Observational Research———573

Researchers are often positioned as advocates who are than through categories that have been predetermined
indeed presenting a credible, trustworthy depiction of by the researcher. Observational research assumes
a people, condition, or phenomenon, but doing it from behavior is purposeful, reflecting deeper values and
a real, contextualized, involved position. Data are not, beliefs. Although it may be conducted in a laboratory or
then, presented as subjectively emanating from the another setting chosen by the researcher, it more typi-
researchers’ whimsies; rather, they authentically, pur- cally takes place in natural settings to capture behavior
posefully, and contextually emerge from the dynamic as it occurs in the real world. It usually involves direct
intersection of researchers’ and research participants’ contact between the researcher and participants though
unique identities, beliefs, ideas, passions, and actions. indirect data collection methods such as audio- or video-
recording may also be used. Qualitative observational
Peter Miller
research is exploratory. It seeks to uncover unantici-
See also Reflexivity; Reliability; Validity
pated phenomena. It uses inductive reasoning with the
conceptual constructs used to account for observations
being developed during and after data collection from
Further Readings the observed behavior itself. Qualitative observational
research uses idiographic rather than nomothetic causal
Kvale, S. (1996). InterViews: An introduction to qualitative explanation. It is constructivist in approach, emphasiz-
research interviewing. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
ing meanings that the participants attach to activities
and events. Qualitative observational research recog-
nizes the subjective role of the researcher. It acknowl-
edges reactivity to be inevitable on the part of both the
OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH observed and the observer and seeks to address and
understand this through researcher reflexivity.
Observation is one of the oldest and most fundamental Qualitative observational research is associated
research method approaches. It involves collecting with a number of theoretical traditions and broad
impressions of the world using all of one’s senses, espe- research methodologies including ethnomethodology,
cially looking and listening, in a systematic and pur- grounded theory, dramaturgy, institutional ethnogra-
poseful way to learn about a phenomenon of interest. phy, and participatory action research.
Although frequently employed on its own, observa-
tional research is often used with other methods such as
interviewing and document analysis. Both quantitative
Methods: Doing Observational Research
and qualitative researchers, and those working some-
where along the continuum between these two The Research Process
approaches, use observation. More quantitative observa-
Observational research, like any research, begins
tion is often referred to as systematic or structured
with the selection of a research problem. This problem
observation and more qualitative approaches include
is often presented as an area of research interest, with
naturalistic observation, nonstructured observation, and
more specific research questions being articulated
participant observation. This entry focuses on qualita-
after more is learned through observation in the field.
tive observational research. It begins by relating some of
Although some researchers prefer to enter the field
the characteristics of qualitative observation, goes on to
and begin observation immediately without the poten-
describe the method or doing of observation, explores
tial blinders of preconceived notions, many conduct a
the issues of the role of the observer and ethical con-
literature search to identify relevant indicators and
cerns, and closes with overviews of the strengths and
explanatory concepts that may inform the project.
weaknesses of this methodological approach.
Researchers gather both descriptive and relational
data through observing behavior in the setting of
interest. Findings are articulated, often with an
Characteristics of Qualitative
explanatory model or one or more explanatory theo-
Observational Research
retical constructs, in reports of the research.
Qualitative observational research attempts to capture Qualitative observation is characterized by an
life as experienced by the research participants rather emergent research design. This designs involves a
574———Observational Research

cyclical process, moving back and forth between observing. While writing up fieldnotes, observers
inductive and deductive reasoning: Themes are identi- often have insights about what has been observed, and
fied through the analysis of observed behavior; these are recorded as theoretical or analytical field-
these themes suggest areas for focusing subsequent notes. Researchers also keep track of conditions in the
observation; subsequent observations suggest new setting, their own state of mind, attention span, and
themes that then initiate more observations. Data col- other variables that might affect the process of obser-
lection continues until saturation, the point at which vation. These records are referred to as either method
the observer learns nothing new from continued fieldnotes or a reflexive journal. Fieldnotes are the
observation. core data log for analysis in observational research.

What Is Observed Researcher Roles in Observation

Observation is holistic in its approach, with The role adopted by the researcher is important in
researchers collecting data about many aspects of the that it constrains what can be observed. Several
research setting and its participants. Researchers pay schemes have been developed to describe these roles.
attention to the actors or participants in a setting, col- Raymond L. Gold’s typology, dating from the late
lecting sociodemographic (e.g., age, gender, educa- 1950s and commonly used, is based on the degree that
tion, class) and descriptive (e.g., dress and stature) the researcher participates in the setting, ranging from
information, trying to determine who the people are. complete observer (no interaction between the
Acts, activities, and events are observed and recorded observer and the observed) through observer as par-
to discover what people do and with whom, what is ticipant, participant as observer, and complete partici-
happening, and if there are any trends and patterns dis- pant. More recently, some researchers have asserted
cernible in these activities. Observers attend to what that all observers participate in a setting in some way
people say, the words they use, accounts and explana- and prefer to use the term membership, varying from
tions they give of their behavior, and the personal and peripheral through active to full membership to
social meanings and the attitudes and beliefs that are describe researcher roles. The purpose of an observa-
revealed through their talk. Relationships between tion study, the characteristics of the observer, and the
people, both individually and within groups and nature of the setting all contribute to the choice of an
between people and groups of people and organiza- appropriate research role. For example, in a study of
tions, are explored. Characteristics of the physical set- the work of a nursery school teacher conducted on site
ting, including the objects found in it, are noted. Where in an actual nursery school by an adult male
possible and often through the collection and examina- researcher, it may be best for the observer to adopt the
tion of documents, information is gathered about the research role of complete observer or peripheral mem-
history of the phenomenon of interest and the research bership to remain relatively nonobtrusive and to not
setting. Observers attend to mundane, everyday disrupt the normal flow of activities. In presenting the
details, believing that what is actually happening is findings of observation research, it is important that
often evident in what might be seen to be trivial and the researcher role and its entailments in the particu-
taken for granted. Through observation practices such lar research setting be described.
as these, researchers strive to identify broad trends and
patterns of behavior.
Ethical Issues in Observational Research
A number of ethical issues are associated with observa-
Fieldnotes
tional research. Of major concern is the use of decep-
Data are most frequently recorded in the form of tion by the researcher. Practicing covert observation,
fieldnotes. From initial jottings made during observa- assuming a false role, or misleading participants about
tion, researchers develop full fieldnotes usually within the research in other ways may (depending on the cir-
24 hours of data collection while memory is still cumstances) violate the principle of informed consent;
strong. Fieldnotes always include written descriptions due care and attention must be paid to ethical issues in
of what was observed and may also contain maps, dia- these cases. Researchers must maintain confidential-
grams, and documents or other objects gathered while ity, both protecting the identity of participants and
 Observational Research———575

refusing to reveal sensitive information gathered during when researchers channel both their observation and
the research process that could harm the individuals interpretation of data through what they know.
involved. Researchers must be inclusive, realistically Strategies to reduce observer bias include maintaining
representing the voices of all participants in a research reflective journals that actively examine this issue;
setting. Key informants and gatekeepers may block prolonged engagement in the field that allows for dis-
access to the less powerful, and ways to bypass them covery of unanticipated phenomena; triangulation of
must be found. Member checking helps to ensure data sources, researchers and methods; negative case
that participant’s accounts and meanings are authen- analysis; member checking; peer debriefing; and pro-
tic. Observational methods are often used for explor- viding thick descriptions of what was observed.
ing deviant behavior. Researchers may observe or Novice researchers may not have the experience and
participate in illegal or deviant behavior as part of the skill to be effective observers. They need training and
data gathering process. This behavior can result in especially apprenticeship, as the best way to learn is
what is called guilty knowledge and presents the ethi- by actually doing observation.
cal dilemma of whether or not this behavior should be Recently, researchers working from a postmod-
reported to police or health or other authorities to pro- ernist perspective have questioned the desirability and
tect and help participants and the community. feasibility of objectivity in observational research and
point to a number of factors that inevitably threaten
objectivity. They maintain the researcher’s situation
Strengths of Observational Research (e.g., gender, class, and ethnicity) must be fully
Qualitative observation, with its flexible and emergent understood as it acts as a lens through which observa-
research design, is effective for exploring topics about tion is conducted. They assert there will always be
which little is known. It is well suited to the study of multiple accounts of what is happening depending on
social processes over time. The rich descriptions it who is describing an event and that no single account
generates can result in deeper, fuller understanding of may be privileged over another. Postmodernist
phenomena. It is particularly powerful when com- researchers argue for thinking of observation as a
bined with other methods such as interviewing. Most context for interaction among those involved in the
forms of qualitative observational research are rela- research, as collaboration between the researcher and
tively unobtrusive and therefore nonreactive and able the participants.
to generate highly trustworthy data. Finally, observa- Lynne E. F. McKechnie
tional research is well suited to both the discovery of
new information (theory generation) and the valida- See also Naturalistic Observation; Nonparticipant
tion of existing knowledge (theory confirmation). Observation; Participant Observation; Structured
Observation; Unstructured Observation
Weaknesses of Observational Research
Observation is not suited to all research inquiries. Not Further Readings
all phenomena, such as cognitive processes, can be
Adler, P. A., & Adler, P. (1987). Membership roles in field
directly observed. Infrequently occurring acts are dif-
research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
ficult to capture even with prolonged time spent in the
Adler, P. A., & Adler, P. (2000). Observational techniques. In
field. Observation requires a substantial amount of N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of
time and other resources and is usually tied to one qualitative research (2nd ed., pp. 377–392).Thousand
specific place, raising issues related to the transfer- Oaks, CA: Sage.
ability of findings to other settings. Repeated observa- Angrosino, M. V., & Mays de Pérez, K. A. (2000).
tions in a number of settings and thick descriptions of Rethinking observation. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln
what was observed that help readers determine how (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (2nd ed.,
transferable findings are to other settings help to pp. 673–702). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
address this problem. Baker, L. M. (2006). Observation: A complex research
As observation is very dependent on the ability of method. Library Trends, 55(1), 171–189.
the observer (reflected in the idea of researcher-as- Gold, R. (1958). Roles in sociological field
instrument), it is subject to observer bias that occurs observation. Social Forces, 36, 217–223.