will react with the MnO4- before the MnO4- can react with the
reducing agent under investigation. Nitric acid should not be used as NO3- is an oxidizing
agent and will react with the reducing agent before the MnO4- can. Ethanoic acid should not
be used as it is week acid and does not release enough H+ ions.
iii) The KMnO4 solution is generally placed in the burette. This causes two problems:
- the intense colour of KMnO4 means that it is very difficult to see the graduation marks
on the burette, and so it is difficult to read accurately.

- The KMnO4 reacts slightly with the glass, causing a slight stain if the burette is used too
often.
The reason the KMnO4 is placed in the burette is as follows:
As the KMnO4 is added to the solution under investigation, it is immediately decolorised by
the reducing agent. The end-point is detected by the failure of the purple colour to
disappear - a pink colour persists in the conical flask, indicating that the MnO4- ions are no
longer being reduced. This permanent pink colour is easily detected.
If the KMnO4 were in the conical flask, it would slowly decolorise until the solution became
completely colourless. The gradual disappearance of the pink colour is much harder to
detect than the sudden appearance of the pink colour, and for this reason the KMnO 4 is
always placed in the burette, despite the difficulties it presents in reading the burette.
 5.3 Transition elements
Periodic table D block:

Determining the electron configurations of the first row d block elements.

Starting with the atomic numbers of these d block elements, you ought to be able to
correctly build up the electron configurations of these elements.

Up to Argon Z=18, all the metals have the same electron configuration. Things only get
tricky beyond that number. For example, iron Z= 26 so as the 4s fills before the 3d that
leaves 6 electrons in the 3d and an electron configuration of :
Fe: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2
But look at Chromium Z=24 how do the six electrons fill the 3d and 4s?
Half filled subshells confer an added degree of energetic stability to the atom so chromium
has 3d5 4s1
Cr: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1

By a similar consideration the electron configuration of copper Cu Z= 29 the extra 11

electrons fill the 3d and 4s, one in the 4s and the rest (10) in the 3d to confer the greatest
energetic stability.
Cu: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1
Recall that the 4s fills before the 3d and that the electrons above the 18 fill the subshells to
confer the greatest energetic stability by half filling or filling subshells.
Electron configurations of the first row d block elements.

Transition elements are mostly those elements or their ions with incomplete outer d subshell.

Transition metals and variable oxidation states.

What is oxidation state?
Oxidation state is the oxidation number a particular species carries.
So the sodium ion Na+ has oxidation number +1 and sodium is in oxidation state +1.
Or the chloride ion Cl— has oxidation number
—1 and chlorine is in oxidation state —1.
Transition metals show variable oxidation
states unlike group 1 or Group 17 elements.
The illustration below shows these oxidation
states some of which of more stable (shown
in colour) at room temperature than others

Variable Oxidation States

These metals exhibit variable oxidation states due to the fact that the 4s energy level and
the 3d energy level are very close in value so that the metals can bond to other elements
using electrons from both the 4s and the 3d levels.
Below are the 3d and 4s electron arrangements for the stable oxidation states of these
metals
Higher oxidation states of the transition metals are stabilised as oxo anions i.e the metal ion
is combined with oxide ions. For example:
Orange Dichromate (VI) Cr2O72—
Yellow Chromate (VI) CrO42—
Black Manganese (IV)oxide MnO2
Yellow Metavanadate (V) VO3—
Purple Manganate(VII) MnO4—
Green Manganate(VI) MnO42—

COMPLEX IONS

A complex ion is an ion comprising one or more ligands attached to a central metal cation
by means of a dative covalent bond.

A ligand is a species which can use its lone pair of electrons to form a dative covalent bond
with a transition metal. Examples of ligands are H2O, NH3, Cl-, OH-, CN-,
Cations which form complex ions must have two features:

- they must have a high charge density, and thus be able to attract electrons from ligands.

- they must have empty orbitals of low energy, so that they can accept the lone pair of
electrons from the ligands.

Cations of d-block metals are small, have a high charge and have available empty 3d and 4s
orbitals of low energy. They thus form complex ions readily.

The number of lone pairs of electrons which a cation can accept is known as the
coordination number of the cation. It depends on the size and electronic configuration of
that cation, and also on the size and charge of the ligand. 6 is the most common
coordination number, although 4 and 2 are also known.

Examples of complex ions are [Fe(H2O)6]2+, [CoCl4]2-, [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+. Note that the
formula of the ion is always written inside square brackets with the overall charge written
outside the brackets.

Some ligands are capable of forming more than one dative covalent bond per ligand. These
are known as multidentate ligands. Examples are ethanedioate (C2O42-) and 1,2-
diaminoethane (H2NCH2CH2NH2), both of which donate 2 lone pairs per ligand and are said
to be bidentate. One unusual ligand, known as edta4-, can form 6 dative covalent bonds per
ligand. It is thus said to be hexadentate. Ligands such as H2O, Cl- and CN- form only one
dative covalent bond per ligand and are said to be monodentate.

With polydentate ligands it often appears that the coordination number of the complex is 1
or 3, when in fact the coordination number is 6 as normal - it is just that each ligand is
bonded twice. Some examples of complex ions are:

[Fe(C2O4)3]3- [Cr(H2NCH2CH2NH2)3]3+ [Cu(edta)]2-

Shapes

6-coordinate complexes are all octahedral, and are formed with small ligands such as H2O
and NH3. They can thus be drawn as follows:

[Fe(H2O)6]2+ [Cr(NH3)6]3+ [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+

2+ 3+ 2+

H2.O. .NH
. 3 H2.O.

H2O: :OH2 H3N: : NH3 H3N: : NH3

Fe Cr Cu
H2O: :OH2 H3N: :NH3 H3N: :NH3
.. .. ..
H2O NH3 H2O

Most complexes involving multidentate ligands are octahedral:

[Fe(C2O4)3]3- [Cr(H2NCH2CH2NH2)3]3+ [Cu(edta)]2-

3- 2-
O

CH2 3+ O CH2
O C
C
C
.O. O CH2 .NH
. 2 CH2
.N. CH2
O
:O
O: C
O: :O C H2N: :NH2 CH2 O
C
Cu
CH2
Fe
C Cr O: :N CH2
O: :O
O ..
.. CH2
C O H2N: :NH2 O
CH2
O C ..
CH2 NH2 C
O CH2 O

4-coordinate complexes are generally tetrahedral, and are formed with larger ligands such
as Cl-. Larger ligands cannot fit around the transition metal so easily and hence form smaller
complexes. They can be drawn as follows:

[CoCl4]2-
 2-

.Cl.

Co
. .
Cl . . Cl
..
Cl

Some 4-coordinated complexes however, especially if they involve Pt, are square planar:
Pt(NH3)2Cl2

Cl NH3
Pt
Cl NH3

2-coordinate complexes are in general linear, and are formed with Ag+ ions. They can be
drawn as follows:

[Ag(NH3)2]+

+
H3N: Ag :NH3

The rules covering the likely coordination number of transition metal complexes are:

a) Silver ions form linear complexes with a coordination number of 2;

b) Platinum ions form square planar complexes with a coordination number of 4

c) Chloride ions and other large ions form tetrahedral complexes with a coordination
number of 4;

d) Most other transition metal complexes are octahedral with a coordination number
of 6.
 Representation

When metal ions are in solution, they are usually represented as the simple ion, such as
Fe2+(aq), Co2+(aq), Cr3+(aq) or Fe2+(aq).
This is, however, a simplified representation as all d-block cations and many other cations
with high polarising power exist as the hexaaqua complex, eg [Fe(H2O)6]2+.

Eg FeSO4(aq) consists of [Fe(H2O)6]2+ and SO42- ions

Eg Fe2(SO4)3(aq) consists of [Fe(H2O)6]3+ and SO42- ions
Eg CuCl2(aq) consists of [Cu(H2O)6]2+ and Cl- ions

Many complex ions exist in the solid state. In these cases the ligands are often written after
the rest of the compound, separated by a dot:

Eg [Co(H2O)6]Cl2(s) is often represented as CoCl2.6H2O

The six water molecules are behaving as ligands:

2+

H2O -
.. Cl

H2O: :OH2
Co
H2O: :OH2 -
.. Cl
H2O

The dot does not always, however, mean that there are ligands present; some salts contain
water of crystallisation, where the water is not a ligand but a link between the ions.

Eg in Na2CO3.10H2O, the water molecules are not behaving as ligands, but as water
molecules of crystallisation.
Eg in FeSO4.7H2O, six of the water molecules are behaving as ligands, and the seventh is a
water of crystallisation. It helps link the cation to the anion:
2+

H2O
..

H2O: :OH2 H -O O
Fe O S
H2O: :OH2 H-
O
.. O
H2O

Isomerism

a) Square planar complexes

Square planar complexes in which the ligands are not all identical can display a form of E-Z
isomerism (isomers different due to restricted rotation) known as cis-trans isomerism. The
most common example of this is in complexes which contain two each of two different
types of ligand – for example Pt(NH3)2Cl2. The identical ligands can either be adjacent to
each other or opposite each other:

Cl NH3
Pt
Cl NH3

Identical ligands adjacent to each other Identical ligands opposite each other
Z or cis isomer E or trans isomer
This molecule is known as cisplatin This molecule is known as transplatin
It is an anti-cancer drug It is not an anti-cancer drug

b) Octahedral complexes

i) Cis-trans isomerism
Octahedral complexes also show cis-trans isomerism when they contain four ligands (or two
bidentate ligands) of one type and two ligands of another type – for example [Cr(Cl2)(H2O)4]+
or [Cr(C2O4)(H2O)2]+. The two minority ligands can either be adjacent to each other or
opposite each other:

Optical isomerism

Octahedral complexes can display optical isomerism (non-superimposable mirror images)

when they contain one of the following combinations:
- Three bidentate ligands, eg [Fe(C2O4)3]3-

- Two bidentate ligands and two monodentate ligands (cis isomer only), eg [Co(C2O4)2Cl2]3-

- One hexadentate ligand, eg [Co(edta)]2-

Isomer 1 Isomer 2 [Fe(C2O4)3]3-

 [Co(C2O4)2Cl2]3-
Isomer 1 Isomer 2

[Co(edta)]2-
Isomer 1 Isomer 2
Colour

a) Explanation

When a cation forms a complex ion, the incoming ligands repel the electrons in the atom,
and thus they are raised in energy. Some of the d-orbitals, however, are repelled more than
others and the result is that the d-orbitals are split into 2 groups of orbitals, with three
orbitals being slightly lower in energy than the other two:

The difference in energy between these groups of orbitals is similar to the energy of visible
light. The energy of the light is related to the frequency of the light by the equation E = hf.
If these d-orbitals are partially filled, some of the electrons in the lower energy orbitals are
excited into the higher energy orbitals, and in doing so absorb the light that corresponds to
that frequency. The resultant light is deficient in the light of that frequency and thus
appears coloured.

hf

Transition metal ions are coloured because d-electrons can absorb light and get excited
into higher energy d-orbitals. The resultant light is thus missing certain frequencies and is
hence coloured.

Note that two criteria must be satisfied if the ion is to be coloured:

- there must be a splitting of the d-orbitals. This only happens in the presence of ligands
and thus only complex ions are coloured. Anhydrous ions do not have split d-orbitals and
so cannot aborb light in the visible spectrum and are thus white.

Eg anydrous CuSO4 (d9) is white but hydrated CuSO4.5H2O is blue.

- the d-orbitals must be partially filled. If the d-orbitals are empty (Eg Sc3+, Al3+) then there
are no electrons which can be excited into the higher energy d-orbitals and the ions will
be colourless. If the d-orbitals are full (Eg Cu+, Zn2+) then there are no empty orbitals into
which the electrons can be excited and the ions will be colourless.

b) Application

The colour of a complex ion depends on:

- the ligand

- the coordination number

- the oxidation state of the metal

- the identity of the metal

As transition metal ions can show a huge variety of colours, it is often possible to identify a
complex ion simply by its colour.

It is also possible to determine the concentration of a solution containing a coloured ion

using a technique called ultraviolet and visible spectrophotometry. As the absorbance of a
solution is proportional to its concentration, the concentration of any solution can be
determined by comparing its absorbance to the absorbance of a solution of known
concentration.
The technique can be summarised as follows:

i) A solution containing a known concentration of the ion is prepared, and a suitable

ligand is added in excess in order to intensify the colour (thiocyanate ions, SCN -, are often
used for this purpose).
ii) A sample of the solution is placed into a cuvette in a colorimeter and the filter which
gives the maximum absorbance is selected.
iii) The absorbance of the solution is recorded.
iv) This process is repeated using a range of other known concentrations, and a graph is
plotted of absorbance against concentration.
v) The solution of unknown concentration is mixed with an excess of the same ligand to
intensify the colour.
vi) The absorbance of the solution of unknown concentration is then recorded using the
same filter.
vii) The concentration of this solution can then be determined from the concentration-
absorbance graph.

Chemical Reactions

Most metal cations exist as the hexaaqua complex in solution. Main group metals form
colourless ions but most transition metal ions are coloured.

[Fe(H2O)6]2+ [Co(H2O)6]2+ [Cu(H2O)6]2+ [Al(H2O)6]3+ [Fe(H2O)6]3+

pale green pink pale blue colourless yellow

a) Acid-base reactions

If the charge density of the cation is particularly high, the electron density in the aqua ligand
moves even closer to the cation and the bonds in the water are weakened. In such cases the
hydrogen in the water ligand can be lost as a proton.

+
2+

H H2O
..
H2O
..
H
H H2O: :O
H2O: :O
H Fe H
Fe +
H2O: :OH2
+ :O H2O: :OH2 + H O
H .. H
.. H2O
H2O
Eg [Fe(H2O)6]2+ == [Fe(H2O)5OH]+ + H+

This process is known as deprotonation.

Deprotonation is the loss of a proton by a water ligand to form a hydroxo ligand.

Deprotonation is caused by the high charge density on the central cation, which weakens
the O-H bonds in the water ligands, and enables the H+ ( the proton) to leave.

The proton which is lost is given to a base. This can be water, hydroxide ions or ammonia.
The extent to which deprotonation takes place depends on the strength of the base.

i) Deprotonation by water

Water is a weak base. The hexaaqua complex will therefore behave as a weak acid and will
partially dissociate:

Eg [Fe(H2O)6]2+(aq) + H2O(l) == [Fe(H2O)5(OH)]+(aq) + H3O+(aq)

Eg [Fe(H2O)6]3+(aq) + H2O(l) == [Fe(H2O)5(OH)]2+(aq) + H3O+(aq)
Eg [Al(H2O)6]3+(aq) + H2O(l) == [Al(H2O)5(OH)]2+(aq) + H3O+(aq)
Eg [Cu(H2O)6]2+(aq) + H2O(l) == [Cu(H2O)5(OH)]+(aq) + H3O+(aq)
Aqueous solutions of transition metal ions are thus acidic.

The greater the charge density on the central cation, the greater the extent of
deprotonation and the more acidic the solution. For example, solutions of iron (III) salts are
more acidic than solutions of iron (II) salts.
ii) Deprotonation by hydroxide ions

The hydroxide ion is a strong base. It will pull protons away from water ligands more than
water molecules, and more than one deprotonation will take place.
In all cases, the hydrated hydroxide will be formed:
Eg [Fe(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) == [Fe(H2O)4(OH)2](s) + 2H2O(l)
Iron (II) hydroxide
Eg [Cu(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) == [Cu(H2O)4(OH)2](s) + 2H2O(l)
Copper (II) hydroxide
Eg [Al(H2O)6]3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) == [Al(H2O)3(OH)3](s) + 3H2O(l)
aluminium (III) hydroxide
Eg [Fe(H2O)6]3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) == [Fe(H2O)3(OH)3](s) + 3H2O(l)
Iron (III) hydroxide
The hydroxides are all insoluble. Thus a precipitate is formed when sodium or potassium
hydroxide solution is added to any solution containing transition metal cations.

Fe(OH)2 Cu(OH)2 Al(OH)3 Fe(OH)3

Green pale blue white brown

In some cases (eg Al3+), the hydroxide ions can remove even more protons, and
hydroxoanions are formed:

Eg [Al(H2O)3(OH)3](s) + 3OH-(aq) == [Al(OH)6]3-(aq) + 3H2O(l)

White precipiate colourless solution

Al(OH)63-

Colourless

The precipitate is found to dissolve in excess alkali to give a solution.

Reaction of hydroxides with acid
The precipitates can all be converted back to the hexaaqua complex by the addition of acid:
Eg [Fe(H2O)4(OH)2](s) + 2H3O+(aq) == [Fe(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Eg [Al(H2O)3(OH)3](s) + 3H3O+(aq) == [Al(H2O)6]3+(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Metal hydroxides such as Fe(OH)2(H2O)4, Fe(OH)3(H2O)3 and Cu(OH)2(H2O)4, which dissolve
in acid but not in excess alkali, are said to be basic.

Metal hydroxides such as Al(OH)3(H2O)3, which dissolve in acid but and in excess alkali, are
said to be amphoteric.

Deprotonation by ammonia

Ammonia is also a stronger base than water, so can also cause deprotonation of the
hexaaqua complex and form the hydroxide precipitate:

Eg [Fe(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 2NH3(aq) == [Fe(H2O)4(OH)2](s) + 2NH4+(aq)

Iron (II) hydroxide
Eg [Cu(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 2NH3(aq) == [Cu(H2O)4(OH)2](s) + 2NH4+(aq)
Copper (II) hydroxide
Eg [Cr(H2O)6]3+(aq) + 3NH3(aq) == [Al(H2O)3(OH)3](s) + 3NH4+(aq)
Aluminium (III) hydroxide
Eg [Fe(H2O)6]3+(aq) + 3NH3(aq) == [Fe(H2O)3(OH)3](s) + 3NH4+(aq)
Iron (III) hydroxide

The ammonia is not a sufficiently strong base to cause further deprotonation, so the
hydroxoanions are not formed with excess ammonia.

Deprotonation by carbonate ions

Carbonate ions are bases and can deprotonate the +3 ions to form the hydroxide precipate.
The carbonate ions are converted into carbon dioxide gas.

2[Fe(H2O)6]3+(aq) + 3CO32-(aq)  2[Fe(H2O)3(OH)3](s) + 3CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)

2[Al(H2O)6]3+(aq) + 3CO32-(aq)  2[Al(H2O)3(OH)3](s) + 3CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
The +2 ions, however do not deprotonate so readily and do not behave as acids in the
presence of carbonate ions. Instead they form a precipitate directly with the carbonate ion.
No carbon dioxide is evolved.

[Fe(H2O)6]2+(aq) + CO32-(aq)  FeCO3(s) + 6H2O(l)

[Co(H2O)6]2+(aq) + CO32-(aq)  CoCO3(s) + 6H2O(l)
[Cu(H2O)6]2+(aq) + CO32-(aq)  CuCO3(s) + 6H2O(l)

FeCO3 CuCO3

green green-blue

b) Ligand exchange reactions

Ligand exchange is the replacement of one ligand by another in a complex.

Many ligands are capable of replacing water in transition metal complexes, but only two will
be considered:

i) ligand exchange by ammonia

With hexaaqua complexes, ammonia acts as a base and facilitates deprotonation. Excess
ammonia, however, will undergo ligand exchange with some hydroxides, replacing aqua and
hydroxo ligands with ammine ligands.

With Co(H2O)4(OH)2 the substitution is complete:

[Co(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 2NH3(aq) == [Co(OH)2(H2O)4](s) + 2NH4+(aq)
Pink solution  blue precipitate
[Co(H2O)4(OH)2](s) + 6NH3(aq) == [Co(NH3)6]2+(aq) + 4H2O(l) + 2OH-(aq)
blue precipate  straw-coloured solution

With Cu(H2O)4(OH)2 the substitution is incomplete:

[Cu(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 2NH3(aq) == [Cu(H2O)4(OH)2](s) + 2NH4+(aq)
pale blue solution  pale blue precipitate
[Cu(H2O)4(OH)2](s) + 4NH3(aq) == [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2OH-(aq)
pale blue precipitate  dark blue solution

The hydroxides of iron (II), iron (III) and aluminium do not dissolve in aqueous ammonia.

On slow addition of ammonia to a solution containing aqua complexes of Co 2+ and Cu2+, a

precipitate is formed of the hydroxide, which redissolves in excess ammonia to give a
solution again.

Co(NH3)62+ Cu(NH3)4(H2O)22+

Straw Dark blue

Note than when ammonia replaces water as ligands, the coordination number does not
change. This is because water and ammonia are small ligands with no charge, so they
don’t get in each other’s way or repel each other too much. Therefore both form
octahedral complexes.

ii) ligand exchange by chloride ions

In the presence of concentrated hydrochloric acid, the chloride ions can replace the water
ligands in some complex ions and form an anionic complex:

[Cu(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 4Cl-(aq) == [CuCl4]2-(aq) + 6H2O(l)

pale blue solution  yellow solution
[Co(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 4Cl-(aq) == [CoCl4]2-(aq) + 6H2O(l)
pink solution  blue solution
[Fe(H2O)6]3+(aq) + 4Cl-(aq) == [FeCl4]-(aq) + 6H2O(l)
orange solution  yellow solution
Note than when chloride ions replace water ligands, the coordination number decreases
from 6 to 4. This is because chloride ions are large and negatively charged, so they repel
each other more are cannot pack so closely together.

These reactions are favoured because they cause an increase in entropy. There are 5 species
on the left hand side of the equation and 7 species on the right. The entropy of the system
thus increases.
This is counterbalanced, however, by the fact that more coordinate bonds (6) are broken
than are formed (4), and that chloride ligands do not form very strong coordinate bonds.
The reaction is thus endothermic.

These reactions are generally readily reversible, and addition of water to the solution will
cause the chloride ligands to be replaced by aqua ligands. This reaction is used in the test for
water; blue cobalt chloride paper turns pink in the presence of water.
[CoCl4]2-(aq) + 6H2O(l) == [Co(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 4Cl-(aq)
blue pink

CoCl42- CuCl42- FeCl4-

Blue yellow yellow

Ligand exchange by multidentate ligands

multidentate ligands such as H2NCH2CH2NH2, C2O42- and edta4- readily replace water ligands
in complex ions. The resulting complex ions always remain six coordinate:

[Fe(H2O)6]3+(aq) + 3NH2CH2CH2NH2(aq) == [Fe(H2NCH2CH2NH2)3]3+(aq) + 6H2O(l)

[Cr(H2O)6]3+(aq) + 3C2O42-(aq) == [Cr(C2O42-)3]3-(aq) + 6H2O(l)
[Cu(H2O)6]2+(aq) + edta4-(aq) == [Cu(edta)]2-(aq) + 6H2O(l)

These reactions are favoured because they cause an increase in entropy. There are always
less species on the left hand side of the equation than on the right. The entropy of the
system thus increases, and multidentate complexes are therefore more stable than
complexes involving monodentate ligands. This is known as the chelate effect.
The entropy increase is not counterbalanced by a decrease in coordination number as the
coordination number is still 6.
Ligand exchange in heamoglobin
Another important complex ion involving multidentate ligands is haemoglobin.
Haem is a complex ion consisting Fe2+ and a complex tetradentate ligand called porphyrin.
The complex is generally found with a protein called globin, which provides the fifth
coordinate bond, and a molecule of oxygen which forms the sixth bond. The complete six
coordinate complex is called haemoglobin. This structure is responsible for carrying oxygen
in the blood throughout the human body.
Fe2+ + porphyrin  haem
haem + globin + O2  haemoglobin
Carbon monoxide is a similar size and shape to oxygen and forms a much stronger bond
with the iron. It thus diplaces the oxygen from the complex and reduces the blood’s ability
to carry oxygen. It is thus a very poisonous gas.
Summary of chemical reactions of complex ions
Many of these reactions are characterised by clear colour changes. A summary of the colour
changes occurring is in the table below:

Ion With NH3 or With excess With excess With conc. With
NaOH, not NaOH NH3 HCl Na2CO3
in excess

[Fe(H2O)6]2+ dark green insoluble insoluble - green ppt

ppt
pale green soln (carbonate)

[Al(H2O)6]3+ white ppt colourless insoluble - white ppt

solution
colourless soln (hydroxide)

[Fe(H2O)6]3+ brown ppt insoluble insoluble yellow brown ppt

solution
orange soln (hydroxide)

[Co(H2O)6]2+ - - straw blue soln -

solution
pink soln

[Cu(H2O)6]2+ pale blue insoluble deep blue yellow soln green/blue

ppt solution ppt
blue soln
(carbonate)
These colour changes for the basis of simple tests for transition metal ions.

REDOX CHEMISTRY OF TRANSITION METALS

Since transition metals show a variety of transition states in their compounds, much of their
chemistry is dominated by movement between these transition states.

When the oxidation state changes, the colour changes as the electron distribution in the d-
orbitals is different. The colour is also affected by the ligands involved, as the type of ligand
affects the amount of splitting in the d-orbitals.

1. Redox Reactions of Individual Elements

a) Iron

Iron exists in two common oxidation states, +2 (Fe2+) and +3 (Fe3+).

In aqueous solution, the Fe is readily oxidised from Fe2+ to Fe3+:
Fe2+(aq)  Fe3+(aq) + e

The Fe2+ ion is thus a reducing agent and the Fe3+ ion is an oxidising agent. Concentrations of
Fe2+ in solution can be determined by titration with oxidising agents.

b) Manganese

Manganese can exist in a number of oxidation states, but is most stable in an oxidation state
of +2, +4 or +7
In the +7 oxidation state it exists as the intense purple ion MnO4-. This can be reduced to the
pale pink Mn2+ in acidic solution:

MnO4-(aq) + 8H-(aq) + 5e  Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)

c) Vanadium

Vanadium forms stable compounds in 4 different oxidation states, +2, +3, +4 and +5.

In aqueous solution, the ions formed are:

Oxidation state +5 +4 +3 +2

Colour Yellow Blue green Violet

Ion VO2+ VO2+ V3+ V2+

All vanadium (V) compounds can be reduced to the +4, +3 and then +2 oxidation state by
strong reducing agents such as zinc in acid solution:
VO2+(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 3e  V2+(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Zn(s)  Zn2+(aq) + 2e

Overall: 2VO2+(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 3Zn(s)  2V2+(aq) + 3Zn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)

Yellow violet

The reaction proceeds via the +4 and +3 oxidation states, so the colour change observed is
yellow(VO2+)  green (VO2+ and VO2+)  blue (VO2+)  green (V3+)  violet (V2+).

d) Silver

Diamine silver (I) has the formula [Ag(NH3)2]+ and is the active ion in Tollen’s reagent.
It is reduced to silver by reducing sugars and aldehydes (but not ketones). It produces a
characteristic silver mirror on the side of the test-tube and this is used as the basis of the
test for aldehydes. The silver (I) ion is reduced to silver and the aldehyde is oxidized to a
carboxylic acid:
[Ag(NH3)2]+ + e-  Ag + 2NH3 (x2)
R-CHO + H2O  RCOOH + 2H+ + 2e-
2[Ag(NH3)2]+ + R-CHO + H2O  Ag + 2NH3 + R-COOH + 2H+

Factors affecting the ease of oxidation and reduction of transition metals

i) pH

The relative tendency of a transiton metal ion to undergo oxidation and reduction often
depends dramatically on the pH of the solution. In general, oxidation is favoured by alkaline
conditions and reduction is favoured by acidic conditions:

Fe3+ + e- == Fe2+ +0.77 V (more +ve, reduction favoured)

Fe(OH)3 + e == Fe(OH)2 + OH- -0.56 V (more -ve, oxidation favoured)

The dichromate(VI) ion,

i can be reduced to Cr3+ and Cr2+ ions using zinc in acidic conditions
Cr2O72- + 14H+ + 6e- == 2Cr3+ + 7H2O +1.33 V (more +ve, reduction favoured)

ii can be produced by the oxidation of Cr3+ ions using hydrogen peroxide in

alkaline conditions (followed by acidification)
CrO42- + 4H2O + 3e- == Cr(OH)3 + 5OH- -0.13 V (more -ve, oxidation favoured)
iii can be converted into chromate(VI) ions as a result of the equilibrium

ii) choice of ligand

The relative tendency of a transition metal ion to undergo oxidation and reduction also
depends on the ligand surrounding the metal ion:

Co(H2O)63+ + e- == Co(H2O)62+ +1.81 V (more +ve, reduction favoured)

Co(NH3)63+(aq) + e == Co(NH3)62+ +0.10 V (more -ve, oxidation favoured)

Fe(H2O)63+ + e- == Fe(H2O)62+ +0.77 V (more +ve, reduction favoured)

Fe(CN)64-(aq) + e == Fe(CN)63- +0.36 V (more -ve, oxidation favoured)

Transition metals as catalysts

The ability of transition metals to form more than one stable oxidation state means that
they can accept and lose electrons easily. This enables them to catalyse certain redox
reactions. They can be readily oxidised and reduced again, or reduced and then oxidised
again, as a consequence of having a number of different oxidation states of similar stability.

They can behave either as homogeneous catalysts or as heterogeneous catalysts.

a) Homogeneous catalysis

A homogeneous catalyst is a catalyst in the same phase as the reactants.

Homogeneous catalysis involves aqueous transition metal ions catalysing reactions, often
between two anions. The cation reacts with each anion in turn, thus avoiding the need for a
direct collision between two anions (this is difficult since they repel each other).

Eg 1 S2O82-(aq) + 2I-(aq)  2SO42-(aq) + I2(aq)

This can be catalysed by Fe2+ or Fe3+ ions:

With Fe2+: S2O82-(aq) + 2Fe2+(aq)  2SO42-(aq) + 2Fe3+(aq)

 2Fe3+(aq) + 2I-(aq)  2Fe2+(aq) + I2(aq)

With Fe3+: 2Fe3+(aq) + 2I-(aq)  2Fe2+(aq) + I2(aq)

2Fe2+(aq) + S2O82-(aq)  2Fe3+(aq) + 2SO42-(aq)

Eg 2 2MnO4-(aq) + 5C2O42-(aq) + 16H+(aq)  2Mn2+(aq) + 10CO2(g) + 8H2O(l)

This is a good example of auto-catalysis.

One of the products in this reaction, Mn2+(aq), behaves as a catalyst and thus the reaction is
slow at first but is much faster after a little of the products are formed.
b) Heterogeneous catalysis

A heterogeneous catalyst is a catalyst in a different phase from the reactants. In most cases,
the catalyst is a solid and the reactants are liquids or gases.

The reaction occurs at active sites on the catalyst surface. The catalyst therefore needs to
have a large surface area to be effective, which in turn means it needs to be very thinly
spread out in order to reduce its cost, and might need a special support. Catalytic converters
in cars, for example, use rhodium (Rh) on a special ceramic support

Heterogeneous catalysts can be poisoned by impurities, which are often present in the raw
materials used. These impurities bond very strongly to the catalyst surface and block the
active sites. This reduces the efficiency of the catalyst, making the process less economic
and requiring the catalyst to be regularly replaced, which can be expensive.

Examples of heterogenous catalysts are; Fe in the production of ammonia, V2O5 in the

contact process or Pt and Rh in a catalytic converter.

i) N2(g) + 3H2(g) == 2NH3(g) Fe catalyst

ii) 2SO2(g) + O2(g) == 2SO3(g) V2O5 catalyst

 V2O5 oxidises SO2 to SO3, itself getting reduced: SO2 + V2O5  SO3 + V2O4
V2O4 then uses the O2 to get oxidised back to V2O5: V2O4 + 1/2O2  V2O5

iii) 2CO(g) + 2NO(g) == N2(g) + 2CO2(g) Rh catalyst

The catalytic converter converts toxic carbon monoxide and nitrogen monoxide to non-toxic
carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
OPTICAL ISOMERISM

Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures.

Isomerism can be divided into two types; structural isomerism and stereoisomerism.

These in turn can be further subdivided:

There are three types of structural isomerism; positional isomerism, chain isomerism and
functional isomerism.

There are two types of stereoisomerism: geometrical isomerism and optical isomerism.

The different types of isomerism are summarised in the following diagram:

isomerism

structural
stereoisomerism
isomerism

positional chain functional geometrical optical

 i) Introduction to Optical Isomerism

Consider the following molecule:

W C Y

It is tetrahedral and is thus more accurately represented in the following way:

X C
W
z

Since the carbon atom is attached to four different groups, it is asymmetric and so cannot
be superimposed on its mirror image:

C X
W
z

These two mirror images cannot be interconverted without breaking covalent bonds.

Molecules which contain a carbon atom which is attached to four different groups are said
to be chiral. Chiral molecules cannot be superimposed on their mirror image.

The two non-superimposable mirror images are optical isomers or enantiomers.

Any molecule which contains at least one carbon atom attached to four different groups will
thus exhibit optical isomerism.

6.1.1 Aromatic compounds - Benzene

Bonding in Benzene is represented using the Kekulé and the delocalised model, the latter in
terms of overlap of p-orbitals to form π-bonds

Evidence for the delocalised model of the bonding in benzene is provided by data from
enthalpy changes of hydrogenation and carbon-carbon bond lengths
Resistance of benzene to bromination compared to alkenes
Alkenes tend to surcome to bromination easily, unlike benzene, this can be seen in
cyclohexene

As the pi-bond contains localised electrons, it produces an area of high electron density,
allowing it to repel the electrons in the Bromine bond, this induces a dipole making one
bromine atom partially positive and therefore attracting it to the negative double bond in
the cyclohexene. This then leaves a slightly positive intermediate molecule, which the
negative bromine molecule is attracted to, hence forming 1,2-dibromocyclohexane, by
addition.
In Benzene, there are no areas of high electron density, preventing it from being able to
polarise the bromine molecule, this means that a halogen carrier must be present in order
for it to even undergo a substitution reaction.

Reactions of benzene
(1) Nitration :
This is a relatively easy process to accomplish with a mixture of concentrated sulphuric and
concentrated nitric acids. This mixture reacts together to produce an unstable nitronium
ion, NO2+ :
HNO3 + 2H2SO4 → NO2+ + 2HSO4- + H3O+
This ion is attracted to the electron rich benzene ring - causing an electrophilic substitution
reaction to occur :
The products of the reaction are nitrobenzene and hydrogen/oxonium ions.
(2) Halogenation :

All normal unsaturated compounds, i.e. alkenes, will react with halogens, in the absence of
light, to give the dihalogenated addition product.
The nature of the benzene ring and its delocalised electrons prevents this sort of reaction
from occurring.
Aromatic compounds will react with halogens (i.e. Cl2 and Br2), however, they require a
catalyst - a metal halide (e.g. iron(III) bromide or aluminium chloride) or iron filings.
These catalysts act to polarise the halogen bond forming a d+ charge on a halogen atom (Cl
or Br)
This species is then able to react with the benzene ring in exactly the same manner as the
nitronium ion does in the nitration reaction

The products will be the monohalogenated benzene compound (i.e. chlorobenzene or

bromobenzene) and the hydrogen halide (i.e. HCl or HBr).
The above example shows only iron(III) bromide and bromine as an example of one set of
reactants. Aluminium chloride and chlorine works in exactly the same manner.
(3) Friedel-Crafts reaction :
This type of reaction involves using a haloalkane to add an alkyl group to a benzene ring. As
with the halogenation above a metal halide catalyst is needed to generate the necessary
alkyl electrophile. This complex then reacts with the benzene ring in a similar manner to the
other electrophiles looked at so far, to form an alkyl benzene compound.

(4) Benzene with oxygen in air

Benzene completely burns in high supply of oxygen to give carbon dioxide and water.
 However,
complete combustion rarely occurs and the hydrocarbon
burns with extremely smoky flames.

Reaction of phenol with bromine water

Unlike other arenes, the benzene ring in phenol is about
100 times more reactive than in benzene itself, because of
the hydroxyl group attached to it. Therefore phenol does
decolourise bromine water, though it still undergoes a
substitution reaction (rather than the addition of a normal
alkene) :

Some common Carbonyl compounds

Aldehydes and ketones
Aldehydes and ketones are collectively known as carbonyls and represented by the general
formula CnH2nO. They have the following functional group:

In aldehydes one of the groups attached to the carbon is a hydrogen atom and the other is
a hydrogen atom or an alkyl groups. In ketones both of the groups attached to the carbon
are alkyl groups:

H H H O
O O
H C C C C H
CH3 C H C
H H H H H

ethanal methanal butanal

H H O H H H O H H

H C C C C H H C C C C C H

H H H H H H H

butanone pentan-2-one
2. Redox reactions

The redox reactions involving carbonyls have been discussed at AS level and are summarized
by the following diagram:

primary secondary tertiary

alcohols alcohols alcohols

[O] X
[O] [R]

aldehydes [R]
ketones

[O] X

carboxylic
acids

a) oxidation reactions

Carbonyls are formed by the oxidation of alcohols.

Partial oxidation of a primary alcohol results in the formation of an aldehyde.

Oxidation of a secondary alcohol results in the formation of a ketone.

Primary alcohols, secondary alcohols and aldehydes are oxidized using potassium
dichromate (K2Cr2O7) in sulphuric acid (H2SO4). Gentle warming is necessary to start the
reaction.

When making an aldehyde, care must be taken to prevent further oxidation to the
carboxylic acid. This is achieved by using distillation apparatus so that the aldehyde can be
distilled off as soon as it is formed.
The orange Cr2O72- is reduced to the green Cr3+.
Simplified equations for these oxidation reactions can be written using the symbol [O] as the
oxidant:

Primary alcohol  aldehyde

R-CH2OH + [O]  R-CHO + H2O

Secondary alcohol  ketone

R1-CH(OH)-R2 + [O]  R1-CO-R2 + H2O

Aldehyde  carboxylic acid

R-CHO + [O]  R-COOH

The most important difference in the reactions of aldehydes and ketones is the fact that
aldehydes can be readily oxidised to carboxylic acids but ketones are not readily oxidised.
This is used as the basis for two important distinguishing tests between aldehydes and
ketones.

Ammoniacal silver nitrate, [Ag(NH3)2]+, is known as Tollen's reagent. It is a mild oxidising

agent:
[Ag(NH3)2]+(aq) + e  Ag(s) + 2NH3(aq)

It can be reduced by aldehydes, oxidising them to carboxylic acids:

R-CHO + H2O  RCOOH + 2H+(aq) + 2e

The overall equation for the reaction is:

R-CHO + 2[Ag(NH3)2]+ + H2O  RCOOH + 2Ag + 4NH3 + 2H+

Thus aldehydes give a grey precipitate or "silver mirror" if boiled with ammoniacal silver
nitrate. This is a standard test for an aldehyde, since ketones cannot be oxidised in this way.
Fehling’s solution is an alkaline solution containing Cu2+ ions. It is a mild oxidizing agent:
2Cu2+ + 2e + 2OH-  Cu2O + H2O

It is also reduced by aldehydes, and the overall equation for the reaction is:
R-CHO + 4OH- + 2Cu2+  R-COOH + Cu2O + 2H2O

The blue Cu2+ is reduced to the brick-red precipitate Cu2O on gentle warming. This is
another standard test for an aldehyde.
b) reduction reactions

Aldehydes and ketones can be reduced to primary and secondary alcohols respectively using
the reducing agent sodium tetrahydroborate (III), NaBH4.

Simplified equations for these reduction reactions can be written using the symbol [H] as
the reductant:

Aldehyde  primary alcohol

R-CHO + 2[H]  R-CH2OH
Ketone  Secondary alcohol
R1-CO-R2 + 2[H]  R1-CH(OH)-R2
Carboxylic acids cannot be reduced using NaBH4 but can be reduced to primary alcohols
using the stronger reducing agent LiAlH4.
3. Nucleophilic addition
Carbonyls are unsaturated and can thus undergo addition reactions.
The C=O bond is polar so the carbon is a positive centre. Thus carbonyls can react with
nucleophiles:

-
+ O

C

Nu:
Carbonyls therefore tend to undergo nucleophilic addition.
Mechanism of nucleophilic addition:

Example 1: addition of HCN to make hydroxynitriles

NB

 HCN is a very poisonous gas. It is not safe to carry out this reaction in the
laboratory. HCN is not stored, but made in situ by mixing KCN and HCl.

 KCN is also very poisonous but it is safer to store as it is a solid.

Hydrogen cyanide, HCN, is a nucleophile. It reacts with carbonyls as follows:

R1-CO-R2 + HCN  R1-C(CN)(OH)-R2

OH
O

R1 C + HCN R1 C R2

R2
CN

HCN is a very toxic gas, so is generated in situ:

KCN(s) + HCl(aq)  HCN(g) + KCl(aq)

The mechanism consists of three steps:

Step 1: the HCN is a weak acid and dissociates:
HCN  H+ + CN-
The CN- behaves as a nucleophile.
Step 2: The nucleophile attacks the carbonyl:

-
+ O

R1 C

R2
:CN-
Step 3: The O atom picks up the H+ ion:

.. H
O-

R2 C CN

R1

Eg propanal + HCN  2-hydoxybutanenitrile

- OH
O
+  +
 ..- H+
- O
CH3CH2 C CH3CH2 C CN
H CN
CH3CH2 C CN
H H
H

:CN-

Example 2: reduction by NaBH4 to make alcohols

The reduction of aldehydes and ketones as described above is another example of a
nucleophilic addition reaction.
R1-CO-R2 + 2[H]  R1-CH(OH)-R2

OH
O

R1 C + 2[H] R1 C H
R2
R2

NaBH4 contains hydrogen in a negative oxidation state, which can therefore behave as a
nucleophile.
Step 1: the H- ion attacks the δ+ carbon atom:

-
O O-
+
R1 C R2 C H

R2
- R1
H:

Step 2: the O- pulls a H atom off a water molecule

 H OH
..- H
O O -
R2 C H + OH
R2 C H
R1
R1

eg propanone + 2[H]  propan-2-ol

-
H
.. - H
O O O OH
+
-
CH3 C CH3 C H CH3 C H + OH
CH3 CH3
CH3
-
H:

Qualitative test for Carbonyl presence

2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine (2,4-DNPH) is used as a qualitative test for the
presence of a carbonyl group . 2,4-Dinitrophenylhydrazine (DNPH, Brady's reagent,) is the
chemical compound C6H3(NO2)2NHNH2. Dinitrophenylhydrazine is a red to orange solid. It is
a substituted hydrazine, and is often used to qualitatively test for carbonyl groups
associated with aldehydes and ketones.

Identifying carbonyl compound from melting points of derivatives.

4. Summary of reactions of aldehydes and ketones

Type of reaction Mechanism

1. oxidation (aldehydes only): aldehyde  carboxylic acid n/a

reagents: potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) in sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
conditions: warm under reflux
equation: R-CHO + [O]  R-COOH
observation: orange to green
to distinguish between aldehydes and ketones:
either:
add Fehling’s solution and heat
observation: blue solution to brick red precipitate
equation: R-CHO + 4OH- + 2Cu2+  R-COOH + Cu2O + 2H2O
or:
add Tollen’s reagent and heat
observation: colourless solution to silver mirror
equation: R-CHO + 2[Ag(NH3)2]+ + H2O  RCOOH + 2Ag + 4NH3 + 2H+

2. reduction: carbonyl  alcohol Nucleophilic

addition
reagents: NaBH4(aq)
(required)
conditions: room temperature
equation: R1-CO-R2 + 2[H]  R1-CH(OH)-R2

3. addition of HCN: carbonyl  hydroxynitrile Nucleophilic

addition
reagents: KCN and HCl(aq)
(required)
conditions: room temperature
equation: R1-CO-R2 + HCN  R1-C(CN)(OH)-R2
Isomerism
Consider the four structural isomers of C4H9Cl:

Cl

CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 Cl CH3 CH2 CH CH3

1-chlorobutane 2-chlorobutane

Cl

CH3 CH CH2 Cl CH3 C CH3

CH3 CH3

1-chloro, 2-methylpropane 2-chloro, 2-methylpropane

Of these molecules only 2-chlorobutane shows optical isomerism:

Cl Cl

C C
C 2H 5 C2H5
CH3 CH3
H H

ii) Distinguishing between the different enantiomers

Optical isomers show identical physical and chemical properties in most respects.
In fact there is only one physical method by which they can be distinguished.

Plane-polarised light is light which has been filtered into a two-dimensional plane:
 Light source plane-polarised light

If plane-polarised light is passed through a liquid containing a chiral molecule, the plane of
the light will be rotated. This can be detected using a polarimeter.

Molecules which are not chiral will not rotate the plane of plane-polarised light.

Chiral molecules will rotate plane-polarised light. Two optical isomers will rotate plane
polarised light equally, but in opposite directions.
It is this difference in physical properties which enables them to be distinguished.

It is not possible to predict the direction in which a particular optical isomer will rotate plane
polarised light, but two optical isomers will always rotate plane polarised light in opposite
directions.

A substance which can rotate plane polarised light is said to be optically active.

The isomer which rotates plane polarised light clockwise is given the prefix (+) or D-. The
isomer which rotates plane polarised light anticlockwise is given the prefix (-) or L-.

iii) Importance of optical isomers in biochemistry

Optical isomers show identical chemical properties in most reactions. However, certain
biochemical processes require the molecule to have a specific orientation of groups. Many
drugs and enzymes are chiral and so only one of the optical isomers will be able to interact
effectively with the target molecule in the body. Different optical isomers may therefore
have very different biochemical effects.
iv) racemates
Optical isomers are often found together in a mixture in equal quantities. The opposite
effect they have on the rotation of plane polarised light will thus result in no overall
rotation. An equimolar mixture of two optical isomers will thus have no effect on plane
polarised light and is thus not optically active.
Such mixtures are said to be racemic mixtures or racemates.
A racemic mixture is an equimolar mixture of two optical isomers. Racemic mixtures are not
optically active.
Thus chiral molecules will only show optical activity if one isomer is present in greater
quantities than the other.
It is possible to predict whether a single enantiomer or a racemate will be produced,
If the chiral substance is produced by an addition reaction, then the product will always be a
racemate as the attacking nucleophile or electrophile can attack the planar molecule from
above or below with equal probability:
Eg formation of 2-bromobutane from but-2-ene (electrophilic addition)
The bromide ion can attack the carbocation from above or below, producing an equimolar
mixture of the two enantiomers – ie a racemate:
H3C H
C C CH3 H Br
H CH3 + CH3
H C C
CH3 H C C
H Br H
H
H
Br CH3

bromide attacks planar species from above

or

CH3 H CH3
+ CH3
H C C
CH3 H C C
H H
H
Br Br

bromide attacks planar species from below

Nucleophilic addition reactions also produce racemates for the same reason. In the
preparation of the chiral molecule 2-hydroxypropanenitrile from ethanal for example, the
cyanide ion can attack the planar carbonyl group from above or below, producing a
racemate.

H+
O-
O

H CN CH3 C
C
CH3 CN
CH3

-CN H
or
-CN

O CN

CH3 C
C H+
H O-
CH3

If the chiral molecule is produced by a substitution reaction and the starting molecule is a
single enantiomer, then the attacking species can only attack from one side and a single
enantiomer will be produced.
Eg preparation of butan-2-ol from 2-bromobutane

CH3 CH3
-
OH
C C C2H5 -
+ Br
C2H5 Br HO
H
H

The hydroxide ion always attacks from behind, always producing the same enantiomer.

So nucleophilic substitution reactions produce single enantiomers provided that the

substrate was also a single enantiomer. Nucleophilic and electrophilic addition
reactions always produce racemates.
All carboxylic acids have the functional group COOH

Carboxylic acids can be prepared by the oxidation of alcohols or aldehydes, and the
hydrolysis of nitriles

1. Oxidation of alcohols or aldehydes

Normally primary alcohols form carboxylic acids when fully oxidised. Initial
oxidation produces aldehydes and these can be further oxidised to carboxylic acids

An excess of the oxidising agent must be used, and the aldehyde formed as the half-way
product should remain in the mixture. The alcohol is heated under reflux with an excess of
the oxidizing agent. When the reaction is complete, the carboxylic acid is distilled off.
The full equation for the oxidation of ethanol to ethanoic acid is as follows:

The more typical simplified version looks like this:

Alternatively, you could write separate equations for the two stages of the reaction - the
formation of ethanal and then its subsequent oxidation.

This is what is happening in the second stage:

2. Hydrolysis of nitriles
The nitrile is heated under reflux with dilute hydrochloric acid. Instead of getting an
ammonium salt as you would do if the reaction only involved water, you produce the
free carboxylic acid.

For example, with ethanenitrile and hydrochloric acid you would get ethanoic acid
and ammonium chloride.
 Summary on preparation of carboxylic acids

Reactions of carboxylic acids

i lithium tetrahydridoaluminate (lithium aluminium hydride) in dry ether
Lithium tetrahydridoaluminate is a reducing agent and has the structure:

The reaction happens in two stages - first to form an aldehyde and then a primary alcohol.
Because lithium tetrahydridoaluminate reacts rapidly with aldehydes, the reaction gors to
completion. The full equation is :

[H] is the reducing agent.

"R" is hydrogen or a hydrocarbon group. For example, ethanoic acid will reduce to the
primary alcohol, ethanol.
Dry ether is used as the reducing agent lithium tetrahydridoaluminate is highly reactive in
water.

ii bases to produce salts

Because of their enhanced acidity, carboxylic acids react with bases to form ionic salts

iii phosphorus(V) chloride (phosphorus pentachloride)

The reaction of a carboxylic acid with phosphorus pentachloride produces an acid chloride.
The reaction goes firstly by starting with the removal of HCl. Then via a nucleophilic addition
of chloride where the carbonyl is simultaneously protonated. The final step is formation of
the acid chloride, HCl and phosphorus oxychloride. Formation of the strong P=O bond drives
the reaction.

iv alcohols in the presence of an acid catalyst

When a carboxylic acid is treated with an alcohol and an acid catalyst, an ester is formed
(along with water). This reaction is called the Fischer esterification
Reactions of acyl chlorides with:
i water
Examples of nucleophilic addition of water to acid/acyl chlorides, subsequent elimination on
hydrolysis to give the carboxylic acid and hydrogen chloride/hydrochloric acid. The reaction
is a nucleophilic substitution Cl by OH via H2O

ethanoyl chloride + water ==> ethanoic acid + hydrogen chloride/hydrochloric acid

(ii)

benzoyl chloride + water ==> benzoic acid + hydrogen chloride/hydrochloric acid

ii alcohols
Inthis reaction an ester and hydrogen chloride gas are formed. The example below is in the
context of ethyl chloride but all acyl chlorides behave the same way.

Mechanism:
First there is a nucleophilic attack on the very positive carbon atom by an lone pair from the
oxygen of the alcohol.

Then there is elimination of the chloride

Followed by removal of hydrogen

iii concentrated ammonia

Acyl Chlorides react at room temperature with ammonia to form amides.
Ethanoyl chloride reacts violently with a cold concentrated solution of ammonia. A white
solid product is formed which is a mixture of ethanamide (an amide) and ammonium
chloride.

iv amines
This is a nucleophilic addition/elimination reaction.
Produces amides and ammonium chlorides.

Mechanism- 2 stages:
In the addition stage, an amine molecule becomes attached to the carbon in the acyl chloride.
As the lone pair on the nitrogen approaches the fairly positive carbon in the acyl chloride, it
moves to form a bond with it. In the process, the two electrons in one of the carbon-oxygen
bonds are repelled entirely onto the oxygen, leaving it negatively charged.

The elimination stage of the reaction happens in two steps. In the first, the carbon-oxygen
double bond reforms. As the electron pair moves back to form a bond with the carbon, the
pair of electrons in the carbon-chlorine bond are forced entirely onto the chlorine to give a
chloride ion.

The amine molecule will more likely remove the hydrogen ion and make acylammonium
chloride
Hydrolysis of esters
In alkaline conditions- This reaction is known as "saponification"
because it is the basis of making soap from glycerol triesters in fats.
Step 1:
The hydroxide nucleophiles attacks at the electrophilic C ofthe ester C=O,
breaking the π bond and creating the tetrahedral intermediate.
Step 2:
The intermediate collapses, reforming the C=O
results in the loss of the leaving group the alkoxide, RO-, leading to the
carboxylic acid.
Step 3:
An acid / base reaction. A very rapid equilibrium where the alkoxide,RO-
functions as a base deprotonating the carboxylic acid, RCO2H
In acidic conditions
Step 1:
An acid/base reaction. Since we only have a weak nucleophile and a poor
electrophile we need to activate the ester. Protonation of the ester
carbonyl makes it more electrophilic.
Step 2:
The water O functions as the nucleophile attacking the electrophilic C in the
C=O, with the electrons moving towards the oxonium ion, creating the
tetrahedral intermediate.
Step 3:
An acid/base reaction. Deprotonate the oxygen that came from the water
molecule to neutralise the charge.
Step 4:
An acid/base reaction. Need to make the -OCH3 leave, but need to convert
it into a good leaving group first by protonation.
Step 5:
Use the electrons of an adjacent oxygen to help "push out" the leaving
group, a neutral methanol molecule.
Step 6:
An acid/base reaction. Deprotonation of the oxonium ion reveals the
carbonyl C=O in the carboxylic acid product and regenerates the acid
catalyst.
6.2 Nitrogen compounds polymers and synthesis
Amines
Amines are derivatives of ammonia whereby one or more hydrogen atoms have been
replaced by alkyl groups. Amines can be primary, secondary or tertiary depending on how
many hydrogen atoms have been replaced.

Primary amines: One alkyl group is attached to the nitrogen atom.

Secondary amines: Two alkyl groups are attached to the nitrogen atom.
Tertiary amines: All three hydrogen atoms are replaced by alkyl groups.

Naming amines
The naming of amines is based around the length of the longest alkyl chain connected to the
nitrogen atom. Below are some examples of amines:
Primary amine This is butylamine, a primary amine. The -butyl part
comes from the four carbon alkyl group while the -
amine part is due to the secondary amine group,
NH2
Secondary amines
This is N-methylpropylamine. The -propyl part comes from the longer three carbon chain
while the -methyl part is from the other CH3 group. The preceding N indicates that the
methyl group is attached to the nitrogen atom.
Tertiary amines

This is N,N-diethylpropylamine. The -propyl part comes from the longer three carbon chain
while the diethyl is from the two ethyl groups connected to the nitrogen atom.

Types of amides

Naming amines
Reactions of primary aliphatic amines, using butylamine as an
example, with:
i water to form an alkaline solution
Amines react with water and act as weak bases in solution.
Butylamine does dissolve in water due to the NH2 group forming Hydrogen bonds with
water. Butylamine solution is alkaline because the NH2 group accepts Hydrogen ions.
Equation:

C4H9NH2 + H20 C4H9NH3+ + OH-

Mechanism:

ii acids to form salts

Amines can react with acids to produce alkylammonium salts. For example, ethylamine can
react with hydrochloric acid to form ethylammonium chloride.
iii ethanoyl chloride
Ammonia and amines can act as nucleophiles in attacking the positive centres in molecules
such as ethanoyl chloride, CH3COCl. This produces N-substituted amides
When ethanoyl chloride is added an amide is formed and the gas HCl is vigourously
given off. When ethanoyl chloride is added an amide is formed and the gas HCl is
vigourously given off.
C4H9NH2 + CH3COCl C4H9NHCOCH3 + HCl

iv halogenoalkanes
Amines are also nucleophiles (lone pair on N) and can attack halogenoalkanes to produce a
2° amine. This too is a nucleophile and can react further producing a 3° amine and,
eventually an ionic quarternary ammonium salt.

C2H5NH2 + C2H5Br ——> HBr + (C2H5)2NH diethylamine, 2° amine

(C2H5)2NH + C2H5Br ——> HBr + (C2H5)3N triethylamine, 3° amine
+
(C2H5)3N + C2H5Br ——> (C2H5)4N Br¯ tetraethylammonium bromide
a quaternary (4°) salt
Uses Quarternary ammonium salts with long chain alkyl groups are used
as cationic surfactants in fabric softening e.g. [CH3(CH2)17]2N+(CH3)2 Cl¯
v copper(II) ions to form complex ions
A deep blue complex is formed when copper is added, [Cu(C4H9NH2)4 (H20)2]2+.

Amine complex ion

Preparation of primary amines

Primary amines can be prepared by

  Reduction of lithium tetrahydridoaluminate(III) (lithium aluminium
hydride) or hydrogen and a metal catalyst.

The nitrile reacts with the lithium tetrahydridoaluminate in solution in ethoxyethane

followed by treatment of the product of that reaction with a dilute acid.

 The reduction of nitriles using hydrogen and a metal catalyst

The carbon-nitrogen triple bond in a nitrile can also be reduced by reaction with hydrogen
gas in the presence of a variety of metal catalysts such as palladium, platinum or nickel.
The reaction will take place at a raised temperature and pressure. For example,
ethanenitrile can be reduced to ethylamine by reaction with hydrogen in the presence of a
palladium catalyst.

 Aromatic nitro-compounds can be reduced, using tin and concentrated

hydrochloric acid, to form amines
e.g Nitrobenzene to phenylamine
The conversion is done in two main stages:
Stage 1: conversion of nitrobenzene into phenylammonium ions
Nitrobenzene is reduced to phenylammonium ions using a mixture of tin and concentrated
hydrochloric acid. The mixture is heated under reflux in a water bath.
Under the acidic conditions, phenylammonium ions are formed. The lone pair on the
nitrogen in the phenylamine picks up a hydrogen ion from the acid.
The electron-half-equation for this reaction is:

The nitrobenzene has been reduced by gaining electrons in the presence of the acid.
The electrons come from the tin, which forms both tin(II) and tin(IV) ions.

Stage 2: conversion of the phenylammonium ions into phenylamine

All you need to do is to remove the hydrogen ion from the -NH3+ group.
Sodium hydroxide solution is added to the product of the first stage of the reaction.

Summary

Polyamides
All polyamides are made by the formation of an amide function to link two molecules of
monomer together. The monomers can be amides themselves
Polyamides such as nylon are also condensation polymers. The formation of a polyamide
follows the same procedure as in the synthesis of a simple amide.

 Dicarboxylic acids and diamines

These are condensation polymerisation polymers

(ii) Dicarboxylic acids and diols
With this method, one monomer is a dicarboxylic acid with two −COOH groups while the
other is a diol with two −OH groups. The general formation is shown below:

General formation of polyester from different monomer units.

An example of this condensation reaction is the formation of Terylene which is made from
the monomers ethane-1,2-diol and benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid.
(iii) Amino acids
Polyamides can also be formed from amino acids, which contain both the amine group
(−NH2) and a carboxyl group (−COOH). Polypeptides and proteins are polyamides formed
from one type of monomer unit. The general formation is shown below:

Amino acids

Amino acids are compounds which contain both an amine group (−NH2) and a carboxylic
acid group (−COOH). They are important in the human body as they are building blocks for
proteins and peptides. They also act as enzymes and antibodies.

α-amino acids

α-amino acids have a basic amine group and an acidic carboxyl group bonded to the same
carbon atom. The general formula is RCH(HN2)COOH. The body has 20 amino acids that can
be arranged to form proteins. The simplest α-amino acid is glycine which has a hydrogen
atom as the −R group.

Other examples of α-amino acids include alanine (2-aminopropanoic acid) and glutamic acid
(2-aminopentanedioic acid).

Zwitterions
The acidic carboxyl group and the basic amine group in an amino acid can interact with each
other to form an internal salt known as a zwitterion. In this process:
o A proton is transferred from the acid carboxyl group to the basic amine group.
o The zwitterion has no overall net charge as the positive and negative charges cancel
each other out.
Isoelectric point
The isoelectric point is the pH at which there is no net electrical charge. At this pH, a
zwitterion is formed. Different amino acids have different isoelectric points. A higher
isoelectric point indicates the −R group may contain −NH2 while a lower isoelectric point
could show the presence of a −COOH group.

Acid and base properties

Amino acids are amphoteric, meaning they can react as an acid or a base.
o At a pH more acidic than the isoelectric point, the amino acid behaves as a base and
accepts a proton from the acid. This results in a positively charged ion.

o At a pH less acidic than the isoelectric point, the amino acid behaves as an acid and
donates a proton to the base. This results in a negatively charged ion.

Peptides
A peptide is a compound containing two or more amino acids joined by a peptide
bond.
When two amino acids join together, a dipeptide is formed through the elimination
of water in a condensation reaction.

It is also possible to form a dipeptide by reacting two of the same amino acids
together. The amine group on one of the molecules reacts with the carboxyl group
on the other.

Polypeptides
A polypeptide is a long chain of amino acids joined together with peptide bonds. A
polypeptide can be formed through a series of condensation reactions of amino
acids. A dipeptide is a molecule formed from two amino acids joined by a single
peptide bond.

Acid hydrolysis
Polypeptides can be hydrolysed using aqueous acid. In this reaction the peptide
bond is broken forming two positively charged amino acids. This reaction is
traditionally carried out by heating under reflux with 6 mol dm−3hydrochloric acid
for 24 hours.
 Alkaline hydrolysis
Polypeptides can be broken down through alkaline hydrolysis. A solution of sodium
hydroxide can be used just above 100° C. In this reaction the polypeptide is broken
down into salts.

In the reaction below a long amino acid chain is broken through alkaline hydrolysis.

Polypeptides can be hydrolysed to form the constituent amino acids, which can be
separated by chromatography

6.2.3 Polyester and polyamide formation by condensation polymerisation

A polyester is a polymer (a chain of repeating units) where the individual units are held
together by ester linkages. A polyester is made by a reaction involving an acid with two -
COOH groups, and an alcohol with two -OH groups. Unlike addition polymerisation which
involves monomers joining up with no by product condensation polymerisation produces
small molecules such as water. Common polyesters are PET, Nylon and Terylene.
6.2.5 Organic Synthesis
Deducing empirical formulae, molecular formulae and structural formulae from
data drawn from combustion analysis, elemental percentage composition,
characteristic reactions of functional groups, infrared spectra, mass spectra and
nuclear magnetic resonance
Combustion Analysis
You will be given the mass of the sample initially, mass of CO2 produced and mass of
H2O produced:
1 – Calculate the mass of C and H produced.
2 – Subtract the mass of C & H from initial mass to find the mass of Oxygen
produced.
3 – Calculate moles of C, H & O produced.
4 – Find the empirical formula by putting moles in a ratio.

Percentage Composition
Given the % of each element in the compound:
1 – Divide each percentage by the RAM of the element.
2 – Put the results into a ratio.
3 – Divide through by the smallest answer to give a simple whole number ratio.

% → % ÷ RAM → X:Y:Z

IR spectroscopy
- The wavenumber of different peaks correspond to different bonds absorbing
energy in the molecule which can be looked up in a data book.

Mass spectroscopy
- Parent peak ion gives RMM of compound.
- Particularly abundant peaks show where a group of the compound has broken off.
 NMR
- No. of peaks = No. of H environments.
- Splitting number shows 1 more than the number of adjacent H environments.
- Area beneath graph represents number of H’s in that environment.

Functional Group Test Positive Result

C=C -Bromine -Orange → Colourless
-KMnO4 acidified -Purple → Colourless
-OH -PCl5 -Steamy Fumes
-Na -Fizzing
C=O (Aldehyde/Ketone) Brady’s Reagent Yellow/Orange Precipitate
C=O (Aldehyde) -Benedict’s or Fehling’s & heat -Blue → Brick Red Precipitate
-Tollens Reagent -Silver precipitate
-COOH -Sodium Carbonate -Fizzing
-Indicator -Colour change
Carbonyl (or alcohol) Iodoform reaction: Add Iodine and Pale yellow precipitate and
adjacent to methyl NaOH then warm faint medical smell
Amino Acid Ninhydrin Goes Purple
High C:H ratio Combustion Smokey flame
-Cl Nitric acid & silver nitrate solution - White precipitate
-Br - Cream precipitate
-I - Yellow precipitate
Ester Smell Fruity
Hydrogen Lit Splint Squeaky pop
Ammonia HCl White smoke
NO2 Appearance Brown gas
CO2 Limewater Goes Cloudy
Cl2 Litmus paper Bleached white
Oxygen Glowing splint Relights

Identifying appropriate control measures to reduce risk during a synthesis based

upon data of hazards
Hazard is the potential of a substance to cause harm.
Risk is the likelihood of it actually harming you.

For example K2Cr2O7 is highly toxic and carcinogenic so it is very hazardous. But it
was used in breathalysers in a sealed tube so the risk to the subject was very low.

Some precautions that can be taken are to:

- Use a fume cupboard to vent harmful gases.
- Reduce the scale of working so if something goes wrong, adverse effects are
minimised.
- Look for an alternative route of synthesis.
- Replace a reactant for a safer one with similar chemical properties.

Common hazards:
- Corrosive
- Flammable
- Toxic
- Caustic
- Carcinogenic
- Explosive
– Refluxing
Use a condenser while heating to minimise the loss of product while allowing the
reaction to go to completion.

2 - Purification by washing, eg with water and sodium carbonate solution

This is a method of purification that can for example clean a non-polar product with
a polar solvent.
Na2CO3 can absorb any excess acid and water can dissolve any water soluble
impurities (like sodium salts).

3 - Solvent extraction
Separating funnels can be used to separate immiscible liquids. Different solvents are
added to dissolve the product in them and then separated out at the bottom of the
funnel.

4 - Recrystallization
- Dissolve impure crystals in the minimum amount of hot solvent possible (this
creates a saturated solution so the crystals are more likely to re-precipitate out).
- Cool and put through Buchner funnel.
- Rinse with ice cold water (this rinses off any insoluble purities stuck to the surface).
- Dry the product.

5 - Drying
Can be done in an oven or padded using filter paper to remove liquid from crystals
etc. Alternatively use anhydrous CaCl2 to absorb any water.

6 - Distillation
Used to separate mixtures with different boiling points; requires thermometer and
Liebig condenser.

7 - Steam distillation
It is used to separate organic products which might otherwise decompose from

sustained heating.

8 - Melting temperature determination

Put crystal sample into capillary tube and place into melting point apparatus to find
it out.

9 - Boiling temperature determination.

Use distillation apparatus to determine the BP.

10 (Extra) - Shaking
Shaking mixtures can expose them to the air and so in some cases this is enough to
cause oxidation from Oxygen in the air.

Reactions in organic synthesis

Creating C-C bonds:

- Nucleophilic Addition to an aldehyde with HCN and a KCN catalyst: Changes =O to –
OH and adds on a C≡N.
- Friedel-Crafts reaction: Benzene reacts with a halogenoalkane for alkylation or acyl
chloride for acylation. Both use an AlCl3 catalyst.

Reduction:
- LiAlH4 dissolved in dry ether reduces carbonyls and carboxylic acids to alcohols.
- Sn & conc. HCl reduces –NO2 to –NH2

Oxidation:
-Na2Cr2O7 and sulphuric acid oxidise to carbonyls or carboxylic acids. Colour change
from orange to green.
Making –OH Groups:
- Adding KMnO4 to alkenes will create 2 –OH groups around where the double bond
was.
You also observe a colour change from purple to colourless.

Adding on Halogens:
- A diatomic halogen molecule or a hydrogen halide will react with alkenes to add on
2 or 1 halogen respectively. (Remember Markovnikov’s rule with HX)
- Alcohol/Carboxylic acids and PCl5 adds –Cl in place of –OH & gives off steamy fumes
of HCl.
- Halogens with an FeBr3 catalyst will substitute halogens onto a benzene ring.

Adding on a Nitrogen Group:

- Conc. HNO3 & conc. H2SO4 refluxed with benzene will substitute an NO2 group on.
- Acyl Chloride and ammonia or carboxylic acid and ammonium carbonate will make
an amide group.
- Reducing a nitrile with LiAlH4 and then adding a weak acid produces amines.
- NH3 and halogenoalkanes → NH2 replaces the halogens.

Esterification:
- Add an alcohol to a carboxylic acid or acyl chloride (with an acid catalyst like H2SO4)
to get a condensation reaction resulting in an ester.

Hydrogenation:
- Benzene and alkenes both have an addition reaction when Hydrogen is added in
the presence of a Nickel catalyst.

Grignard reagents
Grignard reagents are formed by the reaction of magnesium metal with alkyl or
alkenyl halides. They’re extremely good nucleophiles, reacting with electrophiles
such as carbonyl compounds (aldehydes, ketones, esters, carbon dioxide, etc) and
 epoxides. They’re also very strong bases and will react with acidic hydrogens (such as
alcohols, water, and carboxylic acids).
Grignard reagents are made through the addition of magnesium metal to alkyl or
alkenyl halides. The halide can be Cl, Br, or I (not F). It’s slightly easier to make
Grignards from the iodides and bromides

Reactions of Grignard reagents

 With Carbon dioxide to make carboxylic acids

Grignard reagents also add to carbon dioxide (CO2) to form carboxylates, in a

reaction similar to their reactions with ketones and aldehydes. The carboxylates are
converted to carboxylic acids after addition of acid.

 Reaction with Carbonyl compounds such as ketones, aldehydes and esters

Chromatography is a technique by which different compounds in a mixture can be
separated and then analysed.

1) Principles of separation

Chromatography always involves moving a solvent (called the mobile phase) along or
through a solid or viscous liquid (called the stationery phase). Different components of the
mixture have different tendencies to adsorb onto (or dissolve in) the stationery phase, and
hence move through the apparatus at different speeds relative to the mobile phase. This is
how the components are separated.

There are three main types of chromatography:

- thin-layer chromatography
In thin-layer chromatography a liquid solvent is allowed to flow up a piece of TLC
plate coated with a solid. The mixture is placed in a small area on the plate and
allowed to flow up the plate with the solvent. The distance travelled by a component
compared to the solvent is called the retention factor and can be used to identify
the component.
- column chromatography
In column chromatography a column is packed with a solid and a solvent moves
down the column. The component is added to the solvent at the top of the column.
The time it takes for a component to exit the base of the column is called the
retention time and can be used to identify the component

- gas chromatography
In gas chromatography a gaseous mixture is allowed to flow, under pressure and at
high temperature, through a column lined with a solid or a solid coated with a liquid.
Volatile liquids can also be vaporised and then allowed to flow through the column.
The time it takes for a component to exit the column is called the retention time and
can be used to identify the component.

The separation of the components depends on the balance between its solubility in the
mobile phase and its retention by the stationary phase. A component which is highly soluble
in the mobile phase and not well retained by the stationery phase will have a high retention
factor and a small retention time. A component which is not very soluble in the mobile
phase and well retained by the stationery phase will have a low retention factor and a high
retention time.

The retention factor can be calculated from the chromatogram produced on the TLC plate
after the experiment. It is defined as: distance moved by component
distance moved by solvent front

High Performance Liquid Chromatography, HPLC, and Gas Chromatography, GC

GC
All forms of chromatography involve a stationary phase and a mobile phase. In all the other
forms of chromatography you will meet at this level, the mobile phase is a liquid. In gas-
liquid chromatography, the mobile phase is a gas such as helium and the stationary phase is
a high boiling point liquid adsorbed onto a solid.

How fast a particular compound travels through the machine will depend on how much of
its time is spent moving with the gas as opposed to being attached to the liquid in some
way.
Diagram

Stages in gas chromatography

Very small quantities of the sample that you are trying to analyse are injected into the
machine using a small syringe. The syringe needle passes through a thick rubber disc (known
as a septum) which reseals itself again when the syringe is pulled out.
The injector is contained in an oven whose temperature can be controlled. It is hot enough
so that all the sample boils and is carried into the column as a gas by the helium (or other
carrier gas).
The column is packed with finely ground diatomaceous earth, which is a very porous rock.
This is coated with a high boiling liquid - typically a waxy polymer.
The temperature of the column can be varied from about 50°C to 250°C. It is cooler than the
injector oven, so that some components of the mixture may condense at the beginning of
the column.

How separation works on the column

One of three things might happen to a particular molecule in the mixture injected into the
column:
 It may condense on the stationary phase.
 It may dissolve in the liquid on the surface of the stationary phase.
 It may remain in the gas phase.

The time taken for a particular compound to travel through the column to the detector is
known as its retention time. This time is measured from the time at which the sample is
injected to the point at which the display shows a maximum peak height for that compound.
Different compounds have different retention times. For a particular compound, the
retention time will vary depending on:
 the boiling point of the compound. A compound which boils at a temperature higher
than the column temperature is going to spend nearly all of its time condensed as a
liquid at the beginning of the column. So high boiling point means a long retention
time.
 the solubility in the liquid phase. The more soluble a compound is in the liquid phase,
the less time it will spend being carried along by the gas. High solubility in the liquid
phase means a high retention time.
 the temperature of the column. A higher temperature will tend to excite molecules
into the gas phase - either because they evaporate more readily, or because they are
so energetic that the attractions of the liquid no longer hold them. A high column
temperature shortens retention times for everything in the column.

HPLC
HPLC is a type of liquid chromatography used to separate a mixture of compounds. The
sample is forced through a column packed with a stationary phase composed of irregularly
shaped particles and a porous membrane at high pressure.
When a mixture of compounds is introduced to the column, the molecules interact with the
column packing according to their affinities and they then travel to the stationary phase. A
compound with less affinity towards the stationary phase travels faster.
The compounds are therefore separated.

HPLC is faster, more efficient, highly sensitive and easier than standard liquid
chromatography.
HPLC and GC may be used in conjunction with mass spectrometry, in applications such as
forensics or drugs testing in sport
Mass Spectrometry
Working out relative molecular mass of compounds
Vaporised organic samples are passed through the ionisation chambers of the mass
spectrometer and this allows electrons to knock an electron off the organic molecule. The
organic molecule forms a positive ion called the molecular ion
Molecular ions can then be used to find relative formula mass
In the mass spectrum, the heaviest ion (the one with the greatest m/z value) is likely to be
the molecular ion.

In the spectra peaks above, he largest value is 72 so an assumption is made that this is the
molecular ion and therefor the relative formula mass of the sample.

Getting more accurate results:

High resolution mass spectrometers can be used to get more accurate relative isotoic
masses to 4 decimal points. For example:
1H 1.0078
1H 1
12C 12.0000
12C 12
14N 14.0031
14N 14
16O 15.9949
16O 16

Using accurate isotopic masses will aid differentiation between rounded up relative formula
masses of compounds.

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)

Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, a powerful technique for finding the structure
and shape of molecules, depends on a combination of nuclear physics and chemistry. The
nuclei of atoms with an odd number of protons such as 1H, 13C, 19F, and 31P, spin and
behave like tiny bar magnets. If placed in an external magnetic field, some of these nuclei
will line up with an applied field and, if they have sufficient energy, some will line up against
it. This arrangement leads to two nuclear energy levels; the energy needed for the nuclei to
reverse their spin and change their orientation in a magnetic field can be provided by radio
waves.

In practice, a sample is placed in an electromagnet. The field strength is varied until the
radio waves have the exact frequency needed to make the nuclei flip over and spin in the
opposite direction. This is called resonance and can be detected electronically and recorded
in the form of a spectrum.
C-13 NMR
Naturally-occurring carbon is composed of 98.9% 12C and 1.1% 13C (along with extremely
small, and variable, amount of 14C). Although the 12C : 13C ratio is very small for
compounds like methane which contain just one carbon atom, the ratio increases in
proportion to the number of carbon atoms, as the chances of a molecule containing at least
one 13C atom increase
13C NMR spectroscopy provides information about the positions of 13C atoms in a molecule
Data from 13C NMR spectroscopy can be used to:
i predict the different environments for carbon atoms present in a molecule, given values of
chemical shift, δ

The chemical shift

As electrons shield the nucleus from the full effects of external magnetic field, differences in
electron distribution produce different energy separations between the two spin energy
levels. The technique is a very useful analytical tool, as nuclei in different chemical
environments produce different signals in the spectrum.
Proton or 1H NMR is particularly useful. The hydrogen nuclei, present in all organic
molecules, effectively act as spies and give information about their position in a molecule.
The signals are measured against the standard signal produced by the 12 hydrogen nuclei in
tetramethylsilane (TMS), the structure of which is shown below:

The position of the NMR signal relative to this standard is called the chemical shift of the
proton. Hydrogen nuclei in particular environments have characteristic chemical shifts.
Some examples are given in the table below.
ii justify the number of peaks present in a 13C NMR spectrum because of carbon atoms in
different environments
Interpreting 1NMR spectra
The 1H NMR spectrum of ethanal is shown below.

The spectrum trace has a peak at 9.7, which corresponds to the CHO proton and a peak at
2.1 which corresponds to the three protons in the CH3 group. The area under the CH3 peak
is three times larger than that under the CHO peak as it indicates the relative number of
protons in the different environment. The integrated trace gives this information more
directly, as it goes up in steps which are proportional to the number of protons

Worked example
The NMR spectrum of a compound which has the molecular formula C3H8O is shown below.

(a) Draw the full structural formulas and give the names of the three possible isomers of C3H8O.

(b) Identify the substance responsible for the peak at 0 ppm and state its purpose.

(c) Identify the unknown compound from the number of peaks in the spectrum.

(d) Identify the group responsible for the signal at 0.9 ppm.

(c) For each structure, I-IV identifies the different environments of the H atoms in the
molecule. 1-3 represents the number of atoms in each environment. There are four peaks in
the spectrum. Propan-1-ol has four peaks with the correct areas.
(d) Peaks at 0.9 ppm correspond to the CH3 group.

Splitting of peaks in NMR

High-resolution NMR machine reveals a hidden structure with the single peaks split or
resolved into a group of smaller parts. For example, compare the low-resolution spectrum
of ethanal (below, left) with the high resolution figure below on the right. The figure on
the right was obtained under more carefully controlled operating conditions.

The splitting of the peaks occurs as the effective magnetic field, experienced by particular
nuclei, is modified by the magnetic field produced by neighboring protons. This effect is
known as spin-spin coupling.
The magnetic field experienced by the protons in the methyl group, for example, depends
on the spin of the proton attached to the carbon atom of the carbonyl group (CHO). The
local magnetic field is increased when the magnetic field of the CHO proton is aligned with
the external field and decreased when aligned against it.
As the energy separation between the two spin states of a proton depends on the local
magnetic field, this results in two possible values for the energy difference between the two
nuclear energy levels for the CH3 protons. Instead of one signal corresponding to one
energy difference, ΔE, two signals corresponding to ΔEa and ΔEn are produced.
Each line corresponds to a different spin of the neighbouring proton. As they are both
equally likely, the lines are of equal intensity. In a similar way, the low-resolution peak
corresponding to the CHO proton is split due to the different magnetic fields produced by
the combinations of spin for the three protons of the neighbouring methyl group.
As there are two possible orientations for each proton, a total of 23 combinations are
possible, resulting in four different local magnetic fields. This produces four signals with
relative intensities 1, 3, 3, 1 – as shown in the table below
Worked example: Predict the splitting pattern produced by a neighboring CH2 group.
Solution: There are different combinations.

Three lines are produced with relative intensities of 1, 2, 1. The splitting patterns produced
from different numbers of neighboring protons can be deduced from Pascal's triangle and
are summarized in the table below.

When analysing high-resolution NMR spectra, the following additional points should be
noted:

 protons bonded to the same atom do not interact with one another as they are equivalent
and behave as a group

 protons on non-adjacent carbon atoms do not generally interact with one another

 the O−H single peak in ethanol does not split unless the sample is pure. Rapid exchange of
the protons between ethanol molecules averages out the different possible spins.