Section 12

Grammar Acquisition of Lower Secondary School L2 Learners.

Factors Influencing the Acquisition of Grammar Structures in the
Target Language.

12.1. TEACHING GRAMMAR

The starting points, which teachers have to bear in mind, when starting to teach
grammar are:
 grammar is necessary to express precise meanings in discourse;
 grammar ties closely to vocabulary in learning and using the second
language;
 grammar learning can evolve from the learning of chunks of language;
 talking about something meaningful with the child can be a useful way to
introduce new grammar;
 grammar can be taught without using terminology (e.g. “auxiliary verb”,
etc).

12.2. DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTERNAL GRAMMAR

There is evidence from adult second language learning and from school-based
second language learning that, in the beginning stages, learners seem to use words or
chunks strung together to get their meanings across, with little attention paid to grammar.
The question then is how these chunks of words turn into something more like a language
with patterns of grammar.
Cognitive psychology suggests that our brains work always with a limited amount of
attentional capacity (or mental attention) that enables us to concentrate on getting a task
achieved. When that task is communicating an idea or message through the foreign
language, then it seems that finding the right words takes up attention early on, but once
those words or chunks are well-known, using them takes less effort and attention is freed
for grammar. This will be a repeated process of moving from lexis to grammar as language
resources get more and more extensive.
Research data shows that young learners of a second language (e.g. Scottish
children learning German, English children learning French) break down the already
acquired chunks of language and re-use them with other words to make new sentences –
i.e. we see that there is “an evolution from chunks to creativity” [Mitchell and Martin,
1997:23]. So the ways of teaching that help learners notice words inside chunks and how
other words can be used in the same places may help with the development of grammar.
But how do young learners learn the grammar of the target language and what is the
effect of their L1 on this?
1. Learning through hypothesis testing
Hypothesis testing is the name given to the mental processes that are evidenced from
a very early age: e.g. as a baby drops her spoons, watches someone pick it up for her, and
then drops it again so that someone picks it up again for her. So the baby appears to have
constructed a hypothesis “If I drop my spoon, it will be picked up for me” and tests it through
repeated trials.
It is suggested that something similar happens when children learn the grammar of
their first language. Children not only produce random word orderings but they also
somehow work out how to use the language and then try out their hypotheses in saying
things and amending them when they hear alternative versions. It is as if a child has worked
out a grammar rule and is testing it out. “Evidence that children work naturally with rules and
patterns comes from their creative productions of utterances they can never have heard
anyone say but that seem to follow an internal rule the child has constructed: e.g. He
tookened my ball (=took), in which a new past form is created according to the child’s
hypothesis. Later on the form will change to the conventional took.” [Cameron, 2005:102].
Such refining of language and of ideas is characteristic for mental development and
is likely to occur in foreign language learning as children build hypotheses about how the
foreign language works from the data they have received from their limited experience with
the language. As they get more input, the hypotheses change. Changes can be continuous
and steady or can involve more dramatic shifts as whole sections are reorganized in the
light of new information. These dramatic changes are called restructuring.
Errors in the language use can often act out as a window on to the developing internal
grammar of the learner, and are signals to growth. They can also suggest what types of
intervention may assist learning.
2. Influence of the first language
It is obvious that constructing hypotheses about the foreign language is much more
difficult than for the first language, simply because the learner has a relatively small amount
of words and phrases to work on in order to formulate hypotheses. When data is limited
children are more likely to use the first language to fill in the gaps. So learners may assume
that the target language grammar works in the same way as the grammar of their first
language.
According to the Competition Model of language acquisition (developed by Elizabeth
Bates and Brian MacWhinney, 1989) L1 transfer and interference play an essential role in
the learning of a second language. Learners instinctively listen out for cues to meaning in
word order or word form that work for them in their first language, and they may miss cues
that the foreign language offers. For example: Bulgarian learners of English may form a
sentence like You miss me, which is a direct translation from the Bulgarian Липсваш ми;
Malaysian learners of English miss the information carried out by the endings of the verbs
(the difference between work and worked) because in their first language the endings of
words do not carry information. Actually, if the foreign language cues are not so obvious,
the probability of them being noticed and used is even smaller.

12.3. A LEARNER-CENTRED APPROACH TO TEACHING GRAMMAR

Young learner classrooms are inevitably affected by the trends of grammar teaching.
Grammar teaching in recent years has moved away from the traditional grammar-translation
methods through communicative methods to the most recent ‘focus on form’. Each of these
perspectives takes a different view on the learning processes and we will clarify each of
these trends.
1. Teaching grammar as explicit rules: learning as building blocks

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 The traditional grammar-translation method and all other forms of grammar-centred
language teaching are based on the assumption that the most important part of language
teaching is grammar and that language learning is accumulation of mastered rules of the
grammar. Grammar rules are introduced step-by-step to learners, terminology is used (e.g.
the “past simple tense form of the verb”, etc). Learners are expected to learn the rules and
to practise using the rules to construct sentences. It is assumed that after more practice the
rules get to be used automatically. To teach the language in this way, the structure or rules
are sorted into a sequence progressing from ‘easy’ to ‘difficult’ and the sequence forms a
syllabus.
Some learners respond well to this method – particularly those learners who are good
with languages. But those pupils who cannot memorize rules and who do not possess the
verbal-linguistic intelligence cannot manage to cope with it.
2. Communicative language teaching of grammar
Communicative language teaching is an approach to the teaching of second and
foreign languages that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of
learning a language. The teaching and learning of grammar by using this method does not
prove to be 100% successful because communicating through a language and learning a
language can actually conflict with each other – focusing on meaning in the communicative
language classroom does not automatically guarantee grammar development in the L2.
Grammar may emerge naturally when acquiring a first language, but the grammar of a
foreign language is ‘foreign’ and therefore it involves explicit teaching. From the learners’
point of view paying attention to form is really important and that is why learners need to be
helped to:
 notice the grammar patterns of the target language before they make those
patterns part of their internal grammar;
 focus attention on the accuracy and precision of their language use.
Batstone (1995) brings forward a suggested sequence of grammar learning activities
around particular patterns or structures (Table 12.3.1. Sequence of grammar learning
activities).
Table 12.3.1 Sequence of grammar learning activities
Sequence of Description Activities
grammar learning
activities for:
(re) noticing An active process in which Successful noticing activities will:
learners become aware of  support meaning as well as form;
the structure, notice  present the form in isolation;
connections between form  contrast the form with other, already
and meaning but do not known, forms;
themselves manipulate  require active participation by the learner;
language  lead into, but not include, activities that
involve manipulation of language
(re) structuring Involves bringing the new In structuring activities:
grammar pattern into the  learners should manipulate the language,
learner’s internal grammar, changing form in order to express
and if necessary, meaning;
reorganizing the internal  learners can be given choices in content

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 grammar. It requires that require adjustments in grammar to
controlled practice around express meaning;
form and meaning.  there will be limited impact on
spontaneous use
proceduralizing The stage of making the In proceduralizing activities:
new grammar ready for  learners should use the language in real-
instant and fluent use in life meaningful conversations created in
communication; requires the classroom;
practice in choosing and
using the form to express
meaning

The most recent trends in language teaching claim that grammar teaching is
necessary but communicative language teaching increases fluency in language use.

12.4. PRINCIPLES FOR LEARNING-CENTRED GRAMMAR TEACHING

L2 learners need to be surrounded by, and participate in meaningful discourse in the
foreign language. While it is conceptually inappropriate to teach grammar in the young
learners’ classroom as formal, explicit rules (especially if foreign language grammar is taught
to children under the age of 8 – 9 years), this is quite acceptable in the L2 classroom of
teenage learners because as children get older they are increasingly able to learn from more
formal instruction. Apart from this, they have gained some knowledge of the structure and
organization of their L1 on which they can step in the foreign language classroom.
Good learning-centred grammar teaching will be meaningful and interesting when
learners participate actively and when the teaching is in accordance with the learning style
of students. Some of the general principles for learning-centred grammar teaching can be
summarized:
 the need for grammar:
– grammatical accuracy and precision matter for meaning;
– without attention to form, form will not be learned accurately;
– form-focused instruction is particularly relevant for those forms of the L2
that differ from the L1 or are not very noticeable;
 potential conflict between meaning and grammar:
– if learners’ attention is directed to meaning, they may neglect attention to
accuracy and precision;
 importance of attention in the learning process:
– teaching can help learners notice and attend to features of grammar in the
language they hear and read, or speak and write;
– noticing an aspect of form is the first stage of learning it; it then needs to
become part of the learner’s internal grammar and to become part of the
learner’s ready resources to be used in a range of situations;
 learning grammar as the development of internal grammar:
– the learner has to do the learning; just teaching grammar is not enough;
– learning grammar can work outwards from participation in discourse, from
vocabulary and from learnt chunks;

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 – learners’ errors can give teachers useful information about their learning
processes and their internal grammars.
 the role of explicit teaching of grammar rules:
– teaching grammar explicitly requires often the learner to think about
language in very abstract formal ways.

12.5. ORDER OF GRAMMAR STRUCTURES ACQUIRED BY BULGARIAN LOWER

SECONDARY SCHOOL ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS
The order of acquisition of grammar structures and functions in English as a foreign
language is nearly the same in every grade (Table 12.5.1).

Table 12.5.1 Grammatical categories in English language lessons of lower

secondary school L2 learners in Bulgaria
Grammatical Grade 5 Grade 6 Grade 7
structures

Pronouns Possessive ’s Reflexive pronouns Relative pronouns

Possessives with of (who, which)
Object pronouns Pronouns: one/ones;
other/another

Nouns Singular and plural Countable and

forms uncountable nouns
Possessive nouns Plural nouns
Articles (a / an; the) Articles: zero article
some / any
Adjectives Personality adjectives Comparison (as … as) Adjectives in –ed / -ing
Comparison of Comparison of
adjectives adjectives (too /
enough)
Adjectives +
prepositions (good at/
afraid of/
interested in)

Verbs Verbs: Modal verbs: can, may, Modal verbs – must,

Verb phrases might should
have,do Modality – Modal verbs for advice
suggestions and suggestion –
Modal verbs – have to
(Let’s / Shall we / How should, ought to, have
to, must
about ...-ing?)
Modal verbs for
obligation – must /
have to

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 Modality – present and Modal verbs for asking
past ability (can / could for permission – Can
/ be able to) I.../could I.../Do you mind
if I...?
Modal verbs for
present and past ability
– can / could
Infinitive of purpose
Conditional sentences
Passive voice (present
and past tense)
Tenses: Tenses: Tenses:
Present simple Present simple Present progressive for
Present simple – Negative questions timetables (future use)
frequency adverbs Past Simple and Past
Time phrases (once a Continous – revision
Present continuous
week) Present Perfect tense –
Present continuous for
was/ were just / already /yet
future
Past simple
Present simple and
Past Continuous Complex sentence
present continuous
going to future
will future Verb phrases – make /
Past simple do
may for possibility
may for permission
used to Verb phrases – make /
let
Narrative tenses

Compound sentence
linkers (and, but,
because)

I’d like … / I like ...

Syntactic models (while

/ after)

going to – future
intentions, predictions

Prepositions Prepositions of time Prepositions of purpose

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 Adverbs Adverbs of manner Adverbs of degree (too, Adverbs of frequency
enough)

Adverbs of time (now,

today)
How much …?
Quantifiers Quantifiers of nouns (all,
(a lot of/ a few/ a little) some, most, none of)

Degrees of ability (quite

/very)
Numerals percentage and fractions

QUESTIONS
1. Why is grammar learning important?
2. How is grammar acquired in the Bulgarian young learner English language classroom?
3. Look at the grammatical errors of Bulgarian lower seconday school learners of English.
Try to classify them and explain why these errors are made.
I have visit a museum.
I never written song.
I’ve ride a horse.
I’ve saw a film.
Yes, he just bought a CD.
He has won a race but I didn’t.
He feel sick.
She got a toothache.
You should a stay in bed.
He want a painkiller.
What does he has?