Gmath Module 4

Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1of 30

MODULE 4: THE LANGUAGE OF MATHEMATICS

Our target learning outcomes in this module are a) discuss the language, symbols
and conventions of mathematics; b) explain the nature of mathematics as a language; c)
perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly; and d) cite examples that
highlight the importance of mathematics as a language.

A. Introduction

Mathematics is known as the language of Science. Different notations and


terminologies are commonly used in learning and studying Mathematics. Having a
systematic notation using different symbols and graphical presentations makes learning
Mathematics compact and focused. A common reason why people have trouble in
understanding mathematics is not due to the ideas being difficult, but because they
cannot understand a language that is foreign to them.

The Language of Mathematics, particularly the symbols being used in Mathematics,


has 3 characteristics:
1. Precise - must be able to distinguish different thoughts or make very fine distinctions.
2. Concise - must be able to say things briefly.
3. Powerful - must be able to express complex thoughts with ease.

Numbers are the most commonly known symbol that represents Mathematics. It
specifies a certain value or quantity. We currently use the Hindu-Arabic number system
represented by ten symbols 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9.

B. Sets and Basic Operations on Sets

In all sorts of situations, we classify objects into sets of similar objects and count them.
This procedure is the most basic motivation for learning the whole numbers and learning
how to add and subtract them.

In our ordinary language, we try to make sense of the world we live in by classifying
collections of things. The English language has many words for such collections. For
example, we speak of „a flock of birds‟, „a herd of cattle‟, „a swarm of bees‟ and „a colony
of ants‟.

We do a similar thing in mathematics, and classify numbers, geometrical figures,


and other things into collections that we call sets. A set is a well-defined collection of

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 34
distinct objects. Objects that belong in a set are called its elements or members of the set.
Consider the following examples:

1. The set of denominations of Philippine currency.


2. The set of even numbers.
3. The set of prime numbers.
4. The set of consonants in the English alphabet.
5. 𝐸 = {𝑥: 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0}

A set must be well defined. This means that our description of the elements of a set is
clear and unambiguous. For example, a group of beautiful people is not a set, because
people tend to disagree about what „beautiful‟ means.

Notation

A set is usually denoted by a capital letter, such as 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝑋, 𝑌, 𝑍, …, whereas lower-


case letters, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, … are used to denote the elements of sets. Elements of a set are
enclosed in braces/curly brackets { }.
Consider 𝑆 = {𝑤, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧}. We say that 𝑤 belongs to 𝑆, or equivalently 𝑤 is an
element of 𝑆. In symbols, this is written as: 𝑤 ∈ 𝑆. But 𝑝 is not an element of 𝑆, so we write
𝑝 ∉ 𝑆.
Take note that in listing the elements of a set, repetition of an element is ignored. A
set remains the same even if its elements are repeated or arranged. Say for instance, the
set 𝑊 = 𝑎, 𝑎, 𝑏 has only the two elements 𝑎 and 𝑏. The second mention of 𝑎 is an
unnecessary repetition and can be ignored.

Describing a Set

We describe a set in two ways, namely:


1. A set can be described by listing all of its elements. This is called the tabular
form of the set or the roster method.
Example : 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖 , 𝑜, 𝑢}

2. A set can also be described by writing a description of its elements between


braces. This is called the set-builder notation or the rule method
Example : 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟, 𝑥 > 0} which reads: B is the set of all 𝑥
such that x is an even integer greater than zero.

Take a look at the hierarchy of numbers:

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 35
1. The set of numbers whose elements are the natural numbers and zero is
called the set of whole numbers, denoted by 𝑾. We write 𝑾 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, … }

2. The set of integers, denoted by ℤ, is composed of the set of whole numbers


and the negative integers. We write ℤ = {… , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, … }

3. The set of rational numbers, denoted by ℚ, are those numbers that can be
expressed as a quotient of two integers 𝑝 and 𝑞, where 𝑞 ≠ 0. Examples are
fractions, repeating decimals, and terminating decimals.
𝑝
We write, ℚ = 𝑥: 𝑥 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 , 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠, 𝑞 ≠ 0
𝑞

4. The set of irrational numbers, denoted by ℚ′, consists of numbers whose


decimal representations are non-terminating and non-repeating that cannot
be expressed as the quotient of two integers. Examples: 𝜋, 𝑒, 2

5. The set of real numbers, denoted by ℝ, is the union of ℚ and ℚ′

6. The set of complex numbers, denote by ℂ, are numbers of the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖,
where a and b are real numbers and 𝑖 2 = −1. In symbols,
ℂ = {𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖: 𝑎, 𝑏 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖 2 = −1}

Note that the set ℕ = 1, 2, 3, … of positive integers is also known as the set of natural
numbers.

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 36
Example 1: Write 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢} using the set-builder notation.
Answer: 𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑕 𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑕𝑎𝑏𝑒𝑡, 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑣𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑙} or
𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑣𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑕 𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑕𝑎𝑏𝑒𝑡}. Here, 𝑒 ∈ 𝐴 but 𝑞 ∉ 𝐴.

Example 2: Write 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟, 𝑥 > 0} using the roster method.
Answer: 𝐵 = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, … }

Example 3: Write 𝐸 = {𝑥: 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0} using the roster method.


Solution:
Here, 𝐸 = {𝑥: 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0} is read as: 𝐸 is the set of all 𝑥 such that 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0,
meaning 𝐸 consists of those numbers which are solutions of the equation 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0. To
get the solution set, we solve the quadratic equation 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0. Factoring the left side
of the equation, we have: (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 1) = 0. Then, equating each factor to zero, we
obtain
𝑥 − 2 = 0 implies 𝑥 = 2, and
𝑥 − 1 = 0 implies 𝑥 = 1.
Hence, 𝐸 = {1, 2}.

Equal sets

Two sets are said to be equal if they have exactly the same elements.

Example 4: Given 𝐸 = {𝑥: 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0} and 𝐹 = {2, 1}, we say that 𝐸 and 𝐹 are equal sets.
We write 𝐸 = 𝐹 since each consists precisely of the elements 1 and 2.
On the other hand, the sets 𝐶 = 1, 3, 5 and 𝐷 = {1, 2, 3} are not equal, because they have
different elements. We write 𝐶 ≠ 𝐷.

Finite and Infinite sets

A finite set is a set which has a finite (definite or fixed) number of elements, meaning
that we can list all their elements. An infinite set is a set which is not finite, that is, it has an
infinite number of elements. Examples of infinite sets are the set of even whole numbers
and the set of integers greater than 2000.

Example 5: 𝑆 = 𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑤𝑕𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 2000 < 𝑥 < 2005 is a finite set. Here, the elements are
2001, 2002, 2003 and 2004.

Example 6: 𝑀 = 𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟, 2000 < 𝑥 < 3000 is also finite. The elements of this set are
the numbers 2001, 2002, 2003, …, 2999.

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 37
The Numbers of Elements of a Set

The cardinality of a set A, denoted by |A|, is the number of elements in set A.


Consider the following finite sets:
1. If 𝑆 = { 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 }, then the cardinality of set 𝑆 is 5, written as 𝑆 = 5 .
2. If 𝐴 = { 1001, 1002, 1003, … , 3000 }, then cardinality of set 𝐴 is 2000, written as
𝐴 = 2000.

A set has cardinality ℵ0 if and only if it is countably infinite, that is, there is a one-to-
one correspondence between the set and the set of natural numbers. The symbol ℵ0
(aleph-naught, aleph-zero, or the German term aleph-null) is the cardinality of all natural
numbers, and is an infinite cardinality. Also, the cardinality of the set of real numbers
(cardinality of the continuum c) is 2ℵ0 .

A unit set is a set which has a single element.

Two sets are said to be equivalent if they both have the same cardinality. Say for
instance, sets 𝐶 = 1, 3, 5 and 𝐷 = {1, 2, 3} are equivalent sets since 𝐶 = 𝐷 = 3 but 𝐶 ≠ 𝐷.
Equal sets 𝐸 = {𝑥: 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0} and 𝐹 = {2, 1} are also equivalent sets since 𝐸 = 𝐷 =
2. Note that all equal sets are equivalent, but not all equivalent sets are equal sets.

Example 7: 𝑆 = {5} and 𝑆 = 1. It is important to distinguish between the number 5 and the
set 𝑆 = {5}. Here, 5 ∈ 𝑆 but 5 ≠ 𝑆.

Universal and Empty Sets

The universal set, denoted by 𝑈 is the set which contains all the elements being
considered. Examples are the following:
1. In plane geometry, the universal set consists of all the points in the plane
2. In human population studies, the universal set consists of all the people in the
world

The symbol 𝜙 𝑜𝑟 { } represents the empty set, more commonly known as the null set,
which is the set that has no elements at all. Thus, 𝜙 = 0. There is only one empty set: If L
and M are both empty, then 𝐿 = 𝑀 = 𝜙 since they have exactly the same elements,
namely, none.

Joint and Disjoint Sets

Two sets are said to be joint if they have at least one common element. Otherwise,
they are disjoint.

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 38
Consider sets 𝐶 = 1, 3, 5 and 𝐷 = {1, 2, 3}. We say that sets 𝐶 and 𝐷 are joint sets
since 1 and 3 are elements common to them.

If we consider sets 𝐺 = 6, 7, 9 and 𝐶 = {1, 3, 5}, then we say that sets 𝐶 and 𝐺 are
disjoint sets because they have no common elements.

Subsets

Sets of things are often further subdivided. For instance, owls are a particular type of
bird, so every owl is also a bird. We express this in the language of sets by saying that the
set of owls is a subset of the set of birds.

A set, say 𝐴, is called a subset of another set, say 𝐵, if every element of 𝐴 can be
found in 𝐵. This is denoted by 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 (read this as “𝐴 is a subset of 𝐵”).

If 𝐴 is a subset of 𝐵, and there is an element of 𝐵 that is not in 𝐴, then 𝐴 is called a


proper subset of 𝐵. This is denoted by 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵.

If 𝐴 is any set, then 𝐴 is the improper subset of 𝐴. Any other subset of 𝐴 is a proper
subset of 𝐴.

The following properties should be noted:


1. Every set 𝐴 is a subset of the universal set 𝑈 because by definition, all the
elements of 𝐴 are elements of 𝑈. The empty set is a subset of 𝐴. In symbols,
∅ ⊆ 𝐴 ⊆ 𝑈.
2. Every set is a subset of itself because the elements of 𝐴 belong to 𝐴 (the
improper subset of 𝐴. In symbols, 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐴.
3. If 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐶, then 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐶.
4. 𝐴 = 𝐵 if and only if 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴.

Example 8:
1. If 𝐴 = {2, 4, 6} and 𝐵 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, then 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 because every element of A is an
element of B.
2. Consider sets 𝐶 = 1, 3, 5 and 𝐷 = {1, 2, 3}. We say that C is not a subset of D,
denoted by 𝐶 ⊈ 𝐷, because 5 is an element of C that is not found in D. Also, we say
that 𝐷 ⊈ 𝐶.

Example 9: Suppose that 𝑈 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍}. Consider the following sets as examples:
𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍, −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4} 𝐷 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 }
𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍, 𝑥 ≤ 0 } 𝐸 = {−1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
𝐶 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍, 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 7} 𝐹 = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 39
Before we answer the questions, let us list first the elements of the sets above. We have:
𝐴 = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4} 𝐷 = {2}
𝐵 = {… , −2, −1, 0} 𝐸 = {−1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
𝐶 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} 𝐹 = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}

a. Which sets are finite? Which are infinite?


Answer:
 The finite sets are 𝐴, 𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐸 and 𝐹.
 𝐵 is an infinite set.
b. What is the cardinality of the sets 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹?
Answer:
|𝐴| = 7 |𝐶| = 7 |𝐸| = 5
|𝐵| = ℵ0 |𝐷| = 1 |𝐹| = 7
c. Which pair of sets is equal?
Answer: 𝐴 and 𝐹 are equal sets.
d. Which pair of sets is equivalent?
Answer: 𝐴, 𝐶 and 𝐹 are equivalent sets.
e. Identify pairs of joint and disjoint sets.
Answer:
 Joint sets: 𝐴&𝐵, 𝐴&𝐶, 𝐴&𝐷, 𝐴&𝐸, 𝐴&𝐹, 𝐵&𝐸, 𝐵&𝐹, 𝐶&𝐷, 𝐶&𝐸, 𝐶&𝐹,
𝐷&𝐸, 𝐷&𝐹, 𝐸&𝐹
 Disjoint sets: 𝐵&𝐶, 𝐵&𝐷
f. Which set is a proper subset of 𝐴?
Answer:
❏ 𝐷 ⊂ 𝐴 because 2 belongs to 𝐴.
❏ 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐴 because -1, 0, 1, 2, and 3 are all in 𝐴.
g. Which set is an improper subset of 𝐴?
Answer:
Since 𝐴 = 𝐹, we say that 𝐹 is an improper subset of 𝐴.

Set Operations

1. For two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, the union of 𝑨 and 𝑩, denoted by 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵, is defined as the set
which contains all distinct elements found on either A or B.
In symbols, 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = 𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 .

Example 10: Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and 𝐵 = {3, 4, 6, 7}. Then, 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}.

2. For two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, the intersection of 𝑨 and 𝑩, denoted by 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵, is defined as the
set which contains all elements which can be found on both 𝐴 and 𝐵.
In symbols, 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 .

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 40
Example 11: Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and 𝐵 = {3,4, 6, 7}. Getting the common elements of 𝐴 and 𝐵
gives 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {3, 4}.

3. The complement of a set 𝑨 is the set containing elements of the universal set 𝑈
which are not in 𝐴.
In symbols, 𝐴𝑐 = 𝑥: 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 .
Other notations for the complement of 𝐴 are 𝐴′ or 𝐴.

Example 12: Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and 𝑈 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}. Removing the elements of 𝐴
from the elements of the universal set we obtain, 𝐴𝐶 = 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 .

4. The difference of the sets 𝑨 and 𝑩, denoted by 𝐴\𝐵 (or 𝐴 − 𝐵) is the set of elements
which belong to 𝐴 but not in 𝐵.
In symbols, 𝐴\𝐵 = 𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵 .

Example 13: Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and 𝐵 = 3, 4, 6, 7 . Removing the elements of 𝐵 from the set
𝐴, we obtain 𝐴\𝐵 = 1, 2, 5 .

5. Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be two sets. The product set or Cartesian product of 𝑨 and 𝑩, denoted
by 𝐴 × 𝐵, is the set of ordered pairs (𝑎, 𝑏) such that 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵.
In symbols, 𝐴 × 𝐵 = 𝑎, 𝑏 : 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 , 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 .
Note here that 𝐴 × 𝐵 ≠ 𝐵 × 𝐴 and the cardinality of the product set of 𝐴 and 𝐵,
denoted by |𝐴 × 𝐵|, is 𝐴 × 𝐵 = |𝐴| ∙ 𝐵 .

Example 14: Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and 𝐵 = {3,4}. Then


𝐴 × 𝐵 = 1,3 , 1,4 , 2,3 , 2,4 , 3,3 , 3,4 , 4,3 , 4,4 , 5,3 , 5,4
𝐵 × 𝐴 = { 3,1 , 3,2 , 3,3 , 3,4 , 3,5 , 4,1 , 4,2 , 4,3 , 4,4 , 4,5 }
Note that 𝐴 × 𝐵 = 5 × 2 = 10.

Example 15. Consider the following sets:


𝐴 = {𝑚, 𝑎, 𝑡, 𝑕} 𝐶 = {𝑥: 𝑥 = 3𝑛, 1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 4, 𝑛 ∈ ℕ}
𝐵 = {𝑠, 𝑡, 𝑒, 𝑚} 𝐷 = {𝑥: 𝑥 = 2𝑛, 1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 6, 𝑛 ∈ ℕ}
a. What is 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵?
Answer: 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑕, 𝑚, 𝑡, 𝑠}
b. What is 𝐶 ∩ 𝐷?
Answer: Note that 𝐶 = 3, 6, 9, 12 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷 = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12}. Then 𝐶⋂𝐷 = {6, 12}.

Example 16: Consider the following sets:


𝑈 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} 𝐴 = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
𝐵 = {1, 3, 6, 9} 𝐶 = {4, 7, 9, 10}

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 41
List the elements of the following sets:
a. 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 𝑐 ∪ 𝐶
Solution:
Since 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10}, it follows that 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 𝑐 = 5, 7 . Hence
(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 ∪ 𝐶 = 4, 5, 7, 9, 10 .
b. 𝐵 ∩ (𝐶 ∪ 𝐴 )
𝐶

Solution:
Since 𝐴𝐶 = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, we have 𝐶 ∪ 𝐴𝐶 = 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10 . Thus
𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 ∪ 𝐴𝐶 = {1, 3, 9}.
c. 𝐴𝑐 \ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 𝑐
Solution:
From (a), we obtain (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 = 5, 7 .
Removing the elements of (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 from 𝐴𝐶 = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, we obtain
𝐴𝑐 \ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 𝑐 = 1, 3, 9 .
d. 𝐴𝐶 × 𝐴𝑐 \ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 𝑐
Solution:
We know that 𝐴𝐶 = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and 𝐴𝑐 \ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 𝑐 = 1, 3, 9 . Then
𝐴𝐶 × 𝐴𝑐 \ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 𝑐 = { 1,1 , 1,3 , 1,9 , 3,1 , 3, 3 , 3, 9 , 5, 1 , 5, 3 , 5, 9 , 7, 1 ,
7, 3 , 7, 9 , 9,1 , 9, 3 , 9,9 }

Laws on Sets and Set Operations

1. Commutative Law
The order in which the sets appear in a union or intersection operation does not
affect the result.
 𝐴∪𝐵 = 𝐵∪𝐴
 𝐴∩𝐵 = 𝐵∩𝐴

2. Associative Law
The grouping of operations involving union or intersection operations does not affect
the result.
 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶
 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶

3. Identity Laws
 𝐴∪∅ = 𝐴
 𝐴∩𝑈 = 𝐴

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 42
4. Distributive Laws
 𝐴∪ 𝐵∩𝐶 = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)
 𝐴∩ 𝐵∪𝐶 = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)
 (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶 = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶) ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)
 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶 = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶) ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶)

5. De Morgan‟s Laws
 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 ∩ 𝐵 𝐶
 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 ∪ 𝐵 𝐶

Venn Diagrams

Diagrams make mathematics easier because they help


us to see the whole situation at a glance. The English
mathematician John Venn (1834–1923) began using diagrams
to represent sets. His diagrams are now called Venn diagrams.

A Venn diagram is a pictorial representation of sets where


sets are represented by enclosed areas in the plane. In a Venn
diagram, the universal set is generally drawn as a large
rectangle, and then subsets of the universal set are represented
by circles within this rectangle.

Suppose 𝑆 is a subset of 𝑇. In The Venn diagram, we place the circle representing 𝑆


inside the circle representing 𝑇. Say for instance, let 𝑆 = { 0, 1, 2 } and 𝑇 = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 }.
Using the Venn diagram, we illustrate 𝑆 ⊂ 𝑇 as follows:

𝑻
3
4 𝐒
0
2 1

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 43
We can also illustrate the hierarchy of numbers using a Venn diagram.

Number Set Diagram


ℂ Imaginary
Numbers

ℕ W ℤ ℚ ℚ′

If A and B are arbitrary sets, it is possible that some elements are in A but not in B,
some elements are in B but not in A, some in both A and B, and some are in neither A nor B.
We illustrate these possibilities using a Venn diagram.

A. Illustration of disjoint sets B. Union of A and B

C. Intersection of A and B D. Complement of set A

E. Difference of A and B Note that the shaded region represents


the elements of the set in B, C, D, and E.

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 44
Problem Solving with Venn Diagrams
Let us have a look at a few examples that demonstrate how Venn diagrams can
make problem solving much easier.

Example 17: A travel agent surveyed 100 people to find out how many of them had visited
the cities of Melbourne and Brisbane. Thirty-one people had visited Melbourne, 26 people
had been to Brisbane, and 12 people had visited both cities. Draw a Venn diagram to find
the number of people who had visited
a. Melbourne or Brisbane
b. Brisbane but not Melbourne
c. only one of the two cities
d. Neither city
Solution:
Let: M be the set of people who had visited Melbourne,
B be the set of people who had visited Brisbane
U be the universal set that represents the set of people surveyed

First, let us construct the Venn diagram:


 Consider the intersection; there were 12 people who had visited both
Melbourne and Brisbane, this means that 𝑀 ∩ 𝐵 = 12.
 There were 31 people who visited Melbourne. Hence, there were
𝑀\𝐵 = 31 − 12 = 19 people who had visited Melbourne only.
 There were 26 people who had visited Brisbane. Hence, there were 𝐵\𝑀 = 26 −
12 = 14 people who had visited Brisbane only
 Since the travel agent surveyed 100 people, there were
100 − 12 − 19 − 14 = 55 people who had visited neither Melbourne nor Brisbane.

The Venn diagram below illustrates the information that we obtained:

We are now ready to answer the given questions:


a. The number of people who had visited Melbourne or Brisbane. This includes those
who had visited both cities, Melbourne only, and Brisbane only, or M ∪ B
Answer: 12 + 19 + 14 = 45

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 45
b. The number of people who had visited Brisbane but not Melbourne. This means
that we consider those who had visited Brisbane only, not including the
intersection.
Answer: 14
c. The number of people who had visited only one of the two cities. This includes
only those who had visited Melbourne only plus Brisbane only; the intersection is
not included.
Answer: 19 + 14 = 33
d. The number of people who had visited neither city: (We consider here the
number outside the two circles.)
Answer: 55

Example 18: Consider the following data for 120 mathematics students:
65 study French, 20 study French and German
45 study German, 25 study French and Russian
42 study Russian, 15 study German and Russian
8 study all three languages
Answer the following:
a. Find the number of students studying at least one of the three languages.
b. Find the number of students studying: exactly one language and exactly two
languages.
Solution:
Let: F be the set of students studying French
G be the set of students studying German
R be the set of students studying Russian
U be the universal set representing all mathematics students

First, let us construct the Venn diagram:


 Consider the intersection of the 3 sets = 8 of them are studying the three
languages
 Those who are studying German and Russian only = 15 – 8 = 7
 Those who are studying French and Russian only = 25 – 8 = 17
 Those who are studying French and German only = 20 – 8 = 12
 Those who are studying French only = 65 – 17 – 12 – 8 = 28
 Those who are studying German only = 45 – 7 – 12 – 8 = 18
 Those who are studying Russian only = 42 – 17 – 7 – 8 = 10
 Those who are not studying the 3 languages
120 – 10 – 18 – 28 – 12 – 17 – 7 – 8 = 20

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 46
The Venn diagram below illustrates the information that we obtained:

F 12 G
18
28
8
17 7
10
R 20

We are now ready to answer the given questions:


a. The number of students studying at least one of the three languages. (at least
one means greater than or equal to 1)
Answer:
1 language = 28 + 18 + 10 = 56
2 languages = 12 + 17 + 7 = 36
3 languages = 8__
Total = 100
b. The number of students studying exactly one language:
Answer: 28 + 18 + 10 = 56
The number of students studying exactly two languages:
Answer: 12 + 17 + 7 = 36

Elementary Properties of the Real Numbers

We investigate here properties of real numbers. Here are some rules concerning the
addition and multiplication of the real numbers 𝑅:
a. Associative law for addition and multiplication:
𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐
(𝑎𝑏)𝑐 = 𝑎(𝑏𝑐)
b. Commutative law for addition and multiplication:
𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎
𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎
c. Distributive law for addition and multiplication:
𝑎(𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐
d. Additive and multiplicative identities: There exists a zero element 0 and a unity
element 1 such that for any 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅,
𝑎 + 0 = 0 + 𝑎 = 𝑎
𝑎 · 1 = 1 · 𝑎 = 𝑎

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 47
The Real Line: Order and Inequalities

One important property of real numbers is that they can be represented graphically
by points on a straight line.

Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be real numbers. We say that a is less than b, written as 𝑎 < 𝑏, if the
difference 𝑏 − 𝑎 is positive, meaning that 𝑎 lies to the left of the point 𝑏 on the number line.

The following additional notation and terminologies are used:


𝑎 > 𝑏, read: 𝑎 is greater than 𝑏
𝑎 ≤ 𝑏, means 𝑎 < 𝑏 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = 𝑏, read: 𝑎 is less than or equal to 𝑏
𝑎 ≥ 𝑏, read: 𝑎 is greater than or equal to 𝑏

Examples:
1. 2 < 5, −6 < −1, 6 ≥ 3
2. The statement 2 < 𝑥 < 7 means 2 < 𝑥 and 𝑥 < 7, hence 𝑥 lies between 2 and 7 on
the real line 𝑅

Basic Properties of Inequality Relations:

1. Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 be real numbers. Then


 𝑎 ≤ 𝑎
 If 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 and 𝑏 ≤ 𝑎, then 𝑎 = 𝑏.
 If 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 and 𝑏 ≤ 𝑐, then 𝑎 ≤ 𝑐.

2. Law of Trichotomy:
For any real numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏, exactly one of the following holds:
𝑎 > 𝑏, 𝑎 = 𝑏, 𝑎 < 𝑏

3. Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 be real numbers such that 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏. Then


● 𝑎+𝑐 ≤ 𝑏+𝑐
● 𝑎𝑐 ≤ 𝑏𝑐 when 𝑐 > 0; but 𝑎𝑐 ≥ 𝑏𝑐 when 𝑐 < 0.

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 48
C. Relations and Functions

Definition of Relation

A relation is defined as a set of ordered pairs. More precisely, consider the


Cartesian product 𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵} of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵. A relation R from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is
a subset of 𝐴 × 𝐵. For each pair 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵, exactly one of the following is true:
I. (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅; we say “𝑎 is 𝑅-related to 𝑏” written 𝑎𝑅𝑏.
II. (𝑎, 𝑏) ∉ 𝑅; we say “𝑎 is not 𝑅-related to 𝑏”.

The following are examples of relations because they consist of a set of ordered
pairs:
(−2,5), (−1, 0), (2, −3)
(−1,0), (0, −3), (2, −3), (3,0), (4,5)
(3,0), (4,5)
(−2,5), (−1, 0), (0, −3), (1, −4), (2, −3), (3,0), (4,5)

Some relations are very special and are used at almost all levels of mathematics. Set
inclusion ⊆, “less than”, “parallel to” are some relations used in mathematics.

Example 19: Let 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏} and 𝐵 = {1,2,3}. Then


𝑅1 = {(𝑎, 1), (𝑏, 2), (𝑎, 3)}
𝑅2 = {(𝑎, 1), (𝑎, 2), (𝑎, 3)}
𝑅3 = {(𝑏, 1), (𝑏, 2)}
are relations from 𝐴 to 𝐵. We could say that 𝑎𝑅1 1, 𝑎𝑅2 3, and 𝑏𝑅3 2.

The domain of a relation 𝑅 from a set 𝐴 to a set 𝐵 is the set of all first elements of the
ordered pairs which belong to 𝑅, and since these first elements come from set 𝐴 then the
domain of 𝑅 is a subset of 𝐴. The range of a relation 𝑅 is the set of all second elements of
the ordered pairs which belong to 𝑅, and so it is a subset of 𝐵.

Definition of a Function

A function is a relation for which each value from the set of the first components of
the ordered pairs is associated with exactly one value from the set of second components
of the ordered pair.

Example 20.The following relation is a function.


(−1, 0), (0, −3), (1, −4), (2, −3), (3,0), (4,5)

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 49
From these ordered pairs we have the following sets of first components (i.e. the first
number from each ordered pair) and second components (i.e. the second number from
each ordered pair).
1𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠: −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 2𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠: 0, −4, −3, 0,5
For the set of second components notice that the “−3” occurred in two ordered pairs but
we only listed it once.
To see why this relation is a function simply pick any value from the set of first
components. Now, go back up to the relation and find every ordered pair in which this
number is the first component and list all the second components from those ordered
pairs. The list of second components will consist of exactly one value. That is, every first
component is paired with a unique value for the second component. Therefore, this
relation is a function.

Example 21: The following relation is not a function.


6, 10 −7, 3 0, 4 6, −4
Here is the list of first and second components
1𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠: 6, −7, 0 2𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠: 10, 3, 4, −4
The list of second components associated with 6 has two values and so this relation is not a
function.

“Working Definition” of Function

A function can be thought of as an equation for 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥 for which any 𝑥 value
that can be plugged into or substituted into the equation will yield exactly one 𝑦 value out
of the equation.

The phrase “𝑥 that can be plugged into” implies that not all 𝑥 values can be
substituted into an equation. Further, when dealing with functions we are always going to
assume that both 𝑥 and 𝑦 will be real numbers.

Function Notation

Let‟s start off with the following quadratic equation: 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3. You can use any
process to verify that this is a function. Since this is a function we will denote it as follows,
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3.

So, we replaced the variable 𝑦 with the notation 𝑓(𝑥). This is read as “𝑓 of 𝑥”. Note
that there is nothing special about the 𝑓 we used here. We could just have easily used any
of the following letters to represent the function:
𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 𝑕(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 𝑅(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 50
Evaluating functions

Evaluating a function is means determining the 𝑦 value for a given value of 𝑥. Let‟s
take the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 and evaluate its value at 𝑥 = 4.

Now, when we say the value of the function we are really asking what the value of
the equation is for that particular value of 𝑥, denoted by 𝑓 4 :
𝑓(4) = (4)2 − 5(4) + 3 = 16 − 20 + 3 = −1

Example 22: Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 8 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 6, evaluate each of the following.
a. 𝑓(3) and 𝑔(3)
b. 𝑓(−10) and 𝑔(−10)
c. 𝑓(0)
d. 𝑓(𝑡)
e. 𝑓(𝑡 + 1) and 𝑓(𝑥 + 1)
f. 𝑓(𝑥 3 )
g. 𝑔(𝑥 2 − 5)

Solutions:
a. 𝑓(3) and 𝑔(3)
𝑓(3) = (3)2 − 2(3) + 8 = 9 − 6 + 8
𝑓 3 = 11
𝑔(3) = 3 + 6 = 9
𝑔(3) = 3 (we take only the positive square root)

b. 𝑓(−10) and 𝑔(−10)


𝑓(−10) = (−10)2 − 2(−10) + 8 = 100 + 20 + 8
𝑓(−10) = 128
𝑔(−10) = −10 + 6
𝑔(−10) = −4, thus 𝑔 −10 is undefined since −4 is imaginary.

c. 𝑓(0)
𝑓(0) = (0)2 − 2(0) + 8
𝑓(0) = 8
Note that in this case this is pretty
d. 𝑓(𝑡) much the same thing as our
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 − 2𝑡 + 8 original function, except this time
we‟re using 𝑡 as a variable.

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 51
e. 𝑓(𝑥 + 1)
𝑓(𝑥 + 1) = (𝑥 + 1)2 − 2(𝑥 + 1) + 8 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 − 2𝑥 − 2 + 8
𝑓(𝑥 + 1) = 𝑥 2 + 7

f. 𝑓(𝑥 3 )
𝑓(𝑥 3 ) = (𝑥 3 )2 − 2(𝑥 3 ) + 8
𝑓(𝑥 3 ) = 𝑥 6 − 2𝑥 3 + 8

g. 𝑔(𝑥 2 − 5)
𝑔(𝑥 2 − 5) = 𝑥2 − 5 + 6
𝑔(𝑥 2 − 5) = 𝑥2 + 1

Piecewise Functions

We‟ve actually seen an example of a piecewise function even if we didn‟t call it a


function (or a piecewise function) at the time. Recall the mathematical definition of
absolute value.
x if x  0
x 
 x if x  0

This is a function and if we use function notation we can write it as follows,

This is also an example of a piecewise function. A piecewise function is nothing


more than a function that is broken into pieces and which piece you use depends upon
value of 𝑥.

Example 23: Given

evaluate each of the following.


a. 𝑔(−6)
b. 𝑔(−4)
c. 𝑔(1)
d. 𝑔(15)
e. 𝑔(21)

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 52
Now, to evaluate each of these functions vales, the first thing that we need to do is
determine which inequality the 𝑡 value satisfies, and it will only satisfy a single inequality.
When we determine which inequality the number satisfies we use the expression
associated with that inequality.

a. 𝑔(−6)
In this case −6 satisfies the first inequality and so we‟ll use the first expression for this
evaluation.
𝑔(−6) = 3(−6)2 + 4 = 112

b. 𝑔(−4)
𝑔(−4) = 3(−4)2 + 4 = 52
c. 𝑔(1)
𝑔(1) = 10
d. 𝑔(15)
𝑔(15) = 10
e. 𝑔(21)
𝑔(21) = 1 − 6(21) = −125

Domain and Range

The domain is the set of all 𝑥 values that we can plug into a function and get back
a real number. At this point, that means that we need to avoid division by zero and taking
square roots of negative numbers.

Example 24. Determine the domain of each of the following functions.


x3
a  g x  
x  3 x  10
2

b  f x   5  3x
7x  8
c  hx  
x2  4

d  Rx   102 x  5
x  16

Solutions:
The domains for these functions are all the values of 𝑥 for which we don‟t
have division by zero or the square root of a negative number. If we remember
these two ideas finding the domains will be pretty easy.
x3
a  g x  
x  3x  10
2

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 53
There is a possibility that we‟ll have a division by zero here. We now solve for the
zeros of the denominator (values that will make 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 10 zero).

𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 10 = (𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 2) = 0
𝑥 = −5, 𝑥 = 2

So, we will get division by zero if we plug in 𝑥 = −5 or 𝑥 = 2. That means that we‟ll
need to avoid those two numbers. However, all the other values of 𝑥will work
since they don‟t give division by zero. Thus,
Domain : All real numbers except 𝑥 = −5 and 𝑥 = 2. We can also use
𝑅 − {−5,2} or 𝑅\{−5,2}.

b f x  5  3x
We have a square root in the problem and so we‟ll need to worry about taking
the square root of a negative number.
This one is going to work a little differently from the previous example. In that part
we determined the value(s) of 𝑥 to avoid. In this case it will be just as easy to
directly get the domain. To avoid square roots of negative numbers all that we
need to do is require that
5 − 3𝑥 ≥ 0
This is a fairly simple linear inequality that we should be able to solve at this point.
5
5  3x  x
3
5
The domain of this function is : Domain : x 
3
7x  8
c  hx  
x2  4
In this case we‟ve got a fraction, but notice that the denominator will never be
zero for any real number since 𝑥 2 is guaranteed to be positive or zero and
adding 4 onto this will mean that the denominator is always at least 4. In other
words, the denominator won‟t ever be zero. So, all we need to do then is worry
about the square root in the numerator.
To do this we‟ll require
8 8
7x  8  0  7 x  8  x Domain : x  
7 7
10 x  5
d  Rx  
x 2  16
In this final part we‟ve got both a square root and division by zero to worry
about. Let‟s take care of the square root first since this will probably put the

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 54
largest restriction on the values of 𝑥. So, to keep the square root happy (i.e. no
square root of negative numbers) we‟ll need to require that,
1
10 x  5  0  10 x  5  x
2
1
So, at the least we‟ll need to require that x  in order to avoid problems with
2
the square root.
Now, let‟s see if we have any division by zero problems. Again, to do this simply
set the denominator equal to zero and solve.
𝑥 2 − 16 = (𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 + 4) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −4, 𝑥 = 4
Now, notice that 𝑥 = −4 doesn‟t satisfy the inequality we need for the square
root and so that value of 𝑥 has already been excluded by the square root. On
the other hand, 𝑥 = 4 does satisfy the inequality. This means that it is okay to plug
𝑥 = 4 into the square root, however, since it would give division by zero we will
need to avoid it. Thus,
1
Domain : x  except x  4
2

Operations on Functions

Functions can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided. If 𝑓 𝑥 and 𝑔 𝑥 are


two functions, then for all 𝑥 in the domain of both functions the sum, difference, product
and quotient are defined as follows.
1. 𝑓 + 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔(𝑥)
2. 𝑓 − 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑔(𝑥)
3. 𝑓𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
4. 𝑥 = , 𝑔 𝑥 ≠0
𝑔 𝑔(𝑥)

Example 25: Consider the functions 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 3 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1. Find the following
function values:
a. (𝑓 + 𝑔)(4)
Solution:
Consider 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 3 then 𝑓 4 = 2 4 + 3 = 11
Also, 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 – 1, then 𝑔 4 = 42 − 1 = 15
Hence,
𝑓 + 𝑔 4 = 𝑓 4 + 𝑔 4 = 26

b. (𝑓 − 𝑔)(5)
Solution:
Consider 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 3 then 𝑓 5 = 2 5 + 3 = 13
Also,𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 – 1, then 𝑔 5 = 52 − 1 = 24
Hence,
𝑓 − 𝑔 5 = 𝑓 5 − 𝑔 5 = −11

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 55
Example 26: Find (𝑓𝑔)(𝑥) and (𝑓 /𝑔)(𝑥)
a. (𝑓𝑔)(𝑥)
Solution:
𝑓𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥)
= 2𝑥 + 3 𝑥 2 − 1
= 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3

b. (𝑓 /𝑔)(𝑥)
Solution:
𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) 2𝑥 + 3
𝑥 = = 2
𝑔 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥 −1
𝑓 2𝑥 + 3
Note that the function 𝑥 = is defined on all values of 𝑥 except when
𝑔 𝑥 2− 1
𝑥 = −1 and 𝑥 = 1.

Composition of Functions

The term "composition of functions" (or "composite function") refers to the combining
together of two or more functions in a manner where the output from one function
becomes the input for the next function. Formally we define composition of functions as
follows:

Consider functions 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐶, where the target set 𝐵 of 𝑓 is the domain


of 𝑔. Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴. Then the image 𝑓(𝑎) under 𝑓 is in B which is the domain of 𝑔. Accordingly,
we can find the image of 𝑓(𝑎) under the function 𝑔, i.e. 𝑔(𝑓 (𝑎)). We have a rule which
assigns to each element 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, an element 𝑔 𝑓 𝑎 in 𝐶. This gives rise to a well-defined
function from 𝐴 to 𝐶, which is called the composition of 𝒇 and 𝒈, denoted by 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓. That is, if
𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 ⟶ 𝐶, then we have

𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 ⟶ 𝐶 by (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 )(𝑎) = 𝑔(𝑓 (𝑎)) for 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴

We illustrate the composition of functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 as follows

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 56
Example 27: Consider the following illustration:

Find 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 𝑎 , 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 𝑏 , (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑐)
Solution: Using the illustration above, we have
 𝑔∘𝑓 𝑎 =𝑔 𝑓 𝑎 =𝑔 𝑦 =𝑡
 𝑔∘𝑓 𝑏 =𝑔 𝑓 𝑏 =𝑔 𝑧 =𝑟
 𝑔∘𝑓 𝑐 =𝑔 𝑓 𝑐 =𝑔 𝑦 =𝑡

Example 28. Let the functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 be defined by 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2.
Find 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 (𝑥) and 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 (𝑥).

a. 𝑔∘𝑓 𝑥
Solution:
𝑔∘𝑓 𝑥 =𝑔 𝑓 𝑥
Substituting the value of 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 1, we obtain
𝑔 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔 2𝑥 + 1 = 2𝑥 + 1 2 − 2 = 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 1

b. 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 (𝑥)
Solution:
𝑓∘𝑔 𝑥 =𝑓 𝑔 𝑥
Substituting the value of 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 2, we obtain
𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 2 − 2 = 2 𝑥 2 − 2 + 1 = 2𝑥 2 − 3

Inverse of a Function

The inverse of the function 𝑓 is denoted by 𝑓 −1 and is pronounced "f inverse". The
inverse of a function does not mean the reciprocal of a function.

A function normally tells you what 𝑦 is if you know what 𝑥 is. The inverse of a function
will tell you what 𝑥 had to be to get that value of 𝑦.

An inverse of a function is a function that "reverses" another function, that is, if the
function 𝑓 applied to an input 𝑥 gives a result of 𝑦, then applying its inverse function 𝑓 −1 to 𝑦
gives the result 𝑥, and vice versa. That is,
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒚 if and only if 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒚) = 𝒙

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 57
We say that a function 𝒇−𝟏 is the inverse of 𝒇 if
 for every 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓, 𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥, and
 for every 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓 −1 , 𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 −1 𝑥 = 𝑥

The domain of 𝑓 is the range of 𝑓 −1 and the range of 𝑓 is the domain of 𝑓 −1

Given the function 𝑓 (𝑥), we can find the inverse function, 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) by following these steps:
1. First, replace 𝑓 (𝑥) with 𝑦.
2. Replace every 𝑥 with a 𝑦 and replace 𝑦 with 𝑥.
3. Solve the equation from Step 2 for 𝑦 and replace 𝑦 with 𝑓 −1 𝑥
4. Verify your work by checking that 𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥, and 𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 −1 𝑥 = 𝑥

Example 29: Find the inverse of the following functions:

1. 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 − 2
Solution:
𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 − 2
𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 2 Replace 𝑓 𝑥 with 𝑦
𝑥 = 3𝑦 − 2 Replace every 𝑥 with a 𝑦 and replace every 𝑦 with an 𝑥
𝑥+2
=𝑦 Solve the equation from Step 2 for 𝑦
3
𝒙+𝟐
Hence, 𝒇−𝟏 𝒙 = . To check, let us recall the composition of functions and show
𝟑
that 𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥, and 𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 −1 𝑥 = 𝑥:
−1
3𝑥−2+2
 𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 −1 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 −1 3𝑥 − 2 = =𝑥
3
𝑥+2 𝑥+2
 𝑓∘ 𝑓 −1 𝑥 =𝑓 𝑓 −1 𝑥 =𝑓 =3 −2=𝑥
3 3

2. 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 3
Solution:
𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥−3
𝑦 = 𝑥−3 Replace 𝑔(𝑥) with 𝑦
𝑥 = 𝑦−3 Replace every 𝑥 with a 𝑦 and replace every 𝑦 with an 𝑥
2
𝑥 +3 =𝑦 Solve the equation from Step 2 for 𝑦
Hence, 𝒈−𝟏 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑. You may also check 𝑔−1 ∘ 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥, and 𝑔 ∘ 𝑔−1 𝑥 = 𝑥

𝑥+4
3. 𝑕 𝑥 =
2𝑥−5
Solution:
𝑥+4
𝑕 𝑥 =
2𝑥−5
𝑥 +4
𝑦= Replace 𝑕 (𝑥) with 𝑦
2𝑥−5

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 58
𝑦+4
𝑥= Replace every 𝑥 with a 𝑦 and replace every 𝑦 with an 𝑥
2𝑦−5
Solve the equation from Step 2 for 𝑦
𝑦+4
𝑥=
2𝑦−5
2𝑥𝑦 − 5𝑥 = 𝑦 + 4 Multiply both sides by 2𝑦 − 5
−5𝑥 − 4 = −2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 Combine all terms containing 𝑦
−5𝑥 − 4 = 𝑦(−2𝑥 + 1) Factor out 𝑦
−5𝑥−4 5𝑥+4
= 𝑦 or =𝑦
−2𝑥+1 2𝑥−1
𝟓𝒙+𝟒
Hence, 𝒉−𝟏 𝒙 = . You may also check 𝑕−1 ∘ 𝑕 𝑥 = 𝑥, and 𝑕 ∘ 𝑕−1 𝑥 = 𝑥
𝟐𝒙−𝟏

Practice Exercise 4-1 Score:

A. Show your complete solution. Write your solutions and answers on a clean sheet of
paper. Submit the images of your HANDWRITTEN SOLUTIONS as a single pdf file in the
submission bin for this activity (Part A) in the Classroom. You may use image scanning
apps on your phone (CamScanner or Tap Scanner) to save several images into 1 pdf
file, or place your images in a document and save as a pdf file.

1. Specify the set 𝐴 by listing its elements, where


𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑤𝑕𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑛 100 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 16}.

2. Specify the set 𝐵 in set-builder form by giving a written description of its elements,
where 𝐵 = {0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25}.

3. Does the following sentence specify a set? Explain.


𝐶 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑤𝑕𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑜 50}.

4. Consider
𝐴 = {𝑚, 𝑎, 𝑡, 𝑕} 𝐶 = {𝑥: 𝑥 = 3𝑛, 1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 4, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁}
𝐵 = {𝑠, 𝑡, 𝑒, 𝑚} 𝐷 = {𝑥: 𝑥 = 2𝑛, 1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 6, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁}
a. What is 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵? b. What is 𝐶 ∪ 𝐷?

5. Solve the following problem using a Venn diagram: Consider the following data
among 110 students in college dormitory: 30 students are on a list A (taking
Accounting); 35 students are on a list B (taking Biology); and 20 students are on both
lists. Find the number of students:
a. on A list or B
b. on exactly one of the two lists
c. on neither list

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 59
6. Solve the following problem using a Venn diagram: In a town 85% of the people
speak English, 40% speak Korean and 20% speak Spanish. Also 32% speak English
and Korean, 13% speak English and Spanish, and 10% speak Korean and Spanish,
find the percentage of people who can speak all the three languages.

B. Choose the letter corresponding to the correct answer. Use the Google form provided
in the submission bin for this activity (Part B) in the Classroom to submit your answers.
5
7. Let 𝑔 𝑥 = . Find the domain of 𝑔(𝑥).
𝑥−4
a. All real numbers except 4
b. All real numbers except −4
c. All real numbers greater than or equal to 4
d. All real numbers

2𝑥 2 −3𝑥+7
8. Let 𝑓 𝑥 = . Find 𝑓(3).
5𝑥 2 −2𝑥
2 16 18
a. b. c. 3 d.
5 39 45

9. Suppose 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 3 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 5. Which of the following is a formula for


𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 (𝑥)?
a. 𝑓∘𝑔 𝑥 =𝑥+ 2 c. 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 2
2
b. 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥2 + 5 + 𝑥 − 3 d. 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥−3 +5
10. Suppose 𝑓 𝑥 = + 3 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 2. Which of the following is a formula for
𝑥2
𝑓−𝑔 𝑥 ?
a. 𝑓 − 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 c. 𝑓 − 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 5
b. 𝑓 − 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 2 d. 𝑓 − 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 5

11. Which set of ordered pairs is a function?


a. 9,5 , 10,5 , 9, −5 , 10, −5 c. 3,4 , 4, −3 , 7,4 , 3,8
b. 6, −5 , 7, −3 , 8, −1 , 9,1 d. 2, −2 , 5,9 , 5, −7 , 1,4

12. Using the figure on the right and 𝑈 = 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔, 𝑕


being the universal set, find the elements of the set
𝑋 ∩ 𝑌 ∪ 𝑍.
a. 𝑐, 𝑒 𝑓, 𝑔, 𝑕 c. 𝑓
b. 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔 d. 𝑐, 𝑓, 𝑕

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 60
13. Which of the graphs on the right is NOT a
function?
a. Graph 1
b. Graph 2
c. Graph 3
d. Graph 4

14. Why is the relation


3
4,4 , 2, −3 , 4,0 , 1, −10 , , −1 not a function?
4
a. An element of the domain corresponds to more than one range value.
b. The elements of the range are less than or equal to the elements of the domain.
c. An element of the domain is a fraction.
d. There are only five ordered pairs in the relation.

15. If 𝑈 = 1, 2, 3, … , 20 and 𝑆 = 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠, then 𝑆 =


a. 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17 c. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19
b. 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19 d. 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17

16. Which pair of sets represents one set being a subset of another but is not equal to it?
a. 𝑁, the set of natural numbers, and 𝑍, the set of integers
b. 𝑇, the set of all triangles, and 𝐶, the set of all circles
c. 𝑁, the set of all natural numbers, and 𝑃, the set of positive integers
d. none of the above

17. In a survey of university students, 64 had taken mathematics course, 94 had taken
chemistry course, 58 had taken physics course, 28 had taken mathematics and
physics, 26 had taken mathematics and chemistry, 22 had taken chemistry and
physics course, and 14 had taken all the three courses. Find how many had taken
one course only.
a. 76 b. 86 c. 106 d. 120

18. Let 𝑈 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔, 𝑕, 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘 , 𝑙 , 𝑚, 𝑛, 𝑜, 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟 , 𝑠 , 𝑡, 𝑢 𝑣, 𝑤, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧} be the set of letters in


the English alphabet. Let 𝐵 be the set of letters in the word “baboon”. Find 𝐵𝐶 .
a. 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔, 𝑕, 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘 , 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, 𝑠, 𝑡, 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧
b. 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔, 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘, 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, 𝑠, 𝑡, 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧
c. 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑕, 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘 , 𝑙, 𝑚 , 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, 𝑠, 𝑡, 𝑢, 𝑤, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧
d. 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔, 𝑕, 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘, 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑠, 𝑡, 𝑢, 𝑤, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧

19. Which pair of sets represents equal sets?


a. 𝑁, the set of natural numbers, and 𝑍, the set of integers
b. 𝑇, the set of all triangles, and 𝐶, the set of all circles

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 61
c. 𝑁, the set of all natural numbers, and 𝑃, the set of positive integers
d. None of the above

20. In a group of students, 65 play football, 45 play hockey, 42 play cricket, 20 play
football and hockey, 25 play football and cricket, 15 play hockey and cricket and 8
play all the three games. Find the total number of students in the group (Assume
that each student in the group plays at least one game.)
a. 56 b. 76 c. 92 d. 100

21. Write the relation shown as a set of points on the


graph on the right as a set of ordered pairs and
find the domain and the range.
a. −2,5 , −1,2 , 0,1 , 1,2 , 2,5 ;
𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = −2, −1, 0, 1, 2 ; 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 1, 2, 5
b. 5, −2 , 2, −1 , 1,0 , 2,1 , 5,2 ;
𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = −2, −1, 0, 1, 2 ; 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 1, 2, 5
c. −2,5 , −1,2 , 0,1 , 1,2 , 2,5 ;
𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 1, 2, 5 ; 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = −2, −1, 0, 1, 2
d. 5, −2 , 2, −1 , 1,0 , 2,1 , 5,2 ;
𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 1, 2, 5 ; 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = −2, −1, 0,1, 2

𝑥−10
22. Given 𝑓 𝑥 = and 𝑔 𝑥 = 7𝑥 + 10. Find 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 (𝑥).
7
10
a. 7𝑥 + 60 c. 𝑥 −
7
b. 𝑥 + 20 d. 𝒙

For numbers 23 – 26, consider the following sets:


𝑈 = {−5, −4, −3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3,4,5},
𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑥 2 = 25},
𝐵 = {−5, 0,1,2,3,4, 5}
𝐶 = {𝑥: 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0}.

23. What is 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵?
a. {5} b. {−5, 5} c. {} d. {−5, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

24. Which of the following statements is/are true?


i. 𝐴 and 𝐵 are joint sets.
ii. 𝐴 is a unit set.
iii. 𝐵 =5
a. i only b. i and ii c. i and iii d. i, ii, and iii

25. Which is equal to 𝐵\𝐶?


a. {−5, 0, 1, 2, 4, 5} b. {−5, 1, 3, 4, 5} c. {1,2,3} d. {−5, 0, 1, 4, 5}

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 62
26. Which set is equal to 𝐵\𝐴 𝑐 ?
a. {−5, −4, −3, −2, −1} c. {−5, −4, −3, −2, −1, 5}
b. {−5, 1, 5} d. B

27. What is the cardinality of a countably infinite set?


a. ∞ b. 𝐴 c. ℵ0 d. ∅

Well done! It’s time to answer Quiz 1 (40 points).

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 63

You might also like

pFad - Phonifier reborn

Pfad - The Proxy pFad of © 2024 Garber Painting. All rights reserved.

Note: This service is not intended for secure transactions such as banking, social media, email, or purchasing. Use at your own risk. We assume no liability whatsoever for broken pages.


Alternative Proxies:

Alternative Proxy

pFad Proxy

pFad v3 Proxy

pFad v4 Proxy