Chapter 2

Review of Related Literature

This chapter presents previously written content and studies that have bearing and are
germane in the discussion of the variables and concepts in the study.

Why are disease-causing mosquitoes a concern in the present?

Almost everyone has experienced the unpleasant feeling of a mosquito bite. The red mark
and itching from mosquito bites are the result of an allergic reaction to the saliva of the insect.
The transfer of dangerous illnesses and viruses like malaria and dengue virus, which can have
crippling and possibly fatal effects, may be a more serious side effect of some mosquito bites.

Diseases caused by mosquitoes

Viruses transmitted by insects like mosquitoes are called arthropod-borne or arboviruses.

Like malaria, these viruses are transmitted to vertebrate hosts through the bite of a female
mosquito when she takes a blood meal to assist with her egg development (Gavi, 2022). As these
mosquitoes carry various kinds of diseases, Zika virus, West Nile virus, Chikungunya virus,
dengue, and malaria are some of the common diseases that are spread to humans by mosquitoes.

Malaria

Malaria is a mosquito-borne disease. It is brought on by parasites of the obligatory

intracellular Apicomplexa family, of which Plasmodium falciparum is the most lethal and is most
common in Africa. Malaria is a huge health burden on the entire world. The bite of an infected
female Anopheles mosquito, primarily Anopheles gambiae in Africa, transmits P. falciparum
from person to person. A. gambiae is a highly efficient, highly adapted vector with a long life
span that feeds almost entirely on humans. In humans, the Plasmodium life cycle includes the
asymptomatic liver stage, the blood stage that causes disease, and the sexual gametocyte blood
stage that infects mosquitos that transmit the parasite. When a female Anopheles mosquito feeds
on blood, she injects saliva containing sporozoites into the victim's skin and blood, which
triggers infection (Immunol et al., 2014). It is an ancient disease (Cox, 2010).

Dengue

Dengue is the most prevalent viral infection transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes. Aedes
aegypti and Aedes albopictus are two mosquito species that carry the flavivirus dengue. More
than 3.9 billion people in over 129 countries are at risk of contracting dengue, with an estimated
96 million symptomatic cases and an estimated 40,000 deaths every year (World Health
Organization [WHO], 2020). The incidence of dengue has increased dramatically in recent
decades, with estimates of 40% to 50% of the world’s population at risk for the disease in
tropical, subtropical, and, most recently, more temperate areas (Smith et al., 2019). Dengue
causes a wide range of diseases. This can range from subclinical disease (where people are
unaware they are infected) to severe flu-like symptoms in those who are infected. Although less
common, severe dengue can cause a variety of complications such as severe bleeding, organ
impairment, and/or plasma leakage. Severe dengue has a higher risk of death if not treated
properly. Severe dengue was first identified during dengue epidemics in the Philippines and
Thailand in the 1950s. Severe dengue fever now affects the majority of Asian and Latin
American countries, and it is a leading cause of hospitalization and death among children and
adults in these regions.

Mosquito-borne Diseases Prevention

Mosquitoes can transmit diseases that can make you sick. Simple precautions can be
taken to protect yourself and your family from mosquito bites and the illnesses they can cause.
Here are some implemented safety measures to avoid mosquito bites:
To begin with, use insect repellent whenever you are outside. Second, wear long-sleeved
clothing to protect yourself from mosquito bites, which can spread malaria and other diseases
such as dengue. As a result, mosquitos will find it difficult to bite you. Third, plan outdoor
activities to avoid the hours between dusk and dawn during mosquito season. To ensure your
safety and the safety of your family. Fourth, replace any broken window or door screens. To keep
mosquitoes from entering your home. Fifth, clean up any standing water around your house
(Commonwealth of Massachusetts [Mass], 2022). To eliminate mosquito breeding sites because
standing water can cause new eggs to develop into adult mosquitos in seven to ten days
(Breakthrough ACTION and RESEARCH, 2019).

Azadirachta indica (Neem)

Aside from the plants chosen for comparison, these plants were also investigated as
alternatives to synthetic insect repellents and insecticides. Neem is widely promoted as a natural
alternative to DEET, and it has been tested for repellency against a variety of medically
important arthropods, with mixed results (Maia & Moore, 2011). A field study in India found
very high efficacy of Neem-based preparations (Sharma, 2022), in contrast to another
researcher's findings of intermediate repellency (Moore, 2012). When two percent neem of oil
mixed with coconut oil was applied to exposed body parts of human volunteers, it provided
complete protection from all anopheline species bites for 12 hours (Sharma, 2022). The use of
neem oil is safe and can be used to protect against malaria in malaria-endemic countries.
However, these disparities may be due to different methodologies and the solvents used to
transport the repellents. Neem has not been approved by the EPA for use as a topical insect
repellent. It has low dermal toxicity, but when used undiluted, it can cause skin irritation such as
dermatitis (Reutemann P & Ehrlich A, 2019). Neem oil is not recommended as an effective
repellent for use by travelers to disease-endemic areas due to a lack of reliable studies (Goodyer
et al., 2010), though it may provide some protection against nuisance biting mosquitoes.

Nepeta cataria L. (Catmint)

Catmint (catnip) is a perennial plant related to the mint family that grows widely as a
weed and as a commercial plant. In addition to being well known for its euphoric effects on
domestic cats, it has a long history of usage in herbal medicine and as a potent insect repellent
when combined with its active component, nepetalactone (Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology
News [GEN], 2021). They are amazing mosquito repellants and another recommendation from
the BBG (Yoo, 2022). A study from their data has shown that the essential oil coming from
catnip indicates this material can be a highly effective insect repellent against some of the key
nuisance and disease vector species of biting insects. In making the insect repellent with the use
of catnip essential oil, the process was to use hydrogenated oil to prepare formulated lotions and
alcohol based pump sprays to extend these findings to the field, and test the repellent efficacy of
hydrogenated oil of catmint (Spero et al., 2008).

Cymbopogon nardus (Citronella)

The oils found in citronella plants repel mosquitoes. It is a well-known natural and
effective mosquito repellent essential oil. It is a mosquito repellent made from a combination of
herbs. Citronella formulation is critical to its effectiveness. When properly formulated, it is as
effective as DEET and can protect you for up to 2 hours. However, if the formula isn't correct,
Citronella can evaporate quickly, leaving you unprotected (Yasin & Marcin, 2022). Additionally,
repellent properties are simply insufficient to keep mosquitos away. When using citronella
candles, the scent must get between you and the mosquito in order for it to stay away from your
skin, which can be risky. It is not harmful to like the look of a citronella plant and want to keep it
around; however, don't expect it to repel mosquitos on its own (Miller, 2019).

Lavandula (Lavender)

Mosquito repellents have been and still are made from plant extracts, especially plant
oils. The European Commission has made notification of certain of them such as lavender
(Semmler et al., 2013). The Lamiaceae family, which includes popular scented lavender plants,
is endemic to the Mediterranean. These plants' aqueous extracts, essential oils, and dried portions
have long been utilized in traditional remedies. Due to the strong scent of lavender, it is used in
hygiene products, cosmetics, and insect repellant. Analgesic, antifungal, and antibacterial
properties are present in lavender. This indicates that it can soothe and calm the skin in addition
to avoiding mosquito bites (Erland & Mahmoud, 2015). The best results come from applying
lavender oil directly to the skin (Yasin & Marcin, 2022). By crushing their leaf, we can release
their volatile oils, which we can then massage on our arms, legs, and neck to prevent mosquito
bites. To prevent mosquitoes from gathering in the area, we can also burn some plant leaves over
a fire.
Curcuma longa L. (Turmeric)

In India, turmeric, Curcuma longa L., rhizomes have also been utilized as an insect
repellent (Sreenivasamurthy & Krishnamurthy, 1959) and Pakistan (Jilani, 1985). Oleoresins and
strong-smelling oils are found in turmeric. Turmeric contains turmerone and ar-turmerone, which
are both insect repellents (Su et al., 1982). Turmeric rhizomes were finely powdered and
individually extracted with n-hexane in the Soxhlet extraction apparatus at 40°C for 8 hours. In a
vacuum desiccator, the solvent was removed from the extracts after they had been concentrated
in a rotary evaporator at 30°C. Insects are not only repelled by turmeric oil, but they also hinder
its regular growth and reproduction. Due to delayed development, the majority of Tribolium
castaneum larvae do not pupate and perish. Even those who manage to survive eventually pass
away or transform into strange pupae and adults.

Synthetic Repellent

Personal protection against biting arthropods is commonly provided by synthetic

repellents. N,N-Diethyl-3-methylbenzamide (DEET) is the main or sole active ingredient in most
commercial repellent formulations, and it is arguably the standard ingredient against which the
performance of other compounds is generally evaluated due to its efficacy and low toxicity
demonstrated over many decades of widespread consumer use. Despite the widespread use of
traditional self-protective measures (such as mosquito coils or repellent plant remedies) against
biting pests by people in the tropics, synthetic repellents are rarely used to protect communities
from malaria and other vector-borne diseases. The main reasons for this situation are cost and, in
some cases, safety constraints (Gupta & Rutledge, 1994); additionally, DEET's lower efficacy
against several anophelines (Curtis et al., 1987; Frances et al., 1993) and its relatively short
persistence contribute to the status quo. DEET impregnation of bed nets or garments can prolong
its persistence (Curtis et al., 1987; Gouck & Moussa, 1969), but it must be done more frequently
than when using pyrethroids like permethrin to achieve comparable levels of protection (Curtis et
al., 1991). Pyrethroids are generally less expensive, with the added benefit of killing a percentage
of mosquitos that come into contact with the treated surface (Gupta et al., 1990).
 Insecticides have the potential to be harmful to people, animals, other living organisms,
and the environment since they are harmful. Therefore, those who regularly use pesticides or
come into contact with them need to be aware of their relative toxicity, any potential health
impacts, and the precautions they can take to lessen their exposure. Harmful effects of
pesticides/insecticides to humans can cause short-term adverse health effects, called acute
effects, as well as chronic adverse effects that can occur months or years after exposure.
Examples of acute health effects include stinging eyes, rashes, blisters, blindness, nausea,
dizziness, diarrhea and death. Examples of known chronic effects are cancers, birth defects,
reproductive harm, immunotoxicity, neurological and developmental toxicity, and disruption of
the endocrine system (Californians For Pesticide Reform [CPR], 2022).

Medicinal plants

The term "plants" refers to a variety of plant species employed in herbalism, some of
which have medicinal properties. These plants are thought of as abundant suppliers of chemicals
that can be used as an insect repellent. Additionally, these plants are essential to the growth of
human cultures all across the world. Since ancient times, people have employed plant-based
repellents to defend themselves from mosquitoes that are looking for hosts.

Cymbopogon citratus (Lemongrass)

A well-known mosquito repellent is the lemongrass plant. Lemongrass is a tall shrub

with broad, unevenly striped leaves. It belongs to the Poaceae family. This plant grows in many
tropical and subtropical regions of SouthEast Asia, Africa, and other continents. It has a strong
scent that is smokey, sweet, herbal, and lemony. A 2011 study found that the strong scent of
lemongrass extract killed or fully repulsed 95% of the mosquitoes from a particular variety of
species (Maia & Moore, 2011). Most people agree that lemongrass is a safe plant extract or
essential oil to use. Although it doesn't work as well as the dangerous ingredients in commercial
insecticides, lemongrass does serve as a mosquito repellent. The plant also repels ants and guards
against ant-borne illnesses like Salmonella and E. Coli (Johnson, 2019).
Moringa oleifera (Malunggay)

Moringa oleifera or malunggay is primarily grown in semi-arid, tropical, and temperate

climates. Mexico, Central and South America, Sri Lanka, tropical Africa, the Philippines, India,
and Malaysia are often where it is grown and naturalized. Various illnesses have been
successfully treated with Moringa in all its parts. M. oleifera contains phytochemicals. It can act
as larvicides, repellents, and arthropod growth controllers, as well as having a very deterrent
behavior. M. oleifera extracts from the seed have a negative effect on mosquitoes and no
negative effects on humans. Moringa plant extracts are repellent and have a wide range of
medicinal applications. Different parts of this plant, such as the leaves, fruit, seed, flowers, bark,
and roots, serve a variety of functions. (Ojewumi et al., 2021) The phytochemicals found in M.
oleifera seeds extracts are effective mosquito vector control agents, and the plant extracts have
the potential to be used in future integrated pest management programs. (Prabhu et al., 2011).

Mentha piperita (Peppermint)

The essential oils of mints, a group of plants in the Labiatae family, are widely used.
Japanese mint (Mentha arvensis), peppermint (Mentha piperita L.), spearmint (Mentha spicata),
and bergamot mint (Mentha citrata) are some of the commercially grown mints around the world
(Husain et al., 1988). The current study focused on the oil of Mentha piperita L. This plant is a
Mediterranean native that is now grown all over the world. The plant is a glabrous perennial herb
with a strong, pepper-like, pungent odor, hence the specific name 'piperita.' Peppermint oil is a
colorless, pale yellow liquid with a strong aromatic flavor and odor. The main component of this
oil is menthol. Peppermint oil is the most widely used essential oil, with applications in
flavoring, pharmaceuticals, confectionery, and medicine. (Chaudhry et al., 1957; The Wealth of
India, 1988). Fresh peppermint (Mentha piperita L.) leaves were collected in Dulhera village,
Haryana, India. The oil was steam distilled at the village site in a one-ton steam distillation still.
The oil yield was 0.5% of the fresh leaves. A Perkin Elmer 3920B Gas Chromatograph was used
to analyze the oil's chemical composition. Menthol (81.1%), menthone (5.8%), isomenthone
(4.9%), menthyl acetate (1.6%), and neomenthol (2.9%) were the five major components
identified. As a result, this peppermint oil was high in menthol.
Rosmarinus officinalis L. (Rosemary leaf)

Geraniol, linalool, sineol, and burneol are among the essential oils found in rosemary
leaves (Rosmarinus officinalis L), which are a plant. insect repellents made from essential oils.
Rosemary, or Rosmarinus officinalis L, is an evergreen plant found in the southern European
nations surrounding the Mediterranean. It belongs to the Lamiaceae family. It is widely grown
around the world. Due to the numerous substances that are derived from its leaves and blooms, it
has a potent perfume and is poisonous to insects (Palsson and Jaenson, 1999).

Ocimum sanctum L. (Holy basil)

Ocimum sanctum L. (Holy Basil) is an erect, much branched sub-shrub 30-60 cm tall,
with simple opposite green or purple leaves that are strongly scented and have hairy stems. It is
cultivated for religious and medicinal purposes and for its essential oil (Pattanayak et al., 2010).
With its wide range of studies that have been conducted with these plants, Ocimum sanctum have
been discovered to have mosquito-repelling properties against different mosquito species. Its
effectiveness on the three stages of mosquito development: larva, pupa, and adult have shown
that mosquitoes can be reduced in our environment without any fear of the photochemical effect
of the insecticide used on humans (Anzaku et., al 2021). They have been identified as a type of
plant that can be used to produce and develop products that have a repellent activity which is
more affordable than commercially available synthetic chemicals for those people who are in
low-income communities.
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