ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Cells: Phases of Cell Cycle and Mitosis

CELL CYCLE

The cell cycle can be thought of as the life cycle of a cell. In other
words, it is the series of growth and development steps a cell
undergoes between its “birth”—formation by the division of a mother
cell—and reproduction—division to make two new daughter cells.

In eukaryotic cells, or cells with a nucleus, the stages of the cell cycle
are divided into two major phases: interphase and the mitotic (M)
phase.
- During interphase, the cell grows and makes a copy of its
DNA.
- During the mitotic (M) phase, the cell separates its DNA into
two sets and divides its cytoplasm, forming two new cells.

Interphase
Preparation for division happens in three steps: In animals, cell division occurs when a band of cytoskeletal fibers called
the contractile ring contracts inward and pinches the cell in two, a process
 G1 phase or Pre-DNA synthesis phase called contractile cytokinesis. The indentation produced as the ring
During G1 phase, also called the first gap phase, the cell grows contracts inward is called the cleavage furrow. Animal cells can be
physically larger, copies organelles, and makes the molecular pinched in two because they’re relatively soft and squishy.
building blocks it will need in later steps.
It is also termed as the “resting phase” as no DNA synthesis Plant cells are much stiffer than animal cells; they’re surrounded by a rigid
cell wall and have high internal pressure. Because of this, plant cells divide
takes place during this phase. Important events like the in two by building a new structure down the middle of the cell. This
transcription of three types of RNAs, synthesis of regulatory structure, known as the cell plate, is made up of plasma membrane and cell
proteins, enzymes required for DNA synthesis, and tubulin wall components delivered in vesicles, and it partitions the cell in two.
proteins along with other mitotic apparatus take place during this
phase. PHASES OF MITOSIS
 S phase or DNA synthesis phase
In S phase, the cell synthesizes a complete copy of the DNA in Mitosis is a type of cell division in which one cell (the mother)
its nucleus. It also duplicates a microtubule-organizing structure divides to produce two new cells (the daughters) that are genetically
called the centrosome. The centrosomes help separate DNA identical to itself. In the context of the cell cycle, mitosis is the part of
during M phase. This phase lasts for about 6-10 hours. the division process in which the DNA of the cell's nucleus is split
 G2 phase or Pre-DNA synthesis phase into two equal sets of chromosomes.
During the second gap phase, the cell grows more, makes
proteins and organelles, and begins to reorganize its contents in During development and growth, mitosis populates an organism’s
preparation for mitosis. Cell division involves the enormous body with cells, and throughout an organism’s life, it replaces old,
expenditure of energy, thus cell stores ATP in G2. G2 phase ends worn-out cells with new ones. For single-celled eukaryotes like yeast,
when mitosis begins. mitotic divisions are actually a form of reproduction, adding new
The G1, S, and G2 phases together are known as interphase. The individuals to the population.
prefix inter- means between, reflecting that interphase takes place
between one mitotic (M) phase and the next. The “goal” of mitosis is to make sure that each daughter cell gets a
perfect, full set of chromosomes. Cells with too few or too many
chromosomes usually don’t function well: they may not survive, or
they may even cause cancer. So, when cells undergo mitosis, they
don’t just divide their DNA at random and toss it into piles for the
two daughter cells. Instead, they split up their duplicated
chromosomes in a carefully organized series of steps.

M Phase Mitosis consists of four basic phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase,

During the mitotic (M) phase, the cell divides its copied DNA and and telophase. These phases occur in strict sequential order, and
cytoplasm to make two new cells. M phase involves two distinct cytokinesis - the process of dividing the cell contents to make two
division-related processes: mitosis and cytokinesis. new cells - starts in anaphase or telophase.
- In mitosis, the nuclear DNA of the cell condenses into visible
chromosomes and is pulled apart by the mitotic spindle, a
specialized structure made of microtubules. Mitosis takes place
in four stages: prophase (sometimes divided into early prophase
and prometaphase), metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
- In cytokinesis, the cytoplasm of the cell is split in two, making
two new cells. Cytokinesis usually begins just as mitosis is
ending, with a little overlap. Importantly, cytokinesis takes place
differently in animal and plant cells.

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 In late prophase (sometimes also called prometaphase), the
mitotic spindle begins to capture and organize the chromosomes.
 The chromosomes become even more condensed, so they are
very compact.
 The nuclear envelope breaks down, releasing the chromosomes.
This cell is in interphase (late G1 phase) and has already copied its  The mitotic spindle grows more, and some of the microtubules
DNA, so the chromosomes in the nucleus each consist of two start to “capture” chromosomes.
connected copies, called sister chromatids (consist of DNA wound
around small proteins called histones). You can’t see the
chromosomes very clearly at this point, because they are still in their
long, stringy, decondensed form.

This animal cell has also made a copy of its centrosome, an organelle
that will play a key role in orchestrating mitosis, so there are two
centrosomes. (Plant cells generally don’t have centrosomes with
centrioles, but have a different type of microtubule organizing
center that plays a similar role.)
Microtubules can bind to chromosomes at the kinetochore, a patch
of protein found on the centromere of each sister chromatid.
(Centromeres are the regions of DNA where the sister chromatids
are most tightly connected.) Microtubules that bind a chromosome
are called kinetochore microtubules. Microtubules that don’t bind
to kinetochores can grab on to microtubules from the opposite
pole, stabilizing the spindle. More microtubules extend from each
centrosome towards the edge of the cell, forming a structure called
the aster.

In early prophase, the cell starts to break down some structures and
build others up, setting the stage for division of the chromosomes.
 The chromosomes start to condense (making them easier to pull
apart later).
 Centrosomes move away to the opposite sides of the cell.
Microtubules extend from the centrosome, forming the mitotic
spindle.
 The mitotic spindle begins to form. The spindle is a structure
made of microtubules, strong fibers that are part of the cell’s
“skeleton.” Its job is to organize the chromosomes and move
them around during mitosis.
 DNA forms loops becoming more compacted, eventually
condensing into two shorter and thicker sister chromatids.
 The nucleolus (or nucleoli, plural), a part of the nucleus where
ribosomes are made, disappears. This is a sign that the nucleus is
getting ready to break down

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 Cells: Phases of Cell Cycle and Mitosis

In metaphase, the spindle has captured all the chromosomes and

lined them up at the middle of the cell, ready to divide.
 All the chromosomes align at the metaphase plate (not a
physical structure, just a term for the plane where the
chromosomes line up).
 At this stage, the two kinetochores of each chromosome should In telophase, the cell is nearly done dividing, and it starts to re-
be attached to microtubules from opposite spindle poles. establish its normal structures as cytokinesis (division of the cell
Before proceeding to anaphase, the cell will check to make sure that contents) takes place.
all the chromosomes are at the metaphase plate with their  The mitotic spindle is broken down into its building blocks.
kinetochores correctly attached to microtubules. This is called  Two new nuclei form, one for each set of chromosomes.
the spindle checkpoint and helps ensure that the sister chromatids Nuclear membranes and nucleoli reappear.
will split evenly between the two daughter cells when they separate in  The chromosomes begin to decondense and return to their
the next step. If a chromosome is not properly aligned or attached, the “stringy” form.
cell will halt division until the problem is fixed.

In anaphase, the sister chromatids separate from each other and are
pulled towards opposite ends of the cell.
 The protein “glue” that holds the sister chromatids together
is broken down, allowing them to separate.
 Each is now its own chromosome.
 The chromosomes of each pair are pulled towards opposite
ends of the cell, pulled along the spindle fibers attached to
them.
 Microtubules not attached to chromosomes elongate and
push apart, separating the poles and making the cell longer.
All of these processes are driven by motor proteins, molecular
machines that can “walk” along microtubule tracks and carry a cargo.
In mitosis, motor proteins carry chromosomes or other microtubules
as they walk.

When cytokinesis finishes, we end up with two new cells, each with a
complete set of chromosomes identical to those of the mother cell.
The daughter cells can now begin their own cellular “lives,” and –
depending on what they decide to be when they grow up – may
undergo mitosis themselves, repeating the cycle.