Design of Structures (CE302)

OVERVIEW

1 Introduction to Design
2 Structural Analysis Concepts
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 Purpose of the Course

❖To equip students with relevant knowledge and skills to

holistically design infrastructure of high structural
integrity when practicing as engineers.
❖Emphasis is given on the use of hand calculations and
computers in structural design in accordance with
relevant codes of practice.

▪ Offered through a combination of lectures and tutorials.

▪ This is followed by a 4-hour open book examination. Final
marks compromise 25% ICA (In course assessment) and 75%
final examination.
 Introduction to Design
RECALL
Structure

⚫ The part of buildings and engineering facilities that

(1) bears and (2) transmits load.

⚫ Plays the role of skeleton called

engineering structure -
simplified to structure

E.g. houses, bridges, dams, High-rise residential

special structures, etc apartment

Fig 1.1

Bridges
 Introduction to Design
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

➢ Beams: horizontal members carrying lateral loads;

➢ Slabs: horizontal plate elements carrying lateral loads;

➢ Columns: vertical members carrying primarily axial load but

generally subjected to axial load and moment

➢ Walls: vertical plate elements resisting vertical, lateral or in-plane

loads

➢ Bases and foundations: pads or strips supported directly on the

ground that spread the loads from columns or walls so that they
can be supported by the ground without excessive settlement.
Piles can also be used.
Introduction to Design

elevation Plan
a) Single portal b) Medium rise c) Frame and
framed building core structure

Fig 1.2
 Introduction to Design
Aim of design
• To achieve acceptable probability that
structures being designed will perform
satisfactorily during their intended life.

Who is mainly involved?

• The architect develops the suitable arrangement
and layout of the building to meet the client and
user’s requirements.
• The structural engineer determines the suitable
structural system or form to actualise the
architect’s concept.
Giant steel structure
Architects: OMA
Local Chinese architects: Huadong
Architectural Design Institute
(ECADI)
Structural Design; Mechanical and
Electrical Equipment Design:
Consultant (ARUP)

Fig 1.3 China Central

Television Headquarters
What Design entails

Figure 1.4: Inputs into the design process. (Arya, 2009)

Introduction to Design

What Detailed Design entails

idealization of the structure

1

load estimation
2

analysis to determine the critical forces

3

using output from (3) to design sections

4

production of arrangement and detailed drawings

5 and bar schedules
Introduction to Design

Reinforced concrete design

➢ Concrete is arguably the most important building
material, playing a part in most if not all building
structures.
➢ Its virtue is its versatility, i.e. its ability to be moulded
to take up the shapes required for the various structural
forms.
➢ It is also very durable and fire resistant when
specification and construction procedures are correct.
➢ Its weight provide gravitational stability, however a
balance is need as regards the type and cost of
foundations for the structure.
 Introduction to Design
KEY PRINCIPLES
❖ Mechanics of Reinforced Concrete (RC)
• Performance of Concrete; Steel reinforcing bars
(Rebar); RC

❖ Underlying principles of RC analysis, design and

detailing
• Analysis
From previous courses: critical forces are determined
• Design and Detailing
✓ Inputs from structural analysis
✓ Structural computations presented in simple and
readable format - Structural Drawings.
 Introduction to Design

Design method
• There are a couple of design methods namely,
✓ working stress design method,
✓ load factor design method,
✓ limit state design method.

• The method recommended in the BS8110 is

the limit state design method.

• Apart from calculations, due diligence should

be taken as regards suitable material, quality
control and good supervision.
Introduction to Design

Durability, workmanship and materials

Key Assumptions:
• Quality of concrete, steel and other materials and of
workmanship, as verified by inspection, is adequate for
safety, serviceability, and durability.

Design Process
• Encompasses durability, construction and in service
requirements, i.e. a holistic design.
• Requires conformity to clearly defined criteria for
materials, production, workmanship and also
maintenance and use of the structure in service.
 Introduction to Design
Limit State Design Method

• Structures designed by the limit state method will have

acceptable probabilities that they will not reach a limit
state, i.e. will not become unfit for their purpose by
collapse, overturning, buckling (ultimate limit states),
deformation, cracking, vibration, etc. (serviceability limit
states).
• The structure will not deteriorate unduly under the
action of the environment over the design life, i.e. will be
durable.

• The usual approach is to design on the most critical limit

state and then to check that the remaining limit
states will not be reached.
Introduction to Design
Limit State Design Method
• The strength of materials vary as do also the loads on the
structure.
• To cater for these variations two partial safety factors are
employed:
(i) partial safety factor for materials (γ𝑚 )
(ii) partial safety factor for loading (γ𝑓 )

Table 1.1 Values of γ𝑚 for the ultimate limit state -Table 2.2
BS8110
 Introduction to Design
Material properties

Characteristic strength Short term design stress-strain

curve for normal-weight concrete

Fig 1.6

Short term design stress-strain curve for reinforcement

 Introduction to Design
Strength of Concrete Grade of Concrete
Mechanical and durability properties 1. Types, grades, Price per
cubic, suppliers, Mechanical
and durability properties,
2. Application in structural
concrete,
(20)

Strength of steel
Types of Steel
Table 3.1 BS8110:Part 1 :1985 —
Strength of reinforcement ASSIGNMENT?
1. Local bar types,
sizes, grades, suppliers,
price per length

2. Other reinforcing
materials
Available locally (20)
 Introduction to Design
Loads
Characteristic values of load The design load for a given
type of loading and limit state
The following loads should be used in design: is obtained from:
a) characteristic dead load 𝐺𝑘 i.e. the weight 𝐺𝑘 γ𝑓 or 𝑄𝑘 γ𝑓 or 𝑊𝑘 γ𝑓 or 𝐸𝑛 γ𝑓
of the structure complete with finishes,
fixtures and partitions;
b) characteristic imposed load, 𝑄𝑘 ; and
c) characteristic wind load, 𝑊𝑘 (appropriate
load is defined and calculated in accordance
with BS 6399-1, BS 6399-2 and BS 6399-3
d) Nominal earth loads 𝐸𝑛 should be obtained in
accordance with normal practice (see, BS
8004)

Table 2.1 BS8110— Load

combinations and values of
γ𝑓 for the ultimate limit
state
Introduction to Design

EXAMPLE

1. Calculate the self-weight of a reinforced concrete beam of

breadth 300 mm, depth 400 mm and length 5m

ASSUMING Specific WEIGHT OF CONCRETE IS 24KN/𝑚3

Self weight = Area of section x length of beam x specific weight

= 0.3m x 0.4m x 5m x 24KN/𝑚3
= 14.4KN or 2.88KN/m
 Introduction to Design
2. A composite floor consisting of a 150mm thick reinforced concrete slab
supported on steel beams spanning 5 m and spaced at 3 m centres is to be
designed to carry an imposed load of 3.5 kN/𝑚2 . Assuming that the unit
mass of the steel beams is 50 kg/𝑚−1 run, calculate the design loads on a
typical internal beam.
Introduction to Design
Introduction to Design
3. The floor shown below with an overall depth of 200mm is to be designed
to carry an imposed load of 3.5 kN/𝑚2 plus floor finishes and ceiling loads
of 2 kN/𝑚2 . Calculate the design loads acting on beams B1–C1, B2–C2 and
B1–B3 and columns B1 and C1. Assume that all the column heights are 3 m
and that the beam and column weights are 50 and 40 kg m−1 run
respectively.

Practice
 Introduction to Design

Concrete cover to reinforcement

Exposure conditions and nominal cover

table 3.2 and table 3.4 (BS8110:part1:1985)

• Nominal cover: is the design depth of concrete cover to all steel

reinforcement, including links. It is the dimension used in design and indicated
on the drawings.
• It should:
a) be in accordance with the recommendations for bar size and aggregate size
for concrete cast against uneven surfaces (see 3.3.1.2, 3.3.1.3 and 3.3.1.4);
b) protect the steel against corrosion (see 3.3.3);
c) protect the steel against fire (see 3.3.6, table 3.5 and fig 3.2
BS8110:part1:1985); and
d) allow for surface treatments such as bush hammering
Selection of cover for various member
Introduction to Design
Computer Applications
•Autodesk
AutoCAD.
•STAAD Pro.
•SAFE.
•RISA.
•Navisworks.
•Autodesk
•SAP2000.
•Prokon
2. Structural Analysis Concepts
 2.0 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS CONCEPTS

2.1 General provisions

• The general provisions relating to analysis of the structure set out in

BS8110: Part 1, section 2.5, are discussed briefly.

• The object of analysis of the structure is to determine the axial

forces, shears and moments throughout the structure.

• The code states that it is generally satisfactory to obtain maximum

design values from moment and shear envelopes constructed from
linear elastic analysis and to allow for moment redistribution if desired
and for buckling effects in frames with slender columns.
 2.0 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS CONCEPTS

• The code also states that plastic methods such as yield line analysis
may also be used.

• The member stiffness to be used in linear elastic analysis can be

based on
1. the gross concrete section ignoring reinforcement
2. the gross concrete section including reinforcement on the basis
of the modular ratio
3. the transformed section (the compression area of concrete and
the transformed area of reinforcement in tension and
compression based on the modular ratio are used)
2.2 Methods of frame analysis
• The complete structure may be analysed using rigorous manual elastic
analysis or a matrix computer program adopting the basis set out above.
 2.0 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS CONCEPTS

2.3 Monolithic braced frame

• Shear walls, lifts and staircases provide stability and resistance to horizontal
loads. A braced frame is shown in Fig. 2.1.

Fig 2.1 Braced multistorey building: (a) plan; (b) rigid transverse frame;
(c) side elevation.
 2.0 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS CONCEPTS

(a) Division into subframes

The structural frame is divided into subframes consisting of the beams at one
level and the columns above and below that level with ends taken as fixed. The
moments and shears are derived from an elastic analysis (Figs 2.2(a) and
2.2(b)).

(b) Critical load arrangement

The critical arrangements of vertical load are:

1. all spans loaded with the maximum design ultimate load of 1.4Gk+ 1.6Qk
2. alternate spans loaded with the maximum design ultimate load of 1.4Gk+1.6Qk
and all other spans loaded with the minimum design ultimate load of 1.0Gk
where Gk is the total dead load on the span and Qk is the imposed load on the
span.

The load arrangements are shown in Fig. 2.2(b).

2.0 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS CONCEPTS

Maximum support
moments

Maximum span
moments

(a) (b)

Figure 2.2
 2.0 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS CONCEPTS

(c) Simplification for individual beams and columns

(a)
• The simplified subframe consists of the beam to
be designed, the columns at the ends of the
(b)
beam and the beams on either side if any.

• The column and beam ends remote from the

beam are taken as fixed and the stiffness of the (c)
beams on either side should be taken as one-
half of their actual value (Fig. 2.3(a)). Figure 2.3

• The moments for design of an individual column may be found from the same
subframe analysis provided that its central beam is the longer of the two beams
framing into the column.
 2.0 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS CONCEPTS

(d) Continuous-beam simplification

• The beam at the floor considered may be taken as a continuous beam over
supports providing no restraint to rotation.
• This gives a more conservative design than the procedures set out above.
Pattern loading as set out in Fig 2.2(b) is applied to determine the critical
moments and shear for design (Fig. 2.3(b)).

(e) Asymmetrically loaded column

• The asymmetrically loaded column method is to be used where the beam

has been analysed on the basis of the continuous-beam simplification set
out in (d) above.
• The column moments can be calculated on the assumption that the
column and beam ends away from the junction under consideration are
fixed and that the beams have one half their actual stiffnesses. The
imposed load is to be arranged to cause maximum moment in the column
(Fig. 2.3(c)).
 2.0 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS CONCEPTS

2.4 Rigid frames providing lateral stability

• Where the rigid frame provides lateral stability it must be analysed for
horizontal and vertical loads.

• Clause 3.1.4.2 of the code states that all buildings must be capable of resisting
a notional horizontal load equal to 1.5% of the characteristic dead weight of the
structure applied at roof level and at each floor. The complete structure may be
analysed for vertical and horizontal loads using a computer analysis program.

• As an alternative the code gives the following method for sway frames of three
or more approximately equal bays (the design is to be based on the more
severe of the conditions):
• 1. elastic analysis for vertical loads only with maximum design load
1.4Gk+1.6Qk (refer to sections 3.4.3(a) and 3.4.3(b) above)
 2.0 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS CONCEPTS

2. or the sum of the moments obtained from (a) elastic analysis of

subframes as defined in section 3.4.3(a) with all beams loaded with
1.2Gk+1.2Qk (horizontal loads are ignored) (b) elastic analysis of the
complete frame assuming points of contraflexure at the centres of all
beams and columns for wind load 1.2Wk only

• The column bases may be considered as pinned if this assumption gives more
realistic analyses. A sway frame subjected to horizontal load is shown in Fig. 2.4.

• The portal and cantilever methods are utilised in analysis of horizontal loads.

Fig. 2.4 Horizontal loads.

 2.0 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS CONCEPTS

2.5 Redistribution of moments

• Plastic analysis based on the stress-strain curve shown in Fig. 2.5(a), which
gives the moment-rotation curve in Fig. 2.5(b), has been developed for steel
structures.

• At ultimate loads plastic hinges form at the points of maximum moment and
the moment distribution changes from elastic to plastic. This redistribution is
shown in Fig. 2.5(c) for the internal span of a continuous beam. For the steel
beam at collapse the hogging and sagging moments are the same.

• The amount of redistribution is the reduction in the peak elastic moment

over the support, as shown in the figure. An under-reinforced concrete
section has a similar moment-rotation curve to that shown for steel in Fig.
2.5(b). Thus it is possible to carry out a full plastic analysis on the same
basis as for steel structures.
 2.0 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS CONCEPTS

Figure 2.5: Stress-strain curve; b) moment rotation

curve; c) elastic and plastic moment distribution

• In clause 3.2.2 the code allows a reduction of up to 30% of the

peak elastic moment to be made whilst keeping internal and
external forces in equilibrium.
2.0 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS CONCEPTS

Design moments and shear forces in beams using equilibrium

equations
1. Calculate the design bending moments and shear forces in
beam B2–C2 (figure 2.6)

Figure 2.6
2.0 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS CONCEPTS

Figure 2.7
3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS
 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

3.1 Types of beam section

• Common types of RC beam section (Figure 3.1) :

1. rectangular section with tension steel only (this generally occurs as a

beam section in a slab)
2. rectangular section with tension and compression steel
3. flanged sections of either T or L shape with tension steel and with or
without compression steel

Figure 3.1
• It will be established later that all beams of structural importance must
have steel top and bottom to carry links to resist shear.
 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

3.1 Types of beam section

3.1.1 Reinforcement and bar spacing

• Before beginning section design, reinforcement data and code

requirements with regard to minimum and maximum areas of bars in beams
and bar spacings are set out. This is to enable practical sections to be
designed.
3.1.2 Reinforcement data

• In accordance with BS8110: Part 1, clause 3.12.4.1, bars may be placed

singly or in pairs or in bundles of three or four bars in contact.
• For design purposes the pair or bundle is treated as a single bar of
equivalent area. Bars are available with diameters of 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25,
32 and 40 mm and in two grades (Table 3.1 BS8110: part 1: 1985) with
characteristic strengths 𝑓𝑦 :
Hot rolled mild steel 𝑓𝑦 = 250 N/𝑚𝑚2
High yield steel 𝑓𝑦 = 460 N/𝑚𝑚2
 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

Bar designation: R mild steel bars;

Y,T or H high yield bars

• Bars are designated on drawings as, for example, 4Y25, i.e. four 25 mm
diameter bars of grade 460. This system will be used to specify bars in figures.
For convenience in design, areas of groups of bars are given in Table 3.1
Table 3.1 Areas of groups of bars / Diameter (mm)
 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

3.1.3 Minimum and maximum areas of reinforcement in beams

• The minimum areas of reinforcement in a beam section to control cracking as well
as resist tension or compression due to bending in different types of beam section
are given in BS8110: Part 1, clause 3.12.5.3 and Table 3.27. Some commonly
used values are shown in Table 3.2. The maximum area of both tension and
compression reinforcement in beams is specified in BS8110: Part 1, clause
3.12.6.1. Neither should exceed 4% of the gross cross-sectional area of the
concrete.
Table 3.2
 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

3.1.4 Minimum spacing of bars

• The minimum spacing of bars is given in BS8110: Part 1, clause 3.12.11.1.

This clause states the following:

1. The horizontal distance between bars should not be less than ℎ𝑎𝑔𝑔 + 5mm;
2. Where there are two or more rows
(a) the gap between corresponding bars in each row should be
vertically in line and
(b) the vertical distance between bars should not be less than 2ℎ𝑎𝑔𝑔 /3
where hagg is the maximum size of coarse aggregate. The c
clause also states that if the bar size exceeds hagg+5 mm the
spacing should not be less than the bar size.
• Note that pairs or bundles are treated as a single bar of equivalent area. The
above spacings ensure that the concrete can be properly compacted around
the reinforcement. Spacing of top bars of beams should also permit the
insertion of a vibrator. The information is summarized in Fig. 3.2.
 (a)

(b)

Fig. 3.2 (a) minimum spacing (b) Flanged beam

 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

3.2 Behaviour of beams in bending

• Concrete is strong in compression but weak and unreliable in tension.

• Reinforcement is required to resist tension due to moment. A beam

with loads at the third points where the central third is subjected to
moment only is shown in Fig. 3.3 (a). Tension cracks at collapse due
to moment are shown.

Fig. 3.3 (a) Flexural cracks at collapse; (b) load-deflection curve;

 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

• The load-deflection curve is given in Fig. 3.3(b). Initially the concrete in the
uncracked section will resist tension, but it soon cracks. The behaviour of the
cracked section is elastic at low loads and changes to plastic at higher loads.

Fig. 3.3 (c)

• The effective section resisting moment at a cracked position is shown in Fig.
3.3 (c). The concrete at the top of the section resists compression and the
steel resists tension. At low loads the concrete stress in compression and
the steel stress in tension are in the elastic range. At collapse the stresses
are at ultimate values.
 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

• Originally the design of concrete sections was to elastic

theory with linearly varying compressive stress in the
concrete, as shown in Fig. 3.3(c).

• Design now is based on the strength of the section calculated

from the stress distribution at collapse which has been
determined from tests.

• Beam section design for the ultimate limit state is given first.
The elastic section analysis is then set out because this is
required in calculations for checking the serviceability limit
states.
 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

3.2.1 Singly reinforced rectangular beams

• All beams may fail due to excessive bending or shear. In addition, excessive
deflection of beams must be avoided otherwise the efficiency or appearance
of the structure may become impaired

3.2.1.1 Assumptions and stress—strain diagrams

The ultimate moment of resistance of a section is based on the assumptions

set out in BS8110: Part 1, clause 3.4.4.1.
These are as follows:
1. The strains in the concrete and reinforcement are derived assuming that
plane sections remain plane;
2. The stresses in the concrete in compression are derived using either (a) the
design stress-strain curve given (figure 1.6b) with 𝛾𝑚 =1.5 (Fig. 3.4(c)) or (b)
the simplified stress block shown in Fig. 3.4(d) where the depth of the stress
block is 0.9 of the depth to the neutral axis Note that in both cases the
strain in the concrete at failure is 0.0035;
3. The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored;
3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

4. The stresses in the reinforcement

are derived from the stress-strain
curve where 𝛾𝑚 =1.15 (figure 1.6c);
5. Where the section is designed to
resist flexure only, the lever arm
should not be assumed to be
greater than 0.95 of the effective
depth.

Fig. 3.4 (a) Section; (b) strain; (c) rectangular

parabolic stress diagram; (d) simplified stress
diagram.
3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

• On the basis of these assumptions the strain and stress diagrams for
the two alternative stress distributions for the concrete in compression
are as shown in Fig. 3.4, where the following symbols are used:

h overall depth of the section

d effective depth to the centreline of the steel
b breadth of the section
x depth to the neutral axis
𝐴𝑠 area of tension reinforcement
ε𝑐 strain in the concrete (0.0035)
ε𝑠 strain in the steel
 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

3.2.3 Moment of resistance—simplified stress block

• The method of calculating the moment of resistance of a concrete section is

given first using the simplified stress block.

• The calculation is made for the case where the depth x to the neutral axis is d/2.
This is the maximum depth to the neutral axis permitted in clause 3.4.4.4 of the
code.

Fig. 3.5 (a) Section; (b) strain diagram; (c) stress diagram.
 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

• In an under-reinforced section, since the reinforcement will have yielded, the

tensile for steel 𝐹𝑠𝑡 at the ultimate limit state can be readily calculated using
the following:
𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠
𝐹𝑠𝑡 = design stress × area = 𝛾𝑚𝑠

Where 𝑓𝑦 = yield stress

𝐴𝑠 = area of reinforcement
𝛾𝑚𝑠 = factor of safety for reinforcement (= 1.15)

The code gives formulae for the following design parameters which are derived
below: 1. ultimate moment of resistance 2. area of tension reinforcement 3. lever
arm.
1. Ultimate moment of resistance, 𝑀𝑢 .

Fig. 3.6 Ultimate moment of resistance for singly reinforced section.

 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

• Consider the singly reinforced beam shown in Fig. 3.6. The loading on the
beam gives rise to an ultimate design moment (M) at mid-span.

• The resulting curvature of the beam produces a compression force in the

concrete, 𝐹𝑐𝑐 and a tensile force in the reinforcement, 𝐹𝑐𝑐 . Since there is no
resultant axial force on the beam, the force in the concrete must equal the
force in the reinforcement:

𝐹𝑐𝑐 = 𝐹𝑠𝑡

• These two forces are separated by a distance z, the moment of which forms a
couple, 𝑀𝑢 which opposes the design moment.
For structural stability 𝑀𝑢 ≥ M where
 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

From the stress block shown in Fig. 3.6 (c)

𝐹𝑐𝑐 = stress × area

and

• In order to ensure that the section is under reinforced, BS 8110 limits the depth
of the neutral axis (x) to a maximum of 0.5d, where d is the effective depth (Fig.
3.6(b)). Hence
x ≤ 0.5d
• It can be shown that the ultimate moment of resistance is given by:
 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

• Note that 𝑀𝑢 depends only on the properties of the concrete and not the steel
reinforcement.

• Provided that the design moment does not exceed 𝑀𝑢 (i.e. M ≤ 𝑀𝑢 ), a beam
whose section is singly reinforced will be sufficient to resist the design moment.

(ii) Area of tension reinforcement, 𝐴𝑆 .

(iii) Lever arm, z.

where

• Once z has been determined, the area of tension reinforcement can

be calculated.
3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS
 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

• To summarise, design for bending requires the

calculation of the maximum design moment (M) and
corresponding ultimate moment of resistance of the
section 𝑀𝑢 .
 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

EXAMPLE
Design of bending reinforcement for a singly reinforced beam (BS 8110)

A simply supported rectangular beam of 7 m span carries characteristic dead

(including self-weight of beam), gk, and imposed, qk, loads of 12 kN/m and 8
kN/m respectively Fig. 3.7 .The beam dimensions are breadth, b, 275 mm and
effective depth, d, 450 mm. Assuming the following material strengths,
calculate the area of reinforcement required.

Fig. 3.7
3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS
 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

• For detailing purposes this area of steel has to be transposed into a certain
number of bars of a given diameter.
• Thus it can be seen that four 20 mm diameter bars have a total cross-
sectional area of 1260𝑚𝑚2 and would therefore be suitable. Hence provide
4Y20.
Design charts

Fig. 3.8
 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

Hence, 𝐴𝑠 =1076𝑚𝑚2

• Thus it can be seen that four 20 mm diameter bars have a total cross-sectional
area of 1260𝑚𝑚2 and would therefore be suitable. Hence provide 4Y20.

SECTIONAL DRAWING
 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

3.2.4 Types of failure and beam section classification

• Three failure situations can occur depending on the amount of reinforcement
provided.

These are :

1. The concrete fails and the steel yields simultaneously at ultimate load (Fig.
3.9(a)). The concrete strain is 0.0035 and the steel strain 0.002. From the strain
diagram

or

The amount of steel to give this situation can be determined by equating the internal
forces C and T in the concrete. This is the theoretical balanced design case.

2. If less steel is provided than in case 1 the steel has reached yield and
continues yielding before the concrete fails at ultimate load (Fig. 3.9 (b)).
This is termed an under-reinforced beam. Cracks appear, giving a warning
of failure.
3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

Fig. 3.9 (a) Theoretical balanced design case; (b) under-reinforced

beam; (c) over-reinforced beam.
 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

3. If more steel than in case 1 is provided, the concrete fails suddenly

without warning before the steel reaches yield. This is termed an over-
reinforced beam (Fig. 3.9(c)).

• For a singly reinforced beam the code in clause 3.4.4.4 limits the depth
to the neutral axis to 0.5d to ensure that the design is for the under-
reinforced case where failure is gradual, as noted above.
3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

3.3 Doubly reinforced beams

• If the concrete alone cannot resist the applied moment in compression,
reinforcement can be provided in the compression zone. The design formulae
for a doubly reinforced beam are derived using the simplified stress block.

• These are based on

1. a depth x=d/2 to the neutral axis and a depth 0.9x of the stress block
2. a stress of 0.45fcu in the concrete in compression
3. a stress of 0.87fy in the reinforcement in tension and compression

The beam section, strain diagram and stress diagram with internal forces
are shown in Fig. 3.10, where the symbols are as follows:
3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

Fig. 3.10 (a) Section; (b) strain diagram; (c) stress diagram and internal
forces.
3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

• The moment of resistance of the concrete was calculated and is

• If this is less than the applied moment M, the compression steel resists a
moment M−𝑀𝑢 . The force in the compression steel is then
𝑀 − 𝑀𝑢
𝐶𝑠 =
𝑑 − 𝑑′
• The area of compression reinforcement is calculated from

• The area of tension reinforcement is calculated from

 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

• In the derivation of above equations it is assumed that the

compression steel has yielded (i.e. design stress = 0.87𝑓𝑦 ) and this
condition will be met only if
 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

EXAMPLE
Design of bending reinforcement for a doubly reinforced beam (BS 8110)
The reinforced concrete beam shown below has an effective span of 9 m and carries
uniformly distributed dead (including self weight of beam) and imposed loads of 4 and
5 kN/m respectively. Design the bending reinforcement assuming the following:

Cover to main steel = 40 mm

3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

provide 2Y16,

Hence provide 3Y25,

 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

Design charts Mu = 108.2 kNm < M = 137.7 kNm

• Since the beam is simply

supported, no redistribution of
moments is possible, therefore,
use x/d = 0.5 construction line
in order to determine areas of
reinforcement.

• Reinforcement is provided in a
similar manner as before.

5. Plot M/b𝑑 2 ratio on chart and read off

corresponding 100As′/bd and 100As/bd values
from chart
6. Calculate As ′ and As.
3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

SECTIONAL DRAWING
3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

3.4 Checking existing sections

• A check on an existing section can be carried out by calculating the
ultimate moment of resistance of the section and comparing this with
the applied ultimate moment.
• It is convenient to use the simplified stress block for manual
calculations. Alternatively the design charts can be used. The method is
illustrated in subsequent examples.

EXAMPLE
 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

Singly reinforced rectangular beam— moment of resistance

1. Calculate the moment of resistance of the singly reinforced beam section

shown. The materials are grade 30 concrete and grade 460 reinforcement

Fig. 3.11 (a) Section; (b) stress diagram and internal forces.
 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

• The stress distribution and internal forces are shown in Fig. 3.11(b). The
problem may be solved by considering the equilibrium of the internal forces.

Equate T and C and solve for x:

325.5
𝑀𝑢 = 𝑇𝑧 = 5.03*105 ∗ = 163.7𝐾𝑁𝑚
106

Doubly reinforced rectangular beam— moment of resistance

2. Calculate the moment of resistance of the beam section shown in Fig.

3.12. The materials are grade 30 concrete and grade 460 reinforcement.
3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

Fig. 3.12 (a) Section; (b) stress diagram and internal forces.
 d′=50d/350=0.143d < 0.19d (ok)

The stress in the compression steel is 0.87𝑓𝑦 .

𝑀𝑢 = 𝑇𝑧 = 4.54 ∗ 282.7 + 3.32 ∗ 300 105 /106 = 𝟐𝟐𝟕𝑲𝑵𝒎

 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

3.5 Flanged beams

3.5.1 General considerations

• Flanged beams occur where beams are cast integral with and support a
continuous floor slab.

• Part of the slab adjacent to the beam is counted as acting in compression

to form T- and L-beams as shown in Fig. 3.13 where b is the effective
breadth of the compression flange, 𝑏𝑤 is the breadth of the web of the
beam and ℎ𝑓 is the thickness of the flange.
• The effective breadth b of flanged beams is given in BS8110: Part 1,
clause 3.4.1.5:
1. T-beams—web width 𝑏𝑤 + 𝑙𝑧 /5 or the actual flange width if less
2. L-beams—web width 𝑏𝑤 + 𝑙𝑧 /10 or the actual flange width if less
• The design procedure depends on where the neutral axis lies.
The neutral axis may lie in the flange or in the web, as shown in
Fig. 3.14.
 (a)

(b)

Fig. 3.13 Floor slab: (a) plan (b) cross-section

Fig. 3.14(a) Neutral axis in flange; (b) neutral axis in web.

 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

3.5.2 Neutral axis in flange

• The beam may be treated as a rectangular beam of breadth b and the methods
set out in previous sections above apply.

• When the simplified stress block is used the actual neutral axis may be in the
web provided that 0.9x does not exceed the flange depth 𝒉𝒇 . The moment of
resistance of the section for the case when 0.9x = 𝒉𝒇 is

𝑴𝒖 =0.45𝒇𝒄𝒖 b𝒉𝒇 (d−𝒉𝒇 /2)

If the applied moment M is greater than 𝑀𝑢 the neutral axis lies in the web.
 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

3.5.3 Neutral axis in web

• The case of the neutral axis in the web can be analysed using the assumptions for
moment of resistance given in BS8110: Part 1, clause 3.4.4.1. As an alternative, a
conservative formula for calculating the steel area is given in clause 3.4.4.5 of the
code.
• The equation in the code is derived using the simplified stress block with
x=0.5d (Fig. 3.15).
• depth of stress block = 0.9x = 0.45d

Fig. 3.15 (a) Section; (b) stresses and internal forces.

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3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

• This is the expression given in the code. It gives conservative results for cases
where x is less than 0.5d. The equation only applies when hf is less than 0.45d.

• For a section with tension reinforcement only, the applied moment must not
exceed the moment of resistance of the concrete given by

Thus

or

where β𝑓 is the expression immediately above. Thus the equation for

the steel area 𝐴𝑠 only applies when the ultimate moment M is less than
β𝑓 f𝑐𝑢 𝑏𝑑 2 . This is the expression given in the code.
 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

Example
Flanged beam—neutral axis in flange

The beam section is shown in Fig. 3.16. From BS8110: Part 1, Table 3.4, the
nominal cover on the links is 25 mm for grade 30 concrete. If the links are 8 mm in
diameter and the main bars are 25 mm in diameter,
 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

Then,
d=350−25−8−12.5= 304.5 mm, say 300 mm

The moment of resistance of the section when the slab depth hf=100 mm is equal to
0.9 of the depth x to the neutral axis is

The neutral axis lies in the flange. Using the code expressions in clause 3.4.4.4

Provide three 25 mm diameter bars; 𝐴𝑠 =1472𝑚𝑚2 .

 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

In a building, continuous beams span 8.5m The effective width of beam is the lesser of
(a) actual flange width = 3750 mm
centre to centre. Given that the beam with (b) web width + 𝑙𝑧 /5, where 𝑙𝑧 is the distance between
beam section below supports an ultimate points of zero moments which for a continuous beam
moment of 356.3 kNm; the characteristic may be taken as 0.7 times the distance between
strength of the concrete is 35 N𝑚𝑚2 and of centres of supports.
the steel reinforcement is 500 N𝑚𝑚2 ; the Hence 𝑙𝑧 = 0.7 × 8500 = 5950 mm and
cover to all reinforcement may be assumed b = 300 + 5950/5 = 1490 mm (critical)
to be 30 mm. Design the moment steel.

Hence
Assume diameter of main steel, φ = 25
mm, diameter of links, φ′ = 8 mm and
nominal cover, c = 30 mm. Hence
Effective depth, d = h − φ /2 − φ′ − c =
550 − 25/2 − 8 − 30 = 499 mm
Provide 4Y25 (𝐴𝑆 = 1960 𝑚𝑚2 ).
3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS
 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

Flanged beam—neutral axis in the web

• Determine the area of reinforcement required for the T-beam section shown in
Fig. 3.16 which is subjected to an ultimate moment of 260 kNm. The materials are
grade 30 concrete and grade 460 reinforcement.
• Check the location of the neutral axis. If 0.9 multiplied by the neutral axis depth is
equal to hf, the moment of resistance of the concrete is

• The neutral axis lies in the web. The

steel area is calculated using the
expression from clause 3.4.4.5 of the
code
Fig. 3.16
3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

This is greater than the applied moment.

The section is satisfactory with tension
reinforcement only.

Provide five 25 mm diameter bars;

𝐴𝑠 =2454 𝑚𝑚2 .
Check the moment of resistance of the
concrete.
3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

3.6 Elastic Theory

3.6.1 Assumptions and terms used

• Reinforced concrete beams are designed for the ultimate limit state using
plastic analysis.
• Elastic analysis is required to check the serviceability limit states in the
calculation of deflections and crack widths.
• The assumptions made in analysing a reinforced concrete section are as
follows:

1. Plane sections before bending remain plane after bending;

2. Concrete is elastic, i.e. the concrete stress varies from zero at
the neutral axis to a maximum at the extreme fibre;
3. The concrete is ineffective in tension and the reinforcing steel
resists all the tension due to bending.
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The beam section, strain diagram and stress diagram with internal forces
are shown in Fig. 3.17, where the following terms and elastic relationships
apply:

Fig. 3.17 (a) Section; (b) strain diagram; (c) stress diagram and
internal forces.
3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

3.6.2 Section analysis

Referring to 3.17(b)
3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

Solve the equation to give

For equilibrium the internal forces C and T are equal:

Rearrange to give the quadratic equation

Solve for x.
 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

• The moment of resistance of the concrete is

• The concrete stress is

• The steel stress is

• The method can be applied to doubly reinforced and flanged beams.

3.6.3 Transformed area method-singly reinforced beam

• The transformed area method where the reinforcement is replaced by an

equivalent area of concrete is a more convenient method to use for section
analysis than that set out above.
 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

• The beam section shown in Fig. 3.18(a) is subjected to a moment M. The

problem is to determine the maximum stress 𝑓𝑐𝑏 in the concrete and the stress 𝑓𝑠𝑡
in the steel.
• The strain and stress diagrams are shown in Figs 3.18(b) and 3.18(c)
respectively. The strain in the tension steel is 𝑓𝑠𝑡 / 𝛼𝑒 𝐸𝑐 . If the steel were replaced
by concrete the stress in that concrete would be 𝑓𝑠𝑡 / 𝛼𝑒 .

Fig. 3.18 (a) Section; (b) strain diagram; (c) stress diagram; (d)
transformed section.
 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

• The force in the steel is 𝑓𝑠𝑡 𝐴𝑠 and the equivalent concrete must carry the same
force.
• Hence the equivalent area of concrete is 𝛼𝑒 𝐴𝑠 . To form the transformed section,
the steel is replaced by an area of concrete equal to αe times the area of steel
(Fig. 3.18(d)).

• Moments are taken about the neutral axis to find the depth to the neutral axis.
This gives the quadratic equation

• The positive root gives the depth to the neutral axis. The moment of inertia
about the neutral axis is

• The stresses in the concrete and steel

are given by
 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

Note that to obtain the stress in the steel the stress in the equivalent concrete is
multiplied by the modular ratio 𝛼𝑒 .

Elastic theory—stresses in singly reinforced rectangular beam

• The dimensions of a rectangular beam section and the reinforcing steel provided
are shown in Fig. 3.19 (a). The section is subjected to a moment of 40 kNm.
Determine the maximum stress in the concrete and the stress in the steel. The
modular ratio 𝛼𝑒 =15. Using the equation from section 3.6.2

Fig. 3.19 (a) Section; (b) transformed section.

 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

The coefficients are

The equation is

The steel stress is

 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

Elastic theory—stresses in singly reinforced rectangular beam using the

transformed area method

The transformed area is 𝛼𝑒 𝐴𝑠 =15×942=14130𝑚𝑚2 . The transformed section

is shown in Fig. 3.19(b). Take moments about the neutral axis.
 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

Doubly reinforced beam

A doubly reinforced beam section is shown in Fig. 3.20(a). The transformed section
is shown in Fig. 3.20 (b). For the compression steel αe−1 times the area is added
to the gross concrete area in compression. The position of the neutral axis is found
by taking moments of area about the neutral axis.
This gives the equation

which can be solved for x. The moment of inertia about the neutral axis is given
by
𝒙𝟑

The stresses are given by the following expressions.

3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

Fig. 3.20(a) Section; (b) transformed section.

Elastic theory—stresses in doubly reinforced rectangular beam using

transformed area method
 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

The dimensions of a rectangular beam section and the reinforcing steel provided
are shown in Fig. 3.21(a). The section is subjected to a moment of 47 kNm.
Determine the maximum stress in the concrete and the stresses in the
reinforcement. Take the modular ratio 𝛼𝑒 to be 15.

The transformed section is shown in Fig. 3.21(b).

Take moments about the neutral axis:

 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

This concrete stress is

The compression steel stress is

Fig. 3.21 (a) Section; (b) transformed section.

 3.0 SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENTS

The tension steel stress is