LANGUAGE VARIATION

We'll focus here on a major aspect of sociolinguistic research in the past decades, an area
generally referred to as language variation. As its own name implies, language variation
focuses on how language varies in different contexts, where context refers to things like
ethnicity, social class, sex, geography, age, and a number of other factors. William Labov
is often regarded as the founder of the study of sociolinguistics. He is especially noted for
introducing the quantitative study of language variation and change, making the sociology of
language into a scientific discipline. The study of language variation is concerned with social
constraints determining language in its contextual environment. Code-switching is the term
given to the use of different varieties of language in different social situations.

Before we review various aspects of language variation in more detail, I want to make sure
we've got some basic terms and concepts down.

Important Terminologies used in Language Variation

Internal Variation: the property of languages having different ways of expressing the same
meaning. Importantly, this refers to within language, not across language, differences. An
example of internal variation in English is "ask" vs. "aks".

Language variety: This is a general term that may be used at a number of levels. So, we can
use the term to distinguish between English and French, but we can also use the term to
distinguish between two varieties of English, such as New York City English vs.
Appalachian English.

Language Varieties

The English language is composed of many linguistic varieties, such as Black English,
standard English, Appalachian English, southern English, New York dialect, and Spanish
influenced English. The features of social dialects are systematic and highly regular and
cross all linguistic parameters, i.e., phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, lexicon,
pragmatics, suprasegmental features, and kinesics. Although each dialect of English has
distinguishing characteristics, the majority of linguistic features of the English language are
common to each of the varieties of English. The existence of these varieties is the result of
historical and social factors. For example, due to historical factors, the majority of Black
English speakers are Black. However, due to social factors, not all Black individuals are Black
English

Language and variation

Introduction
The study of language variation is an important part of sociolinguistics, to the extent that it
requires reference to social factors. Languages vary from one place to another, from one social
group to another, and from one situation to another, and these are the main topics of this
chapter.
Geographical variation,
Social variation,
Contextual variation, respectively.

ACCENT
This term refers to phonological variation, i.e. variation in pronunciation Thus, if we talk
about a Southern Accent, we're talking about a generalized property of English pronunciation
in the Southern part of the US. But, Southern dialects have more than particular phonological
properties. Accent is thus about pronunciation, while dialect is a broader term encompassing
syntactic, morphological, and semantic properties as well. A final note on accent. WE ALL
HAVE ONE! There is no such thing as a person who speaks without an accent. This is not an
exercise in political correctness, by the way. It is a fact. In sum, a dialect is a particular variety
of a language, and we all have a dialect. Accent refers to the phonology of a given dialect.
Since we all have a dialect, we all have an accent. The pronunciation associated with a dialect
is called an accent. “Accent” generally refers only to phonetic differences. Accent is only a
part of dialectal variation. Non-linguists often think accents define a dialect (or that accents
alone identify people as non-native or foreign language speakers). Also, non-linguists tend to
think that it's always the "other" people that have "an accent". So, what is "accent"?

Social variation: sociolect and slang/jargon

Sociolect
It should have come as no surprise that language varies geographically. We are not surprised
to hear that people who live far from each other speak more differently than people who live
close to each other, because those who live close to each other have more contact with each
other than those who live far away from each other. The terms closeness and distance
originally come from the spatial domain but metaphorically they have been transferred to the
social domain. For example, we talk about the varying social distance between individuals in
a society, and differences in social distance correlate strongly with language variation.

Language varieties that are used by particular societal strata are referred to as sociolects. It
should be emphasized, however, that most language varieties have a particular geographical as
well as social distribution, although the geographical variation is generally larger among the
lower classes than among the middle and upper classes.

Jargon
Jargon is a set of vocabulary items used by members of particular professions, that is, their
technical terms. For example, linguists have a large vocabulary that is not well understood by
non-linguists.

Contextual Variation
While social variation to a large extent—although not exclusively—is variation between
individuals belonging to different societal groups, contextual variation is variation within the
individual: we all vary our language between contexts. There are very many phenomena that
could be treated here, but due to space limitations we shall just take a look at a few typical
cases.
DIAGLOSSIA

Diglossia is a situation in which two varieties of a language are allocated higher and lower
or formal and informal status (Charles Ferguson). The term Diaglossia was coined by Charles
Ferguson in (1959). It is an aspect of language contact. Wardhaugh (1986) describes a
diglossic situation as a society in which we could have 2 codes which show 2 functions. Those
situations the language will be used are called domains. One is employed in one set of
circumstances and the other in an entirely different set. For example, to denote a situation where
two varieties of a language exists side by side throughout a speech community i.e. a classical
form as well as colloquial one. The varieties are used for specific purposes. An example in
Kenya is the availability of at least two varieties of Kiswahili, the Standard and the Colloquial
or Koine Kiswahili.

A typical diglossic distribution of Kiswahili.

• Sermon in church may be made in Standard Kiswahili. (H)

• Instruction to servants/waiters may be done in Koine Kiswahili. (L)
• Personal letter may be in Koine. (L)
• Speech in Parliament may be in Standard Kiswahili. (H)
• Political speech, depending on listener it may be in Standard or Koine.
• Conversation with family- friends, colleagues may be in Koine.
• News broadcast are in Standard Kiswahili. (H)
• Poetry at a public function, at school (?)
• Folklore (?)

Note:

• Great importance is attached to using the right variety at the right time.
• Standard form is learned via formal education.
• Diglossia is different from simple Standard versus dialect differentiation.
• L and H differentiation involves different grammar, like in different languages. Where the
“H” denotes high and “L” low. Hence H is associated with the Standard and L with
Colloquial or non –Standard.
• And standard dialect dichotomy applies to all societies including English spoken in Britain
where there is a Standard and many non standard varieties.

High variety

a) Variety is used for literacy purposes – used in education those who cannot
master it are socially marginalized;
b) For official (formal uses);
c) High variety is prestigious –it carries with it a prestige of a great tradition or
religion;
d) It is more stable, being protected from change by its association with written
texts and by an educational system;
e) Likely to be used over a wide region and thus can serve some unifying
purpose;
 f) (H) is normally associated with power;
g) H variety – is used in church, school domains, parliament, political speeches,
newspapers, editorials.

Low Variety

a. Low variety is used for informal conversations and daily use;

b. The grammar of low variety is generally simpler;
c. Major differences in the vocabulary of the two varieties
d. L variety has fewer grammatical suffixes;
e. The L varieties are more localized and show dialectal variation and the tendency to
change of unwritten dialects;
f. ‘L’ variety is a marker of membership of a peer or ethnic group.
g. L variety is used in home situations, giving instructions to those of lower class,
gossiping, ordinary conversations, and cartoons.
While the classical diglossic cases have been stable for a long time, socio- political changes
are starting to have their influence.

a. Emergence of an intermediate variety;

b. Globalization;
c. Triglossia or polyglossia situations are beginning to emerge.
.

Examples of Diglossia

• Arabic has both H and L varieties.

The ‘H’ Arabic is the Classic Arabic in which the Koran is written.

The ‘L’ Arabic is Colloquial Arabic of everyday speech in the Arab world.

Colloquial Arabic or ‘L’ has main dialects such as Egyptian, Moroccan, and Saudi etc. but
‘H’ classic is standard.

• Greek too has H and L

The H variety is the Classical Greek of the ancient literature (Katharevusa).

It has also ‘L’ which is known as Dhimotiki (Demotik).

• In Switzerland
The “H” – Standard German is considered

The “L” - Swiss German.

• Navayo Indians
The H variety is English

The L variety is Navayo

• Paraguay
 The “H” – Spanish (used in literacy, education, and government, and associated with city
life)
The “L” – Guarani (Vernacular, spoken in the villages and used in the cities as a mark of
informality and Paraguan identity).

• In Haiti
The “H” – Standard French

The “L” – French Creole

• Kiswahili as spoken in Kenya has diglossic distinction as seen in this table.

H L

Mtoto Mitoto

Barabara Valavala

Mwizi Mwisi

Ghari Ngale

Mheshimiwa Muhechimiwa

Sisi wote Zizi zote

Shauri Sauri

• H and L Kiswahili differ in their grammar, vocabulary, and phonology.

• L does not have concord or class markers. i.e
Mtu wawili

Watu wawili

LINGUA FRANCA

Lingua Franca is usually spoken by people who do not share a common language. Lingua
Francas are usually spoken and not written. A Lingua franca is a language for specific
communication such as we find in trade between people and countries. In a way, we may look
at Lingua Francas as modified natural languages. A lingua franca is a language used between
peoples whose main languages are different. For example, English is the most widespread
lingua franca in the world today.

• The Lingua Francas have:

 a) Reduced grammatical structure
b) Reduced vocabulary.
• There is no Lingua franca to cover the whole world.
• English at the moment is widely spoken and is as near a lingua franca as it is possible
to get nowadays.

Examples of Lingua Francas

• There are local lingua Francas in the world:

a) Swahili (for East and Central Africa);
b) Spanish (For Spain, Mexico, Venezuela, Nicaragua, Honduras, Chile, Argentina
Ecuador )
c) German
d) Hindi
e) French (France, Canada and many parts of Africa)
• Local variations occur and in time these variations may become mutually
unintelligible.
• One may not tell how such varieties may affect English as a world lingua franca.
• English has achieved the Lingua Franca status by virtue of economic and political
influence wielded by both the Britain and the US.
• English now has about 1 Billion speakers.
• Sixty countries use it as official, semi official language.
• It is the main language in science, literature, sports, commerce, diplomacy,
academic conferences, advertising and even music.
• But France has issued barring orders against use of English in certain public domains.
• There are anti-English movements in Spain, German, Myanmar and India.
• Just like Kiswahili the national language of Kenya, English certainly acts as a lingua
franca among people who speak different African languages, and who can use it. This
is a premium bearing in mind that there is a multiplicity of over forty ethnic languages
in Kenya which are normally deemed a hindrance in inter-ethnic communication.
• However, as has already been stated, English is divisionary in that it creates a chasm
between the elite and the masses. Bamgbose (1999:1) avers that this exclusion is
tantamount to the Biblical question of Shibboleth in Judges 12:4-6, between the
/sh/ pronouncing people of Gilead and /s/ pronouncing people of Ephraim. Those
who were not able to pronounce /sh/, but instead pronounced it as /s/, were killed as
they were viewed as outsiders, by the tribe of Gilead. The author opines that: The
consequence of this is that two classes of citizens are immediately created, the class of
the advantaged, and therefore included, and the class of the disadvantaged, and
therefore, excluded … the included are a major stumbling block in the use of African
languages in a wider range of domains. This quotation captures the situation in Kenya
aptly, because those who use English are mainly the advantaged, while those who are
not able to use it are the majority in society, who remain disadvantaged. In view of this,
therefore, English has been used to perpetuate the class divide in the Kenyan society.

STANDARD LANGUAGE.

The adjective standard means ‘recognized as correct or acceptable’, and a standard language
is a variety that in different ways is recognized as more correct and acceptable than other
varieties. In many ways, standard variety is an equally appropriate designation.
Standardization process involves choice of one dialect over others. One dialect is selected by
fixing its grammar and spelling and even pronunciation as the standard. Having written
grammar, dictionaries and literature thus intellectualizes the standard dialect. Dialects
thus generally remain unwritten and without a standardized spelling. A standard language has
the following prototypical properties.
• Standard language becomes the language of school, legal system, media,
administration or organized religion.
• It is the variety defined in dictionaries, grammars, and usage guides.
• It is regarded as more correct and socially acceptable than other varieties.
•
• Hence a standard language assumes authority in the linguistic repertoire of a given
society.
• Standard languages are deliberately created and planned.
• It is used as a written language. Only standard languages have a stable written form,
which is what is general taught in schools.
• It is used in important functions in the society – in the government, the parliament,
courts, bureaucracy, education, literature, trade, and industry.
• It enjoys greater prestige than dialects and non-standard varieties: nonstandard
varieties are felt to be the province of the less educated.
• The purpose is to create uniformity and remove variation that may create confusion
in a society.
• Standard Kiswahili, for example, is an effort of the Institute of Kiswahili, which
plans for the improvements in vocabulary, grammar, and phonology of Swahili
spoken in Kenya.
• Standard Kiswahili is modeled on the Mvita and Mwambao dialects.
• The Kiswahili institute defines that what the correct usage is.
• It is clear that countries invest in one dialect when it standardizes it leaving the
other dialects non- standard.
• Because of finances or politics there is no one dialect among any Kenyan
indigenous languages which has achieved the status of a standard other than
Kiswahili.
• Standardization is prescriptive and not descriptive as it tells people what to do.
• Standardization goes hand in hand with literacy as literacy depends on written form
of a language.
• In turn literacy over values a language or a dialect over the others.
• It is very important to be aware of the fact that not all languages have a standard
variety, and that standard varieties rise and fall. The reverse of standardization is
dialectization. In a European context, Scots, Low German, and Occitan / Provençal
have been standard languages earlier, but they are no longer, and tend to be
regarded as subordinate to English, High German, and French, respectively.