ALKALOIDS

BPUT NOTES  Alkaloids are basic nitrogen containing compound obtained from plant,animal and
microorganism having marked physiological action.
ON  Term alkaloids was coined by Meissner in 1819.
 Term alkaloids are derived from “alkali like” they are basic in nature, they contain one or
UNIT – II more nitrogen atom (usually in heterocyclic ring).

SEMESTER 5TH PROPERTIES

 Most of alkaloids are basic in reaction due to the availability of lone pair of electron on
SUBJECT – PHARMACOGNOSY AND PHYTOCHEMISTRY nitrogen.
 The alkaloid contain one or more number of nitrogen and it may exist in the form as
CODE – BP504T  Primary amine – Mascaline
 Secondary amine – Ephedrine
 Tertiary amine – Atropine
 Quarternary amine – Tubocurarine Chloride
 Alkaloids one colorless, crystalline, non-volatile, solid and bitter in taste.
 Alkaloids are generally optically active, among the leavo isomers are more active.
Optically inactive are – Papavarine, Atropine
CHEMICAL TEST FOR ALKALOIDS :
Table-1

S.NO. Reagent Observation

1 Mayer’s Reagent Creamy precipitate
(Pottassium mercuric iodide solution)
PREPARED BY 2 Wagner’s reagent Reddish brown precipitate
(Potassium triiodide solution)
SUJIT KUMAR PATRO
3 Dragendroff’s reagent Reddish brown precipitate
ASST. PROFESSOR, R.I.P.S, BAM (Potassium bismuth iodide solution)
4 Hager’s reagent(Picric acid) Yellow precipitate
BPUT REGD. NO. – T160326701 5 Sonnenschein’s reagent Precipitate
(Phospomolybdic acid)
6 Scheibler’s reagent Precipitate
(Phospotungstic acid)
7 Tannic acid test Precipitated the alkaloid
8 Ammonia reineckae test Pink precipitate
(Saturated solution of ammonia reinecket)
9 Murexide test Purple color and when added
(Caffeine + Hcl +Kcl3) alkali color loss
10 Colchicine + Mineral acid Yellow color

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 11 Van Urk’s test (Ehrlich Reagent) Blue color  Both bark and wood contains abundant starch.
(Ergot powder + p-dimethyl aminobenzal dehyde)  Xylem is entirely lignified.
VINCA  Sclerenchyma is absent
 Tetrastichious arrangement present.
Synonym : Periwinkle, Sadabahar
Biological source : Vinca is obtained from dried whole plant of Cataranthus roseus. It is
also known as Vinca rosea.
Family : Apocynaceae
Microscopy :

Figure-1
 Upper surface shows presence of single layer of rectangular celled epidermis with
unicellular covering trichomes.
 Spongy parenchyma.
Figure-2
 Cruciferous stomata / Anisocytic stomata present.
Chemical Constituents – Chemical Constituents –
 Vincristine Contains more than 30 alkaloids –
 Vinblastine  Ajmaline (Rauwolfine), Ajmaliline, Ajmalacine, Serpentine, Serpentinine.
Uses :  Chief important therapeutically active alkaloids – Reserpine, Rescinnamine.
 Used as a antineoplastic agent. Uses :
 Used in Hodgkin’s lymphomas.  Therapeutically Rauwolfia is antihypersensitive in nature.
 Used in acute lymphocytic leukemia in child.  Used in neuropsychiatric disorder.
 Antidiabetic action.  Ajmaline is used in the treatment of arrhythmia.
 Ajmalacine used in the relief of obstruction of normal cerebral blood flow.
RAUWOLFIA
BELLADONNA
Synonym : Chhotachand, Sarpagandha
Biological source : Rauwolfia is obtained from dried roots and rhizomes of plant Rauwolfia Synonym : Deadly night shade leaf.
serpentina. Biological source : Belladona is obtained from dried leaves and other aerial parts of Atropa
Family : Apocynaceae acuminate (Indian belladonna), Atropa belladonna (European belladonna).
Microscopy : Family : Solanaceae
 T.S section of root shows externally by stratified cork with 2-7 layers of small cells that Microscopy : Epidermal cell with slightly sinuous anticlinal wall and striated cuticle
is followed by phelloderm. with anisocytic type of stomata.

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  Have less non-glandular and more glandular trichome  Uniseriate and with unicellular Variety : Papaver somnifarum album (Indian)
heads. Papaver somnifarum glabrum (Turkey)
 Occasionally covering trichomes  Uniseriate and multicellular heads. Papaver somnifarum nigrum (European)
 Cells of spongy mesophyll filled with microsphenoidal crystals of Ca oxalate. Family : Papaveraceae.
 The palisade ratio is 5 to 7. Microscopy :
 Microscope shows agglomerated latex granules in irregular mass.
 Stomata – Anomocytic
 Pointed trichomes, few starch granules present.
Chemical constituents
 The present alkaloids has combined with organic acid i.e. Meconic acid.
OPIUM ALKALOIDS

 
Benzylisoquinoline Phenantherene ring
- Noscapine - Morphine
- Narceine - Codeine
- Narcotine - Thebaine
- Papaverine (optically inactive)
 Morphine is monoacidic, phenolic alkaloids.
 Morphine is laevorotatory in nature.
 Opium alkaloids are present as salt of meconic acid.
 Opium also contains sugar, wax, mucilage and salt of calcium, potassium and
magnesium.

Figure-3
Chemical constituents
 It contain about 0.3-1.0% of alkaloids
 Main alkaloids are l-hyoscyamine and its racemic form is atropine. Morphine
Codeine
 The leaves also contain afluroscent substance scopoletin. Figure-4
ADULTANTS AND SUBSTITUTE: Other Species (Allied plants) :
 Phytolacca Americana- Idioblast present and anommocytic stomata. Papaver bracteum contains no morphine, they contains high percentage of thebaine so causes no
 Solanum nigrum-Pallisade ratio. addiction.
 Alianthus glandulosa-Lignified trichome present. Chemical Constituents :
Uses: It is a Parasymphathetic drug with anticholinergic property. 1) Marquis test – Morphine + Conc. H2SO4 + HCHO  Dark violet color
2) Meconic acid + FeCl3  Deep reddish purple color
OPIUM 3) Morphine + SiO2  Blue color
Synonym : Afim. 4) Papaverine solution in HCl and potassium ferricyanide develops a lemon yellow color.
Biological source : Opium is obtained from dried latex obtained by incision of the unripe 5) Morphine, when sprinkled with concentrated HNO3, shows an orange red color, this is
capsule of Papaver somnifarum. not allowed by codeine.

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 6) Morphine solution when treated with ferric chloride and potassium ferricyanide gives a Uses :
bluish-green color.  Stimulant effect on nervous system.

Uses : RUTA
 Morphine is used as a Analgesic.
 Sedatives and hypnotics Synonym :Rue
 Morphine also produces respiratory depression and constipation. Biological source : It is native to Mediterranean region and distributed throughout the world.
 Codeine – Cough syrup preparation. Family : Rutaceae
 Papaverine – smooth muscle relaxants. Uses :
 Apomorphine – Emetic (for treating poisoning cases).  Extracts from rue have been used to treat eyestrain, sore eyes and as insect repellent.
 Rue has been used internally as an antispasmodic, as a treatment for menstrual problem,
PHENYLPROPANOIDS AND FLAVONOIDS as an abortifacient and as a sedative.
PHENYLPROPANOIDS : CARDIAC GLYCOSIDES
 The phenylpropanoids are diverse family of organic compounds that are synthesized by
plants from the amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine.  The aglycan part of cardiac glycoside is a steroidal moiety so also called as steroidal
 The name is derived from the six-carbon, aromatic phenyl group and the three-carbon glycoside.
propene tail of coumatic acid, which is the central in phenylpropanoid biosynthesis.  Two types---Cardenolides,Bufadienolides.
 Occurance of Cardinolides in nature is high as compared to bufadienolides.
FLAVONOIDS :
Cardenolide Bufadienolide
 Flavonoids are synthesized through the phenylpropanoid pathway transforming
phenylalanine into 4 coumaroyl-CoA, which finally enters the flavonoids synthesis  It has C23 steroids having α,β
 It has C24 steroids having
pathway. unsaturated five membered
LIGNANS unsaturated six membered
lactone ring attached at 17β
lactone ring at 17β
position.
Biological source : The lignans are a large group of polyphenols found in plants. Lignans are position.
macromolecules, polymers of basic units of C6-C3 n-propylbenzenes  Eg-Digitalis,stropanthus
 Eg-Squill.
which are linked by the β carbon by their side chains.
Uses :
 Lignans have been found to exhibit antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, antimitotic and
antitumor properties.
 Lignans have been used as preservatives in the food, agriculture, rubber and
pharmaceutical industries.
 These are used as stabilizing agents for lubricants and polymers such as adhesives and
plastics.

TEA
Synonym :Camelia thea
Biological source : Tea is obtained from the prepared leaves and leaf buds of Thea sinensis.
Family : Theaceae Figure-5
Chemical Constituents – For maximum cardiac activity-
 Contains caffeine, theobromine, theophylline. Color of leaves is due to gallotannic acid. 1. Lactone is attached to→17β position.
 Also contain an enzymatic mixture called thease. 2. Sugar part is attached to3β position.
Chemical test : 3. Sugar part helps in absorption and distribution in body.
Murexide Test- 4. When number of hydroxyl group increased on the molecule the more rapid action in the
Alkali body.
 Caffeine + HCl + KCl3  Purple color Colorless

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 TRITERPENOIDS
 Triterpenoids have been found in both free states and in combination with sugars forming
glycosides and esters.
 Triterpenoids are composed of 30 carbon atoms, polymerized to form six isoprene units.
 These are grouped into linear, monocyclic, dicyclic etc., up through pentacyclic
compounds.
 These are widely distributed in nature; they may be found in fungi, fern, higher plants,
animals and marine organisms.
 These are compounds with a carbon skeleton based on six isoprene units which are
derived biosynthetically from the acyclic C30 hydrocarbon, squalene. They have relatively
complex cyclic structures, most being either alcohols, aldehydes or carboxylic acids.

LIQUORICE
Synonym : Mulethi
Biological source : Liquorice is obtained from dried peeled or unpeeled root an stolon of
Glycyrrhiza glabra var.typica (Spanish liquorice)
Glycyrrhiza glabra var.glandulifera (Russian liquorice) T.S. of Liquorice stolon
Glycyrrhiza glabra var.violacea (Persian liquorice)
Family : Leguminaceae
Macroscopy :The color of unpeeled liquorice is yellowish brown externally and Figure-6
yellowish internally while the peeled liquorice is pale yellow in color.
Microscopy : Table-2  Unpeeled drug shows presence of polyhedral tubular brownish cork cells.
 Thick, lignified fibres in phloem and xylem.
T.S of Liquorice root T.S of Liquorice stolon  Calcium oxalate are present in parenchyma.
Shows presence of polyhedral tubular Also shows presence of polyhedral tubular  In stolons pith is present and it is parenchymatous.
brownish cork cells. brownish cork.  Root is characterized by presence of tetrarch xylem and absence of pith.
Absence of pith, shows tetrarch xylem. Presence of pith. Chemical Constituents :
Presence of medullary rays Absence of medullary rays  Chief constituent is pentacyclic triterpenoid saponin known as glycyrrhizin (glycyrrizic
Presence of cortex Presence of cortex acid) which is a potassium and calcium salts of glycyrrhizinic acid.
 Presence of flavonoid (liquiritin and isoliquiritin) cause antigastric effect and it is useful
in peptic ulcers.
 Carbenoxolone (used as anti ulcer drug) is an oleandane derivative prepared from
glycorrhiza.
Chemical Test :
Section of drug + 80% H2SO4  Show Yellow Color
Uses :
1) Used as expectorant, demulcent.
2) It is used in peptic ulcer in the form of deglycyrrhized liquorice (DGL).
3) It is having minerocorticoid activity (due to glycyrrhetinic acid). It is employed in place
of corticoids for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, inflammation and addison’s
disease.
4) Flavouring agent.

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Adulterants and Substitute :  Free of Calcium Oxalate crystals and sclerenchyma (stone cells.
 Colenchyma at 3 different places: (characteristic of digitalis leaf).
 Manchurian liquorice (Glycyrrhiza uralensis) 1. Upper epidermis
 Russian liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glandulifera) 2. Lower epidermis
3. Ppericyclic part
DIOSCOREA
Synonym : Yam plant
Biological source : Dioscorea is obtained from dried tubers of plant Dioscorea deltoidae.
Family : Dioscoreaceae
Chemical Constituents :
 Rhizomes contain 75% starch in rhizome.
 Chief active constituents is diosgenin (Sapogenin) and its glycosides smilagenin and
yammogenin.
 Diosgenin is the hydrolytic product of saponin-dioscin.

Figure-7 Figure-8
Uses:
Chemical Constituents :
 As a precursor for the synthesis of corticosteroids, sex hormones and oral contraceptives.
 Contains – 0.2 to 0.45% mixture of both primary and secondary glycosides.
 Used in the treatment of rheumatic arthritis.
 Primary glycoside : Purpurea glycoside A and B.
DIGITALIS Contain linear chain of 3 digitoxose sugar terminated by glucose.
 Secondary glycoside (less absorbable) : digitoxin, gitoxin and gitaloxin.
Synonym : Foxglove leaves Uses :
Biological source : Digitalis is obtained from dried leaves of plant Digitalis purpurea and  Digitalis increase the force of systolic contraction, cardiac stimulant and cardiotonic.
Digitalis lanata.  Used in congestive heart failure.
Family : Scrophulariaceae  Arterial flutter and arterial fibrillation.
Description :
 Contains not less than 0.3% of total cardinolides calculated as digitoxin. VOLATILE OILS
 Dried at temperature below 60ºC, immediately after collecting the leaves.
 Volatile oils are defined as the odorous and volatile constituent of plant and animal
 In leaves should contain not more than 5% of moisture.
species.
Microscopy :
 Volatile oils are also termed as ethereal oil because they evaporate when exposed to air at
 Dorsiventral leaf.
an ordinary temperature.
 Anomocytic stomata in upper epidermis.
 They are also called as essential oil as they are the essences or active constituent of the
 Numerous covering trichomes and few glandular trichomes present.
plant.
 Covering trichomes are uniseriate and multicellulars.
 They are composed of terpenes,monoterpene,sesqueterpenes,diterpenes,polyterpenes and
 Glandular trichomes are unicellular stalk and bicellular head.
their derivatives.
 Collapsed cell trichomes are important characteristic of digitalis leaf.

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 MENTHA OIL Uses:
 Used as antiseptic, stimulant and aromatic.
Synonym : Peppermint oil  Clove is used as a dental analgesic, stimulant, flavouring agent ,an aromatic and
Biological source : Mentha oil is obtained by steam distillation of the fresh flowering tops of antiseptic.
the plant Mentha Piperita officinalis –white mint  It is also used in the preparation of cigarettes.
Mentha Piperita vulgaris – black mint  The oils are used in the perfumes and also in vanillin.
Family : Labiatae
Chemical Constituents : CINNAMON
 The main constituent is l – menthol 70%.
 Other constituents are l – limonene, Pinene, camphene. Biological source : It consists of dried inner bark of Cinnamomum zeylanicum.
Uses : Family : Lauraceae
 Carminative, stimulant and flavouring agent. Macroscopic Characters:
 Used in the preparation of chewing gums, candies, toothpaste, shaving creams.  The outer surface is dull yellowish brown while the inner surface is dark yellowish
brown.
CLOVE  Found in the form of compound quills.
 About 1 m length and 1cm in diameter. The thickness of the bark is approximately 0.5
Biological source : It is the dried flowers obtained from the plant Eugenea caryophyllus mm.
Family :Myratceae.  Aromatic and sweet followed by warm sensation.
Macroscopic character:
Table-3
Color Dark brown

Odour Strongly aromatic

Taste Pungent aromatic

Size 12-17 mm length

Shape Spherical head sub-cylindrical shape tapering at lower end

Figure-10
Chemical Constituents :
 Cinnamon bark contains about 0.5%-1% of volatile oil,0.2% of tannin, phlobatannin,
mucilage, Ca.oxalate, starch & sweet substance known as mannitol.
Chemical Test:
 On addition of a drop of ferric chloride solution to a drop of volatile oil a green color is
Figure-9 produced with ferric chloride.
Uses:
Chemical Constituents:  Bark is used as carminative, stomachic and mild astringent.
 15-20% of volatile oil, proteins, fixed oil, active constituents of volatile oil of tannin,  It is also used as flavouring agent, stimulant, aromatic and antiseptic.
resin, eugenin.
 The volatile oil, the drug contains eugenol, eugenol acetate, caryophphyllenes and small
quantities of esters, ketones and alcohols.

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 FENNEL
Biological source : It is the dried fruit obtained from the plant Foeniculum vulgare.
Family : Umbiliferae
Macroscopic character: Table-4
Color Yellowish Green to yellowish brown

Odour Aromatic

Taste Strongly aromatic, sweet

Size 5-4 mm length, 4-10mm in diameter

Shape Oval with bifid stiploid

Figure-12
Chemical Constituents:
 Coriander yields 0.3% to 1% of volatile oil. D-Linalol and coriandryl acetate and small
quantities of 1-borneol, geraniol and pinene.
Uses:
 The fruit and volatile oil are used as an aromatic,carminative,stimulant and flavouring
agent.
TANNINS
Figure-11
Chemical Constituents:  As the name indicates they posses the property to tan.
 3-7% of volatile oil, proteins, fixed oil, active constituents of volatile oil are fenchone  Tannins are secondary metabolite of plant, non-nitrogenous and phenolic in nature and
and autheole, anisic aldehyde, phellandrone and cimonene or some other are present. are present in cell sap and vacuoles.
Uses: PROPERTIES
 It is used as carminative, aromatic, stimulant and also an expectorant.  Tannins are freely soluble in alcohol, water, glycerol and dilute alkaloids.
 Pharmaceutically used as flavouring agent.  They precipitate proteins and alkaloids(astringent action)
 Tannins are precipitated by metallic salts of copper, tin and lead.
CORIANDER  Tannins shows color reactions with iron.
Biological source : It is the dried fruit obtained from the plant Coriandrum sativum CATECHU
Family : Umbiliferae
Macroscopic character: Table-5 Synonym : Gambir
Color Yellowish brown Biological source : Dried aqueous extract of the leaves of young shoots of Uncaria gambier
Family : Rubiaceae
Odour Aromatic Description :
 Pale catechu occurs as reddish-brown colored cubodial mass quite friable in nature.
Taste Spicy
 When broken, it shows cinnamon brown color and porous nature.
Size 2-4 mm length, 4-30 mm in diameter  The drug has no odour, but highly astringent taste which first appears bitter and then
sweet.
Shape Globular and cremocarp  When mounted in water, it shows minute acicular crystals.

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Chemical Constituents – BENZOIN
 The drug contains condensed tannins in the form of catechin,catechutannic acid and
catechu red. Synonym : Sumatra Benzoin, Loban
 The drug also contains quercetin and gambier fluorrescin. Biological source : Benzoin is a balsamic resin obtained from Styrax benzoin Dryand or
Uses : Styrax paralleloneurus Perkins and other species of Styrax known in the
 It is used as astringent in treatment of diarrhea and also as a local astringent in the form market as Sumatra Benzoin.
of lozenges. Family : Styraceae
 Pale catechu is mainly used in dyeing and tanning industries and also for protecting the Macroscopy :
fishing nets. Sumatra Benzoin
Color – It is greyish brown or grey.
PTEROCARPUS Odour – Aromatic and characteristic
Taste – Sweetish and slightly acrid
Synonym : Malbar kino  It occurs in the form of lumps of varying sizes or tears. Tears are externally yellowish,
Biological source : It consists of the dried juice of the plant pterocarpus marsupium. milky white.
Family : Leguminaceae  The surface is uneven. When heated, fumes of benzoic and cinnamic acids are produced.
Macroscopy : Chemical Constituents –
Color- ruby-red  Sumatra benzoin contains contains free balsamic acids (benzoic and cinnamic acids) and
Odour- odour less esters derived from them.
Taste - astringent Identification :
Shape - angular granules 1. Alcoholic solution of benzoin with water gives milky white solution.
Chemical Constituents – 2. Heat small quantity of benzoin in a test tube covering opening of test tube with a glass
 It contains kinnotannic acid, kino-red, resin and gallic acid.kinnotannic acid is a plate. Cool the contents of the test tube. Examine the glass plate under microscope. The
glucosidal tannin, while kinnored is anhydride of kinoin. crystals of cinnamic acid shall be observed.
 Kinoin is an insolubule phlobaphene and is produced by the action of oxydase enzyme. 3. To 2.5 g benzoin, add 10 ml ether, shake it well and pour 2 to 3 ml of this extract in a
 It is darker in color than kinnnotannnic acid. porcelain dish, add 2 to drops sulphuric acid. A deep brown color is produced in case of
Identification : Sumatra benzoin and a deep purplish red color isobtained in case of Siam benzoin.
1. When the solution of drug is treated with ferrous sulphate, green color is produced. 4. Add 4 ml solution of potassium permanganate to 1 g benzoin and warm odour of
2. With alkali like potassium hydroxide violet color is produced. benzaldehyde is produced in case of Sumatra benzoin.
3. With mineral acid, a precipitate is obtained. Uses :
Uses :  It is used in the form of compound tincture of benzoin, and as an inhalation, specifically
 It is used as powerful astringent and also in the treatment of diarrhea and dysentery, in the treatment of upper respiratory tract infection.
passive haemmorrhage toothache and in diabetes.  It is also used externally as an antiseptic and a protective.
 It is used dyeing, tanning and printing.
GUGGUL
RESINS
Synonym : Commiphora
 Resins are mixture of essential oils, oxygenated product of terpenes and carboxylic acid. Biological source : Guggul is the oleo-gum-resin obtained by making deep incisions at the
 Resin is a solid or highly viscous organic substance of plants or synthetic origin. basal part of stem bark of Commiphora weightii.
 Many plants, particularly woody plants, produce resin in response to injury. Family : Burseraceae
Macroscopy :
Properties : Color - Brown to pale yellow or dull green.
 Resins are transparent, amorphous solids, semisolids or liquid substances. Odour-Agreable,aromatic and balsmatic.
 They are insolubule in water, but solubule in alchohol, ether and chloroform. Taste-Characterstic bitter.
 They are electrically non conductive. Solubility-When triturated with water,it forms white emulsion.it is partly solubule
in alcohol.

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Chemical Constituents – Uses :
 The gum-resin portion of gugul contains steroids,diterpenoids,carbohydrates and aliphatic  Ginger is used as a stomachic, an aromatic, a carminative, stimulant and flavouring agent.
esters.  Ginger oil is used in mouth washes, ginger beverages and liquors.
 They are present in a complex mixture form but the resin does not contain cinnamic acid.  Ginger powder has been reported to be effective in motion sickness.
Guggul contain z-guggulosterone, E-guggulosterone and three new sterols guggulosterol
I, II, III. ASAFOETIDA
.Uses :
Synonym : Gum Asafoetida, Devil’s dung
 It is used as anti-inflammmatory,anti-rheumatic,hypolipedemic and hypo-cholesteremic
Biological source : Asafoetida is the oleo-gum resin obtained by incision from the rhizomes
drug.
and roots of Ferula foetida Regel, Ferula rubricaulis Regel and other
species of Ferula.
GINGER Family : Umbelliferae
Synonym : Zingiber, Sunthi, Zingiberis Macroscopy :
Biological source : Ginger consists of whole or cut, dried scrapped or unscrapped rhizomes Color – Yellowish-white changing to reddish brown.
of Zingiber offcinale Roscoe. Odour – Intense, persistent, penetrating and alliaceous.
Family : Zingiberaceae Taste – Bitter, alliaceous and acid.
Macroscopy : Size – The tears are 0.5 to 3 cm in diameter.
Color – Externally, it is buff color. Shape – It occurs in 2 different forms i.e. tears and masses.
Odour - Agreeable, aromatic. Chemical Constituents –
Taste – Agreeable and pungent.  Asafoetida contains resin (40 to 65%), gum (20 to 25%) and volatie oil (4 to 20%).
Size – Rhizomes of ginger are about 5 to 15 x 1.5 to 6.5 cm. Identification :
Shape – The rhizomes are laterally compressed, bearing short flat, ovate and 1. Fractured surface of the drug, if treated with sulphuric acid forms red or reddish brown
oblique branches on the upper side, with bud at the apex. color.
Microscopy : 2. When treated with 50% nitric acid, the drug gives green color.
 Cork consists of irregularly arranged cells, followed by cortex. 3. When triturated with water, it forms the yellowish-orange color.
 Cortex is made up of thin walled parenchymatous tissue. Well marked endodermis Uses :
distinguishes the stele and the cortex.  It is used as carminative, nervine stimulant or in intestinal flatulence.
 Vascular bundles just inside the endodermis are free of fibres.  It is also used as flavouring agent for curries, sauces and pickles.
 It is used in veterinary medicine.

MYRRH
Synonym : Gum myrrh
Biological source : Myrrh is an oleo-gum-resin obtained from Commiphora molmol
Family : Burseraceae
Macroscopy : Color-Externally, it is reddish-brown,internally,brown.
Odour and Taste-Aromatic and agreeable.
Shape-It is found in the form of rounded or irregular tear.
Chemical Constituents –
 Myrrh contains about 10% of yellowish thick volatile oil, 60%of gum,25to40% resin and
about 3 to 4% bitter principle.
Figure - 13  Resin contain ether-solubule resin acids, α, β and γ commiphoric acids.
 The volatile oil contains terpenes, cumminic aldehyde, eugenol etc.
Chemical Constituents – Uses :
 Ginger consists of volatile oil (1 – 4%), starch (40 – 60%), fibre (5%), inorganic material  It is used as a stimulant and antiseptic .
(6%), residual moisture (10%) and acrid resinous matter (5 – 8%).  It is also protective.
 Ginger oil is constituted of monoterpene hydrocarbons, sequiterpene hydrocarbons,  Myrrh is astringent to the mucous membrane and hence its tincture is used in the mouth
oxygenated mono and sesquiterpenes and phenyl propanoids. washes and gargles.
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 COLOPHONY SENNA
Synonym : Pine-resin Synonym : Indian Senna, European Senna
Biological source : Colophony is the residue left after the distillation of the oil of turpentine Biological source : Senna is obtained from leaflets and pods of Cassia anguistifolia and
from the crude-oleo-resin obtained from the various species of pinus plant. Cassia acutifolia.
Family : Pinaceae. Family : Leguminaceae
Macroscopy :Color-Pale yellow to yellowish brown to amber color. Macroscopy :
Odour-Faint and terebinthinate.  Isobilateral leaf-typical histological character of senna.
Taste-It occurs in the form of angular,transluscent masses of various size.  In Indian variety less hair is present as compared to European senna.
Chemical Constituents –  Active constituents are present in epicarp of leaf and pericarp of pods.
 Colophony contains mainly resin acids which are unsaturated and hence reactive.  It is a leguminous plant so add nitrogen soil at regular interval.
 About 90% of this is abetic acid.
 The drug contains esters of oleic acid and resin acids.
 It also contains 0.5% volatile oil, 5-6%resenes.
 Other acid in the colophony are sapinic acid and pimaric acid.
Uses :
 Colophony is a stimulant and diuretic.
 It is ingredient of certain plaster masses and collodions.
 It is also used in the preparations of ointments .Industrially, it is used in the preparations
of varnishes, soaps, printing inks etc.

GLYCOSIDES

 Glycosides are organic compound from plant or animal sources.

 On enzymatic or acid hydrolysis yields one or more sugar moieties known as glycone and
non sugar moiety aglycone.
 Aglycone part-Responsible for chemical and therapeutic property.
 Glycone part—Responsible for facilitates absorption of glycosides and helps in Figure -14
transportation of aglycone portion at the site of action. Microscopy :
 Chemically they are acetals or sugar ethers, formed by the interaction of hydroxyl group  Epidermis shows presence of unicellular, conical thick –walled trichomes.
each of sugar and non sugar moiety with loss of water molecule.  Microscopically two varities of senna are distinguished by Vein-islet number and
stomatal indeces.
 Sugar is mostly β-D-glucose others are galactose, mannose, rhamnose, digitoxose,
 Stomata type - Paracytic.
cymarose etc.
 Presence of clusture sheath and collenchyma are charecterstic feature of senna leaves.
 Linkage between aglycone and glycone is called as glycosidic linkage and on the basis of
Chemical Constituents –
this linkage α and β stereoisomer is assigned.
1. Anthraquinones glycoside
Properties a. Sennosides A, Sennosides B, Sennosides C, Sennosides D
b. Emodin, Chrysophenol, Aloe emodin, Rhein
 Most glycosides are Colorless, Crystalline. 2. Two naphthalene glycoside – 6 – hydroxymusizin glycoside (Alexanrian senna);
 Anthraquinone- Red or Orange in color. and tinnevellin glycoside (Tinnevelly senna)
 Flavone glycoside-Yellow in color. 3. It also contains – flavanol, kaempferol
 Glycosides are solubule in water, alcohol but insolubule in chloform and ether. 4. Phytosterol and its glycoside – Mucilage, Resin, Calcium oxalate
 The glycosides are extracted by using stas-otto method.  Sennoside A and Sennoside B are the active constituents of drug and steroisomer of each
other and are dimeric glycoside.
Sennidin : Only dimer aglycone moiety,sugar is absent.
Sennosides : Are dianthrone derivative of aglycone with glycone part of two identical
compound.

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  In sennoside A it is decoratory and in sennoside B, the aglycone is in meso form. Microscopy :
Adulterants and Substitute :  T.S of leaf shows outermost cuticle followed by epidermis,palisade cells,mucilaginous
 Dog senna (cassia obovata) – Leaves are obovate in shape, Consists Pappiloses cells in parenchyma.
lower epidermis.  Aloe juice present in pericycle fibre.
 Palthe senna (cassia auriculata) – Characterized by absence of anthraquinone glucoside.  Aloe gel present in Mucilaginous cell.
 Arabian senna – wild plant of cassia angustifolia.  Calcium oxalate crystals are present in parenchyma.
Uses : Acting as a purgative by increasing peristalsis movement of intestine. Chemical Constituents –
ALOES  Principle active constiyuents of aloe is aloin and aloin is a mixture of three isomer-
Barbaloin, β-barbaloin, and iso –barbaloin.
Synonym : Ghritkumari  Among all barbaloin is the main constituents.
Biological source : Aloe is obtained from the dried juice of leaves of aloe species.  Proportion of barbaloin varies in different variety of aloe.
Aloe barbendis (Curaco aloe), Aloe ferox (Cape aloe), Aloe perryi  Aloe barbendis(Curaco aloe)-22% of barbolin present.
(Scortine aloe), Aloe vera (Indian aloe).  Aloe vera (Indian aloe)-3.5-4% barbolin is present.
Family : Liliaceae  It also contains
Macroscopy : Aloesin-Resin present which also gives purgative action.
Table-6 Aloctine-Increase removal of dead cells from skin.
Form Color Fracture Adulterants and Substitute :
Curacao Opaque masses Yellow brown to chocolate Waxy like 1. Natalaloes-It resembles to cape aloes in microscopic character therefore it is used
brown assubstitute.It is a weak purgative.
Cape Transparent and Dark brown or greenish brown Smooth and glassy 2. Mocha aloes-It is brittle,black and glassy aloe with strong odour.
glassy
Scortine Opaque Reddish-black to brownish black Conchoidal
Zanzibar Opaque Liver brown color Smooth and even BITTER ALMOND
fracture
Synonym : Amygdala amara, Badam
Biological source : Bitter almond is obtained from dried ripe seeds of plant Prunus
amygdalus and Prunus communis (sweet almond tree)
Family : Rosaceae
Chemical Constituents – Contains colorless, crystalline glycoside amygdalin (2.5 to 4%)
Uses :
 Sedative and demulcent in skin lotion.
 Flavouring agent.
IRIDOIDS
 Iridoids are a type of monoterpenoids in the general form of cyclopentanopyran, found in
a wide variety of plants and some animals.
 They are biosynthetically derived from 8 – oxogeranial.
 Iridoids are typically found in plants as glycosides, most often bound to glucose.
 The chemical structure is exemplified by iridomyrmecin, a defensive chemical produced
by the genus Iridomyrmex, for which iridoids are named.
 The iridoids produced by plants act primarily as a defense against herbivores or against
infection by microorganisms.

Figure - 15

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 NAPHTHOQUINONES
 Naphthoquinone is a class of organic compounds structurally related to naphthalene.
 Two isomers are common for the parent naphthoquinones :
 1,2 – Naphthoquinone
 1,4 – Naphthoquinone
 Naphthoquinones usually do not occur as glycosides in higher plants.
 Naphtoquinones represent the group of plant secondary metabolites with cytotoxic
properties based on their ability to generate reactive oxygen species and interfere with the
processes of cell respiration. Figure - 16
 The most important naphthoquinones containing plants belong to the group of Chemical Test:
phylogenetically heterogenous plant families.  Under UV radiation gentian extract shows light blue fluorescence.
Uses :
GENTIAN  It is used as a bitter tonic to stimulate the gastric secretion and hence improving the
Synonym : Gentian root, Gentiana, Radix Gentianae. appetite.
Biological source : Gentian is the dried partially fermented rhizome and root of yellow ARTEMISIA
gentian i.e.Gentiana lutea.
Synonym : Santonica; Worm seeds
Family : Gentianaceae
Biological source : These are the unexpanded flower – heads of Artemisia cina Berg,
Macroscopy :
Artemisia brevifolia Wall, Artemisia maritime Linn. and other species of
 The rhizome is yellowish – brown and has transverse annulations and shows conical buds
Artemisia.
at the top.
Family : Compositae
 The root is narrower but continuous with rhizome.
Macroscopy :
 It is longitudinally wrinkled and has circular scars of rootlets.
Color – Flowers are yellow in color, while other parts are whitish grey.
 The drug has a peculiar odour.
Odour – Aromatic and sweet
 The drug first gives a sweet taste, followed by an intensely bitter taste.
Taste – Bitter and camphoraceous
Microscopy :
 The drug consists of yellowish or brownish flower – heads, which are oval in shape.
 The transverse section of rhizome shows bark, cambium, wood and pith.
 Flowers are fertile with tubular corolla and cylindrical tube and narrow limb.
 The root shows these parts but no pith, in place of which a triarch primary xylem is
 Calyx is absent.
present.
Chemical Constituents –
 The cork cells are thin walled.
 Santonica contains essential oil and two crystalline substances i.e. santonin and artemisin.
 Cortex has parenchyma with oil globules and calcium oxalate.
 The volatile oil content varies from 1.0 to 2%, while the percentage of santonin is about
 Phloem is present in small groups and phloem fibres are absent.
2.0%.
 The xylem contains spiral and annular vessels and also shows presence f interxylary
 The volatile oil contains cineole, pinene and resin.
phloem.
Identification :
Chemical Constituents –
 Boil 1g finely powdered drug with 10 ml alcohol and filter.
 The drug contains bitter glycosides mainly gentiopicrin, which is also called
 To the filtrate, add sodium hydroxide and heat again.
gentiopicroside.
 The liquid develops red color.
 It is a water soluble, crystalline compound with a bitter value of 12,000. During
Uses :
fermentation and drying, it breaks down to gentiogenin and glucose.
 Santonica is used as a strong anthelminthic, especially for round worms.
 It has less or no effect on hook worms and tape worms.
TAXUS
Synonym : Yew, Talispatra, Himalayan Yew
Biological source : This consists of dried leaves, bark and roots of various species of Taxus.
The four important species with parts used are as under.

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 1. Taxus baccata (English or European yew) mainly leaves REFERRENCES :
2. Taxus brevifolia (Pacific yew) mainly stem bark.
3. Taxus Canadensis (Canadian or American yew) leaves and roots. 1. Kokate, C.K, 1994. Practical Pharmacognosy. Vallabh Prakashan. New Delhi, India.
4. Taxus cuspidate (Japanese yew) leaves. 2. Krishnakumar, P.R and Suresh Kumar, D., 1995. Conservation of plants from Siddha
Family : Taxaceae system. Industry meet-cum-seminar on Bio-diversity and information on medicine and
Aromatic plants,15-l7, Nov., 1995, New Delhi, India.
Chemical Constituents – 3. Warrier, PK, Nambiar, VPK and Rarnankutty, C., 1994. Indian medicinal plants, Vol. 1-
 The main constituent taxol is present in all parts of the plant especially in leaves,roots and 4. Orient Longman, Hyderabad, India.
bark of the plant. 4. Tyler, V.E., Brady, L.R. and Robbers, I.E., 1981. Pharmacognosy,Lea and Febiger,
 Three most important member of taxol, cephalomannine and 10-deacetyl baccatin. Philadelphia, U.S.A.
5. Srivastava, G.N. and Srivastava, AK,, 1988. Pharmacognosyof Cataranthus roseus (L.)
 A derivative of taxol , called taxotere has been reported to have better bio-availibility and
G. Don (Sadabahar) root and its adulterants. International Journal of Crude Drug
pharmacological properties and has been claimed as a promising anticancer agent.
Research, 26(1): 33-44.
Uses :
6. Mallavarapu, G.R., Ramesh, S., Chandrasekaran, R.S., Rao, R.B.R., Kaul, P.N.,and
 Taxol brings out the polymerization to microtubule in absence of MAP and GTP.
Bhattacharya, A.K., 1995. Investigation of the essential oil of Cinnamomum leaf grown
 Due to this, microtubule formation is much enhanced which causes effects on dividing at Bangalore and Hyderabad.
cells which leads to blockade of cell cycle. 7. Jain, S.K, 1996. Medicinal plants. National Book Trust, New Delhi, India.
 Taxol also inhibits cell migration thus, preventing spread of metastatic cancer cells. 8. Jain, S.P., 1989. Tribal Remedies from Saranda forest, Biliar, India. International Journal
 Taxol has been approved by USFDA for treatmesnt of refractory ovarian cancer. of Crude Drug Research.
9. Gopalan, C., Ramasastri, S.V. and Balasubramanian, S.C.,1984. Nutritive value of Indian
TETRATERPENOIDS AND CAROTENOIDS
food. National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad, ICMR, New Delhi, India.
 They are C40 compounds of terpenoid groups and biosynthetically prepared by tail-to-tail 10. Chopra, R.N., Nayar, S.L. and Chopra, I.C., 1956. Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants,
condensation of geranyl geraniol. CSIR, New Delhi, India.
 They contain long sequence of conjugated double bonds.
 Carotenoids are a prominent group of natural coloring matters exhibiting purple, red,
yellow or orange colors.
 They are present both in plants and animals.
 In plants, they act as photosynthetic accessory pigments and in animals as a source of
vitamin A and also as antioxidants.

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