General tips for proofing

Read it out loud and also silently. Read it backwards to focus on the spelling of words. Read it upside down to focus on typology. Use a spell checker and grammar checker as a first screening, but don't depend on them. Have others read it. Read it slowly. Use a screen (a blank sheet of paper to cover the material not yet proofed). Point with your finger to read one word at a time. Don't proof for every type of mistake at oncedo one proof for spelling, another for missing/additional spaces, consistency of word usage, font sizes, etc. Keep a list of your most common errors (or of the writers you are proofing) and proof for those on separate "trips." If you are editing within Word, use the "track changes" or "mark changes" function to make your comments apparent to other reviewers (additions and deletions can be set to appear in different colors). Print it out and read it. Read down columns in a table, even if you're supposed to read across the table to use the information. Columns may be easier to deal with than rows. Use editor's flags. Put #s in the document where reviewers need to pay special attention, or next to items that need to be double-checked before the final proof print. Do a final search for all # flags and remove them. Give a copy of the document to another person and keep a copy yourself. Take turns reading it out loud to each other. While one of you reads, the other one follows along to catch any errors and awkward-sounding phrases. This method also works well when proofing numbers and codes. First, proof the body of the text. Then go back and proof the headings. Headings are prone to error because copy editors often don't focus on them. Double check fonts that are unusual (italic, bold, or otherwise different). Carefully read type in very tiny font. Be careful that your eyes don't skip from one error to the next obvious error, missing subtle errors in between. Double check proper names. Double check little words: "or," "of," "it," and "is" are often interchanged. Double check boilerplate text, like the company letterhead. Just because it's frequently used doesn't mean it's been carefully checked. Double check whenever you're sure something is rightcertainty is dangerous. Closely review page numbers and other footer/header material for accuracy and correct order.

Editing for content

Ask yourself who, what, when, where, why, and how when reading for content. Does the text answer all the questions you think it should? Highlight the sentences that best answer these questions, just so you can see if the facts flow in logical order. Do the math, do the math, and then do the math again. Somewhere between the screen and the printer 2+2 often becomes 3. Make a list of "bugaboo" words and do a search for them before final proof. Include every swear word, words related to product terminology, and other words that pop up on occasion. Then do a "find" for all these words. Actually do every step in procedures to make sure they are complete, accurate, and in correct order. Count the number of steps a list promises to make sure they are all there. Check that figure numbers match their references in the text and are sequential. Check that illustrations, pictographs, and models are right-side up.

Preparing yourself to proof or edit

Write at the end of the day; edit first thing in the morning. (Usually, getting some sleep in between helps.) Listen to music or chew gum. Proofing can be boring business and it doesn't require much critical thinking, though it does require extreme focus and concentration. Anything that can relieve your mind of some of the pressure, while allowing you to still keep focused, is a benefit. Don't use fluorescent lighting when proofing. The flicker rate is actually slower than standard lighting. Your eyes can't pick up inconsistencies as easily under fluorescent lighting. Spend a half-hour a month reviewing grammar rules. Read something else between edits. This helps clear your head of what you expect to read and allows you to read what really is on the page. Make a list of things to watch fora kind of "to do" listas you edit.
Copyright 1999, LR Communication Systems, Inc. A

Introduction Great writing probably requires genius. Good writing, though, which in this age of imprecision is rare enough to pass for great, merely requires the ability to edit. I no longer even attempt to teach writing, since my students have been taught it for so many years with such dubious results. Instead, I encourage them to pick up a copy of Strunk and Whites Elements of Style, still the best and shortest book about writing, and any respectable handbook of grammar. Thus equipped, they can engage in grammatical calisthenics that flex what needs flexing and burn off linguistic fat. Then I point out that writing well is largely the result of a long-term commitment to living with the written word--to carving out a space in life for actual reading, then becoming comfortable with a variety of good writers, from Sophocles and Jane Austen to the essayists in Harpers and Forbes. Meanwhile, nobody beyond the fourth grade needs to be taught to write. Once a person grasps the idea of a sentence, writing things down flows naturally from the necessity to communicate (notes to classmates, birthday invitations, graffiti). A persons abilities may remain crude for a lifetime, but that person still knows how to write. As the demands become more sophisticated (papers, correspondence, proposals), most people, especially those who go through high school and college, manage to cover large quantities of paper with ink. These men and women all know how to write. What they generally dont know well enough is how to edit: how to transform impressions into effective communications. The following ten tips thus constitute an appendix (or homage) to Strunk and White. Together with a short-term grammar review and a long term diet of good books, these admonitions should help most people develop habits that will allow them to pass for good writers.

I Use the Active Voice This advice is so obvious and so frequently repeated in writing texts that it seems silly to give it here. Yet from twenty-five years of teaching writing I must say that for most writers the simple expedient of changing verbs from passive to active voice is the quickest route to improvement. For example, one of my graduate students in management once wrote: This study has been conducted in response to your directive of 15 February. This study was initiated because of the poor sales performance of our product over the past two fiscal quarters.

Here the writer used two passive voice constructions: "has been conducted" and "was initiated." Grammatically there is nothing wrong with doing this, and the pattern probably asserted itself unconsciously, as the writer attempted to achieve an air of professionalism. If we were to change the passive voice to active, the passage might look like this: In response to your directive of 15 February, we have conducted a study to determine the reasons for our products poor performance over the last two quarters. Here "has been conducted" has become "we have conducted," and "was initiated," which was redundant anyway, is gone. Thus when we went from passive to active, we pruned excess words, eliminated some repetition, and indicated who was responsible for action. In addition to sounding pompous, the passive voice hides agency (obscures the blame for some administrative crime), as in "it was determined that health benefits would be cut by 50%." Yet in spite of these defects, it would be foolish to argue that we should eradicate all passives from the English language, because sometimes it doesnt matter who the agent is, as in "women are now considered equal to men, politically and intellectually." The point here is that a writer should think twice before using the passive voice. Most of the time it leads to sin, while the active voice leads to the direct, energetic, prose which constitutes a writers salvation.

II Ration prepositions. Prepositions are the carbohydrates of English prose. We couldnt manage without them (of English prose, without them). A sentence overloaded with prepositional phrases, though, is like a meal of pasta, potatoes, and rice. To entertain my students I sometimes embark [on an endless sentence] [with a series] [of prepositional phrases] [in increments] [of syllables] [within which] the meaning stalls [in frustration] [without hope] [of emerging] [from limbo] [without violence} . . . . This unfinished monologue creeps like an inch worm, happy to be cut off after any prepositional phrase, but willing to stretch out indefinitely, or until someone screams. The attraction of prepositions is that they are so all-purpose and bland that they are often the first words to come to mind. The problem is that when they are overused they anesthetize the reader. If we return to the revised passage above, we see some prepositional phrases that survived the first edit: [In response] [to your directive] [of 15 February], we have conducted a study to determine the reasons [for our products poor performance] [over the last two quarters].

Although this sentence is grammatically correct, the prepositional phrases pile up monotonously. We might revise it further: [On February 15th] you asked us to determine why our product has performed so poorly [over the last two quarters]. According to the study we have just completed, . . . This revision reduces the number of prepositional phrases. In the process it adds two active voice verbs (asked, has performed), one of which (has performed) is reclaimed from the noun performance (see Tip V below). More importantly, we now have a focused introduction to the central idea of the memo (not stated here). Prepositions, then, innocuous enough individually, or even in small numbers, tempt us to rely too much on one pattern. They also pander to a writers tendency to ramble. Because they accumulate so gradually, they are rarely respected enough as culprits.

III Avoid trailing modifiers. My endless sentence above peters out in prepositions instead of ending with punch. This is a bad idea, according to Strunk and White, who point out that the ends of sentences, paragraphs, and essays are always prominent (32-33). Thus they create opportunities for emphasis, as in the following sentence from the conclusion of The Elements of Style: The young writer should learn to spot . . . words that at first glance seem freighted with delicious meaning but that soon burst in air, leaving nothing but the memory of bright sound (83-84). Strunk and White could have ended this sentence with "nothing but the memory of sound ringing brightly, without substance or any redeeming qualities whatsoever." They knew better, because modifying phrases which labor the obvious are always inferior to a concise noun or verb.

IV Avoid "to be." I am we are you are you are he/she/it is they are

" To be" is the imperialist verb. It tyrannizes over the next two sentences in this paragraph. As long as "to be" is around, no other verb is really necessary. If "invade" is in the sentence, for example, "to be" is quickly there to tell us that there was an invasion. Thus "invade" becomes a noun, and "to be" shops for another verb to displace. "To be" is especially attractive because it is so easy to use, requiring the writer to master only one verb. Since it converts all other verbs into nouns, it also invites writers to pile up prepositions. After all, prepositions give "to be" the green light to transform competitors into nouns, since they can be disposed of in prepositional phrases. "The Normans conquered the English" becomes "The English were the defeated army in the Norman Conquest." Hardly a sentence goes by without "to be" making an appearance, if not directly (is, were), then indirectly, as a helping verb (is growing), or in disguise as "seems," "appears," or "becomes." Consider this sentence: The purpose of this study was to confirm or discredit the rumor that our product is becoming out-of-style. Here "to be" shows up directly (was), indirectly as a helper (is becoming), and in disguise (becoming). We could revise the sentence: We designed this study to confirm or discredit the rumor that our product lacks style. This revision replaces "to be" with active verbs (designed, lacks). It also saves words. Like prepositions, "to be" is indispensable yet dangerous, precisely because we cant resist overusing it.

V Liberate verbs from the bondage of nominalization. If active verbs promote good writing, it is never too late to join the quest to liberate them not just from the passive voice, or "to be," but from the nouns that imprison them: The implementation of this study was initiated as a result of our discovery of the poor sales performance of our running shoes. Here, "implement," "discover," and "perform" are held hostage while "was" imperializes this sentence, abetted by a preposition (of) and the passive voice (initiated). We can liberate them: When we discovered that shoe sales were lagging, we decided to study why.

In this revision only "discover" survives, but it leads to two other active verbs (lagging, decided) once we edit in favor of verbs rather than nouns. As writing becomes more specialized it becomes more difficult to liberate verbs from their imprisoning nouns. From the world of academia (matriculation, nominalizaton, subjectification) to science (experimentation, calibration), to law (documentation, legalization), to business (prioritization, implementation), these nouns proliferate like fruit flies. For a writer, the difficulty lies not in the mechanics of converting nouns to verbs (confiscation to confiscate, implementation to implement), but in the stubbornness of jargonmongers, all of whom consider their own specialized vocabularies to be vital "terms of art." In some cases, as in law, the writer has no choice but to use the exact statutory terms; "reasonable suspicion" must not be confused with "probable cause," and in an appellate brief either term might be repeated fifty times for the sake of precision. We are awed by the knights and high priests of the judicial system, who wield these words to imprison, to liberate, or to move mountains of wealth. Thus we find it difficult to defend writing sentences that people will want to read, or that a variety of people with different backgrounds might need to read, or that unforseen future minds might want to consult. Yet if the writer is bold enough to engage in this battle against tedium and obscurity, keeping an eye on nouns will help, because so many of them are verbs just waiting to be set free.

VI Avoid repeating vocabulary and grammatical structures. This tip arises naturally out of the first five, especially those dealing with jargon, the passive voice, prepositions, and "to be." Nothing (besides incoherence) alienates a reader quicker than repetition. Look again at the first example above: This study has been conducted in response to your directive of 15 February. This study was initiated because of the poor sales performance of our product over the past two fiscal quarters. Both sentences begin with the same subject (This study), both use passive voice verbs (has been conducted, was initiated), and both peter out in prepositions (in, to, of, over). By the second revision we edited out these repetitive words and structures. This process left us free to use grammar to emphasize logic.

VII Use subordination to clarify logical connections. When it comes time to edit, we are all like Adam in Eden: choice is everything, and by our choices we define ourselves. We are free to revise any given sentence a number of

ways, some better than others, and there is no one best revision that we can call perfect. Within this context rich in moral ambiguities, how should we proceed? For guidance we turn again to Strunk and White, who give this wise advice: craft sentences that "best represent the real relations of the thought" (26). Thus, among the many legitimate choices open to an editor, we need to select the words that best express the logical connections between ideas. Because we are all a little lazy, however, we tend to build sentences merely by stacking up independent clauses, with "and" and "but" as convenient mortar: Sales fell short, and we abandoned the project. Sales fell short, but we completed the project. Here we can "show the real relations of thought" by using grammar to emphasize cause and effect: Once sales fell short, we abandoned the project. Despite poor sales, we completed the project. Two equally poised independent clauses joined by "and" or "but" give way to one independent clause describing the action taken, preceded by a subordinate clause giving the reason for the action, or emphasizing that there were reasons for the decision. Thus grammar reinforces meaning. Of course there are times when "and" and "but" are perfectly appropriate, because two things are in some sense equal: State-run labs will accredit wood stoves, and the EPA will certify the labs. The point here is that by using syntax to clarify logical relationships writers turn the game of grammar from "how to avoid mistakes" to "how to help the reader understand."

VIII Exploit parallel constructions. The attentive reader might think that this tip contradicts Tip VI, which cautions against repetition. There is a difference, though, between accidental repetition, the product of inexperience or laziness, and intentional repetition, the product of craft. When President Kennedy said, "Ask not what your country can do for you, but what you can do for your country," he was exploiting the power of parallel construction. Martin Luther King, Jr., demonstrated a similar ability in his "Letter from Birmingham Jail:"

An unjust law is a code that a numerical or power majority group compels a minority group to obey but does not make binding on itself. This is difference made legal. By the same token, a just law is a code that a majority compels a minority to follow and that it is willing to follow itself. This is sameness made legal. Notice how the verbal and structural repetitions (unjust law/just law, law is a code, majority compels, does not make binding/is willing to follow, difference made legal/sameness made legal) make a relatively sophisticated network of ideas about justice easier to follow. This is the great virtue of parallel structure: it allows a writer to indicate relationships clearly and economically, thus saving words and helping the reader digest complex ideas. The more complex the information, the more useful parallel structures become. On a more mundane level, parallel constructions are especially useful in introductions: Before the negotiators could formulate a rule, they needed to establish a standard of emissions, specify a deadline for compliance, and create a procedure for wood stove testing. Here the parallel verbs (establish, specify, create) introduce and organize the discussion to follow. Parallel structures also help technical writers make data more palatable: Oregons standard of 4 grams/hour for catalytic stoves and 9 grams/hour for non-catalytic stoves seemed like a good compromise. These structures also clarify conclusions: This agreement favors the EPA, because it reduces emission levels nationwide, takes immediate effect, and saves the taxpayers money. Of course, early efforts to master parallel structure may prove incomplete: Heated mattress pads are popular because they can be turned on to heat up a bed, turned off at bedtime, and keep the bed warm throughout the night.

Here the structure breaks down when two passive voice verbs (turned on, turned off) are followed by an active verb (keep), breaking the established pattern. Since the last (and problematic) phrase really belongs to "turned off," we can edit the sentence: Heated mattress pads are popular because they can be turned on to heat up the bed and off at bed time, without losing much heat during the night.

Like any tool, parallel structure can be misused or overused. In general, though, it is the editors friend.

IX Place modifiers next to the words they modify. Another piece of obvious advice, though easier to give than to follow. Strunk and White offer an example we should all memorize, because only is the most slippery word in the English language. Perhaps one time in ten it starts out in the right place: He only found two mistakes. He found only two mistakes (30). The literal meaning of the first statement is hard to pin down. Is it that he found two mistakes, but he made others, or that he only found two mistakes, but he found and corrected others? The second version of the statement is clearer because the editor moved only to a position next to the word it modifies. Every rough draft, no matter how skilled the writer, contains misplaced modifiers, with results that are often ludicrous. "All the members were not present" needs to be revised to "not all the members were present" (Strunk and White 30), unless the secretary is reporting on a meeting that no one, including the secretary, attended. Although it is extremely easy to misplace modifying words or phrases, it is also relatively easy to retrieve them, once a writer becomes vigilant. Anyone who takes time to do this will find a rich pay-off in precision.

X Throw out any sentence that does not flow logically from the previous one, lead logically to the next one, or sound right. Here the skeptical reader might accuse me of trying to weasel out of my promise to stop at ten tips. This is not the case. I end with logic, because it is the key to good writing, and with the ear, because whatever logic misses the ear may catch. If one sentence does not lead logically to the next, no amount of "therefores" or "howevers" can patch them together. Perhaps the greatest single benefit of the word processor is that it makes it so easy for us to move words, sentences, or paragraphs, so that logic, the DNA of analysis, can unfold as effectively as possible. Sometimes I think that writing involves less creating than listening to what was just created, so that the finished product becomes merely the inevitable outcome of the first thought. In this process, we need to listen for more than logic, because sometimes our minds fail to explain errors that our ears can detect. Or, to put it differently, it is less important to

name the problem than to find a solution. Thus the final test belongs to the ear. If after all corrective surgery a sentence sounds bad when read out loud, get rid of it and write a new one.

Conclusion Writing is like any skill. It improves with practice--in this case, with writing, revision, and exposure to good models. The ten tips listed here should help develop strategies that will eventually become habits. Thus equipped, ordinary human beings should be able to nurture editing abilities until what once seemed like a wasteland of choppy, imprecise, enervated locutions becomes, if not a garden of delight, at least a well-tended park. Given the litter that blights the contemporary landscape, this modest achievement might pass for genius.

Improve Your Writing with these Editing Tips

November 2 by Dustin Wax | 55 Comments and 0 Reactions | Communication, Featured | Tags: business, Communication, editing, howto, student, writing Ads by Google

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Teachers, business people, and just about everyone else it seems complain often and loudly that people today (usually kids today) dont know how to write. Im convinced, though, that a big part of the problem (perhaps the biggest part of the problem) is that people dont know how to edit. We labor under the notion that good writing flows easily from the pen or typing fingers, and that editing too much will kill our work. The best writers know differently, of course their memoirs and biographies and writing manuals are filled with stories of books that needed to be cut in half to be readable, sentences that took weeks or months to get just right, and lifetimes spent tinkering with a single work that never strikes them as just right. To paraphrase a common saying among writers, there is no good writing, only good re-writing. But if writing isnt taught well enough or often enough these days, editing is hardly taught at all. This is too bad, since editing is where the real work of writing is at. More than just proofreading, good editing improves the clarity and forcefulness of a piece. Heres some tips and tricks to help you make your writing more effective:

Read out loud: Reading a piece out loud helps you to identify clunky, awkward passages that seem to make sense to the eye, especially to the authors eye. Read in reverse: You may have heard about reading backwards, word by word, to help proofread. This works because you bypass your brains tendency to fill in what it expects to see, allowing you to catch spelling errors you might otherwise gloss over. This is useless, though, when it comes to content, where meaning comes from phrases and word order. Instead, read from back to front, sentence by sentence (or maybe paragraph by paragraph, or both) to make sure that each sentence and each paragraph is internally coherent that it makes sense on its own. Sleep on it: Wait at least a night, and preferably longer, before starting your editing. Ideally, you want to forget what you wrote, so that again your brain doesnt see what it expects to see but only sees whats really there. A lot of times we make logical errors that make sense at the time, because our minds are filled with ideas, examples, and arguments related to our topic; when we approach our writing with a clear mind, though, those mental connections are gone, and only what weve actually written counts. Cut, dont add: We are almost always too wordy. While you may need to add a word or two while editing, for the most part you should be removing words. Concise writing is more powerful and easier to read than lengthy prose. Justify yourself: Every point, statement, question, joke, even every word should have a reason to be in your piece; if it doesnt, strike it. Be harsh if a word or phrase does not add value to your writing, get rid of it. Establish cognizance of pretentious language usages and eliminate such material: That is, watch for fancy words and cut them. Inexperienced writers often ape the language of academia, or rather the language they imagine academia uses. Even if youre in academia, dont use academic writing as a model. While there is a time and place for jargon, for the most part jargon exists to exclude readers, not include them. For most readers, the language of journalists is a much

more appropriate model and that means aiming for at best a smart eighthgraders reading level. Throw out and get rid of unnecessary redundancies you dont need: This applies in both sentences and the work as a whole. In high school, you might have learned to say it, say it again, and then say what you said; for most readers, this is a waste of their time and an insult to their intelligence; in the end, theyll just tune you out. Say it clearly the first time, then move on. Kill unsightly adverbs: Some adverbs are fine, but usually they serve only to pad out a statement that doesnt need padding. For example: He ran quickly. It is in the nature of running to be quick. If theres something unusual about his running (perhaps he ran slowly), then mention it; if not, just say he ran and trust your readers to know what running means. Passive sentences are to be avoided: Beware of the use of to be and its conjugations (is, was, were, are, am). These often indicate a passive sentence, where the subject is acted upon instead of acting. Passivity makes for weak, unconvincing writing. Passivity is often the hallmark of someone trying to weasel out of something: Mistakes were made assigns no blame, while I made a mistake tells the world youre taking responsibility. It does not convey the action, it only suggests the effect. So avoid passive sentences.

Good editing, like good writing (or, better, as part of good writing), is an art. It takes time and practice to develop a real talent for editing, but the end result is worth it your writing will be more alive, more effective, and ultimately more likely to be read. And that is, after all, whats important: that your audience reads and

Top Ten Editing Tips for Business Writers

The Secret to Writing Effective Emails, Letters, Reports, and Proposals
By Richard Nordquist, About.com Guide

Filed In: 1.
Writing Tips

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Editing Proofreading Business Writing Skills Photo and Video Editing English Grammar Editing

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Freelance writing editingMake Money Freelance Writing. Freelance courses. Free prospectus.www.BritishCollegeofJournalism.com Bid ScienceUsing psychology and linguistics to write winning bidswww.bidscience.co.uk Question: What's the secret to writing effective emails, letters, reports, and proposals? Answer: Why, all you have to do is follow the four Cs: Be clear, concise, considerate, and correct. Whether you're writing a two-line email or a ten-page report, anticipate the needs of your readers and remember the four Cs. Question: Is it really that simple? Answer: Well, no, not really. Like life itself, writing can sometimes be messy, frustrating, hard. But you can make your working life a little easier by editing with these principles in mind. Here are ten quick editing tips for on-the-job writers.

1.

Adopt the "you attitude." This means looking at a topic from the point of view of our readers, emphasizing what they want or need to know. Draft: I have requested that your order be sent out today. Revision: You will receive your order by Wednesday.

2.

Focus on the real subject. Don't bury a key word by dropping it into a phrase following a weak subject. Draft: The implementation of the new marketing campaign will begin on June 1. Revision: The new marketing campaign will begin on June 1.

3.

Write actively, not passively. Wherever it's appropriate, put your subject up front and make it do something. The active voice generally works better than the passive because it's more direct, more concise, and easier to understand. (But not always.) Draft: Your proposal was reviewed at our meeting on April 1, and it was immediately submitted to the developers. Revision: We reviewed your proposal on April 1 and immediately submitted it to the developers.

4.

Cut unnecessary words and phrases. Wordy expressions may distract readers, so cut the clutter. Draft: I am writing this note because I want to thank you very much for organizing the open house that was held last Thursday. Revision: Thank you very much for organizing last Thursday's open house.

5.

But don't leave out key words. To be clear as well as concise, we sometimes need to add a word or two.

Draft: The storage shed is the first step. Revision: Unlocking the storage shed is the first step.

6.

And don't forget your manners. Here's where being considerate comes in. If you say "please" and "thank you" when talking with colleagues, include those words in your emails as well. Draft: Send me the jargon report before you head home. Revision: Please send me the jargon report before you head home.

7.

Avoid outdated expressions. Unless you enjoy sounding stuffy in print, stay away from words and phrases that are never used in conversation--"attached herewith," "this is to advise you," "as per your request." Draft: Attached herein for your reference is a duplicated version of the aforementioned deed. Revision: I have enclosed a copy of the deed.

8.

Put a cap on the buzzwords. Trendy expressions tend to wear out their welcome fast. For proof, see 200 Words and Expressions That Tick You Off. Draft: At the end of the day the bottom line is that we should facilitate opportunities for employees to provide input on best practices. Revision: Let's encourage people to make suggestions.

9.

Unstack your modifiers. Stacking means piling up modifiers before a noun--the verbal equivalent of a traffic jam. Long noun strings may save a word or two, but they may also puzzle our readers. Draft: Space telescope wide-field planetary camera instrument definition team ground based charged-couple-device camera (from New Scientist, cited by Matthew Lindsay Stevens in Subtleties of Scientific Style, 2007) Revision: Huh?

10.

And, of course, proofread. Finally, there's correctness: see Top Ten Proofreading Tips. Draft: When you're in a hurry, it's very easy to leave words. Revision: When you're in a hurry, it's very easy to leave out words

Top Ten Proofreading Tips

How to Proofread Effectively
By Richard Nordquist, About.com Guide

Filed In: 1.
Writing Tips

Mark Twain on the cover of Time magazine, July 14, 2008 (Portrait by Michael J. Deas)

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Proofreading Grammar Errors Grammar Spelling Proofreading and Editing English Grammar

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What Really Attracts Men9 Ugly Mistakes Women Make That Men Find Totally Unattractive.www.CatchHimAndKeepHim.com Proofreading and editingTop quality proofreading/editing service with a personal touchvjpservices.co.uk Hear what Mark Twain had to say on the subject of proofreading, and then consider our ten tips for proofreading effectively. The difference between the almost-right word & the right word is really a large matter--it's the difference between the lightning-bug & the lightning. Mark Twain's well-known observation appears at the top of the "Language/Writing" page of a university's continuing education website--just above a blurb for "Mistake-Free Grammar & Proofreading." Except that Twain's line is misquoted, and the word lightning is twice misspelled as lightening. Twain himself had little patience for such errors. "In the first place God made idiots," he once wrote. "This was for practice. Then he made proof-readers." Yet as an old newspaper reporter, Twain knew full well how hard it is to proofread effectively. As he said in a letter to Walter Bessant in February 1898:

You think you are reading proof, whereas you are merely reading your own mind; your statement of the thing is full of holes & vacancies but you don't know it, because you are filling them from your mind as you go along. Sometimes--but not often enough--the printer's proof-reader saves you--& offends you--with this cold sign in the margin: (?) & you search the passage & find that the insulter is right--it doesn't say what you thought it did: the gasfixtures are there, but you didn't light the jets. No matter how carefully we examine a text, it seems there's always one more little blunder waiting to be discovered. Ten Tips for Proofreading Effectively There's no foolproof formula for perfect proofreading every time. As Twain realized, it's just too tempting to see what we meant to write rather than the words that actually appear on the page or screen. But these 10 tips should help you see (or hear) your errors before anybody else does.

1.

Give it a rest. If time allows, set your text aside for a few hours (or days) after you've finished composing, and then proofread it with fresh eyes. Rather than remember the perfect paper you meant to write, you're more likely to see what you've actually written. 2. Look for one type of problem at a time. Read through your text several times, concentrating first on sentence structures, then word choice, then spelling, and finally punctuation. As the saying goes, if you look for trouble, you're likely to find it. 3. Double-check facts, figures, and proper names. In addition to reviewing for correct spelling and usage, make sure that all the information in your text is accurate. 4. Review a hard copy. Print out your text and review it line by line: rereading your work in a different format may help you catch errors that you previously missed. 5. Read your text aloud. Or better yet, ask a friend or colleague to read it aloud. You may hear a problem (a faulty verb ending, for example, or a missing word) that you haven't been able to see. 6. Use a spellchecker. The spellchecker can help you catch repeated words, reversed letters, and many other common errors--but it's certainly not goofproof. 7. Trust your dictionary. Your spellchecker can tell you only if a word is a word, not if it's the right word. For instance, if you're not sure whether sand is in a desert or a dessert, visit the dictionary (or our Glossary of Commonly Confused Words). 8. Read your text backward. Another way to catch spelling errors is to read backward, from right to left, starting with the last word in your text. Doing this will help you focus on individual words rather than sentences. 9. Create your own proofreading checklist. Keep a list of the types of mistakes you commonly make, and then refer to that list each time you proofread. 10. Ask for help. Invite someone else to proofread your text after you have reviewed it. A new set of eyes may immediately spot errors that you've overlooked. Now, if you're ready to put these proofreading tips to the test, practice your skills at

Arthur Quiller-Couch on Style: "Whenever you feel an impulse to perpetrate a piece of exceptionally fine writing, obey it--wholeheartedly--and delete it before sending your manuscript to press. Murder your darlings."

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Editing English Grammar Grammar Exercises Correct Grammar Sentences Writing

After revising an essay (perhaps several times) until we're satisfied with its basic content and structure, we still need to edit our work. In other words, we need to examine our sentences to make sure that each one is clear, concise, forceful, and free of mistakes. Use this checklist as a guide when editing paragraphs and essays.

1. 2.

Is each sentence clear and complete?

Can any short, choppy sentences be improved by combining them? 3. Can any long, awkward sentences be improved by breaking them down into shorter units and recombining them? 4. Can any wordy sentences be made more concise?

5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Can any run-on sentences be more effectively coordinated or subordinated? Does each verb agree with its subject? Are all verb forms correct and consistent? Do pronouns refer clearly to the appropriate nouns?

Do all modifying words and phrases refer clearly to the words they are intended to modify? 10. Is each word in the essay appropriate and effective?

11.

Is each word spelled correctly?

12.

Is the punctuation correct?

End Punctuation: Periods, Question Marks, and Exclamation Points

By Richard Nordquist, About.com Guide

Filed In: 1.
Punctuation & Mechanics

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English Grammar Proper Grammar Grammar Rules Grammar Exercise Correct Grammar Sentences

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Low Cost Coach HirePrivate Coach Hire Service. All Sizes. Call now 0845 4598 000.www.coachbookersuk.com Spelling grammar checkAvoid Spelling Mistakes with Free Spell Checker - Download for Free! www.DictionaryBoss.com In a Time magazine essay titled "In Praise of the Humble Comma," Pico Iyer nicely illustrated some of the various uses of punctuation marks: Punctuation, one is taught, has a point: to keep up law and order. Punctuation marks are the road signs placed along the highway of our communication--to control speeds, provide directions, and prevent head-on collisions. A period has the unblinking finality of a red light; the comma is a flashing yellow light that asks us only to slow down; and the semicolon is a stop sign that tells us to ease gradually to a halt, before gradually starting up again. Odds are that you probably already recognize the road signs of punctuation, though now and then you might get the signs confused. Probably the best way to understand punctuation is to study the sentence structures that the marks accompany (as we do in the Basic Grammar pages). Here, beginning with the end marks (periods, question marks, and exclamation points), we'll review the conventional uses of punctuation in American English.

End Punctuation A sentence may end with a period (.), a question mark (?), or an exclamation point (!). Use a period at the end of a sentence that makes a statement. We find this principle at work in each of Inigo Montoya's sentences in this speech from the movie The Princess Bride: I was eleven years old. And when I was strong enough, I dedicated my life to the study of fencing. So the next time we meet, I will not fail. I will go up to the six-fingered man and say, "Hello. My name is Inigo Montoya. You killed my father. Prepare to die." Notice that a period goes inside a closing quotation mark. Use a question mark after direct questions, as in this exchange from the same movie: The Grandson: Is this a kissing book? Grandpa: Wait, just wait. The Grandson: Well, when does it get good? Grandpa: Keep your shirt on, and let me read. However, at the end of indirect quotations (that is, reporting someone else's question in our own words), use a period instead of a question mark: The boy asked if there was kissing in the book. Now and then we may use an exclamation point at the end of a sentence to express strong emotion. Consider Vizzini's dying words in The Princess Bride: You only think I guessed wrong! That's what's so funny! I switched glasses when your back was turned! Ha ha! You fool! You fell victim to one of the classic blunders! The most famous is never get involved in a land war in Asia, but only slightly less well-known is this: never go in against a Sicilian when death is on the line! Ha ha ha ha ha ha ha! Ha ha ha ha ha ha ha! Clearly (and comically), this is an extreme use of exclamations. In our own writing, we should be careful not to deaden the effect of the exclamation point by overworking it.

Top Four Guidelines for Using Commas Effectively

By Richard Nordquist, About.com Guide

Filed In: 1.
Grammar & Composition

In a Time magazine essay, "In Praise of the Humble Comma," author Pico Iyer compares the comma to "a flashing yellow light that asks us only to slow down." But when do we need to

flash that light, and when is it better to let the sentence ride on through without interruption? Here we'll consider four main guidelines for using commas effectively. But keep in mind that these are only guidelines: there are no unbreakable rules for using commas--or any other marks of punctuation. 1. Use a Comma Before a Coordinator Use a comma before a coordinator (and, but, yet, or, nor, for, so) that links two main clauses: "The optimist thinks that this is the best of all possible worlds, and the pessimist knows it." (Robert Oppenheimer) "You may be disappointed if you fail, but you are doomed if you don't try." (Beverly Sills) However, do not use a comma before a coordinator that links two words or phrases: "Jack and Diane sang and danced all night."

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But don't use commas to set off words that directly affect the essential meaning of the sentence: "Your manuscript is both good and original. But the part that is good is not original, and the part that is original is not good." (Samuel Johnson) Also see the discussion of restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses at Building Sentences with Adjective Clauses.

Creating Sentences With Commas

A Sentence Imitation Exercise
By Richard Nordquist, About.com Guide

Filed In: 1.
Punctuation & Mechanics

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Grammar Exercise Sentences Correct Grammar Sentences English Practice Punctuation Practice

This sentence-imitation exercise will give you practice in applying our Top Four Guidelines for Using Commas Effectively. Instructions Use each of the four sentences below as the model for a new sentence of your own. Your new sentence should follow the guidelines in parenthesis and use the same number of commas as in the original. Example: The younger children spent the afternoon at Chuck E. Cheese, and the others went to the ball game. (Guideline: Use a comma before a coordinator--and, but, yet, or, nor, for, so--that links two main clauses.)

Sample sentences: a) Vera cooked the roast beef, and Phil baked a pumpkin pie. b) Tom ordered steak, but the waiter brought Spam.

Model 1: I rang the bell and pounded on the door, but no one answered. (Guideline: Use a comma before a coordinator--and, but, yet, or, nor, for, so--that links two main clauses; do not use a comma before a coordinator that links two words or phrases.) Model 2: I sent Elaine a basket full of apricots, mangoes, bananas, and dates. (Guideline: Use commas to separate words, phrases, or clauses that appear in a series of three or more.) Model 3: Because the storm had knocked out the electricity, we spent the evening telling ghost stories on the porch. (Guideline: Use a comma after a phrase or clause that precedes the subject of the sentence.) Model 4: Merdine LeVoid, who has never voted in her life, is running for the post of county commisioner. (Guideline: Use a pair of commas to set off nonessential words, phrases, or clauses--also called nonrestrictive elements--that interrupt a sentence.)

How to Use the Semicolon

By Richard Nordquist, About.com Guide

Filed In: 1.
Punctuation & Mechanics

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English Grammar Grammar Rules Correct Grammar Sentences Punctuation Usage Proper Grammar

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Printable CouponsLike to Go Out? Join Now & Save Up to 90% at Your Favorite Activitieswww.kgbdeals.co.uk How To Write A WillCall today and get the peace of mind that making a will brings! propertywide.co.uk/wills There are those who have a prejudice against the semicolon; personally I find it a very useful stop. (G. V. Carey, Mind the Stop, 1958) Stronger than a comma, less forceful than a period (or full stop): put simply, that's the nature of the semicolon. It's a mark, Lewis Thomas has said, that offers "a pleasant little feeling of expectancy; there is more to come." But be advised: not all writers and editors are fans of the semicolon, and its use has been on the decline for well over a century. Copy chief Bill Walsh calls the semicolon "an ugly bastard" (Lapsing Into a Comma, 2000), and Kurt Vonnegut has said that the only reason to use it is "to show you've been to college." Such expressions of contempt are nothing new. Consider what grammarian Justin Brenan had to say about the semicolon back in 1865: One of the greatest improvements in punctuation is the rejection of the eternal semicolons of our ancestors. . . . In latter times, the semicolon has been gradually disappearing, not only from the newspapers, but from books--insomuch that I believe instances could now be produced, of entire pages without a single semicolon. (Composition and Punctuation Familiarly Explained, Virtue Brothers, 1865) In our time, entire books--and websites--can be found "without a single semicolon." So what's responsible for the declining popularity of the mark? In her book Instant-Answer Guide to Business Writing (Writers Club Press, 2003), Deborah Dumaine offers one explanation: As readers require information in segments that are shorter and easier to read, semicolons are becoming a less desirable form of punctuation. They encourage overlong sentences that slow down both reader and writer. You can virtually eliminate semicolons and still be a fine writer. Another possibility is that some writers simply don't know how to use the semicolon correctly and effectively. And so for the benefit of those writers, let's examine its three main uses.

1.

Use a semicolon between closely related main clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet).

In most cases, we mark the end of a main clause (or sentence) with a period. However, a semicolon may be used instead of a period to separate two main clauses that are closely connected in meaning or that express a clear contrast. Examples:

"I never vote for anyone; I always vote against." (W. C. Fields) "Life is a foreign language; all men mispronounce it." (Christopher Morley) "I believe in getting into hot water; it keeps you clean." (G. K. Chesterton) "Management is doing things right; leadership is doing the right things." (Peter Drucker) In each of these examples, a period could be used instead of the semicolon, though the effect of balance might be diminished. Also, because in each case the two clauses are short and contain no other marks of punctuation, a comma might replace the semicolon. Strictly speaking, however, that would result in a comma splice, which would trouble some readers (and teachers and editors).

2. Use a semicolon between main clauses linked by a conjunctive adverb (such

as however and therefore) or transitional expression (such as in fact or for example). Examples:

"Words rarely express the true meaning; in fact they tend to hide it." (Hermann Hesse) "It is forbidden to kill; therefore, all murderers are punished unless they kill in large numbers and to the sound of trumpets." (Voltaire) "The fact that an opinion has been widely held is no evidence whatever that it is not utterly absurd; indeed, in view of the silliness of the majority of mankind, a widespread belief is more likely to be foolish than sensible." (Bertrand Russell) "Science in the modern world has many uses; its chief use, however, is to provide long words to cover the errors of the rich." (G.K. Chesterton) As the last example demonstrates, conjunctive adverbs and transitional expressions are movable parts. Although they commonly appear in front of the subject, they may also show up later in the sentence. But regardless of where the transitional term makes its appearance, the semicolon (or, if you prefer, the period) belongs at the end of the first main clause.

3. Use a semicolon between items in a series when the items themselves

contain commas or other marks of punctuation.

Ordinarily items in a series are separated by commas, but replacing them with semicolons can minimize confusion if commas are needed in one or more of the items. This use of the semicolon is especially common in business and technical writing. Examples:

The sites being considered for the new Volkswagen plant are Waterloo, Iowa; Savannah, Georgia; Freestone, Virginia; and Rockville, Oregon. Our guest speakers will be Dr. Richard McGrath, professor of economics; Dr. Beth Howells, professor of English; and Dr. John Kraft, professor of psychology. There were other factors, too: the deadly tedium of small-town life, where any change was a relief; the nature of current Protestant theology, rooted in Fundamentalism and hot with bigotry; and, not least, a native American moralistic blood lust that is half historical determinism, and half Freud." (Robert Coughlan) The semicolons in these sentences help readers recognize the major groupings and make sense of the series. Note that in cases such as these, semicolons are used to separate all the items.

Review Exercise: Using Commas and Semicolons Correctly

Pasta
By Richard Nordquist, About.com Guide

Filed In: 1.
Punctuation & Mechanics

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Pasta Punctuation Usage Gluten Free Pasta Punctuation Practice Grammar Exercises

Note: To view this exercise without ads, click on the print icon near the top of the page. This exercise offers practice in applying the rules for using commas and semicolons correctly. Before attempting the exercise, you may find it helpful to review these three pages:

Guidelines for Using Commas Effectively How to Use the Semicolon Semicolons, Colons, and Dashes

Throughout the following two paragraphs, you will find a number of empty paired brackets: [ ]. Replace each set of brackets with a comma or a semicolon, keeping in mind that the primary use of a semicolon is to separate two main clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction. When you are done, compare your work with the correctly punctuated versions of the two paragraphs on page two.

Exercise: Pasta Pasta[ ] a large family of shaped[ ] dried wheat pastes[ ] is a basic staple in many countries. Its origins are obscure. Rice pastes were known very early in China[ ] pastes made of wheat were used in India and Arabia long before they were introduced into Europe in the 11th or 12th century. According to legend[ ] Marco Polo brought a pasta recipe with him from Asia in 1295. Pasta quickly became a major element in the Italian diet[ ] and its use spread throughout Europe. Pasta is made from durum wheat flour[ ] which makes a strong[ ] elastic dough. Hard durum wheat has the highest wheat protein value. The flour is mixed with water[ ] kneaded to form a thick paste[ ] and then forced through perforated plates or dies that shape it into one of more than 100 different forms. The macaroni die is a hollow tube with a steel pin in its center[ ] the spaghetti die lacks the steel pin and produces a solid cylinder of paste. Ribbon pasta is made by forcing the paste through thin slits in a die[ ] shells and other curved shapes are produced with more intricate dies. The shaped dough is dried carefully to reduce the moisture content to about 12 percent[ ] and properly dried pasta should remain edible almost indefinitely. Pastas can be colored with spinach or beet juice. The addition of egg produces a richer[ ] yellower pasta that is usually made in noodle form and is often sold undried. When you are done, compare your work with the correctly punctuated versions of the two paragraphs on page two.

Review Exercise: Using Commas and Semicolons Correctly (page two)

By Richard Nordquist, About.com Guide

Filed In: 1.
Punctuation & Mechanics

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English Grammar Proper Grammar Grammar Exercises Grammar Rules Pasta

(Continued from Page 1)

Here are the two paragraphs that served as the model for the punctuation exercise on page one. Original Paragraphs: Pasta Pasta, a large family of shaped, dried wheat pastes, is a basic staple in many countries. Its origins are obscure. Rice pastes were known very early in China; pastes made of wheat were used in India and Arabia long before they were introduced into Europe in the 11th or 12th century. According to legend, Marco Polo brought a pasta recipe with him from Asia in 1295. Pasta quickly became a major element in the Italian diet, and its use spread throughout Europe. Pasta is made from durum wheat flour, which makes a strong, elastic dough. Hard durum wheat has the highest wheat protein value. The flour is mixed with water, kneaded to form a thick paste, and then forced through perforated plates or dies that shape it into one of more than 100 different forms. The macaroni die is a hollow tube with a steel pin in its center; the spaghetti die lacks the steel pin and produces a solid cylinder of paste. Ribbon pasta is made by forcing the paste through thin slits in a die; shells and other curved shapes are produced with more intricate dies. The shaped dough is dried carefully to reduce the moisture content to about 12 percent, and properly dried pasta should remain edible almost indefinitely. Pastas can be colored with spinach or beet juice. The addition of egg produces a richer, yellower pasta that is usually made in noodle form and is often sold undried.

Guidelines for Using Semicolons, Colons, and Dashes

By Richard Nordquist, About.com Guide

Filed In:

1.

Punctuation & Mechanics

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Colon Correct Grammar Sentences Nissan Dash Dash Mats Dash Board

Sponsored Links
Printable CouponsLike to Go Out? Join Now & Save Up to 90% at Your Favorite Activitieswww.kgbdeals.co.uk dissertation editingFor effective editing and reading by an experienced editorthewordprocess.net Some joker once observed that the semicolon is "a comma that has gone to college." Maybe that explains why so many writers try to avoid the mark: too highfalutin, they think, and a little old fashioned to boot. As for the colon--well, unless you're a surgeon, that one sounds downright scary. The dash, on the other hand, frightens nobody. As a result, many writers overwork the mark, using it like a chef's knife to slice and dice their prose. The result can be pretty unappetizing. In fact, all three marks of punctuation--the semicolon, the colon, and the dash--can be effective when used sparingly. And the guidelines for using them are not especially tricky. So let's consider the primary jobs carried out by each of these three marks. Semicolons (;) Use a semicolon to separate two main clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction: Those who write clearly have readers; those who write obscurely have commentators. We can also use a semicolon to separate main clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb (such as however, consequently, otherwise, moreover, nevertheless): A great many people may think that they are thinking; however, most are merely rearranging their prejudices. Basically, a semicolon (whether followed by a conjunctive adverb or not) serves to coordinate two main clauses. For a more detailed discussion of this mark, see How to Use the Semicolon. Colons (:) Use a colon to set off a summary or a series after a complete main clause:

It is time for the baby's birthday party: a white cake, strawberry-marshmellow ice cream, and a bottle of champagne saved from another party. (Joan Didion) Notice that a main clause does not have to follow the colon; however, a complete main clause generally should precede it. Dashes (--) Use a dash to set off a short summary after a complete main clause: At the bottom of Pandora's box lay the final gift--hope. We may also use a pair of dashes in place of a pair of commas to set off words, phrases, or clauses that interrupt a sentence with additional--but not essential--information: In the great empires of antiquity--Egypt, Babylon, Assyria, Persia--splendid though they were, freedom was unknown. Unlike parentheses (which tend to de-emphasize the information contained between them), dashes are more emphatic than commas. And dashes are particularly useful for setting off items in a series that are already separated by commas. These three punctuation marks--semicolons, colons, and dashes--are most effective when used sparingly. Some writers, such as novelist Kurt Vonnegut, Jr., would prefer to do away with the semicolon altogether: Here is a lesson in creative writing. First rule: Do not use semicolons. They are transvestite hermaphrodites representing absolutely nothing. All they do is show you've been to college. But that sounds a bit extreme. Just do as I say, please, and not as I've done on this page: don't overwork these three marks of punctuation. PRACTICE: Creating Sentences with Semicolons, Colons, and Dashes Use each sentence below as the model for a new sentence. Your new sentence should follow the accompanying guidelines and use the same punctuation contained in the model. Model 1: Levin wanted friendship and got friendliness; he wanted steak and they offered Spam. (Bernard Malamud, A New Life) Guideline: Use a semicolon to separate two main clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction. Model 2: Your essay is both good and original; however, the part that is good is not original, and the part that is original is not good. Guideline: Use a semicolon to separate main clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb. Model 3: There are three choices in this life: be good, get good, or give up. (Dr. Gregory House, House, M.D.) Guideline: Use a colon to set off a summary or a series after a complete main clause. Model 4: The fortune teller reminded us that there is only one thing we can count on for sure--total

uncertainty. Guideline: Use a dash to set off a short summary after a complete main clause. Model 5: Our labors in life--learning, earning, and yearning--are also our reasons for living. Guideline: For the sake of clarity or emphasis (or both), use a pair of dashes to set off words, phrases, or clauses that interrupt a sentence.

Creating Sentences With Semicolons, Colons, and Dashes

A Sentence Imitation Exercise
By Richard Nordquist, About.com Guide

Filed In: 1.
Punctuation & Mechanics

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Exercise Correct Grammar Sentences English Grammar Exercise Sentence Check Sentence Structure

This sentence-imitation exercise will give you practice in applying our guidelines for using Semicolons, Colons, and Dashes. Instructions Use each of the five sentences below as the model for a new sentence of your own. Your new sentence should follow the guidelines in parenthesis and use the same punctuation contained in the model. Example: There are three ingredients in the good life: learning, earning, and yearning. (Guideline: Use a colon to set off a summary or a series after a complete main clause.) Sample sentences: a) I introduced my three best friends: Winken, Blinken, and Nod.

b) Merdine assigned chores to the children: wash the dog, sweep the porch, empty the litter box, and clean the garage.

Model 1: The days were hot and dry; the nights were extremely cold. (Guideline: Use a semicolon to separate two main clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction.) Model 2: We have visited New York City several times; however, we have never seen the Statue of Liberty. (Guideline: Use a semicolon to separate main clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb, such as however, consequently, otherwise, moreover, or nevertheless.) Model 3: I divide all readers into two classes: those who read to remember and those who read to forget. (Guideline: Use a colon to set off a summary or a series after a complete main clause.) Model 4: Danny could play the one musical instrument that no one wanted to listen to--the bagpipes. (Guideline: Use a dash to set off a short summary after a complete main clause.) Model 5: Our three children--Moe, Larry, and Curly--have decided to enter show business. (Guideline: For the sake of clarity, use a pair of dashes in place of a pair of commas to set off words, phrases, or clauses that interrupt a sentence with additional--but not essential-information.)

Points of Separation

Guidelines for Using Apostrophes Correctly

By Richard Nordquist, About.com Guide

Filed In: 1.
Grammar & Composition

The apostrophe may be the simplest and yet most frequently misused mark of punctuation in English. Here we'll review six guidelines for using the mark correctly. 1. Use an Apostrophe to Show the Omission of Letters in a Contraction Use the apostrophe to form contractions:

I'm (I am) you're (you are) he's (he is) she's (she is) it's* (it is)

we're (we are) they're (they are) isn't (is not) aren't (are not) can't (cannot) don't (do not) who's (who is) won't (will not)

Be careful to place the apostrophe where the letter or letters have been omitted, which is not always the same place where the two words have been joined. * Don't confuse the contraction it's (meaning, "it is") with the possessive pronoun its:

It's the first day of spring. Our bird has escaped from its cage.

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Harold's crayon my daughter's First Communion Sylvia Plath's poetry Dylan Thomas's poetry today's weather report the boss's problem Star Jones's talk show Victoria Beckham's husband

3. Use an Apostrophe Without -s for Possessives of Most Plural Nouns To form the possessive of a plural noun that already ends in -s, add an apostrophe:

the girls' swing set (the swing set belonging to the girls) the students' projects (the projects belonging to the students) the Johnsons' house (the house belonging to the Johnsons)

If the plural noun does not end in -s, add an apostrophe plus -s:

the women's conference (the conference belonging to the women) the children's toys (the toys belonging to the children) the men's training camp (the training camp belonging to the men)

4. Use an Apostrophe with -s When Two or More Nouns Possess the Same Thing

When two or more nouns possess the same thing, add an apostrophe plus -s to the last noun listed:

Ben and Jerry's Cherry Garcia Ice Cream Emma and Nicole's school project (Emma and Nicole worked together on the same project) When two or more nouns separately possess something, add an apostrophe to each noun listed:

Tim's and Marty's ice cream (Each boy has his own ice cream.) Emma's and Nicole's school projects (Each girl has her own project.)

5. Do Not Use an Apostrophe with Possessive Pronouns Because possessive pronouns already show ownership, it's* not necessary to add an apostrophe:

yours his hers its* ours theirs

However, we do add an apostrophe plus -s to form the possessive of some indefinite pronouns:

anybody's guess one's personal responsibility somebody's wallet

* Don't confuse the contraction it's (meaning, "it is") with the possessive pronoun its:

It's the first day of spring. Our bird has escaped from its cage.

6. Generally, Do Not Use an Apostrophe to Form a Plural As a general rule, use only an -s (or an -es) without an apostrophe to form the plurals of nouns--including dates, acronyms, and family names:

Markets were booming in the 1990s. The tax advantages offered by IRAs make them attractive investments. The Johnsons have sold all of their CDs.

To avoid confusion, we may occasionally need to use apostrophes to indicate the plural forms of certain letters and expressions that are not commonly found in the plural:

Mind your p's and q's. Let's accept the proposal without any if's, and's, or but's.

RELATED BLOG POST: The Long Campaign to Abolish the Apostrophe

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Basic Rules of Punctuation Apostrophe Exercise: Combining Sentences with Possessive Nouns Review Exercise: Punctuating Sentences Correctly

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Introduction to Sentence Combining

By Richard Nordquist, About.com Guide

Filed In: 1.
English Grammar

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Assignment Help & AdviceTop Quality Help, Advice & Support by the UK based Oxbridge graduateswww.universityworks.co.uk 11+ Exam Preparation11+ Online tests & download papers Free sample papers, hints & tipswww.11PlusSwot.co.uk This exercise will introduce you to sentence combining--that is, organizing sets of short, choppy sentences into longer, more effective ones. However, the goal of sentence combining is not to produce longer sentences but rather to develop more effective sentences--and to help you become a more versatile writer. Sentence combining calls on you to experiment with different methods of putting words together. Because there are countless ways to build sentences, your goal is not to find the one "correct" combination but to consider different arrangements before you decide which one is the most effective. An Example of Sentence Combining Let's consider an example. Start by looking at this list of eight short (and repetitive) sentences:

She was our Latin teacher. We were in high school. She was tiny. She was a birdlike woman. She was swarthy. She had dark eyes. Her eyes were sparkling. Her hair was graying.

Now try combining those sentences into three, two, or even just one clear and coherent sentence: in the process of combining, omit repetitive words and phrases (such as "She was") but keep all of the original details. Have you succeeded in combining the sentences? If so, compare your work with these sample combinations:

Our Latin teacher in high school was a tiny woman. She was swarthy and birdlike. She had dark, sparkling eyes and graying hair. When we were in high school, our Latin teacher was a tiny woman. She was swarthy and birdlike, with dark, sparkling eyes and graying hair. Our high school Latin teacher was a swarthy, birdlike woman. She was tiny, with dark, sparkling eyes and graying hair.

Our Latin teacher in high school was a birdlike woman, tiny and swarthy, with graying hair and dark, sparkling eyes. Remember, there's no single correct combination. In fact, there are usually several ways to combine sentences in these exercises. After a little practice, however, you'll discover that some combinations are clearer and more effective than others. If you're curious, here is the sentence that served as the original model for this little combining exercise: Our high school Latin teacher was a tiny, birdlike woman, swarthy, with sparkling dark eyes, graying hair. (Charles W. Morton, It Has Its Charm) An unusual combination, you might say. Is it the best version possible? As we'll see in later exercises, that question can't be answered until we look at the combination in the context of the sentences that precede and follow it. Nevertheless, certain guidelines are worth keeping in mind as we evaluate our work in these exercises. Evaluating Sentence Combinations After combining a set of sentences in a variety of ways, you should take time to evaluate your work and decide which combinations you like and which ones you don't. You may do this evaluation on your own or in a group in which you will have a chance to compare your new sentences with those of others. In either case, read your sentences out loud as you evaluate them: how they sound to you can be just as revealing as how they look. Here are six basic qualities to consider when you evaluate your new sentences:

1. 3. 4. 6.

Meaning. As far as you can determine, have you conveyed the idea intended by the original author? 2. Clarity. Is the sentence clear? Can it be understood on the first reading? Coherence. Do the various parts of the sentence fit together logically and smoothly? Emphasis. Are key words and phrases put in emphatic positions (usually at the very end or at the very beginning of the sentence)? 5. Conciseness. Does the sentence clearly express an idea without wasting words? Rhythm. Does the sentence flow, or is it marked by awkward interruptions? Do the interruptions help to emphasize key points (an effective technique), or do they merely distract (an ineffective technique)? These six qualities are so closely related that one can't be easily separated from another. The significance of the various qualities--and their interrelationship--should become clearer to you as you practice the combining exercises on this site. Exercises in Sentence Building and Combining at About.com Grammar & Composition The sentence building and combining exercises here at Grammar & Composition encourage students to experiment with different methods of putting words together:

Sentence Building Exercises focus on particular grammatical structures in isolated sentences. Sentence Combining & Paragraph Building Exercises (sometimes called wholediscourse exercises) provide similar practice within the context of paragraphs and short essays. Because there are countless ways to construct sentences, the goal is not to find the one "correct" combination but to consider different arrangements before deciding which one is most effective. To begin developing your skills in sentence building and combining, follow these links:

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Introduction to Sentence Combining

By Richard Nordquist, About.com Guide

Filed In: 1.
English Grammar

Sponsored Links
Plain English ServicesTraining and editing services for the public and private sectors.www.scpr.co.uk

TELL ME MORE SoftwareOfficial Site - Save 14% with coupon code Bastillewww.tellmemorestore.co.uk Assessing Pupil ProgressTry a free APP masterclass for Reading AF5 at Level 4-5www.smartlearning.co.uk Grammar & Composition Ads

English Grammar Grammar Exercises Correct Grammar Sentences Grammar Videos Grammar Help

Sponsored Links
Assignment Help & AdviceTop Quality Help, Advice & Support by the UK based Oxbridge graduateswww.universityworks.co.uk 11+ Exam Preparation11+ Online tests & download papers Free sample papers, hints & tipswww.11PlusSwot.co.uk This exercise will introduce you to sentence combining--that is, organizing sets of short, choppy sentences into longer, more effective ones. However, the goal of sentence combining is not to produce longer sentences but rather to develop more effective sentences--and to help you become a more versatile writer. Sentence combining calls on you to experiment with different methods of putting words together. Because there are countless ways to build sentences, your goal is not to find the one "correct" combination but to consider different arrangements before you decide which one is the most effective. An Example of Sentence Combining Let's consider an example. Start by looking at this list of eight short (and repetitive) sentences:

She was our Latin teacher. We were in high school. She was tiny. She was a birdlike woman. She was swarthy. She had dark eyes. Her eyes were sparkling. Her hair was graying.

Now try combining those sentences into three, two, or even just one clear and coherent sentence: in the process of combining, omit repetitive words and phrases (such as "She was") but keep all of the original details. Have you succeeded in combining the sentences? If so, compare your work with these sample combinations:

Our Latin teacher in high school was a tiny woman. She was swarthy and birdlike. She had dark, sparkling eyes and graying hair.

When we were in high school, our Latin teacher was a tiny woman. She was swarthy and birdlike, with dark, sparkling eyes and graying hair. Our high school Latin teacher was a swarthy, birdlike woman. She was tiny, with dark, sparkling eyes and graying hair. Our Latin teacher in high school was a birdlike woman, tiny and swarthy, with graying hair and dark, sparkling eyes. Remember, there's no single correct combination. In fact, there are usually several ways to combine sentences in these exercises. After a little practice, however, you'll discover that some combinations are clearer and more effective than others. If you're curious, here is the sentence that served as the original model for this little combining exercise: Our high school Latin teacher was a tiny, birdlike woman, swarthy, with sparkling dark eyes, graying hair. (Charles W. Morton, It Has Its Charm) An unusual combination, you might say. Is it the best version possible? As we'll see in later exercises, that question can't be answered until we look at the combination in the context of the sentences that precede and follow it. Nevertheless, certain guidelines are worth keeping in mind as we evaluate our work in these exercises. Evaluating Sentence Combinations After combining a set of sentences in a variety of ways, you should take time to evaluate your work and decide which combinations you like and which ones you don't. You may do this evaluation on your own or in a group in which you will have a chance to compare your new sentences with those of others. In either case, read your sentences out loud as you evaluate them: how they sound to you can be just as revealing as how they look. Here are six basic qualities to consider when you evaluate your new sentences:

1. 3. 4. 6.

Meaning. As far as you can determine, have you conveyed the idea intended by the original author? 2. Clarity. Is the sentence clear? Can it be understood on the first reading? Coherence. Do the various parts of the sentence fit together logically and smoothly? Emphasis. Are key words and phrases put in emphatic positions (usually at the very end or at the very beginning of the sentence)? 5. Conciseness. Does the sentence clearly express an idea without wasting words? Rhythm. Does the sentence flow, or is it marked by awkward interruptions? Do the interruptions help to emphasize key points (an effective technique), or do they merely distract (an ineffective technique)? These six qualities are so closely related that one can't be easily separated from another. The significance of the various qualities--and their interrelationship--should become clearer to you as you practice the combining exercises on this site. Exercises in Sentence Building and Combining at About.com Grammar & Composition

The sentence building and combining exercises here at Grammar & Composition encourage students to experiment with different methods of putting words together:

Sentence Building Exercises focus on particular grammatical structures in isolated sentences. Sentence Combining & Paragraph Building Exercises (sometimes called wholediscourse exercises) provide similar practice within the context of paragraphs and short essays. Because there are countless ways to construct sentences, the goal is not to find the one "correct" combination but to consider different arrangements before deciding which one is most effective. To begin developing your skills in sentence building and combining, follow these links: Sentence Building Exercises:

1. What Is Sentence Combining and How Does It Work? 2. Sentence Building With Adjectives and Adverbs 3. Sentence Building With Prepositional Phrases 4. Sentence Building With Coordinators 5. Sentence Building With Adjective Clauses 6. Sentence Building With Appositives 7. Sentence Building With Adverb Clauses 8. Sentence Building With Participial Phrases 9. Sentence Building With Absolutes 10. Sentence Building With Noun Phrases and Noun Clauses
Sentence Combining Exercises:

1. What Is Sentence Combining and How Does It Work? 2. New York Is a City of Things Unnoticed 3. Martha's Departure 4. Nervous Norman 5. The San Francisco Earthquake 6. Rolling Along With Mr. Bill 7. Out of the Ice Age 8. How Teachers Make Children Hate Reading 9. Kazin's Kitchen 10. Mrs. Bridge 11. My Home of Yesteryear 12. Orwell's "A Hanging" 13. Sentence Recombining: Steinbeck's Flood
Sentence Building
Sentence Building with Adjectives & Adverbs

Sentence Building with Prepositional Phrases Sentence Building with Absolutes

Sentence Combining
Sentence Combining: "New York Is a City of Things Unnoticed" Sentence Combining: "The San Francisco Earthquake" Sentence Combining: Orwell's "A Hanging"

Grammar Basics
Basic Sentence Structures Basic Parts of Speech What Is Sentence Combining and How Does It Work?

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