Cell Cycle General Biology 1

● The cell cycle can be thought of as the life cycle of a cell. In other words, it is
the series of growth and development steps a cell undergoes between its
“birth”—formation by the division of a mother cell—and reproduction—division to
make two new daughter cells.

Stages of the cell cycle

To divide, a cell must complete several important tasks: it must grow, copy its genetic
material (DNA), and physically split into two daughter cells. Cells perform these tasks in
an organized, predictable series of steps that make up the cell cycle. The cell cycle is a
cycle, rather than a linear pathway, because at the end of each go-round, the two
daughter cells can start the exact same process over again from the beginning.

Interphase
Let’s enter the cell cycle just as a cell forms, by division of its mother cell. What must
this newborn cell do next if it wants to go on and divide itself? Preparation for division
happens in three steps:

● G1 phase. During G1 phase, also called the first gap phase, the cell grows physically
larger, copies organelles, and makes the molecular building blocks it will need in later
steps.

● S phase. In S phase, the cell synthesizes a complete copy of the DNA in its nucleus.
It also duplicates a microtubule-organizing structure called the centrosome. The
centrosomes help separate DNA during M phase.

● G2 phase. During the second gap phase, or G2 phase, the cell grows more, makes
proteins and organelles, and begins to reorganize its contents in preparation for mitosis.
G2 Phase ends when mitosis begins.

●M phase. During the mitotic (M) phase, the cell divides its copied DNA and cytoplasm
to make two new cells. M phase involves two distinct division-related processes: mitosis
and cytokinesis.

Mitosis is a type of cell division in which one cell (the mother) divides to produce two
new cells (the daughters) that are genetically identical to itself. In the context of the cell
cycle, mitosis is the part of the division process in which the DNA of the cell's nucleus is
split into two equal sets of chromosomes.
The great majority of the cell divisions that happen in your body involve mitosis.
During development and growth, mitosis populates an organism’s body with cells, and
throughout an organism’s life, it replaces old, worn-out cells with new ones. For
single-celled eukaryotes like yeast, mitotic divisions are actually a form of reproduction,
adding new individuals to the population.
In all of these cases, the “goal” of mitosis is to make sure that each daughter cell
gets a perfect, full set of chromosomes. Cells with too few or too many chromosomes
usually don’t function well: they may not survive, or they may even cause cancer. So,
when cells undergo mitosis, they don’t just divide their DNA at random and toss it into
piles for the two daughter cells. Instead, they split up their duplicated chromosomes in a
carefully organized series of steps.
Phases of Mitosis
Mitosis consists of four basic phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and
telophase. Some textbooks list five, breaking prophase into an early phase (called
prophase) and a late phase (called prometaphase). These phases occur in strict
sequential order, and cytokinesis - the process of dividing the cell contents to make
two new cells - starts in anaphase or telophase.

Let’s start by looking at a cell right before it begins mitosis. This cell is in interphase (late
G2phase) and has already copied its DNA, so the chromosomes in the nucleus each
consist of two connected copies, called sister chromatids. You can’t see the
chromosomes very clearly at this point, because they are still in their long, stringy,
decondensed form.

This animal cell has also made a copy of its centrosome, an organelle that will play
a key role in orchestrating mitosis, so there are two centrosomes. (Plant cells generally
don’t have centrosomes with centrioles, but have a different type of microtubule
organizing center that plays a similar role.)

Prophase
In early prophase, the cell starts to break down some structures and build others up,
setting the stage for division of the chromosomes.
●The chromosomes start to condense (making them easier to pull apart later on).

●The mitotic spindle begins to form. The spindle is a structure made of microtubules,
strong fibers that are part of the cell’s “skeleton.” Its job is to organize the chromosomes
and move them around during mitosis. The spindle grows between the centrosomes as
they move apart.

●The nucleolus (or nucleoli, plural), a part of the nucleus where ribosomes are made,
disappears. This is a sign that the nucleus is getting ready to break down.
In late prophase, (sometimes also called prometaphase), the mitotic spindle begins to
capture and organize the chromosomes.
●The chromosomes become even more condensed, so they are very compact.

●The nuclear envelope breaks down, releasing the chromosomes.

●The mitotic spindle grows more, and some of the microtubules start to “capture”
chromosomes.

Microtubules can bind to chromosomes at the kinetochore, a patch of protein found

on the centromere of each sister chromatid. (Centromeres are the regions of DNA
where the sister chromatids are most tightly connected.)
Microtubules that bind a chromosome are called kinetochore microtubules.
Microtubules that don’t bind to kinetochores can grab on to microtubules from the
opposite pole, stabilizing the spindle. More microtubules extend from each centrosome
towards the edge of the cell, forming a structure called the aster.

Metaphase

In metaphase, the spindle has captured all the chromosomes and lined them up at the
middle of the cell, ready to divide.
●All the chromosomes align at the metaphase plate (not a physical structure, just a term
for the plane where the chromosomes line up).
●At this stage, the two kinetochores of each chromosome should be attached to
microtubules from opposite spindle poles.

Before proceeding to anaphase, the cell will check to make sure that all the
chromosomes are at the metaphase plate with their kinetochores correctly attached to
microtubules. This is called the spindle checkpoint and helps ensure that the sister
chromatids will split evenly between the two daughter cells when they separate in the
next step. If a chromosome is not properly aligned or attached, the cell will halt division
until the problem is fixed.

Anaphase

In anaphase, the sister chromatids separate from each other and are pulled towards
opposite ends of the cell.
●The protein “glue” that holds the sister chromatids together is broken down, allowing
them to separate. Each is now its own chromosome. The chromosomes of each pair are
pulled towards opposite ends of the cell.

●Microtubules not attached to chromosomes elongate and push apart, separating the
poles and making the cell longer.

All of these processes are driven by motor proteins, molecular machines that can
“walk” along microtubule tracks and carry a cargo. In mitosis, motor proteins carry
chromosomes or other microtubules as they walk.

Telophase

In telophase, the cell is nearly done dividing, and it starts to re-establish its normal
structures as cytokinesis (division of the cell contents) takes place.
●The mitotic spindle is broken down into its building blocks.

●Two new nuclei form, one for each set of chromosomes. Nuclear membranes and
nucleoli reappear.

●The chromosomes begin to decondense and return to their “stringy” form.

Cytokinesis

Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm to form two new cells, overlaps with the final
stages of mitosis. It may start in either anaphase or telophase, depending on the cell,
and finishes shortly after telophase.

In animal cells, cytokinesis is contractile, pinching the cell in two like a coin purse with a
drawstring. The “drawstring” is a band of filaments made of a protein called actin, and
the pinch crease is known as the cleavage furrow. Plant cells can’t be divided like this
because they have a cell wall and are too stiff. Instead, a structure called the cell plate
forms down the middle of the cell, splitting it into two daughter cells separated by a new
wall.

When cytokinesis finishes, we end up with two new cells, each with a complete set of
chromosomes identical to those of the mother cell. The daughter cells can now begin
their own cellular “lives,” and – depending on what they decide to be when they grow up
– may undergo mitosis themselves, repeating the cycle.
Meiosis is used for just one purpose in the human body: the production of
gametes—sex cells, or sperm and eggs. Its goal is to make daughter cells with exactly
half as many chromosomes as the starting cell.

To put that another way, meiosis in humans is a division process that takes us from a
diploid cell—one with two sets of chromosomes—to haploid cells—ones with a single
set of chromosomes. In humans, the haploid cells made in meiosis are sperm and eggs.
When a sperm and an egg join in fertilization, the two haploid sets of chromosomes
form a complete diploid set: a new genome.

Phases of meiosis
In many ways, meiosis is a lot like mitosis. The cell goes through similar stages and
uses similar strategies to organize and separate chromosomes. In meiosis, however,
the cell has a more complex task. It still needs to separate sister chromatids (the two
halves of a duplicated chromosome), as in mitosis. But it must also separate
homologous chromosomes, the similar but nonidentical chromosome pairs an
organism receives from its two parents.

These goals are accomplished in meiosis using a two-step division process. Homologue
pairs separate during a first round of cell division, called meiosis I. Sister chromatids
separate during a second round, called meiosis II.

Since cell division occurs twice during meiosis, one starting cell can produce four
gametes (eggs or sperm). In each round of division, cells go through four stages:
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Meiosis l
Before entering meiosis I, a cell must first go through interphase. As in mitosis, the cell
grows during G1 phase, copies all of its chromosomes during S phase, and prepares
for division during G2 phase.

Prophase l
The differences from mitosis begin to appear. As in mitosis, the chromosomes begin to
condense, but in meiosis I, they also pair up. Each chromosome carefully aligns with its
homologue partner so that the two match up at corresponding positions along their full
length.

Prophase I is divided into 5 distinctive sub-stages:

●Leptotene – The chromosomes begin to condense and are attached to the nuclear
membrane via their telomeres
●Zygotene – Synapsis begins with a synaptonemal complex forming between
homologous chromosomes
●Pachytene – Crossing over of genetic material occurs between non-sister
chromatids
 ●Diplotene – Synapsis ends with disappearance of synaptonemal complex;
homologous pairs remain attached at chiasmata
●Diakinesis – Chromosomes become fully condensed and nuclear membrane
disintegrates prior to metaphase l.

The process in which homologous chromosomes trade parts is called crossing over.
It's helped along by a protein structure called the synaptonemal complex that holds
the homologues together. The chromosomes would actually be positioned one on top of
the other—as in the image below—throughout crossing over; they're only shown
side-by-side in the image above so that it's easier to see the exchange of genetic
material.

You can see crossovers under a microscope as chiasmata, cross-shaped structures

where homologues are linked together. Chiasmata keep the homologues connected to
each other after the synaptonemal complex breaks down, so each homologous pair
needs at least one. It's common for multiple crossovers (up to 25!) to take place for
each homologue pair.

After crossing over, the spindle begins to capture chromosomes and move them
towards the center of the cell (metaphase plate). This may seem familiar from mitosis,
but there is a twist. Each chromosome attaches to microtubules from just one pole of
the spindle, and the two homologues of a pair bind to microtubules from opposite poles.
So, during metaphase I, homologue pairs—not individual chromosomes—line up at the
metaphase plate for separation.

In anaphase I, the homologues are pulled apart and move apart to opposite ends of the
cell. The sister chromatids of each chromosome, however, remain attached to one
another and don't come apart.
Finally, in telophase I, the chromosomes arrive at opposite poles of the cell. In some
organisms, the nuclear membrane re-forms and the chromosomes decondense,
although in others, this step is skipped—since cells will soon go through another round
of division, meiosis II. Cytokinesis usually occurs at the same time as telophase I,
forming two haploid daughter cells.

Meiosis II
Cells move from meiosis I to meiosis II without copying their DNA. Meiosis II is a shorter
and simpler process than meiosis I, and you may find it helpful to think of meiosis II as
“mitosis for haploid cells."
The cells that enter meiosis II are the ones made in meiosis I. These cells are
haploid—have just one chromosome from each homologue pair—but their
chromosomes still consist of two sister chromatids. In meiosis II, the sister chromatids
separate, making haploid cells with non-duplicated chromosomes.

During prophase II, chromosomes condense and the nuclear envelope breaks down, if
needed. The centrosomes move apart, the spindle forms between them, and the spindle
microtubules begin to capture chromosomes.
The two sister chromatids of each chromosome are captured by microtubules from
opposite spindle poles. In metaphase II, the chromosomes line up individually along the
metaphase plate. In anaphase II, the sister chromatids separate and are pulled towards
opposite poles of the cell.

In telophase II, nuclear membranes form around each set of chromosomes, and the
chromosomes decondense. Cytokinesis splits the chromosome sets into new cells,
forming the final products of meiosis: four haploid cells in which each chromosome has
just one chromatid. In humans, the products of meiosis are sperm or egg cells.

How meiosis "mixes and matches" genes

The gametes produced in meiosis are all haploid, but they're not genetically identical.
For example, take a look the meiosis II diagram above, which shows the products of
meiosis for a cell with 2n = 4 chromosomes. Each gamete has a unique "sample" of the
genetic material present in the starting cell.

The two main reasons we can get many genetically different gametes are:
●Crossing over. The points where homologues cross over and exchange genetic
material are chosen more or less at random, and they will be different in each cell that
goes through meiosis. If meiosis happens many times, as in humans, crossovers will
happen at many different points.

●Random orientation of homologue pairs. The random orientation of homologue

pairs in metaphase I allows for the production of gametes with many different
assortments of homologous chromosomes.

Differences of Prophase 1 and 2

●Meiosis
Prophase 1: Meiosis 1 begins with prophase 1.

Prophase 2: Meiosis 2 begins with prophase 2.

●Interphase
Prophase 1: Prophase 1 follows a long interphase.

Prophase 2: No interphase takes place before prophase 2. Telophase 1 is followed by

prophase 2.

●Centrosome Duplication
Prophase 1: Centrosome is duplicated during the interphase, which is a process prior
to prophase 1.

Prophase 2: Centrosome is duplicated during the prophase 2 due to the lack of an

interphase prior to the prophase 2.
●Involvement of chromosomes
Prophase 1: Homologous chromosomes are involved in the prophase 1.

Prophase 2: Individual chromosomes are involved in the prophase 2.

●Diploid vs Haploid
Prophase 1: Prophase 1 occurs in diploid cells.

Prophase 2: Prophase 2 occurs in haploid cells.

●Plane
Prophase 1: During prophase 1, the spindle apparatus begins to form in the cell
equator.

Prophase 2: During prophase 2, the spindle apparatus is arranged in a plane which is

rotated by 90º relative to the meiosis 1.

●Occurrence of Crossovers
Prophase 1: Occurrence of crossovers and the formation of chiasmata takes place
during prophase 1.

Prophase 2: No crossovers and chiasmata formation is identified in prophase 2.

●Recombination
Prophase 1: Genetic material is exchanged by crossing over leads to the
recombination during the prophase 1.

Prophase 2: No recombination can be identified during prophase 2.

Difference Between Metaphase 1 and 2

●Origin
Metaphase 1: Metaphase 1 is associated with meiosis 1.

Metaphase 2: Metaphase 2 is associated with meiosis 2.

●Arrangement of Chromosomes
Metaphase 1: Tetrads are arranged at the metaphase equator.

Metaphase 2: Single chromosomes are arranged at the metaphase equator.

●Attachment of Chromosomes
Metaphase 1: Microtubules of one pole are attached to kinetochores of one of the two
chromosomes facing to the same pole.

Metaphase 2: Microtubules are attached to the kinetochores of the centromere on

either side of a single chromosome.
Difference Between Anaphase 1 and 2
●Meiosis Phase
Anaphase 1: Anaphase 1 takes place during meiosis 1.

Anaphase 2: Anaphase 2 takes place during meiosis 2.

●Haploid vs Diploid
Anaphase 1: Anaphase 1 occurs in diploid cells.

Anaphase 2: Anaphase 2 occurs in haploid cells.

●Spindle Fibers
Anaphase 1: Two spindle fibers are attached to the centromere of the each
chromosome in the homologous pair.

Anaphase 2: Two spindle fibers are attached to the same centromere of a single
chromosome.

●Separation During the Phases

Anaphase 1: Homologous chromosomes are separated during anaphase 1.

Anaphase 2: Sister chromatids are separated during anaphase 2.

●Splitting of the Centromere

Anaphase 1: The centromeres of each chromosome in the homologous pair remain
untouched.

Anaphase 2: Two sister chromatids are separated by splitting the centromere.

●Anaphase
Anaphase 1: Anaphase 1 is not similar to the anaphase of the mitosis.

Anaphase 2: Anaphase 2 is similar to the anaphase of the mitosis.

●Plane
Anaphase 1: During anaphase 1, homologous chromosomes are arranged in the cell
equator.

Anaphase 2: During anaphase 2, individual chromosomes are arranged in a plane

which is rotated by 90º relative to the anaphase 1.

●Separation of the Cohesin Protein Complex

Anaphase 1: The cohesin proteins at the chromosomal arms are cleaved during the
anaphase 1.

Anaphase 2: The cohesin protein complexes at the centromere are cleaved during the
anaphase 2.
●End Result
Anaphase 1: Chromosomes are present at the opposing poles at the end of the
anaphase 1.

Anaphase 2: Sister chromatids are present at the opposing poles at the end of the
anaphase 2.

Difference Between Telophase 1 and 2

●Occurrence
Telophase 1: Telophase 1 occurs during the meiosis 1.

Telophase 2: Telophase 2 occurs during the meiosis 2.

●Movement
Telophase 1: The movement of separated homologous chromosomes to the opposite
poles of the cell is completed during telophase 1.

Telophase 2: The movement of separated sister chromatids to the opposite poles of

the cell is completed during telophase 2.

●Daughter Nuclei
Telophase 1: Each daughter nuclei formed during the telophase 1 consists of a single
set of chromosomes of the species.

Telophase 2: Each daughter nuclei formed during the telophase 2 consists of a single
set of sister chromatids from each chromosome of the species.

●Correspondence to Telophase in Mitosis

Telophase 1: Telophase 1 is not similar to telophase of mitosis.

Telophase 2: Telophase 2 is similar to telophase of mitosis.